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Invading Sexuality: Perception and Response in Postwar Japan, 1945-1957

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Invading Sexuality: Perception and Response in Postwar Japan, 1945-1957 INVADING SEXUALITY: PERCEPTION AND RESPONSE IN POSTWAR JAPAN, 1945-1957 By John Schneiderwind Submitted to the graduate degree program in History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. William Tsutsui ________________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. J. Megan Greene ________________________________ Dr. Jeffrey Moran ________________________________ Dr. Benjamin Uchiyama ________________________________ Dr. Akiko Takeyama Date Defended: December 17, 2014 The Dissertation Committee for John Schneiderwind certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: INVADING SEXUALITY: PERCEPTION AND RESPONSE IN POSTWAR JAPAN, 1945-1957 ________________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. William Tsutsui ________________________________ Co-Chairperson Dr. J. Megan Greene Date approved: December 17, 2014 ii Abstract This dissertation examines Japan during the Allied Occupation and the intersection of Occupation goals for remaking Japan into a peaceful, democratic nation with domestic constructs of sexuality. This study demonstrates how prostitution, sex education, birth control, and obscenity served as crucial lenses to understand how the occupier and occupied attempted to shape sexuality within a complex Occupation power structure incorporating both the victorious Allied Forces and the defeated Japanese government. Rather than proposing a narrative of a dominant occupier subjugating the occupied, this dissertation shows how that dual-power structure allowed Japanese politicians and activists to undermine Occupation reform in order to mitigate perceived negative influences upon domestic notions of proper sexuality and reaffirm a Japanese-constructed sexuality for post-Occupation sovereign Japan. iii Acknowledgements I am indebted to a number of people who have helped me make the completion of this project possible. First, I must recognize my co-advisors, Dr. William Tsutsui and Dr. Megan Greene, for their unwavering patience and invaluable guidance spanning many years. I must also recognize my dissertation defense committee: Dr. Tsutsui, Dr. Greene, Dr. Ben Uchiyama, Dr. Jeff Moran, and Dr. Akiko Takeyama, who have all supported my scholarship and encouraged me endlessly. For their additional guidance, instruction, and encouragement I should also thank the following important people: Dr. Eric Rath, Dr. Victor Bailey, Dr. Michael Baskett, Dr. Ryōko Kodama, Dr. Ted Wilson, Dr. Greg Pflugfelder, Dr. Anne Allison, Dr. Patricia Graham, Dr. Wendy Lucas, Michiko Ito, Alison Miller, the staff of the KU Center for East Asian Studies, the staff at KU’s Hall Center for the Humanities, and the staff of the KU History Department. I am particularly grateful for funding assistance for language study and material acquisition from the Department of Education, the KU Center for East Asian Studies, the KU History Department, and KU’s Hall Center for the Humanities. Without their aid, this project would not have been possible. Nothing has taught me the value of friendship more than writing a dissertation, so I must thank the following people for their friendship, encouragement, and sympathetic ears. Without these people in my life, dissertation writing would have been lonely indeed: Sally Utech, Shelly Cline, Jeremy Prichard, Ethan Schmidt, Ryan Gaston, Brady DeSanti, Lisa Onaga, Max Ward, Franz Hofer, Kristen Epps, Vaughn Scribner, Neil Oatsvall, Chikako Mochizuki, Mindy Landeck, J. Arthur Biersack, Kathy Porsch, Sam Pierron, Brian Friedman, Jason Royer, M. Kendall Day, Dave Toland, Mike Gaughan, and Keith Henderson. I could not wish for a better cohort. iv I can never fully acknowledge the love, support, and patience that my family has shown to me during this journey: my mother, Susan, whose strength and courage drives me to move forward in the face of adversity; my father, Ted, whose commitment to family and values toward education have always inspired me; my sister, Allyson, who has always been in my corner during the best and worst of times; and my niece, Desiree, who is a role model for how to approach life fearlessly. Most of all, I must thank my loving wife Chiyo and my daughter Tomoko. I will always be grateful for their faith in me and their patience while I chased my dream. I could never have finished without their love and support and I assure them both that all those times I was away writing, I wanted to be home with them. Finally, I must offer a special thank you to Rutger Hauer. In no small way, the seed of this dissertation started with him asking me to join his HIV/AIDS charity, the Rutger Hauer Starfish Association. His dedication to helping the least fortunate in a world that has embraced him as an actor and humanitarian is truly inspiring and I am honored to call him a friend. I look forward to the next time we can chat over a glass of Macallan single malt. v Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………... iii Introduction……………....……………………………………………………………………… 1 Chapter One: Breakwater for the Nation: The Recreation and Amusement Association and Its Rush to Protect Japan’s Sexuality……………………... 25 Chapter Two: The Female Body as “The Enemy”: Venereal Disease during the Occupation of Japan……………………………………….………61 Chapter Three: Promoting Purity: Sex Education and Birth Control in Occupied Japan………………………………………………….………...92 Chapter Four: Censoring the Liberated Body: Lady Chatterley’s Lover and State Power in Postwar Japan................................................................. 124 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….…………………. 156 Epilogue………………………………………………………………….………………….….161 Bibliography………………………………………………………………….………………...172 vi Introduction: Invading Sexuality: Perception and Response in Postwar Japan, 1945- 1957 On May 13 of 2013, Osaka Mayor Hashimoto Tōru came under international fire for comments he made to the press about the inevitability of Japan’s wartime “comfort women” system and for his suggestion that frequenting sex trade venues might help stem outbreaks of sexual violence by United States Armed Forces members on Okinawa. His comments treaded a fine line between explaining the perceived necessity of the coercive wartime prostitution system and promoting outreach and kindness to its victims: “When soldiers are risking their lives by running through storms of bullets, and you want to give these emotionally charged soldiers a rest somewhere, it’s clear you need a comfort woman system,” he said. Brothels, he went on to state, “were necessary at the time [during World War II] to maintain discipline in the army.” To mitigate his stance, he continued by describing the brothels as a “tragedy of war” and urged kindness toward surviving “comfort women” today.1 Hashimoto’s comments brought international condemnation. US State Department spokesperson Jen Psaki called the comments “outrageous and offensive…what happened in that era to these women who were trafficked for sexual purposes is deplorable and clearly a grave human rights violation of enormous proportions.”2 Two surviving “comfort women” from South Korea, Kim Bok-dong and Kil Won-ok, cancelled a planned meeting with the mayor and released a joint statement in response: “We cannot compromise our painful past as victims and the reality that we still live today…we don’t need to be trampled on again.” Domestically, protester Kamenaga Nobuko, attending a rally outside Osaka City Hall demanding an apology 1 Hiroko Tabuchi, “Women Forced into WWII Brothels Served Necessary Role, Osaka Mayor Says,” New York Times, May 13, 2013, accessed November 7, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/14/world/asia/mayor-in-japan- says-comfort-women-played-a-necessary-role.html?_r=0 2 “Japan mayor’s sex slave remakes ‘outrageous’ – US,” BBC News, May 16, 2013, accessed November 7, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-22564349 1 from Hashimoto, said, “I cannot stand thinking that women were taken against their will, held captive for 24 hours a day, and forced into sex slavery for the Japanese military.”3 Domestically, political opponents jumped on the mayor’s comments, hoping to diminish Hashimoto’s popularity as the leader of a populist startup political party, the Japan Restoration Association. President of the Democratic Party of Japan, Kaieda Banri, chastised Hashimoto saying, “The comfort women system was not necessary,” and that Japan’s wartime aggression “is a fact we must face up to.”4 The backlash against Hashimoto’s comments was swift and decidedly negative, in part because his expressed views aligned with other similarly revisionist political commentary on the “comfort women” issue from pundits in recent years. In particular, then-Prime Minister Abe Shinzō had received similar condemnation after his March 1, 2007 comments denying that sex slaves for Japan’s imperial forces existed during World War II. Abe’s words prompted an official parliamentary apology on March 27 of that year. While Hashimoto’s more recent comments did not go as far as Abe’s in denying the forced servitude of the women filling the brothels, he argued for the utility of such a system in offering a recreational outlet to overly stressed soldiers to maintain military discipline. While the international press was quick to report Hashimoto’s stance on wartime “comfort women,” they were less enthusiastic to report on another controversial topic he broached that day. Relegated to
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