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AUTHOR Savard, Rejean TITLE Guidelines for the Teaching of in the Training of Librarians, Documentalists, and Archivists. INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural , Paris (France). General Information Programme. REPORT NO PGI-88/WS/1 PUB DATE Jan 88 NOTE 121p. PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner) (051) -- Guides - Classroom Use- Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS MPO1 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Foreign Countries; Higher ; *Information Scientists; Library Administration; *Library Education; Library Role; *Library Services; *Marketing; Professional Continuing Education; ; *User (Information); *User Satisfaction (Information) IDENTIFIERS *Archivists

ABSTRACT Arguing that marketing is a management philosophy that has profoundly transformed the business worldand could potentially modify the appearance and delivery ofinformation services, this report describes in broad terms theways in which the marketing approach may be included as a component inthe education oi information professionals. The major part of the reportis devoted to discussions of the six modules into which the proposedcourse cf study is divided: (1) the marketing approachas a management tool in the context of information services; (2) marketingand behavior patterns in the information field; (3) ; (4)the marketing mix--supply; (5) The marketing mixcommunication strategies; and (6) and planning.Discussion covers the possible content of such training and the training objectives corresponding to each module. Also providedare examples relevant to the situation of information specialists,a number of exercises to accompany the course, and suggested readingsfor tutors and students who wish to continue their trainingindependently. Inservice training is geared toward professionalsalready in the workforce. The modules are presented in the ordermost conducive to the gradual acquisition of a basic knowledge ofmarketing, moving from general concepts to an explanation of specificconcepts; however, teachers may alter this sequence as appropriate. (SD)

* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best thatcan be made * * from the original document. *

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Guidelines for the teaching of marketing in the training of librarians, documentalists and archivists

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLY HAS BEEN GRANTED BY C.Coudert-Schklomski General Information Programme and UNISIST TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES United Nations Educational INFORMATION CENTER (ERICr Scientific and Cultural Organization Paris, 1988 Original: French PGI-88/WS/1 PARIS, January 1988

GUIDELINES FOR THE TEACHING OF MARKETING IN THE TRAINING OF LIBRARIANS, DOCUMENTALISTS AND ARCHIVISTS

by Wean Savard

General Information Prgramme and UNISIST

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Recommended catalogueentry:

Savard, Réjean

Guidelines for theteaching of marketing documentalists and in the trainingof 1ibrarian44 archivists/by WeanSavard [for the] Programme and UNISIST- Paris: Unesco, 1988 General Information - iv, 128 pp; 30 em- (PGI-881WS/1) I - Guidelines for the teaehing of marketing inthe training of documentalists andarchivists librarians, II - Unesce. General Information Programmeand UNISIST

Unesco 1988

4 (i)

PREFACE

It is generally recognized that the theoretical and practical training of competent information specialists represents the best long-term investment for the development of satisfactory information systems. Great efforts are being made in many countries - developed and developing alike - to establish the institutions required for this purpose. While facilities and teaching staff are the responsibility of the national authorities, international assistance is often sought for the production of teaching material. The needs in this area have been repeatedly stated over a number of years, and many documents on theoretical and practical training are availablein several languages from Unesco (see list atthe end ofthis study). It willbe helpful to the potential user to clarify theintention behind the preparationofthese documents and,at the same time,to say a few words concerning the present document, 'Guidelines for the teaching of marketing inthe trainingof librarians, documentalists and archivists'.

Anyone involved in the educational process knowsthat teaching is an essentially personal activity, which is influenced by the educational environment, the students and the personality of the teacher. A programme or course on a specific subject is the result of a large number of interactions. The guidelines in this series do not therefore seek to lay down hard-and-fast rules but rather to recommend lines of approach. For the same reason, authors are given guidance regarding the overall shape of their work but they are not asked toensure that itconforms in particular with other studiesin the series. The reader will understand that such a requirement would be artificial andthat authors the intellectual freedom that goes with intellectual responsibility.

The range of teaching material required for the theoretical and practical training of information specialists is enormous. Clearly, it was essential to start with studies of a general nature, Cealing with curriculum development, policy formulation and staffing forecasts, which are intended to assist Member States in planning and decision-making at national level.

Now that more specific themes may be tackled, it has been decided to respond to a persistent demand concerning subjects that urgently need to be reflected in professional practice, namely the new technologies, management, on-line information retrieval, etc. Marketing obviously has a place in this list. Nearly all ofthe institutions responsiblefor meetinginformation requirements are facing serious problems;and the need to make themselves better known, and to find out more about their public and its requirements, is now universally recognized. These guidelines for the teaching of marketing, by describing the concepts on which this technique rests and providing numerous specific examples of its application, should help to ensure that this approach is applied more rapidly and that information services of all kinds are used more effectively.

Another importantfocus ofthe work of Unesco'sGeneral Information Programme is the of standardization in the training of archivists, librarians and information specialists. The rationale and practical advantages of such an approach have been explored and recognized not only in studies undertaken by the Organization but also by such non-governmental as IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions), FID (InternationalFederation forInformation and documentation) andICA (International Council on Archives). Marketing, which has countless applications, is clearlyone of the subjects that can be taughtin this context. It is to be hopedthat archivists, and all those librarians,information specialists responsible for theirtheoretical and find inthese practical trainingwill guidelines material that will helpthem to remodel teaching or professionalpractice. their

In preparing thisstudy the author specialists enjoyed theco-operation of several who kindly studied the first draft of the participated ina seminar organized in manuscript and Geneva from 8 to10 October 1986 International Associationof Information by the Unesco would Science Schools. The author likn to expresstheir warmest and Mrs G. Adda thanks to these specialists: (Tunis), Mrs J. Calixte (Marseilles), Mr P. Filiatrault (Montreal), Mrs J.Lefevre (Paris),Mr F. Libmann (Bordeaux), and MrH. Sené (Dakar). (Paris), Mr N. Rambhujun

The terms employed and the presentationof the material study should not beseen as reflecting in used in this any way the views ofUnesco. Allremarks, suggested other improvements oraccounts of the countries in applying experience of these guidelines will be Correspondence Eaouldbe sent to the most welcome. Unesco, 7 place de General InformationProgramme Division, Fontenoy, 75700 Paris,France. CONTENTS Page

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Notes on the introduction 4

2. ThE COURSE OF STUDY 5

2.1Aims of this document 5

2.2 Structure o the course 5

2.2.0Levels of training 5 2.2.1 Initial training 6 2.2.2 In- training 7

2.3 Number of course hours 8

2.4 Prior qualifications needed 8

2.5 Teacher qualifications 8

2.6 Teaching methods

2.7 Basic equipment and documentation 10

2.8 Student assessment 10

Notes on chapter 2 11

3. THE COURSE CONTENT 13

3.1 MODULE 1: The marketing approach asa management tool in the context of information services 13

Notes on Module 1 22

3.2 MODULE 2: Marketing and behaviour patterns in the information field 23

Notes on Module 2 32

3.3 MODULE 3: Marketing research 35

Notes on Module 3 44

3.4 MODULE 4: The marketing mix- supply 45

Notes on Module 4 55

3 c MODULE 5: The marketing mix- communication strategies . 57

Notes on Module 5 67

7 (iv)

Page 3.6 MODULE 6: Marketingstrategy and planning 68 Notes on Module6 76 4. CONCLUSION 77 Notes on the conclusion 79 5. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE MARKETINGOF INFORMATION SERVICES . 81 ANNEX I: Case study: theUniversity Library of Bellefeuille-sous-Bois 87 ANNEX II: Objective test 91 ANNEX III: Example of poor questionnaire- exercise 94 ANNEX IV:Examples of 97 PGI-88/WS/1

1. INTRODUCTION

Although marketing as a term has been part of the everyday language for some years now,the concept remains ill-defined in the minds of most people. Marketing is too often identified with mere promotion or advertising, which actually constitute no more than a tiny part of the total marketing approacn.

As Bernard Blanche(1) points out, marketing is a 'complex function', that is, a concept comprising a number of constituents. Lambin(2) states that it is both a system of thought and a system of action; and it has to be said that these two categories encompass fairly well the range of ideas implicit in marketing,i.e.the idea of'strategic analysis' involving reflection on an organization's position in relation to its various groups of , and the 'operational' aspec_ covering thewhole technicalsideof marketing including research and marketing communication.

Other writers such as Darmon, Laroche and Petrov highlightthe social aspect of marketing(2). For marketing is also a system of values which makes satisfaction the basis for an organization's operation. This system of valuestranscends political systems since marketingis now universally accepted. The point is made by Serraf:'Various experiments have shown the marketing approach to be completely effective in private enterprises in the developed and developing countries alike, in both capitalist and the socialist countries orthose witha highly-planned ,and in firms pursuing private profit or government departments, public services and local authorities'(4).

Denis Linden refersto a'marketing ethos'(5) and we fully agree with this view, for marketing reflects a comprehensive approach to the problems of the organization.

We shall therefore define marketing as a management philosophy, that is to say, a way of conceiving management, which is naturally expressed in the form of appropriate action in the everyday life of the organization (this definition is adopted and spelt out in Module 1).

By management we mean: a'set of techniques used within organizations in order to achieve the objectives those organizations have set themselves'(6). Hence, it is a philosophy that covers all management tasks, since 'management coversall the functionsprescribed byFayol: managementmeans planning, organization, giving ordcrs, co-ordinating and supervising'(7).

The chief aim ofthis marketing philosophy is to help organizations achieve something which they by nature seek- a closer relationship with their public. Information specialists(8) have always been concerned - and particularly in the lastfew decades about their possible impact on the public. This concern is reflected in studies on the use and evaluation of information systems.

Ever since library science and information science were first taught at university level, particularly in North America, user survey methods have been included in courses in a number of institutions. Most of the research in this area is reckoned tobe carried outwith theaim ofobtaining a better knowledge of the users of library archive and information services.

It was therefore only natural that informationspecialists should eventually develop an interest in the marketing of their services. PGI-88/WS/1- page 2

The first publications directly linking services date from the marketing with information beginning of the 1970s.In North America, libraries- particularly public libraries it seems that - were the firstto realize that marketing could providean answer to these to judge concerns about the use ofservices, at least from the earliest publications on the marketing information(9). In Europe,however, a concern of to have manifested with marketingphilosophy seems itself initially indocumentation centres. Before 1970,it is true, the concept ofmarketing was confined exclusivelytoorganizations almost supplying productsrather marketing approach did than services. The not really develop untilafter the Second andit was not until1969, by which time World War, considerable upheaval marketing had alreadycaused a in the productionsector, marketing expert, that a prominent American ,suggested extending the concept to service organizations application of the and non-profit-makingbodies (10). This view, which was initially challengedby some, several sectors in is now acceptedand which marketingmay be applied have the area of information now been identified in services alone (figure1.1). Information services may be marketed ina private or public the first case, context. In the marketing may either be strictly commercial profit-oriented (firmsof consultants and and etc.)or non-profit-making information brokers,on-line hosts, (professional information The 'Central science associations). Lending Libraries' in Quebec (public libraries communities of fewerthan 5,000 inhabitants) serving private non-profit-making provide another goodexample of bodies as theyare officially registered companies (Company Law) as private but rezeive governmentsubsidies.

figure 1.1: Sectorsin which information may_tiejgriceted PRIVATE PUBLIC

PROFIT-MAKING Information brokers State-subsidized data consultants banks

NON-PROFIT-MAKING Professional associations Public libraries Central Lending Libraries University libraries (Quebec) School librariesetc. Archives

Information servicesin the public such sector may either byprofit-making, as certainState-subsidized data banks, which seems to common(11), or else be quite non-profit-making. Most information libraries, university services (public libraries, school libraries, government documentation archive services, centres, etc.) belongto this second organizations mentioned in category. The that categoryare increasingly adopting approach,in particular because a marketing of the social andeconomic pressures that compel them to rationalizetheir management and their even to charge forsome of services and also in response to the recent appearanceofother 'charging' informationservices, which has had their activities, the effect of'destabilizing' as pointed out by 31aiseCronin(12). that, even It has been realized in a 'public service'context in which users makenodirect payment, information alwayshas a price and that the bill. someone eventually has topay PGI-88/WS/1 - page 3

Thus, over the last ten years, a number of information services have been experimenting with modern marketing methods or, at least, certainaspects of marketing such as advertising and public relations. The number of training workshops on thesubject and thenumber ofpublicationsprovide a good indication of the level of interest, which seems to be constantly increasing.

The marketing approach may profoundly modify the appearance of information services just as it transformed the business worldseveral years ago. The implications of the marketing approach are indeed quite radicalas it forces the organization adopting itto question on occasion its whole basis and know-how. The manager who has been eonverted to marketingmust attempt to adapt the services supplied by his organization to the needs of his public.It sometimes happens that institutions depart from their original objectivesover the years and that marketing studieshighlight theneed for a major readjustment. Forexample,bureaucracy may withthe passingyears become all-pervasive at the expense of customers' 1,eeds. Organizations insuch cases are practically 'disembodied'in terms of their social roles. Marketingcan help them to improve their social utility, thereby possibly enablingthem to survive when they were thought to be doomed.

Marketing is a tool which makes it possible to maximize exchanRes between an organization and its various customers. In this connection, Dayan points out that a well-integrated marketing approach in an organization fosterssuch exchanges, since it makes for:

1. Greater flexibility and hence greater adaptability,

2. Responsiveness to the outside world conducive to the establishment ef an ongoing dialogue with the organization's environment.

3. Greater focus on the market rather than the organization itself.

4. A service-oriented, rather than a product-oriented, approach.

5. A more open attitude towards competitior.

6. More flexible internal organization serving to optimize decision-making(13).

Marketing may also be defined as a 'methodology for problem formulation'(14) and,in this connection,it may perhaps enable information services and their staff to find their place in society. For it isan odd fact that such personnel have not yet acquired a social statuscommensurate with their role in what is generally referred toas 'the information society'.

For some years,the world of information has been in ferment, withan unprecedented increase in the number of uata banks,a growth in the number of micro-computers, more human resources invested in information, the development of popular communicationtechnology etc. But information services both traditional and non-traditional still remain comparatively under-utilized(15). Hopefully, marketing will help to resolve these problems. PGI-88/WS/1- page 4

Notes on the introduction

1. Blanche, B. Introductionau nouveau marketing. 1979, pp. 9-11. Paris, Dunod Entreprise,

2. Lambin, J. Le marketing strateRique, Fondements,méthodes et application. Paris, McGraw-Hill,1986, pp. 1-3.

3. Darmon, R.Y. et al.Le marketing. Fondements et applications.Montreal, McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition1982, p. 20.

4. Serraf, G. 'Proposition pour definirun veritable marketing sociaux', Revue des problemes francaise dumarketing. Cahier 1976), pp. 48-49. 60 (January-February

5. Lindon, D. Le marketiLg. Paris, FernandNathan, 1981. 6. Lexique de Restion. Paris, Dalloz, 1986,p. 142. 7. Dixeco de l'entreprise. Paris, Dunod, 1980,p. 107.

8. In thecategory of 'information specialists'we documentalists and include librarians, archivists as wellas information brokers, with Unesco's policyof standardization in line and the definitionby Daniel Reicher in his aiLicle'S.I.D. 2000' published No. 1, in Argus, Vol. 8, 1979, pp. 17-22. For thesame reasons we use 'information srvices'to designate the varioustypes of services in which those specialistswork. 9. See, in particular; Tixier, D.'Marketing et bibliotheques', Bulletin de l'Association canadiennedes bibliothecaires 1971, pp. 111-121. de lanRue francaise,V.17,

10. Kotler, P. and Levy, S. 'Broadening theconcept of marketing', Marketing, V.33, 1969,pp. 10-15. Journal of

11. Pommart,P.-D. 'L'Etatet le marche del'information', V.23, 1986, pp.175-179. Documentaliste,

12. Cronin, B. 'Information services Library and Information marketing', South AfricanJournalof Science, V.53, 1985,pp. 115-119. 13. Dayan, A. et al. Marketing, Paris, Presses Universitairesde France, 1985. 14. Serraf, G. op. cit.p.

15. Tenopir, C. 'Why don't more people use databases?', Li'orary V. 111,1986, pp. 68-69; Sevigny, Journal, M. 'De l'or qui dorten banque', Le devoir economique,V.3, 1987, pp. 42-44. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 5

2. THE COURSE OF STUDY

2.1 Aims of this document

The aim of this document is to describe in broad terms the marketing approach and the waysin which it may be included asa componentin the training of information specialists.

The main part of the document (Chapter 3) sets out in six modules the possible content of such training,the training objectives corresponding to each module, examples relevant to the situation of information specialists, a number of exercises to accompany the ccurse and some suggested reading for tutors and for students wishing to continue their training independently.The six modules cover all the components necessary to enable students who have followed thecourse to apply marketing principlesin different typesof information services. All the basic ideas are therefore introduced. Teachers in different countries may use these basic notions to develop a fuller course and one which is more closely attuned to their particular situation.

The modules are presented in the order most conducive to the gradual acquisitionof a basic knowledgeof marketing, i.e. movingfrom general concepts to an explanation of specific concepts. Teachers may alter this sequence at any time for specific educational reasons. For example, the last module deals with the 'marketing plan' since it is a stage at which all of the basic ideas find practical expression. But the components of the marketing plan may beintroducedimmediately afterbasicmarketing ideas if, for example,itis intended that students should prepare a marketing planas an exercise in the course of their training. Similarly, some components may be introduced at the start to capture the interest of participants- for example, some good instances of advertising in the field of information.

The content of these guidelines is based on the wide experience of the author,whohas beenresponsiblefor initial training courses at various levels and continuing training for very varied groups in a number of developed and developing countries.

Theparticipants inthe marketingseminar heldin Geneva from 8to 10 October 1986 also made a very positive contribution to the preparation of this work.

As far as possible this study has been drafted to take account of the various types of information services. The description of marketing applications also takes account of the political, economic and geographical differences between countries in which they might be put to use.

This section (Chapter 2) describes the teaching environment for marketing courses in schools of information science.

2.2 Structure of the ccurse

2.2.0 Levels of training

Figure 2.1 represents the various training levels forwhich these guidelines are intended. They involve both initial and in-service training. All the modules may be used for initial training and some of them may be used separately in an in-service training context.

The modules as shown here are intended primarily to make students aware of or familiar with an area of which they have little or no prior knowledge. However, each module may be developed to provide more advanced training for 13 PGI-88/WS/1- page 6

students, in second trainingsession for example, should be in a position after which those concerned to apply the principlesthey have learned in operational fashion. genuinely

Figure 2.1: Possible traininRlevels

Initial training In-service training

Awareness/Familiarization 30-45 hours of compulsory 1-5 days courses 1st year

Operational Application 30-45 hours of courses with 5-15 days options 2nd (fairly intensive) year

2.2.1 Initial training

The ..irketing approach makesstudents of information of the importance of science more aware taking the user andhis needs management of an information intoaccount inthe service. It also provides them understaneing of strategic with a basic planning essentialto all modern management training schools, managers. In marketing may be taughtin severalcourses over several hundred hours. Such schools regard that has developed greatly marketing as a specialdiscipline in the last tenyears. However, marketing courses in management schoolseem to be mainly aimed at manufacturing andindustrial companies. Since it is highlydesirable for information specialiststo receive a form of marketing traininggeared to service organizations,particularly non-profit be preferable if they service organizations,it would were to receive such instructionalong with their tasic training, that is, duringtheir course of study school. at an information science

It is a moot pointwhether all students in information scienceschools should be requiredto study marketing; the answer may depend on thepolicies applied in eachcountry. At all events, our view is that it isan extremely important if nota fundamental component of all the other activitiescarried out by an informationservice.

For that reasonwe strongly recommend that this subject shouldconstitute a separate course in all informationscience schools. least provide an introductory These schools shouldat course for all students andan opportunity for those most interestedto specialize in the subject.

Another way of meetingthisrequirementin part would be marketing in to teach conjunction with another subject already curriculum. includedin the For example,a course on management and include a certain number administrationcould of lessons on the marketingof information services. Butbecause the syllabus of the more traditionaltraining information courses for specialists is already very full (planning, management, control, budgeting, organization, staff management, etc.),a separate marketing course would generally be advisable. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 7

Another possibility would be to integrate the marketing approach in user surveys if'such a course is already on the curriculum. As we explained in tha introduction, user surveys lead naturally to a marketing approach. We have found that marketing adds a practical dimension to courses on user surveys and is therefore much appreciated by students(1). Thi practical dimension is present because marketing makes it possible to incorporate the results of use surveys in the planning of information services. Such surveys seem too often based onastrictly methodological approach and are therefore completely dissociated from their management information function.

It is suggested in the present study that marketing should be considered as generic in relation to user surveys, i.e. that such surveys should be seen asa branch of marketing. Module3 accordingly introduces survey methods under the heading of 'marketing research'.

As the content of this marketing research component is relatively dense (survey methodology,methods forthe colleLtion and processing of data, statistics) it would be quite in order to think in terms of a course structure corprising a compulsory introduction tothe basics of marketing (including research concepts) followed by another course involving specialized options, which would deal specifixally with and analysis.

2.2.2 In-service training

Just as it is essentialfor new members of the professionto become acquainted with modern marketingtechniques so it is essentialfor those already in work to learn about this approach. As the importance of marketing for information services has only very recently been realized, provision for in-service training must be made for specialists who received their initial training some years ago or who never received formal training in the field of information.

In mostcountries in-servicetraining is undertaken byprofessional associations, sometimesin co-operation with institutions providing Initial training. Some private bodies have also begun to provide in-service training courses in the field of information science.

Severalin-service training courses on the application of marketing to information services have already been held in variouscountries. In most casas these courses have merelypresentedbasicmarketing concepts and explained the uses of marketing. These basic principles can easily be covered in a single day.

Some courses have also been held to present a specificaspectof marketing, such as the advertising of documentation and information services or market analysis methods. The duration of such courses may vary according to the theoretical level called for and the amount of practical work involved (group work, practical applications, etc.).

There is, however, an increasing demand from those working in this area for structured marketing workshops extending over at least two days at which participants canstudythe marketing concept in depth andat whichthe application of marketing to information services is demonstrated by instruction in strategy formulation and the preparation of a marketing plan.

As indicated above, the course content proposed in this study is divided into a number of modules which, individually or in groups of two, can provide topics for in-service training courses.Basic concepts will, of course, be a prerequisite for the more advanced modules.

I. PGI-88/WS/1- page 8

2.3Number of course hours

It is difficult to speak of a required numberof course hours, marketingconceptsput int the forward in.thisdocument assimilated in less could not reasonaMybe than 30 hours ofclasses, to which should rdicethat time be added roughly for individual readingand back-up workby students. Moreover, it should beclearly realized that than an introductory-level students will thenhave no more grasp of marketing. They will nevertheless position toapply basic marketing be in a principles in theirdaily work, imperfectly at first,naturally. albeit

Obviously, training can be more effectiveif the course is longer period of timeand the trainee spread overa groups are smaller (10or 12). training is stretchedout over several weeks Where assimilate the material students have a betterchance to properly and thusretain it. studentsthe subject-matter With a smallergroup of can be explored ina much livelier thereby helpingparticipants once again fashion, to absorb it moreeffectively. By way of example,the School of of the University Librarianship andInformation Sciences of Montreal providesfor 45 hours of course on the marketing tuition in the basic of informationservices, plus 90 hours work by the studentat home, in the library of additional is very similar or as part of ateam. The content to that suggested inthe following chapter extra componentson the application of but includessome marketing in the Canadianletting. In this particular institution, the marketingcourse is compulsory for all first-year students and therefore catersfor atleast 60 students. Students however, workin small teams of groups being in this three to five, theproblem of large way avoided. Moreover, second-year option of choosinganother course enabling students have the greater depth. them to study marketingconcepts in But, as explainedearlier, we shall confine ourselveshere to describing the basiccomponents, which teachers in differentcountries may develop as they wish,particularly where specialist coursesare concerned. 2.4 Prior qualificationsneeded

Strictlyspeakingthe study of marketingasappliedto services does not callfor any prior information process will be speeded qualifications. Naturally the learning 111) if students have field. They will then find a first-hand knowledgeof the it easier to relatetheory and practice. A basic knowledgeof management and administration couldalso students to assimilatemarketing ideas help more rapidly andmore effectively. We have hadexparience of teaching (long-standing marketing to a varietyof groups or new members of thsprofession,students with previous knowledgeof management or without or the information sciences)and we have observed that receptivityto the concept is level of the stadents. universal,irrespective of the Beginners may even besaid to be more doubtlessbecause of receptive- the innovatory aspect of information applying marketing to services, anidea that can encounter resistanceamong conservative managers. Some slight adaptation more generally be on the part of the teacherwill necessary to suit his particularaudience. 2.5 Teacher qualifications

Finding someone to teach the marketingof information services difficult forsome training schools. may prove The person concernedmust not only have a knowledge of marketingbut must also be familiar with theenvironment in which informationspecialists work. The ideal combination would clearlybe a

C PGI-88/WS/1 - page 9 mixedbackground inmanagement andinformation. Someone possessing, for example,an M.A. in Administration (M.B.A.or equivalent) and an M.A. in InformAtion Science would be an asset for a training school, particularly if he or she had already worked or had experience in the information field. Because of the present tendency for training to be provided at the higher level (M.A. or above), teachers are increasingly required to possess research skills, as attested usually by the holding of a doctorate.

A knowledge of information services is particularly important since - as we have already pointed out - traditional training in marketing is generally focused on manufacturing and industrial companies whereas the application of marketing to service organizations, particularly non-profit service organizations, has certain specific features.

In the case cf a teacher offering an advanced course on the markeing of information servicesaimedata well-informed audience,knowledge ofthe information field would be lessessential as the students themselves could make the ne -!ssary adaptation. In such a case, however, the teacher should at least beawareof thedistinctive featuresof marketing when applied to service organizations.

2.6 Teaching methods

Marketing should not be ccasidered solely as a technique but also as a philosophy of management. It must therefore be taught using flexible teaching methods which provide opportunities for the students to discuss and comment on the material.

Inthis connectionteachersareadvisedto makeuseofinteractive methods which encourage exchanges between the teacher and his students and between the students themselves. In accordance with the subjects discussed in the different modules, various approaches are suggested in these guidelines, particularly in the 'evaluation exercise' section at the end of each module.

For example, the case method may produce profitable exchanges between the teacher and the students and also between the students themselves. Much use is made of this method in the teaching of marketing in management schools. However, thereare practically nocases available for the discussion of situationsintheinformation field. Teachers must therefore compile the cases they require for their teaching, which involves a considerable investment of time. It does however provide them with cases which actually correspond to local work situations. Teachers can also draw on previously published cases(2). Annex 1 providesan example of a case-study on the marketing of information services.

Students may also use real cases to discuss the theoretical principles underlying the course. Such discussions may be set up by inviting people working in the information field to explain the situation of their organization andthen discussing the practical problems they encounter in their work environments.

Tutors may alsodevise simulations or role-playing games, whereby students are placed in an imaginary context involving very specific professional situations in which - for example - they have to play the role of a particular manager.

Teamwork by students is also a good idea. Indeed, the use of marketing techniques in work contexts generally involves teamwork.

I 7 e-

PGI-88/WS/1- page 10

An audio-visual approach is veryeffective and is often in holdingstudents' more successful attention. Itis alsoan appropriate demonstrating theapplications of marketing, technique for introducing the for example whenit comes to concepts of advertisingand promotion. audio-visual documentsshould be made Whenever possible, available at the endof each module. 2.7 Basic equipment anddocumentation

Certain equipment is necessary ifthe teaching are to be used. methods suggestedabove

Depending on thetype of audio-visual document employed, will includea projector, an overhead this equipment projector,and a video unit sufficient numberof monitors. with a

Lecture rooms should also be equippedso as to allow audio-visual documents,e.g. with curtains proper viewing of necessary. so as to shut outthe light if Lecture rooms shouldbe multifunctional enable the as far as possibleto above-mentioned exchangesbetween students small rooms should to take place. Ideally, be available forteamwork.

It is alsoa good thing for students to have accessto a library where documents on marketingin general and, of course, themarketing of information services in particularare available.

The:e are severalmonographs on the but most texts marketing of informationservices, have been publishedin the form of journals. If students already articles in thespecialized have access toa library specializing informationfield, they in the shouldbeable to find collection. those texts among !ts

With regard to marketing in general,students would be copies ofthe limited number advised to obtain of textbookson the marketing of service organizations(see bibliography). non-profit

2.8 Student assessment

In the case ofinitial training the authorities will university or traininginstitution generally requirestudents to be assessed. will be moreeffective if it Such appraisal is not basedon a single mode of Thus the teachermay employ a written assessment. extending over exam together witha group project a semester. The result will be group assessment. an individualassessment and a

In the case ofgroup work, it will, all members of the however, benecessary to ensure that team pull their weightas each member of the receive the samemark. group will

Another possibility would be toreserve a certain continuous percentage of marks for assessmentof the student's sometimes be an added classroom performance,which can source of motivation forstudents.

Assessment of studentsshould also help the managed to put teacher to discoverif he has across the material. As a further check, also distributea teaching-evaluation the teacher could the course. questionnaire to studentsat the end of

In the case ofin-service training, necessary. summative evaluationmay notbe It will, however,be important to of the course carry out a formativeevaluation to see if the teachingcan be improved. means of a discussion with This could be doneby participants or ananonymous questionnaire. PGI-88/WS/1 - pale 11

Notes on chapter 2

1. Bayard, R., 'L'approche marketing dans l'enseignement des méthodes d'enquite sur le terrain',in Actes des nuatrmes Aournées d'étude de l'AIESI, 24-29 avril 1984, Rabat, 1985, Ecole des sciences de l'information, pp. 131-140.

2. Lovelock, G.H. and Weinberg, C.B., Public and non-profit marketing: cases and readings, New York, Wiley, 1984. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 13

3. THE COURSE CONTENT

3.1MODULE 1: The marketina approach as a management too in the context of information servicus

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:

To promote an awareness of the importance of marketing for information services.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

On completion of this module the student should be in a position to:

1. understand that information services function as open systems;

2. define marketing;

3. explain the development of the marketing concept;

4. iderttify the components of the marketing mix.

3.1.1 The information service as an open system

In order to fully understand the importance of marketing for information services,it is essential to realize that they function as open systems. We are drawing here, of course, on Bertalanffy's systems theory(1).

Information services have often been described as systems that depend on their environment. Thus, Speller clearly explains the functioning of information services as systems taking the example of the university library(2). Figure 3.1 illustrates this dependent relationship by means of concentric circles: the information service,which is itselfcomposedof subsystems, operates in a wider context (the parent organization) to which it gears its functioning. This wider context may be a university, a large firm or a government ministry. The service thus defines its goals and objectives in terms of the role assigned to it by the parent organization, and it must also take accountofthe requirements ofits differentcustomers andof the external environment.

In order to appreciate this dependence on the environment, we need only consider the financing problems experienced by information services in periods of economic crisis: all too often the first budgets to be cut by the funding bodiesare thoseoflibrairies or archive services. The same is true of documentation centres in the private sector where the first reaction of a 4e, company experiencingfinancial difficulties will often beto abolish that service. As for profit-makinginformation organizations, the absence of customers sooner or later spells bankruptcy.

The problem is that the final product provided by information services is notalways seen as essential,wherein liesthe potential dramaof this dependent relationship on the environment. The service receives resources from its environment and in exchange it must supply a product or service that is useful, and of course 'visible', to that environment.

20 PGI-88/WS/1- page 14

Inrecent yearsinformation serviceshave realized that they must rationalize their operationsif they wish to prosper and even, insome cases, to survive. Somewhatcuriously this realization need has come at a timewhen the for informationinsociety is more keenly felt thaneverbefore. Nevertheless,managers appearto be finding it justify the scale of more and more difficultto their services. Facedwith this paradox which to manage growth ina context of contraction, forces them administrators have modern methods suchas marketing. turned to

FiRure 3.1: The I.S.as an open system

21 PGI-88/WS/1 - page 15

3.1.2 What is marketing?

As we stated in the introeuction, marketing is a 'complex function' and has, thereforecountless definitions.In his Dictionary of Marketing and Advettising, M.J. Bakerascribes this situation to the newness of the concept(3). He states that maAeting is an emerging discipline which does Mt yet possessa solid coreof theory,a fact which could explain the many definitions. However, Baker maintains that there are a number of affinities between all these definitions.

Lovelock and Weinberg, two experts in the marketing of sPrvices, define marketingas the managementfunction which linksan organization to its external environment(4). Althoughthis definition is rather general, it provides a clear explanation of the main aim of marketing.

In his Dictionneire du Marketing, Serraf analyses the concept of marketing asfollows: Marketing is a 'coherent, three-pronged system of research, strategy and action... the purpose of which is to identify, anticipate, contactand monitor customers and to copewith changes and developments inthe market'(5). Its function,then,goesfar beyond mere advertising, which is what some people suppose its role to be.

Blaise Cronin, an expert in information services, has his own definition of marketing which placesthe emphasis on satisfaction- another major objective of marketing: 'harketing can be summed up as theprocess of customer-satisfaction w-gineering'(6).

Philip Kotler, who enjoys undisputed authority in this field, defines marketing in terms of the concept of exchanges as 'a human activity directed towards the satisfaction of wants by means of exchanges'(7).

The idea of exchanges between an organization and its environment may, in fact, be described as the cornerstone of marketing. The marketing approach seeks to rationalize these exchanges and make them as efficientas possible.

Figure 3.2: The exchange process

Commercial exchanges:

\ Money TMION=aIMO MIMI CONSUMER r- Products ...... mow aimm

Exchanges in the public domain Taxes

COMMUNITY PGI-88/WS/1- page 16

Irrespective of the type of services whichthey offer, organizations firms all developwithin a context of anc excbanges. Obviousl#"theseexchanges are more easily discernible inthe commercial process where the customeracquires a product in return fora given sum of.money paid directly to the seller.But, as shown in figure 3.2,an exchange also takes place when auser has recourse to a non-profit informationservice to obtain cost of the service is a document or information:the met by the useror the community through is always a priceto be paid whatever taxes. There the context of theexchange. This type of exchangeis rationalized study - highly formal in marketing throughan active or otherwise- of the needs of different customers. When the studyhas been completed, groups of managers must ensure that products or servicessupplied are made the will consequently to match observed needs.The exchange be more effectiveas it provides greater the users and involves satisfaction for less wasted efforton the part of the organization.

The marketing approachleads to a different Before the advent of conception ofmanagement. marketing, managerswere in the habit of approachbased almcst entirely adopting an on theexisting product with achieving economicviability or profits the aim of and in the case of thecommercial sector 'social' viability in the case of the public sector. Firms organizations definedthemselves first and and foremost in terms oftheir products. The marketing approachhas substantially approach, as may be modified the traditional seen from figure 3.3,inasmuch as the of departure is no organization's point longer the organization itself product/service but the or the existing customer and the satisfactionof his or her needs. aim remains thesame: to make the organization The reasonably viable. Butthis aim can now be achieved muchmore easily and in a completely differentcontext. The marketing approachobliges managers to evolves, since ensure that their organization theneeds of the customers reflecting the similarly naturally alter with time, changing environment.The key role played need and market analysisin the marketing by custotor basic principle. approach derives directlyfrom this

Marketing,then, amounts to much more thanmost people imagine. believe that it issynonymous with advertising Some is just the tip or public relations. Butthat of the iceberg,one of the final process during which the stages in the marketing organization communicateswiththe market after conducting a study ofneeds and altering its services tomeet those needs. For all of thesereasons we have adopted marketing which incorporates a rather broad definitionof all the definitionsmentioned above. Marketing may be defined as a management organization: philosophywhereby the

1. actively monitors the needs of itscustomers (users and non-users); 2. matches itself and its products or services withidentified customer needs so as to satisfythem:

3. subsequently makes itself known by communicatingwith customers; 4. finally, measures customer satisfaction in order necessary adjustmnts. to make any

9.) PGI-88/WS/1 - page 17

Fieure 3.?: Differences between a Product-oriented approach and a marketim approach in the field of information services

STARTING POINT PRODUCT-ORIENTED APPROACH MARKETING APPROACH

Attitude to Must be content with I.S. must adjust to customers: product offered their needs

Approach to Wait until customers Anticipate customers' customers: turn Up wishes

Relationship with Instrumental (as brief Helpful and open-ended customers as possible)

Time required to Depends on technical Depends on customer needs obtain a service/ services and accessions product:

Services/products Only what is available Outward-looking network supplied: on the spot approach

Innovations: Chiefly designed to lower Aimed at providing better production costs customer service

Attitude to I.S. supplies only I.S. endeavours to services/produets: what it produces produce what it should be supplying

Evaluation of Restricted: mainly in Broad: in terms of information needs: terns of printed matter information (audio-visual, etc.)

Feedback in relation Mainly concerned with Mainly in terms of to service provided: internal efficiency effectiveness with regard to customers

(Note: I.S.: Information Service)

24 PGI-88/WS/1- page 18

3.1.3 Development ofthe marketingconcept

Yorke states thatmarketing developed War(8), although the mainly afterthe Second World idea behind theconcept is in fact much to Peter Drucker. Hetraces it back to older according Mitsui set up the 1650 in Japan(9),where a certain first departmentstore operating on the basis ofcustomer satisfaction. According toKotler, the term'marketing appeared at beginning of the twentiethcentury(10). the

Large companies selling everyday directlytothe consumer among the first touse modern marketing were described above techniques.The 'exchanges'as are more apparentin this sector optimizing them for and the importanceof the sake ofgreater efficiency more quickly than elsewhere. was probably understood

Shortly afterwards the world of industryalso adapted to the approach, probably aroundthe 1960s. marketing

Following an article by Philip Kotlerand Sydney Levy, publishedin 1969and has since which was first becomea near classic, the marketing was extendedto non-profit service conceptof that hundreds of orgnizations.It is estimated millions of dollarsarenow marketing of invested annually inthe non-profit organizations, as campaigns for various exemplified by fund-raising social causes. Thistype of activity whereby often wronglyseen as an instrument marketing- of - helps to improve the quality of life inour society(11) is now referred to as 'socialmarketing'. The world ofinformation services is new approach although only now really wakingup to this the first articlesto appear on the specialized journalsdate from the subject in the mid-1970s. Croninforecasts that marketing will be a completelynormal form of 1990(12). management in informationservicee by

Librarians, documentalists, are less and less archivists and otherinformation specialists reluctant to viewtheir services employing the as businesses andare necessary means, including marketing, to ensure development and improvetheir visibility. their

3.1.4 The marketingmix

This importantconcept underlies all marketing strategies.We shall come back to the ingredientsof the mix in iii:clules clear 4 and 5, but inorder to have a understandingof marketingthe various introduced. components must bebriefly

Figure 3.4 illustrates the ingredientsof the marketiLg five main elements,which converge mix. Thereare - as they should- on the centre of all ,i.e. the market, In order to comprising actual andpotential users. serve a market moreeffectively the relation to each ofthe five elements manager must idenifyin those features whichwill best satisfy that market. Thiscareful mixture will strategy. constitute thecore of the marketing

This firstelement of the marketing mix is the information fieldwe should perhaps speak product. In the supplied to the market chiefly of servicessince what is usually takes theform of non-material thinks, for example, products. One ofthe reference facilities service, the provided by an archives bibliographical serviceprovided by national referral services libraries or the provided to users inuniversity libraries. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 19

Fiaure 3.4:The marketina mix

PRODUCT

PRICE COMMUNICATION PGI-88/WS/1- page 20

The secondelement of the marketing mixinvolves all distribution of theproduct or service aspects of the element in thecase of information concerned. Thisis a rathercowlex concept of access services, distributioncovering the to the service.It therefore entire the centre, its includes: the location, therules for the lending opening hours of of documents,etc. The third elementis relatively of strategies new as its importancefor the development has only recentlybeen realized. without whom- when all is said and This element is the staff, public are difficult done - satisfactory to achieve. Thatis why mrketing exchanges with the 'internal marketing',emphasizing that experts now talkabout and feel themselves the entirestaff must be involved in the at all cost organization's marketingstrategies. Etigg is the fourth elementin the marketing said, there is mix.As we have always a priceto be paid in already public bodies informationservices, even are concerned.Furthermore, some where faced with financial non-profitinformation services restrictions haverecently adopted for some of theirproducts. At the a policy of charging level ofstrategy the seriously the variouspricing options manager must examine and select theone satisfactory topotential users. which willprove most

Marketing communication, principally advertising, element in themarketing mix. The constitutesthelast way of communicating manager must decide with the market at this stage thebest services, their toinform it of his special featuresand where productsand applicable theirprice. The marketing strategy willtherefore be based and on theirmany facets. Managers en these fiveelements these ingredients must achieve theright balance in the lightof market between they are allinterrelated. Even requirements, bearingin mind that if the generalshape of a well researchedand responds new service hasbeen product, effectively tocustomer needs in the operationmay be completely terms of the or by sabotaged by unsatisfactory distribution a poor decisionon or poo. stafftraining. Once this overallstrategy has been for the planningof the information established it willprovide a basis activities will be service; inother words,all of its conducted on thebasis of the from the marketingmix. The marketing strategic decisionsstemming plan (module 6)will provide breakdown of all thestrategic decisions. a detailed

3.1.5 Suggestedreading

Bon, J. and Louppe, A., Marketingdes services la population,Paris, Editions publics: l'étudedes besoins de d'organization, 1980. marketing et l'étudedes besoins. Chapitre 1: Leconcept

Flippo,J.P., Le managementdes entreprises d'organisation, 1984. de services,Paris, Editions Chapitre 3: Lesspecificites du marketing desservices. Kotler, P., Marketing for non-profitorganizations, Prentice-Hall, 2nd ed., 1982. Englewood Cliffs(N.J.), Chapter 1: Marketirg's organizations; Chapter2: The responsive rolein non-profit organization: meetingconsumer needs. Lovelock, C.H. and Weinberg, C.B., Marketing for managers, New York, publicandnon-profit Wiley, 1984. Chapter1: The role of Understanding andcontrasting the marketing;Chapter 2: public andnon-profit Exchanges innon-. sectors;Chapter 3: Serraf, G., 'Propositionspour definir un veritable sociaux'. Revuefrancaise du marketing desproblèmes marketing, No. 60,1976, pp.46-83. e". PGI-88/WS/1 - page 21

Speller, hJ., 'Living in an open system:the individual and the library organi%ation'. Journal of Library Administration, V.5, 1984, pp.41-52.

Ou'est -cc aue le marketing? Filmcinimatographique, 15 min., Paris,Centre audio -visuel de l'entreprise.

Edinger, J.A.,'Marketing libraryservices: strategy for survival'. ColleRe and Research Libraries, V.41, 1980,pp.329-332.

Levitt, T., 'Marketing myopia', (inFrench), Direction, No. 150, 1968, pp.546-573.

Lundu, M.C.,'The marketing of information in Zambia: the views ofa Zambian librarian'. Infomediarv, V.1, 1985, pp.17-30.

3.1.6 Evaluation exercise

To enable students to check whether they have fully assimilated the basic concepts in Module 1,it is suggested that they be given an objectivetest consisting of 'true or false' or multiple-choice questions. Suchtests (which can be adapted,if necessary) may be found in Les fondements du marketing moderne: Ruide del'étudiant,byD. PettigrewandM. Turgeon(Montreal, McGraw-Hill, 1985), or in Le marketingauidecie l'étudiants byM. Lessard (Montreal, HRW, 1984). Annex II reproduces a test of thistype adapted to the marketing of information services,in which the first questions relate to Module 1.

00 PGI-88/WS/1- page 22

Notes on Module 1

1. Von Bertalanffy,L., Theorie generale des systimes, Paris, Dunod,1973. 2. Speller, B., 'Living in anopen system: the individual organization', Journal and the library of library administration,V.5, 1984, pp.41-42. 3. Baker, M.J., pictionarvof marketing and 1984, p.120. advertisinR, New York,Nichols,

4. Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C.B., Marketingfor public and non-Profit managers, New York, Wiley,1984, p.12. 5. Serraf, G., Dictionnaire methodologiaue dumarketing. d'organisation, 1985. Paris, Editions

6. Cronin,B., 'Information services librarv and information marketing', South Africaniournal of science, V.53, 1985,p.115.

7. Kotler, P. and Dubois, B.,Marketing management, 1980, p.18. Paris, Publi Union,

8. Yorke, D.A., Marketingthe library service, 1977, p.7. London, LibraryAssociation,

9. Drucker, P.F., Management: tasks, responsibilities,practices, New York, Harper and Row, 1973,p.62.

10. Kotler, P. and Turner, R.E., Marketingmanagement, Scarborough Prentice-Hall, 1981, p.7. (Ontario),

11. Serraf, G., 'Propositionspour définirun problimes veritablemarketing des sociaux', Revue francaise de marketing, pp.46-83. Cahier 60, 1976,

12. Cronin, op. cit. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 23

3.2MODULE 2:Markgtink and behaviour patterns in the information field

GENERAL CRJECTIVE:

To understand the importance of information-seeking behaviour for the marketing of information services.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

On completion of this module the student should be in a position to:

1. understand that a number of factors may influence information-seeking behaviour;

2. define certain typical patterns of information-seeking behaviour;

3. define certain important concepts in the study of information-seeking behaviour.

3.2.1 Why infkrmation-seeking behaviour is important

A knowledgeof information-seeking behaviour in different markets is increasingly important for managers who have adopted a marketing approach. As the aim of marketing is to satisfy customer needs it is essential to discover how customers operate, how they make their choices when they have to acquire information, why they may or may not decide to consult an expert, how they behave when faced with an information problem, etc.

This question of 'consumer' behaviour is crucial in marketing theories and all the basic works treat this subject in detail.

Consumer behaviour is influenced by a number of factors which need to be identified. They include sociological factors:age,sex,educational level, etc. Some products and services are not intended for everybody, and it is essential to know in advance which section of the market may be attracted by a specific product.

Culture and attitudes are other factors which affect the decision as to whether or not to make use of information services. For example, the image some people have of libraries, the way in which they perceive them, will often determine whether or not they make use of their services.

Life-styles and socio-economic categories are other factors that have a definiteimpact on the way people obtain information, i.e. whether they operate independently or whether they rely more on help from others- to interrogate data banks, for example.

Naturally all these factors vary from one context to another, from one country to another and from one continent c.. another. Itis none the less possible to identify certain patterns of information-seeking behaviour from the many studies completed to date. Knowledge of these patterns may be of great use to managers, even if they should always relate and adapt these basic principles to their own context and preferably carry out their own market analysis in order to identify the special characteristics of the various user groups. PGI-88/WS/1- page 24

3.2.2 Patterns of information-seekingbehaviour

Research on patternsin the information main categories field may bedivided intotwo depending on theapproach employed first category by the researcher.The comprises studiesrelating to existing and the secondcomprises studies information services, relating to theactivities of reference to informationservices. users, without

The firstcategory therefore types of institution comprisesstudiesrelating (archive services, to different university or publiclibraries, etc.). The second category comprisesstudies relating of users, whether to the spheres ofactivity expressed Al termsof disciplines humansciences) (science, socialscience, or in economic terms environment). (firm, professionalworker, Researchersagree that Work considerably from information-seekingbehaviourvaries one discipline toanother and in activity. These different types ofeconomic two subcategoriesare moreover different forms of characterizedbyentirely information-seeking behaviour. It is also possible to speak of a third the use of new category consisting ofstudies on information productsas exemplified by electronic azcessto information. data banks andforms of

These three categories are not mutually exclusivehowever. We shall now briefly revieweach of these research findings,which are not categories, mentioningsome to be regardedas exhaustive. The institutional approach is perhapsmore closely linked library science,in which a great to traditional deal of researchhas been done different types oflibraries. on the use of

For example, several studies have been madeof the use of libraries, particularlyin English-speaking public on the results of countries. Excellentsurveys based these studies havebeen published by and also by Harrisand Sodt(2). Zweizig and Dervin(1)

Public library attendance ratesmay vary enormously 'public libraryuse' and 'type of depending on theway Dervin the use' are defined.According to Zweizig 'real' user visitsa library at least and definition ofuse, library use once a month. On this rates vary beween 10and 25 per cent, between 10 and 25per cent of the total i.e. population use public the scope of thedefinition is wider, libraries. If for example if allthose using a librarY at least once in thepast year are considered may rise to 60 as users, then libraryuse rates per cent. However, thesItuation varies region to anotherand from one enormously fromone country to another.In a study conducted France all individualsenrolled in a public in and accounted for library were consideredas users 10 per cent of thetotal population(3). The type of use observed also hasan impact on library general, studieshave been concerned use rates. In use with the traditional- mainly leisure of libraries: visits to - libraries, readingon the borrowing, etc. Thefigures quoted above premises, book and Dervin state refer to thistype of use. Zweizig that the use oflibraries for information more limited: less than5 per cent of purposes is much people mention thepublic libraryas a source in their searchfor inforuation of studies show that whatever kind,even though some members of the publichave considerable needs in thisarea. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 25

The factorsmost closelylinked to a high library use rate are educationallevel and socio-economic level (the twofactors are generally interrelated). Some studies also show that the typicalpublic library user is very socially active, with well-established reading habits.

It has also been observed that factors suchas a greater variety of media forcarrying information, appropriatelocationsfor libraries and longer opening hours generally tend to increase public-libraryuse.

According to Elia, the typical market for public librariesis composed of three categories: actual users, non-users who are active readers and 'hard-core' non-users(4). The second grouprepresent a promising market and may fail to visit libraries solely as a result of ignorance or a misunderstanding of their services. .

Thecustomersof university libraries constitute another much-studied population. However most studies of the universityenvironment are based on specific institutions and,to the best of our knowledge, there (is no account of the subject which summarizes the patternsobserved. These patterns are accually much more uniform than inthecaseof Dublic libraries asthe customers in educational establishments constitute a captive clientele. Furthermore, each university has itsown study and research programmes to which the development of library servicesmay be geared.

It is generally agreed, however,that there are three major types of customer for uAiversity libraries: faculty, graduate students and undergraduates. Rzasa and Moriarty show thatthese three types of customer exhibit rather different forms of behaviour(5).Faculty tended to use the library for theirresearch and publications, graduateswere looking for material connected with a course, and undergraduatesoften visited the librarY to work there with their own books. The types ofdocuments used by these three categories did not appear to be thesame: faculty and graduates mainly used periodicals while the others tendedto restrictthemselves to monographs, probably because basic textbooksare the chief requirement at their level.

Research generally indicates a rather higli libraryuse rate: in the study by Rochard, 81 per cent of respondents saidthat they visited the library at least once a month(6) and Ford mentionsaverage weekly use rates of between 5 and 11 hours(7).

Some authors such as Malley(8)indicate thatfull-time and part-time students sometimes exhibit differentuse patterns. Futas and Vidor(9) showed in their study of library use bymanagement students that full-time students used threetimes as many journalsas monographs,a proportion which was completelyreversed inthecase of part-timestudents.According to the authors the reason for this might be the inflexibilityof the rules governing the loan of periodicals.

School libraries are another contextin which use patterns have been studied, although to a lesser extent than in the firsttwo contexts mentioned. Bernhard summarizes the latest research on the subject andstates that this type of library is generally underused by both students and faculty(10).The use made of them appears at present to be restricted to monographs.

The use of archive services also presents some special features,although little research has yet been done on the subject. Delmasstates that there are two types of archive users who,in fact,correspond to the twopossible categories of archive service: the'compiler/user' retrieving documents for legal, fiscal and other administrative purposes from 'administrativearchives'

$'4 PGI-88/WS/l- page 26

not open to the public and the 'reader/user' 'historical archives'(11). seekinginformation from Thefirstcategory mainly consists while the secondincludes a sizeable of managers students. percentage of historiansand history

Taylor explains that the prime needof the archive the process'so that he can then user is to 'understand him(12). The make use of thecollection that interests tension betweenarchivist and the classification scheme user stems mainlyfrom the adopted for thecollection, which the provenance ofthe collection. generally depeneqon

Several studies have also beenmade of documentationcentres but the specialist libraries and patterns observed relatemore to the disciplines in which theusers concerned operate and therefore fitbetter into the category of researchdescribed below. second As we have already seen research onpatterns based on spheres is divided intotwo subcategories: of activity studies relatingto different disciplines and studies relatingto economic categories. established Discipline-oriented that there are three research has major types of behaviour, considerable variationmay sometimes be observed although within each ofthese types. Science (chemistry, engineering, physics, informatics, mathematics, etc.)is undoubtedlythe sector that medicine, explosion of documentation hassuffered mostfrom the because of the precariousnature of information that srhere. Moreresearch has also in been done on thisgroup of customers. It shows that the information whichthey require must since the timefactor is particularly be provided rapidly important for sciences(13). They mainly researchers in thepure make use of journalarticles- and less frequently monographs(14)- presumably because they has been virtually are generally moreup to date. There no growth in the numberof monographs sciences(15). On theother hand, underground published in thepure theses, etc.) literature (reports,unpublished appears to be in highdemand(16). On the that people inthe sector spend whole, it is estimated 20 to 25 percent of their time information- a figure which is quite looking for considerable(17). Lastly, it should be pointed out that oral contributors is very communicationbetween important: particularly contacts at scientific telephone conversations conferences. Although and informal by its this type ofcommunication is very nature itis generally networks, which has conducted withinwell-defined given rise to theconcept of 'invisible Bornes points colleges'(18). out that 'the marked preference scientific information for orallycommunicated is basically dueto its specific makeit incomparable: characteristics which it is, infact, immediate, complete'(19). sifted, accessible and

It is much more difficult to delimitthe social science science sector, even to sector than tbe theextentofidentifying the subjects covers. A study carriedout by the International which it Federation for Information and Documentationmakes mention of a Unesco document whichincludes in this sphere: anthropology,demography, law, education, geography, ethnology and ethnography, management,linguistics, psychology, science and sociology(20). political science,economic

This field is ina state of constant change, increasingly resemble and behaviourpatterns those to be found inthe pure sciences. At only a limitedamount of research has the same time been carried outon this clientele which appears to be'ore concerned with books than its counterpartin the pure PGI-88/WS/1 - page 27

sciences(21). Monographs are apparently as much in demand as journals: Meyriat states that 11 articles are cited for every 10 books whereas the ratio in the sciences is 80 articles for every 10 books(22).

The typeof information requiredin the socialsciences isoften statistical, numeric,methodological or conceptual(23). Itshould also be noted that a multidisciplinary approach appears to be of great importance in that sector(24). The sector of the humanities compOses other subjects (arts, history, languages and literature, philosophy,religious studies, etc.) in which information-seeking behaviour patterns are generally quite different. Time is much less important for these users and the documents they require are notnecessarily recentpublications(25).Thiscategory also contains the largest users of monographs. They are generally much more dependent on the library or documentation centre, which fulfils the role of a laboratory for them(26). They often consult very large numbers of documents and make regular use of the inter-library loan service(27).

These users mostly adopt a much more individual approach, working alone andcarrying outtheirown bibliographicalsearches and reviews of the literature,something which does not occur in the sciences and the social sciences(28).

Research on information-seeking behaviour in relation to categories of economic activity rather thandisciplineshas mainly been basedonthe business firm.

Most authors agree that there are two types of information withina firm: internal information, which ismainly used for management purposes,and external information, which assists decision-making both on themanagement side and on the scientific and technological side. White tries to establisha certain typology for the transfer of information in a work context(29). In his view the various information needs in a work context forma continuum running from the very general to the very specific. He advances the theory, which has not been proven however, that some departments in the firm need more general information, which he refers to as 'strategic information', whileothers require more specific information, which he calls 'operational information'. Thus departments such as production or accounts need more general and internal information as they are responsible for the day-to-day supervision of the firm's operations. Departments such as marketing, on the other hand, (andone might add R&D) are more likely to have need of strategic information because their work is concerned with medium- and long-term planning.

In spite of a relatively high information requirement (one study has shown that the search for information might occupy up to 32 rer cent of the available time)(30), Trott emphasizes that there is no automatic reaction in firms to approach the various existing information services(31). This point is also confirmed by Slater(32). The problem could be a lack of awareness of the services available, as attitudes towards information services seem to become increasingly favourable with experience and lead to increasing use(33).

Another approach appears to be taking shape in relation to researchon information patterns. This is research on the use of the new technologies in information-seeking behaviour.

Although the first data banks were developed at the very beginning of the 1960s,i.e. almost 30 years ago, they are apparently not being used to their maximum potential(34). Several studies have tried to explain this resistance. PGI-88/WS/l- page 28

Theproblemappears to be one of 'product difficulties of using distribution' linked to the data banks (needfor equipment inquiry software)and to the associated and familiaritywith information has not cost problems: theidea of paying for yet been generallyaccepted(35). Moreover, as the presence ofan intermediary necessary, the spread of is practicallyalways data banks hasgenerally been limited libraries (around80 per cent according to university and to certain to the study byWanger and Cuadra(36)) specific sectors(law stock exchange, Winship(38) havedescribed the situation etc.). Hurych(37)and that the patterns in the universitycontext. It appears observed correspondquite closely informationuse to the generalpatterns of analysedabove under the Scientists are generally varioussectorsof knowledge. the biggestusers of data banks, medicine. Next particularly in come the social sciencesand then the category of users still humanities. Thislast seem to be relativelyuninterested in special effort mustbe made to persuade computers and a them to use databanks. Graduates appearto be the category followedby that makes mostuse of data banks, faculty. Astudyconducted by the Libraries states that Associationfor Research over 40 per cent ofuniversity teachers have already useddata banks(39). in North America

There appear to be fewer studies of theuse of data banks in is possible,however, that they are used business. It according to quite frequentlywhen available: a recent surveyconducted in France, research staff some 60 per cent ofthe at one institute hadalready made make much less use of them(40).Managers frequent use of databanks, however, Futas and Vidorwho state that according to thestudy by they were used byonly 25 per graduates of a certainmanagement school(4l). cent of the

While all thisresearch can provide about information-seeking managers with importantinformation behaviour and therebycontribute to it isstillimportant decision-making, for managerstorealize that account of the economic local studiestaking and social situationin each case will relevant. Module 3explains how to always be more carry out individualstudies. 3.2.3 Key concepts for thestudy of information-seeking behaviour Familiaritywith certainconcepts relating to information in the communication of information servicesis essential for a good understandingof information-seeking behaviour.Several theories and in this connection,and we shall models have beendeveloped examine a few ofthem without making claims to providingan exhaustive account. any

Thus the concept of information need meritsclose students of themarketing of information consideration by services. It isa much more complex notion than isgenerally believed But the need for because of its quiteintangible character. information is as vitalas the need to eat for ordinary citizens: and drink,even '...individuals want to control environments. Ina modern society such their own as ours, informationis essential to that control. Withoutinformation, the individual or correct abuses, benefit cannot seek effectivehelp from the protectionand services the offers, or get themost from his resources'(42). government

Research on the needforinformation shows that somewhat as in Maslow's itis hierarchical, general theory ofneed.s. Indeed, there be several levelsof information needs would seem to of those needs. depending on theindividual's awareness Totterdell and Bird(43) haveeshownthat there is firstly 'expressed' need whichcorresponds to a conscious an a request; a 'non-expressed' need and generallyleads to need corresponding which hasnot been properly to a need which is feltbut expressed; and a 'non-activated' corresponds to a latentneed of the individual. need which 35 PGI-88/WS/l - page 29

As it is the job of information specialists to satisfy all of these needs they must be extremely vigilant in deto.cting needs belonging to the second and third categories.

Familiarity with the concept of information_ transfer is also important for the effective marketingof informationservices. BrendaDervin has undoubtedly produced one of thefullest, clearest and the most articulate descriptions(44). Her diagram of the barriers to inf:+rmation transfer (Fig. 3.5) has become a classic.She beginsby defining four essential elements in information transfer: the individual seekinginformation on documentation, the expression of his need, the sources of information and the result of the process, that is to say, the solution or solutions whict satisfy the need. Dervin's diagram is universally relevant and may be applied to all information services including archives, where the presence of such barriers has also been observed by Hobert(45) and Taylor(46).

Dervin identifies six barriers to information transfer between each of thesefour elements. Thefirst barri.r has to do with the difficulty of defining the information needs concerned. It arises between the individual and his actual information needs. As we have already explained, people find it difficult to express their information needs clearly.

A second barrier may also stand between the individual and the information sources. For example, the individual may not beaware that this information source or sources exist. He may be intimidated by the staff of the institutions who could provide him with ananswer.Excessive bureaucracy within the institution thatis the information source may also impair the efficiency of information treasfer. It may also be thecase that there are quite simply no information sources available. The third barrier betweenthe individual and the actual solutions to his problemsmay be an intellectual one: e.g., he may lackthe education enabling him to understand the information withwhich he has beenprovided. Inany case, as Dervin emphasizes,the best educated people are generally the best informed. The barrier may also be psychological:for example, the individual, because of some block, may be unable to accept that the information provided will solve his problem or, in a state of despair, he may believe that las problem hasno solution.

The fourth barrier stands between information needs and the information source. It relates to the capacity of information sources to satisfy needs in an acceptable manner and within an acceptable time period. For various reasons an information source may fail to interpret the information need correctlyor may be ineffective in supplying its services.

The fifth barrier is positioned between information needs and possible solutions. For example, the information itself or the information servicesmay appear to be inaccessible. In fact, the information wculd be available in most cases were it not forcertain imponderable social,economic or political factors that affect the organization of services or even their availability. If no services are available or if the services provided are incomplete, it is unlikely that the solutions requtred will be found.

3 PGI-88/WS/l- page 30

Figure 3.5: Diaaram by Dervin

The last potential barrier is locatedbetween the 'information the solutions toinformation needs and sources and problems. It basicallyconcerns the quality of the informationprovided and the reliability is human of the sources. Error and information is inevitably provided which is false and consequently does not solvethe problem or leads Dervin's only to a partialsolation. diagram enables us to comprehend the full complexityof the information transferprocess. A certain grasp of the application of this process is essentialfor marketing to informationservices.

The concept of thesatisfaction of information potion for the marketing needs is another essential of information organizations.This tern must always be used withcare for, as research has shown, there isa tendency to jump to the conclusion thatuser needs have been satisfied. information needs As we have alreadyshown, are very difficult to evaluateand such evaluations carried out with varyingdegrees of thoroughness. are

In some cases there may also be what is knownas a 'halo effect', which inducescustomers to express a measureof satisfaction with whereas they have not really the service been satisfied. Theymay indeed find it difficult to assess the quality oftheservicesprovided and to evaluation for the other allow intheir services they might haveobtained but didnot in fact obtain. One also findsthat when users have to bear the cost ofinformation themselves they naturallybecome more critical.

For these reasons, it should never be too readily assumedthat the aim of satisfying users' informationneeds has been achieved. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 31

3.2.4 Suggested reading

Faibisoff, S., and Ely,D., 'Information and information needs', Information reports and bibliographies, V.5, 1976, No. 5, pp. 2-16.

Hurych, J.,'After Bath: Scientists, social scientists and humanists in the context of online searching', Journal of Academic Librarianship, V.12, 1986, No. 3, pp. 158-165.

Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C.B., Marketingfor publicand non-profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984. Chapter 4: Understanding .

Kotler, P., Marketing for non-Profit organizations, Englewood Cliffs (N.J.), Prentice-Hall, 2nd ed., 1982. Chapter 10: Consumer analysis.

Van Slype, G., Conception etgestion_des systemes documentaires, Paris, Editions d'organisation, 1977. Chapitre 2: Psychosociologie du transfert des conneissances.

Vickety, B.C., etal., Information science in theory and practice, London, Butterworths, 1987. Chapter 2: A social approach to information. Chapter 4: People and information.

3.2.5 Evaluation exercise

To show the existence of differentinformationpatterns asbetween various contexts, it issuggested that real cases be presented to the students. One interestingmethod is to invite professionalsworking in different contexts into the classroom. They would briefly describe the typical features of their users, and students could then join in, asking questions and comparing the information supplied in class with the account provided by the professionals.

With regard to the key concepts, an objective test may also be employed to check Dervin's theories (see Annex II). PGI-88/WS/1- page 32

Notes on Module2 1. Zweizig, D. and Dervin,B., 'Public library knowledge of the use, users, uses: advancesin characteristics andneeds of the American public adult clienteleof libraries'. Advances in pp. 231-255. librarianship, V.7, 1977,

2. Harris, M.H. and Sodt, J.,'Libraries, efforts to define users and librarians:continuing the nature andextent of public in librarianship, library use'. V.11, 1981,pp. 109-133. Advances 3. Wexpérience et l'image desbibliothiques bibliotheoues de municipales',Bulletin des France, V.25, 1980,pp. 265-299. 4. Elia, G., 'The developmentand testing of library user behaviour', a conceptual modelof public Library Quarterly, V.50, 1980,pp. 410-430. 5. Rzasa, P.V. andMoriarty, J.H., 'The users: a case study of types and needs ofacademic library 6,568 responses'.College and research V.31, 1970,pp. 403-409. libraries,

6. Rochard, M.-F., 'Quelle bibliothequepour la recherche?' bibliotheoues de Bulletin des France, V.29, 1984,p. 27. 7. Ford, G., Userstudies, Sheffield, Centre forresearch on University of Sheffield,1977, p. 26. user studies,

8. Malley, I., Thebasics of information skills teaching, Bingley, 1984,p. 45. London, Clive

9. Futas, E. and Vidor, D.L.,'How business Library Journal, 1 professionalsuse libraries', November 1986,pp. 35-39.

10. Bernhard, P., 'Les bibliotheques et centres documentaires l'enseignementsecondaire.Résultats de dans quelques recherches américaines etcanadiennes', Argus, récentes, V.11, 1982,pp. 22-24. 11. Quoted in Taylor,H. Archival services RAMP study, Paris, and the conceptof the user: Unesco, 1984,p. 29. a

12. Taylor, ibid., p.22.

13. Faibisoff, S. and Ely, D.P., 'Information and Information reports and information needs', bibliographies, V.5,1976, p. 6. 14. Garvey, W.D., et al., 'The dynamic Information storage scientific-information user', and retrieval, V.10,1974, pp. 115-131. 15. Hogeweg-De Haart, H.P., Characteristicsof social science Budapest, InternationalFederation for information, Documentation, 1981,p. 26. 16. Ladendorf, J.M., 'Information flow inscience, technology review of theconcepts of the sixties', and commerce:a Special Libraries, 216. V.61, 1970,p.

17. Pruett, N.J., Scientific and technical libraries, Press, 1986, Vol. 1,p. Orlando, Academic PGI-88/WS/1 - page 33

18. Crane, D.,Invisible colleges: of knowledge in scientific communities, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1972.

19. Bornes, C., 'L'informatton scientifique et la recherche', Oocumentaliste, V.16, 1979, P. 200.

20. Hogeweg-De Haart, op. cit., p. 16.

21. Meyriat, J., 'Use of informationin scieme and research:the social sciences', International forumoninformation and docut 'ntation, V.9, 1984, p. 11.

22. Ibid.

23. Faibisoff and Ely, op. cit., p.6.

24. Hogeweg-De Haart, op. cit.; Meyriat, op. cit.

25. Bebout, L. etal., 'Userstudies in the humanities: a surveyand proposal', EQ,V.15, 1975, pp. 40-44; Stone, S., 'Humanities scholars: informationneeds and uses', Journal of documentation, V.38, 1982, pp. 292-313.

26. Katzen, M. and Howley, S.M., Recent initiatives incommunication in_the humanities, London, British Library, 1984,p. 17.

27. Stone, S., 'Humanities scholars: information needs nduses., Journal of Documentation, V.38, 1982, p. 303.

28. Ibid., p. 294.

29. White, D.A.,'Information use and needs in manufacturingurianizations: organizational factors in information behaviour',International journal of information management, V.6, 1986,pp. 157-170.

30. Hexact+ Consultants, Les besoins en information électroniouedes grandes corporations québecoises, Montreal, ASTED, 1986,p. 18.

31. Trott, F., Information for industry, London,British Library, 1986, p. 69.

32. Slater, M., Non-use of library-informationresources atthe workplace, London, ASLIB, 1984.

33. Methlie, L.B. andTverstol, A.M., 'Externalinformation services: a survey of behavioral aspects of demand', Information servicesand use, V.2, 1982, pp. 319-329.

34. Sevigny, M., 'De l'or qui dort en banque', Le devoir économiclue,V.3, 1987, pp. 42-44.

35. Tenopir, C.,'Why don't more people use data bases?', LibraryJournal, 1 October 1986, pp. 68-69.

36. Wanger, J. and Cuadra, C., Impact of on-line retrievalservices: a survey of users. 1974-1975, Santa Monica, System DevelopmentCorporatl,n, 1976.

37. Hurych, J., 'After Bath: scientists, social scientistsand humanists in the contextof onlinesearching', Journalof academic librarianship, V.12, pp. 158-165. PGI-88/WS/1- page 34

38. Winship, I.R., 'The use of on-line informationservices in United Kingdom higher education libraries',British iournal of academic V.1, 1986, pp. 191-206. librarianship,

39. Price, A.J., 'Library-scholar communication', March 1987, Spec. flyer, No. 132,

40. Froger, J.-L. et al., 'Analyse des besoins centre de recherche', en documentation dansun Documentaliste, V.23,1986, P. 4.

41. Futas and Vidor,op. cit., p. 38.

42. Dervin, B., 'The everyday informationneeds of the taxonomy for analysis', in average citizen: a Kochen, M. and Donohue,J.C., Information for the community, Chicago,American Library Association, 1976,pp. 19-20. 43. Totterdel, B. and Bird,J., The effective public Association, 1976. library, London, Library

44. Dervin, op. cit.

45. Hobert,S.E.,Archives and manuscripts: Society of American reference and access,Chicago, Archivists, 1977, 30p.

46. Taylor, H.A., op. cit. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 35

3.3MODULE 3: Marketing research

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:

To provide students with an introduction to conducting marketing research.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

On completion of this module, the student should be in a position to:

1. define marketing research;

2. describe the stages in the preparation of marketing research;

3. explain the principle methods of data collection and their specific characteristics;

4. explain the principle and main methods of sampling.

3.3.1 Marketing research

Inthe definition quoted in Module 1, Serraf explainsthat marketing involves three stages: research, strategy and action. The last two constitute what Justeau calls the 'operational phase' of marketing, i.e. thestage when decisions are made and the stage when action is taken. But these two stages must be preceded bya 'functional phase'involving the collection of the information that will beused to establishthe strategiesandplans of action(1). The first stage in this process, then, must be to collect certain information about the market, about customers, about the environment,etc. so as to make for a more effective exchange with the public. This first stege is called marketing research.

Some managers forget about marketing researchor assumethat they are already familiarwith theneeds of the market. Nothingcould be more dangerous. As Coffman emphasizes, research is central to- not to say a vital prerevisite for - marketing: 'If you aren't doing- and using - research, you aren't doing marketing. It's as simple as that. Research is to marketing as the senses are to the human body: inseparable, inherent, and indispensable'(2).

Marketing research takesa number offorms. Twedt has established a typology Jn the basis of a survey carried out in 1978(3). The first category covers and market research, which virtually all firms surveyed say they carry out. This includes consumer research designedto identify consumer needsand definethe market more accurately. The second category covers studies of products, particularly research on the creation andacceptance by of new products. Next come economic analysis and strateRic research, i.e. everything to do with and income forecasts. A fourth category coversadvertisinR research:measurement of the effectiveness of campaigns, media research, etc. Lastly, Twedt's fifth category covers studies of the responsibility of the firm,in particular its impact and that of its products on the environment, together with studies of consumers' rights.

Thus marketing research goes beyond the traditional market study, which is much more restrictive and is limitedto studies of customers. Kotler defines marketing research in the following way: 'Marketing research is the systematic design,collection, analysis, and reporting of data and findings relevant to a specific marketing situation or problem facing an organization'(4). And the following definition is given in a book concerned with mark.ting research: 'The process whereby the information necessary for decision-makirg in marketing is generated'(5).

-1 2 PGI-88/WS/1- page 36

3.3.2 The Preparation ofmarketing research

The cost of marketingresearch is often doing any. advanced as anexcuse for not However thereare several ways of Barry Smith points overcoming this problem, as out(6). For example,resources may be pooled and shared by operatingon a network basis: costs several public librarieshave already adopted this approach.Units within large public or privateorganizations such as the researchcentre or computer service - of a universityor of the company to which the informationservice is attached the internalresources often available - can also make use of In some countries without incurringadditional expense. government agencies also creation) which could operate subsidy schemes(e.g. job take in marketingresearch projects. Proper preparation is essential forassessing research. thecostof marketing Manager3 must firstdecide who is use their own staff to carry out the study:will they or hire a consultant? If they decide resources they will have to allocate internal to devote a considerableamount of time and the project. Public organizations energy to may call on the assistanceof volunteers, at least for the datagathering operation. If the managers decide to hirean outside consultant caution. A they must exercise marketing researcher who is not information services thoroughly familiar with could easily failto address the problem: theprevious module we have seen in that the definition ofuser difficult and complex information needs is a matter. Whatever the case, they must become managers should realizethat involved in the project,particularly in the the basic problemsand of the aims and definition of also objectives of thestudy. need a basic knowledge of They will methodology so that they can discussions with theconsultant and exercise conduct the project. a certain level of controlover

The stages in marketingresearch proper approach. are the same as in thescientific Firstly, there isthe identification say, the reason why the of the problem,that is to study is beingundertaken. major problems This involves definingthe facing the informationservice - problems solve by adoptinga marketing approach. that it hopes to by means of questions. The approach generallysuggested is For example: whydoes library 20 per cent of the use stagnate at around population? Which segments of data banks? Why not? the market makeno use of How can a specificsegment be reached? Marketing research may be carried out oneither a occasional basis. Large information continuous or an services (with 100or more employees) be able to afforda research department may which.examines marketing continuous basis. Such a department problems on a could,for example, plan every three years with market studies additional studiesto be conducted annually. of course,an ideal situation. This is, Smaller centres mustfind an alternative, which usually involvesmaking do with occasional test a new product under studies - for example,to development or to take change in customer services. a decision abouta proposed

The second stage,a review of the literature, involves an examinationof the relevant availableinformation from the standpoint of methodologyand also in terms of the datacollected, which is described as 'secondary'. The first thing to do is to lookat similar studies carried out in the past on thesame subjectin order to see whattype of methodology may be employed. Studies may, moreover, already havebeen carried out would be extremely on the target population, andit useful to consulttheir results initial idea about the in order to obtainan market in question, whathas already been established and what remains to bedone. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 37

Figure 3.6: The staRes in marketing research

1. Identification of the problem

2. Review of the literature

3. Formulation of objectives

4. Selection of methodology

5. Data collection

6. Data analysis and drafting of report

After this stage, managers will be in a positionto formulate accurately the obiectiyes of their study. These objectives will determine the variables to be measured. They may also be expressed as hypotheses, i.e. in theform of answers to questions which must be tested. For example: executives use the documentation centre more often than engineersor technicians. Or: opening the library two evenings per week would increase itsuse by 10 per cent. It is then clear precisely which questions must be asked.

The following stage involves defininR the methodology:choosing a method of data collection and a sampling plan (see following pages).

Next comes the actual data gathering operation.

Lastly, the data mu.t be analysed and the report draftedin a style which will enable the data collected to be used.

3.3.3Types of research

The choice of methodology in marketing researchgenerally depends on the advantages sought, havinf due regard for thenature of the problems posed and the physical context of the study. Certain methodologies do offer specific advantages: some are more economic while othersmay be quicker. The most appropriate will be chosen according to circumstances.

Perrien, Cheron and Zins identify threemajor types of marketing research: exploratory, causal and descriptive. These types of research correspond to a number of data-gathering methods(7).

Exploratory research is rarely conclusive. It generally steers the researcher in the direction of a more exhaustivestudy. However, inthe context of information services, managers must often make do with thistype of research because of a lack of resources.

This type of research is, in fact, associated withdata-gathering methods which are cheap and relatively simple to apply: theuse of secondary data and case-studies.

Secondary data may actually be of great . It may take the form of information from within the organization, suchas sales figures or rates for the use of a service. A worsening market situation may sometimes be redressed by carefully scrutinizing this information. External secondary data can be supplemented by internal information. This may be survey data produced by someone else about the organization and/or its environmentor data from major PGI-88/WS/1- page 38

national statistical organizations(8). Such data may be market, to identify ueed to define a customers, to selecta target public, etc.

The case-studiesgenerally come down to potential informal meetings withcurrent or customers. This is a non-quantitativemethod and analysis is thereforenot possible. statistical

Although exploratory research often introducesan element of subjectivity it can, at least,pave the way for a more substantial studysubsequently. The purpose ofcausalresearch is to establishthe cause-and-effect relationship betweenthe variables affecting the exploratory a marketing situation. Unlike approach, it employsvery sophisticated including experimental types of methodology methods. Andreasen has methodology could pointed out how this be used in the information effectiveness of different field to measure the advertising strategiesfor video cassettes a new collectionof in a public library(9). Inthe example hequotes, procedure involvesidentifying three themes the for an advertisingcampaign (the pleasure to be gainedfrom viewing video cassettes, the lowcost of borrowing them, and the widerange of the collection). Three leafletsdeveloping these themes are then preparedand sent to different target publics. The aim is to discover whethercertainthemes have a greater impactthan others specific target publicand, as each leaflet on a only count the number includes a replycoupon, one need of coupons returnedby each group. Little use has so far been made ofcausal research in field. It can, the information however, be employed in alltypes of services archive servicesas Holmes shows in his including study on the variousmethods for the storage of archives andthe preferences of different types ofusers(10). The sophisticatedstatistical methods of way not only of determining the causal approachprovide a the current situationbut those configurations also of forecasting that would improve the services. effectivenessof information

Descriptive research isthe commonesttype of research services, particularly in information for the identification of professional literature customer needs. The abounds with interestingcases.

Asits name indicates,the purpose of this type ofresearch is describe a marketingsituation. to are Darmon, Laroche and Pétrovstate that there two main methods of data gathering for this type observational methods and of research: methods involvingcommunication with the the data-gatheringprocess(11). subjects in

Observation is the most elementary method forgathering primary data. takes the form,simply, of recording the It of behaviour. presence of absence of specificforms For example, this methodmay be employed to establish made of a librarycatalogue, by recording the use manually or automaticallythe number of people who consult it over a given period. The technique is however, inasmuchas the form of behaviour limited, and occasional. measured must be of shortduration Wilson and Streatfieldhave however shown highly structured thata form of observation may bevery effective and produce results as it provides interesting a complete and frequentlymore accurate picture of given situation(12). Of a those methods that involve subjects, the questionnaire communicationwith is certainlyone of the best information-gathering tools. le may take differentforms: diaries to be personal interviews, completed by the subject, interviews by telephoneor by correspondence.

The diary method isnot yet very common in the information field. Davis mentions its advantagesand disadvantages(13). It involves askingthe users PGI-88/W5/1 - page 39 of an information system to note down their information-seeking behaviour ina diary: use of catalogues, indexes, data banks, etc. Although this method is very economical, the co-operation of the subject is absolutely vital and that is not always easy to obtain.

The personal interview is more common. It quite simply involves meeting the customers (actual or potential) fact to face. This type of information-gathering is more widespread, although there arg several difficulties associatedwith it(14). Themarket mustbe geographically limited, otherwise a large sample will be required and that would increase the cost of the market study. Moreover, the experts agree that interviewers must possesscertain skills and have received special trainingin order to be effective and not bias the results.

Figure 3.7: The different types of marketing research

1. Exploratory research:

- secondary data

case-studies

2. Causal research: (experimental)

3. Descriptive research:

observation (loosely or highly structured)

questionnaire:

- diaries

- personal inveIviews

- group interviews

telephone interviews

by correspondence

Nevertheless the interview also has several advantages. It isa more flexible method and makes for a survey in greater depth. It can be used with all types of clienteles, including children and illiterates. Moreover, the interview generally produces a better response ratethanis achieved with other methods of information gathering(15).

Different typesofinterviewsare used in marketing. They maybe conducted on an individual or group basis. The individual interview may be relatively simple but can also be used toidentify the deep motivation of customers. In the latter case it is usually loosely structured. Projective techniques may also be employed, that is methods in which various stimuliare presented to subjects so that their behaviour may be analysedon the basis of their reactions. A similar approach was used in Toronto to discoverthe preferences of users with regard to the layout and decoration of libraries before fixing the plans for the construction of a new public library branch.

,1G PGI-88/WS/1- page 40

Interviews may also be carriedout with groups This approach of eight or 12 requires an experienced people. surprising organizerbut results. The group sometimes produces then becomes 'the society'(16) and projected face of the interactionsbetween individuals less relevant than provide informationno the answers givenby those taking describes the part. Di Giambattista use of this methodfor college libraries(17). The telephone interview isan increasingly information, at leastin the developed popular method forobtaining advantagesof countries. It shares thepersonal interview several of the relatively high and of theprinted questionnaire: response rate andspeed of execution a operating costs. Only a limited aswell as minimal the interview number of questionsare possible however, ceases to be efficientif it lasts for are also serious more than 5-10 minutes.There sampling problems insome interviewees have cases, for example when the no telephone or theirnumber is confidential. Lastly, the gathering commonly of information bycorrespondence is still employed method for the most marketing research in information(18). The main advantages the field of cheap since large of the methodare as follows: scattered samplesmay be used; it is guarantees an identical it may beanonymous;it stimulus for allrespondents; it enables amount of informationto be collected with the maximum lastly, the a minimum of timeand effort; and, questionnaire iscompleted by the which he or she m.lbject inperson at the time considers mostconvenient. On the other hand, this method alsohas respondents must be several disadvantages: able to read,the choice of the except for open-ended answers is generallylimited questions (whichare not advisable in create problems with regard to this case asthey the classification of response rate is oftenvery low. answers), and the using certain The response ratemay be boosted however techniques: a proper by letter ofintroduction, presentation, facilitiesfor professional the return ofthe questionnaire, rewarding respondents,reminders, etc. principle of

Each of these methods has its advantagesand its special and marketing researchers characteristics, mustselect the method context. For even best suited to their greater effectivehess, it is different methods: worth combining these for example, aquestionnaire sent interviewswithsomeof by post plusin-depth thosereplying to the provide a clearer questionnaire. Thiswill interpretation of thesituation to the the resultingstrategies. inevitable benefitof

3.3.4 Sampling

Sampling is a particularly usefultechnique in marketing enables researchersto discover the research as it basis of a configuration of thetotal marketon the tiny fraction ofthe whole. They can thus effort while stillobtaining a fairly save much time and accurate picture of thesituation. However, the sampling process must conformto rules if it isto be effective. certain clearly-defined Scientific sampling chance: is based on thenotion of in order to berepresentative of a total selected as population a samplemust be nearly as possibleona random basis. probability which Otherwise the lawsof underpin the notionof chance and scientific not ensure that the sampling will sample is well and trulyrepresentative. There are several types of sampling, thesimplest of which, least scientific, is but also the undoubtedly accidental sampling. The employingthismethod,which researcher is certainly economical,need position at anyone spot and select the onlytakeup individuals whoappear in order to carry out the research. Pure chance plays little part in thistechnique and PGI-88/WS/1 - page 41

the information gathered must be treated withgreat caution. Nevertheless, it enables useful information to be collected cheaply. For example, a university library may collect a certain amount of information about students' appreciation of its services at the student cafeteria. The views expressed cannot, however, be considered as exhaustive. The same will apply to a public library whose managers collect opinions about theirservices ina shopping centre: the picture of the market that emerges will be incompleteand will doubtless reflect no more than a specific category of actual End potential users.

Greater accuracy may be introduced by combiningthis method with the so-called quota method which involves the establishment of quotas corresponding to known features of the populationconcerned. For example, if 70 per cent of the students in a universityare known to be male, then the accidental sample could be limited to 70men and 30 women. Larger numbers of more complex factors could, of course, be used in establishingthese quotas. The sample thus obtained will bemore representative of the population, but there will be no certainty of it being perfect.

Much use is made of 'purposive' samples in commercial marketing, particularly in order totest new products. For example,a town which is fairly representative of the entire market isselected and products are tested there. This method may be applied to the informationfield by selecting a group made up of what are considered to be, for example, typicalusers of data banks and treating them as a representativesample. Their behaviour may then be observed or they may be issued withquestionnaires. In this case too, however, the representativeness of thesamplecannotbeguaranteedeven although interesting results will certainly be obtained.

FiRure 3.8: Principal forms of sampling

1. Accidental

2. By quota

3. Targeted

4. Random

5. Stratified

In order to be truly random and thereforescientifically representative, a sampling operation must ensure that all individuals ina population have an equal chance of being included in the sample. As we have seen, this is not a feature of the methods described above.

This condition is best met by usinga complete list of the population targeted by the study. Drawing names from a hatis still the best way of ensuring that a genuinely random choice ismade from among the subjects. If the population is too large for suchan operation to be feasible, a perfectly representative sample may be guaranteed by usinga list of random numbers in order to select individuals (19).

Even greater effectiveness may be achieved by employing more sophisticated techniques such as stratified sampling: this Involves the preliminary subdivision of the population under studyso asto ensure that perfect representativeness is maintained fo each category. Thus, in a study

C PGI-88/WS/l- page 42

of the populationserved by several public would be divided libraries, the variouscommunities before sampling intolarge, medium-sized subjects would then and small. The be selected atrandom within each within the total subgroup rather than population, thus ensuringoverall representativeness representativeness atevery level. and also

This method resemblesquota sampling, which is quite different was mentioned above,but it in the sense thatsubjects are selected basis whereas in on a purely random quota sampling theyare selected 'by accident'.

The size of samplesis something which vary greatly, depending many people wonder about:it may on the level ofaccuracy required. dealt with in detail This mattPr is in many books to whichthe reader is referred.

It must, however, beemphasized that administrative considerations often take precedence inmarketing and the size of the sample isdetermined by the budget that is available. The researcher will sample possible, quite simply selectthe largest in the knowledgethat costs increase sample but that results with the size ofthe become correspondinglymore reliable.

Some people believethat there is no need to make use ofa sample if the population is small,say around 200 subjects. makes This isnottrue. Sampling respondents awareoftheir responsibilities, whereasa study of an entire populationdetracts from the importance first case, of the entire operation:in the respondents aremore likely to co-operate certain degree of as they are __,:ordeda importance, while inthe second case they their contribution do not consider to be essential; 'as the others will Sampling, then, usually take care of it'. produces a better rateof response. 3.3.5 After the data has beencollected

Data compilation will require a fairamount of time, depending methods employed. Specific questions upon the are generally bestas they enable the compilation to be carriedout rapidly. When the questionsare open-ended, each line of theanswers must be read, and also lead to distortion. possibly 'translated',which may

Once the questionnaireshave been gone through, automatic methods ofdata processing may beemployed. Highly satisfactory this operation, such sets of software existfor as the 'StatisticalPackagefor which is the Social Sciences', available in versions compatible with several types of micro-computer(20). Cheaper and less powerful software, such as'Statistix', which neverthelessprovides simple, effective and rapid processing,is also available for smaller-scaleoperations(21).

As the informationcollected is intended for decision-making, the drafting of the researchreport is most important.

In general,the rule is to concentrate on essentialsand avoid getting lost in detail. The most important thing isto mention whatevermay affect decision-making. For example, whatare the peak hours at centre? Which services the documentation or data banks are most used? What satisfaction? isthe level of Which potentialcustomers do not use the service?

A goodreport is generally drafted in an impersonal style and objective manner. in an The use of thefirstperson should be judgements should also be avoided. Value avoided and statementsshould be supported possible by appropriate wherever quotations or referencesto other authors with established reputation. an

42'41 PGI-88/WS/1 - page 43

Precise recommendations may also be made on the basis of the observed facts: a recommendation to hire more staff,to change the lines along which the collection is developing, to improve communication with certain segments of the market, to adjust prices for data banks, etc.

Research in the information field too often has only a limited impact on decision-making,which castsdoubt on its usefulness. Thelink between research and planning is not always obvious. Yet research has an important roleto play in planning,and adoptingthe approach outlined above when drafting the report will increase the likelihood of the results being accepted. They will then have a greater chance of being applied, provided, of course,thatthe entire marketing research process has been carried cut in accordance with standard proceduree,

3.3.6 Suggested reading

Kotler, P., Marketing for nonprofit organizations, Englewood Cliffs(N.J.), Prentice-Hall, 2nd ed., 1982. Chapter 6: Marketing information and research.

Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C,B., Marketing for public and nonprofit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984. Chapter 6: Marketing research.

Busha, C., and Harter, S.P., Research methods in librarianship. Techniques and interpretation, New York, Academic Press, 1980. Chapter 3: Survey research in librarianship.

Perrien, J., et al. Recherche en marketingi méthodes et decisions, Chicoutimi, Gaetan Morin editeur (diff. Paris: Editions Eska S.A.R.L.), 1983. Chapter 1: Le rale et la réalité de la recherche en marketing. Chapter 2: La méthodologie de la recherche en marketing. Chapter 4: Lequestionnaire. Chapter 7: Methodes d'échantillonnage.

Andreasen, A.R., 'Advancing library marketing', Journal of Library Administration, V.1, 1980, No.3, p. 17-32.

3.3.7 Evaluation exercise

One interesting exercise which students might be asked to perform would be to draw up, preferably in writing, the objectives for a possible piece of marketing research.They could also be asked to devise various hypotheses.

In order to help students grasp the importance of well-designed questionnaires, they could be asked to improve a 'bad' one (Annex III).This exercise may be carried out individually and in writing or else by groups of 4-7 in the form of a discussion lasting 30-45 minutes. Kotler also suggests this approach in his book and pruvides an example of such a questionnaire (Marketing for nonprofit organizations, 1982, p. 161).

In order to demonstrate the impottance of chance and of the number of subjects in the sampling process, an attempt might be made to calculate the average age of the students in the class (if the number is quite large) by using differenttypesof samples corresponding tothe models presented in class. The most accurate sample should bethe one which is mostrandom (drawing names out of a hat) and is based on the largest number of subjects. PGI-88/WS/1- page 44

Notes on Module3 1. Justeau, J.-J., Les techniques d'investigationdu Bordas (Dunod),1976, p. 2. marketing, Paris,

2. Coffman, L.L., Public-sector marketing. A guide for York, John Wiley,1986, p. 48. practitioners, New

3. Twedt,D.W.,Survey of marketing Association, 1978. ...esearch, Chicago,American Marketing

4. Kotler, P., Marketing for ..tonprofit organizations, N.J., Prentice-Hall,1982, p. 156. Englewood Cliffs,

5. Perrien, J., etal.,Recherche en Chicoutimi, Gaetan marketing:methodeset decisions, Morin, 1983,p. 4. 6. Smith, B., 'Marketing strategiesfor libraries', 1983, p. 27. Library Management,V.4,

7. Perrien, op. cit.,p. 41-48.

8. For example: Statistiques Canada, I.N.S.E.E. Bureau of Census,etc. (France),UnitedStates

9. Andreasen, A.R., 'Advancing library marketing', Journal Administration, V.12,1980, p. 20. of Library 10. Lytle, R.H., 'Report of anexperiment comparing indexing methods provenance and c&talogue of subjectretrieval', American pp. 191-207. Archivist, V.41, 1981,

11. Darmon, R.Y.,et al., Le marketing. Fondements et McGraw-Hill, 1982,p. 200 ss. applications, Montreal,

12. Wilson, T.D. et Streatfield, D.R., 'Structured investigationof observation in the information needs',Social Information 1985, pp. 173-185. Studies,V.1,

13. Davis, D., 'New approaches to studyinglibrary use', Quarterly, V.7, 1971,pp. 4-12. Drexel Library

14. Stone, S., Interviews, Sheffield, Centre forresearch on University of Sheffield,1984. user studies,

15. Darmon, R.Y. et al., op. cit.,p. 207. 16. Justeau, op. cit.,p. 47.

17. Di Giambattista,J.V., 'Consumer researchfor college the job in-house',College and Research libraries: doing Libraries, V.47,1986, pp. 13-16. 18. Heather, P. andStone, S., on user studies Questionnaires, Sheffield,Centre for research University ofSheffield, 1984. 19. Busha, C.H. and Harter, S.P., Researchmethods in Techniques andinterpretation, New York, librarianship. Academic Press,1980. 20. Nie, N., SPSS, New York, McGraw-Hill,1975. 21. Statistix, NH Analytical Software, St-Paul(Minnesota), n.d. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 45

3.4 MODULE 4: The marketinx mix- supply

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:

To teach studentshow to identify thecomponents inthe mix that constirate the supply.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

On completion of this module, the student shouldbe in a position to:

1. understand the various implications ofthe 'product' mixfor the marketing of information services;

2. understand the various implications ofthe'distribution'mixfor the marketing of information services;

3. understandthe variousimplications ofthe 'staff' mixforthe marketing of information servicJs;

4. understand thevarious implicationsof the 'price' mixforthe marketing of information services.

3.4.1 Analysis of the suplav

After studying the market demand for their informationservices, managers must define what they can and should offer theircustomers. Marketing means adapting to the needs of the market andnot foisting upon it a product thought to be useful to it. This stage provides an opportunityto analyse the various elements of the marketing mix related to the productand the conditions under which it is to be supplied: its price and distributionand the staff concerned.

As explained above, the marketing mix isthe set of ingrediens which make up the marketingstrategy, theaim of which is to maximizethe satisfaction of customer needs. It mustnot be forgotten, however, that all these elements are interdependent. Astrategy which is based on an excelledt product supplied at an unsatisfactory priceis doomed to failure even if the otherelements inthe mix areproperly calculated.Theingredients must produce a smooth mix, working together tocreate an effective strategy. Each element in the mix is itself composed of sub-elementswhich form a mix: there is, therefore, a 'product' mix,a 'distribution' mix, a'communication' mix, etc.

The precise configuration of each of theseelements and sub-elements will be worked outon the basisof the results ofmarketing research. The information obtained about customer needs,tastes, behaviour and preferences will provide the necessary basis fora proper product analysis and for taking 4.0 the right strategic decisions.

3.4.2 The Product

As Lovelock and Weinberg point out, theword 'product' is one of the key terms in the vocabulary of marketing. It refersto the overall output of an organization: goods, services and activities(1). Chirouze provides the following definition: 'From the marketingstandpoint, a product is a set of material and intangible elements fulfilling a practical and a prestige function, which the consume, 1:anto for the services itprovides andits capacity to satisfy needs'(2). PGI-88/WS/1- page 46

The product conceptis therefore very wide and inclusive.One common mistake in marketing whichalmost always leads product too narrowly. to failure is to definethe This danger hasbeen clearly described refers to it as 'marketing by Levitt who myopia'. He civosas an example the railways North America whichapparently declined in because they hada very limited view of their product:'rail transport' in relation to transportin general(3). The deciding factor int.ompetition between products is todayvery often their added value, which hasto do with the market's perception of the product, packaging and thepsychological values its which it incorporates,etc. Kotler distinguishes threelevels inthe conceptofa product:the tangible, core and augmentedlevels(4).

The tangible _product isthe level which is perceived directlyby the customer. The obvioua examplesin information documents. services are booksor physical

Thecore product is the essential benefit Examples of this would obtained by thecustomer. be the informationsupplied by documentation information brokers, the centres or leisure activitiesprovided by public the knowledge andlearning which libraries, or may be obtained byconsulting a university library or archiveservice.

The augmented productcovers the advantages purchases a product, perceived by thecustomer who for example the qualityand objectivity of ation provided bya reputable documentation the inform- image which service. The whole questionof the an organization shoulddevelop for its various linked to this level.There may also be products is certain disadvantagesassociated with the use of a particularproduct and this compared with its rivals. becomes obvious whena product is Smith gives asan example the sometimes journeys of public library interminable users in search ofdocuments: they must the library, go there,find a parking place, pinpoint and then on the shelves find the title in thecatalogue possibly asking for assistance from thestaff, show proof of their identityin order to join and borrow the documents,etc(5). Figure 3.9: The different levelsin the concept ofa product

AUGMENTED PRODUCT

TANGIBLE PRODUCT

CORE PRODUCT

RESEARCH TOOLS

PROFESSIONALISM PGI-88/WS/1 - page 47

Figure 3.10: Lines and ranRes of Productp_in information services

RANGE OF DOCUMENTS ASSISTANCE RESEARCH PRODUCTS---) FOR USER SERVICE

monographs general access to periodicals guidance data banks microdocuments reference and prep. of maps/plans information retrospective audio-visual specialized bibliographies reference selective dissemination of information I T PRODUCT PRODUCT PRODUCTI LINE LINE LINE

As well as the various product levels managers must also take account of the lines and ranges of products which are to be supplied.

/4. line of Products is the totality of products of a single type offered by an organization. Examples would be the various types of document available from an information service: monographs, periodicals, films, microfichco, etc.

The range of products comprises allthe product lines offered by the organization, for example the various documents, customer services and research services. Figure 3.10 illustrates some possibilities for an information service.

Lastly, managers must realize that products are not immutable. Mnrketing experts refer to a product's life cycle. Products pass through various stages characterized by different levels of marketacceptance.Thefirst is the productintroduction phase.At that point,the productis unknown tothe public and a special effort must be made to advertise it, as happened vith CD-ROM when it first appeared in 1985-1986.

The second stage in the product's life cycle is a growth phase during which the product achieves a wider distribution. An example which comes to mind is that of the home microcomputer during the period when sales increased rapidly. One feature of this stage is thelevelopment of : few organizations will be supplying the same product at this stage but as it gains in popularity others will wish to do so. PGI-88/WS/1- page 48

Figure 3,11: The life cYcle ofa product

tn Z0 43 <4 44 c/3 (14 0CLI Cld0 H Cz 0 CZ

Cd 44C14 .4 Cz0

TIME INTRODUCTION MATURITY DECLINE

The third stageis that of maturity. The levelof sales stabilizes competition leadsto a price war which and the product. helps to lowerthe purchase price Paperbacks area type of book product of some time ago. which reached thisstage

The period ofmaturity is eventually rival products followed by a periodof decline:new appear, customerpreferences alter black-and-white television and fashion changes.The set is an example ofa product which is in decline in theWest. Some people currently medium is another would say that thebook as an tnformation product which hasentered its period evetually be replacedby other (essentially of decline andwill media, although audio-visual and this remains tobe seen. computerized)

There are, however,no rules for establishing the duration of the life ofa product or each phase in itslife cycle. Some growth while others products experiencerapid take years toreach maturity. maturity which lasts Some enjoy a periodof for decades, whileothers meet a tragic reaching thatstage. It is the outside end shortly after the task environment which of managers to monitor decides, and it is the development oftheir conducting marketingresearch. productsby

The concept of theproduct life cycle be replaced by suggests that productsdie and must others. Whenone of their products is discarded by the managers must thereforereact by creating market, must also be observed new products. Certainguidelines in this processof product creation needs of customers. in order to meetthe

The creation ofa new product is usually The first stage is said to involveeight stages(6). a search for ideas, whichinvolves the many ideas as possibleboth inside and outside generation of as of turning the organizationwith the aim them into productsor services. A natural specialists to collect way for information ideas about what is going participate in professional on elsewhere is to conferences and read theprofessional literature. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 49

Techniques such asbrain-storming, involving group discussions, are also useful in helping to generate ideas. Documentationcentres and libraries often employ user suggestion boxes, whichcan also yield interesting ideas for new products or services.

The second stage involves sifting the ideas collected andpicking out the bestofthem. Each idea is thenanalysed from a marketing standpoint, preferably by several people using systematic methodssuch as assessment grids.

The next task is to define the concept of the product.The ideas selected during the previous stage are evaluatedon the basis of different criteria of the successofthe product:Who is it for? What are its advantages in comparison with its rivals? What will it actually looklike? This analysis usually produces several concepts. Thompson describesthis stage clearly in his article on the creation of a new product fora documentation centre which had adopted the idea of a new data bank to meet user needs more effectively(7). Definition of the conceptxeant deciding what form the data bank would take. There were several options withregard to content and form: the structure, method of indexing, interrogationand access facilities, mode of distribution, etc. These various elements are determinedat the concept definition stage.

Figure 3.12: Stages in the creation of a product

1. Search for ideas

2. Sifting of ideas

3. Concept definition

4. Economic and commercial analysis

5. Strategy

6. Product development

7. Product tests

8. Product launch

The next stageinvolvesthe economic and commercial analysisof the concept that has been adopted. An effortmust be made to discover whether the product is viable - whether it will achieve a sufficient level of profitability to justify the cost ofdeveloping, publicizing and producing it.

It is then necessary to definethe marketing strategyfor the new product, i.e.to decide how it will combine with the otherelements in the mix. What is to be its selling price? Hw will it be distributed? How will it be advertised? What staff will be necessary?

Once the strategy has been defined,the productitself, and all that accompanies it, must be developed. If the productis a technical one such as a data bank it must first be physically produced.The ground must then be prepared for the use of the product: thisincludes the hiring and/or training of staff and the purchase of thenecessary equipment. PGI-88/WS/1- page 50

The products are thentested. Itis essential to discover customers will react to the exactly how new product. Various techniquesare available(8). Thelaststage is the productlaunch.The launch must be carefully prepared as a poorly launchedproduct may easily fail.

The product is thusan important component of the marketing strategyas it is central to theexchange between the organization in a sense, the 'primary and the market and is, level' of response tocustomers' needs. 3.4.3 Distribution

Lovelock and Weinberg definedistribution as the various for providing customers means available with access to'the right productat the right time and the right place'(9).Product distribution devised to match the structures must therefore be habits and behaviour of thegroups of target customers.

Direct access to the product is particularly important. connection, the example of In this public libraries isespecially interestingas they have so long resistedthe operation of the law of least effort on thepart of their users by adoptingeffective distribution libraries and bookmobiles. strategies based onbranch The population servedby apublic librarymay indeed pose distributionproblems when it is scattered It has also been proved over too large an area. that the use of libraryservices is affected by the distance of the customersfrom the library(10).

Data banks are another interesting example of the distribution of information products. Unlike libraries attached to institutions which distribute their servicesdilectly to their their customers, data banks distribute informationthrough a system resemblingdistribution networks for physical goods. Data bankproducers generally use an on-line commercial organization host, usually a which actsas a distributor for several (e.g.: Dialog). With data banks few exceptions on-linehosts have not so far establish direct contacts managed to with their customers(11).They have been obliged gothrough intermediaries to who are eitherinformation brokersor, cases, libraries. Figure 3.13 in most illustrates this data-bankd4stribution process.

Figure 2.13: Data-bank distributionprocess

PRODUCER ON-LINE HOST

On-line hosts wouldcertainly like to contact that would provide them their customers directlyas with a broader commercialbase. But their ambitions have so farbeen curtailed by the complexity anddiversity of the query languages and the purchasecost of the necessary hosts may be 'technically' hardware. In future, on-line able to distribute theirproduct directly without intermediaries with theadvent of expert systems and the lowering ofequipment costs. However, they will stillhave to weigh the strategy. pros and cons of sucha Forthe modeof distribution hasa direct communication impact on marketing strategies. Hitherto on-linehostshave contact with mainly established a small group of purchasers:the middlemen. strategy of direct distribution If they adopt a to the consumer they willhave to cope with much higher advertisingcosts and check by means of appropriate markettests whether such efforts wouldbe really worth while. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 51

Distribution is also a matter of access over time. The service must be available when the customer needs it. University libraries, forexample, must adopt opening hours that correspond to students' work habits: opening in the evenings, if necessary, and extending their hours during examination periods. The same applies to local libraries:it would be unreasonable to limit the opening hours of public librzries to the hours of 9 to 5 from Mondayto Friday as that is the time when a large percentage of their customers are working.

Lovelock and Weinberg also state that the distribution ofa product may be affected by the environment(12). Thus, a documentationcentre concealed in a dusty, cluttered second basement would find it very difficult to distribute its services evenif it was very effective.The user often assesses the quality of the service on the basis of the surroundingsand tends not to revisit unwelcoming premises.

Technical and/or technological resources may be employed for thepurpose of distribution. The increasing use of the telephone in informationservices has made distribution more efficient as the customer does not haveto move around. Some American public libraries have even setup an automatic 24-hour answering service which maximizes distribution at littlecost.

Some information gervices also employ rapid methods ofdocument delivery: Freeman and O'Connel explain howtheir strategyfor thedistribution of biomedical information was greatly improved when they abandonedtraditional postal services for express courier services(13).

The development of networks and new technologies is alsobringing about considerable changes in the distribution parameters of informationproducts: facsimile, electronic mail and even theuse of satellites(14) are now offering managers promising new methods for the distribution of information.

3.4.4 Staff

As we have already said in Module 1, the treatment ofstaff as a separate component in the marketing mix is relatively recent. None theless, most marketing experts have long recnnized the importance ofstaff in marketing strategy. They were previously seen as part of another 'P',the communication mix(15).The staff referred to were,in fact,only those in direct contact with the customers, that is to say, the sales force.But itis possible to take the view that all staff are involved in the marketing process, particularly in the marketing of services where,as Leonard Berry points out, it is performance that is being sold rather thana physical and impersonal product(16). In the information field, for example,performance is the product of the entire information chain and not something suppliedonly by the staff who come in contact with the customers. Thus, indexing andcataloguing must be carried out professionallyand reliably ifthesystem is to providean effective research service.

Flipo adds that the need to take all staff intoaccount reflects the fact that production and sAles are not separate in the servicesector as they are in manufacturing. They occur simultaneously. What ismore, customers play a part in 'production'as they interact with staff when they are served(17). Staff are therefore a very important factor in theformulation of marketing strategies.

The staff who come into contact with customers naturallystill have a key role to play in makinA them welcome. Hobson, Moran an: Stevensshow how the frontdesk staff in libraries can influence thewaycustomersview an organization. They point out that the staffon the loans desk are often the users'only contact with the library:'For many users, these library staff PGI-88/WS/1- page 52

members are the personification ofthe library'(18). front desk staff in They thereforeprovided one university librarywith a form of improving theirrelationship with training aimedat communication was the customers. Thiscourse in interpersonal aimed at improving verbal speech) and behaviour(polite, non-verbal behaviour(smiles and attention courteous subsequent evaluation for the customer).The demonstrated that the profitable. experiment had beenextremely

Other researchershave studied the and users seeking relationship betweenspecialist staff information(19). Training- particularly basic seems to have an importantrole to play in training- information this context.The situation in field often calls for the two types of training: documentation toensure thorough familiarity trainingin in the particular with research discipline of the tools, and training of his or her needs. user so as to havea better understanding

Managers must therefore ensure the perfect organization in all matters functioning of the relating to staff. That means recruitment and staffinglevels. In th4s appropriate staff also connection Berrymakes the point that represent a market to be conquered by the concerned(20). Peoplenow speak of 'internal organization must be attracted and marketing'(21). Competentstaff retained in thesame way as customers. sufficiently They must also be numerous to satisfyuser needs.

The structure ofthe organization a personalized service must also be flexibleenough to provide to its users. Forexample, criticism expressed in libraryscience concerning has often been public thetraditional dichotomy and technical services between inasmuch as it makesa responsible forcustomer service(22). single department

3.4.5 Price

The various questions concerning the price and information havegenerated a the economics of fair number ofpublications in whether in relationto more traditional recent years, information servicesor to information industry.Information operations the new obliged to rationalize in the publicsector have been their activities inresponse to strong social Some institutionshave even experienced pressure. cases, forced tham to draconian cuts whichhave, in some close(23). Theinformation industry an economic market ofmore than 4 billion already represents nearly one billion dollars in theUnited States and dollars in Europe(24).The ignoredin conceptof price cannotbe the marketing ofinformation. brings us directly Indeed,this element ofthe mix back to theprocess of exchange marketing approach: which is centralto the how much is thepublic willing what we have tooffer? to give in exchangefor

The concept of price as an elementof the marketing different types of mix covers two price: themonetary price, which certain sum by concerns the payment ofa the customer, andthe social corresponds to the price(25). Thesocial price additional effortwhich the customer obtain access toa product. For example, must make in orderto may be calculated the time spentwaiting for a product as an additionalcost by the product may alsorequire a certain consumer. The purchase ofa effort on the partof the customer, have to travel inperson to a particular who may also involve changes location. Theuse of a productmay in a customer'sattitudes and habits, a psychological resistance which could produce to the purchase ofthe product (as is case, for example, withdata banks). sometimes the

Managers must thereforetake account of their marketing this type of pricein formulating strategies, for itmay limit the use made products supplied. of the servicesor

i) PGI-88/WS/1 - page 53

They mustalsogivecarefulconsideration to their monetary toricing policy. Even in the public sector, charging for certain servtces is increasingly common(26). This trend, though, is sometimes challengedby those who consider that information is public property(27).Without entering this debate, we may say that some products supplied by publicbodies will remain free whereas charges will have to be imposed for other, mainlynew products.

There are three factorswhichmust be taken into account in the calculation of monetary prices: the size of the demand,analysis of the costs and the impact of the competition.

There must not only be a demand for each product but itmust also be supplied at a suitable price. At this stagemanagers must assess the share of the market that is likely to purchase the product andparticularly the price it will pay. Research on the target customersmust therefore be carried out to establish their paying capacity. If the price istoo low the product might not be economically viable, while if it is too high it coulddiscourage potential purchasers. In general,the price should strikea balance in accord with consumer expectations. This typeof assessmentis very tricky and,hence, important in information services to the extentthat it remains difficult to put a price on information.

The real value of the product can be ascertainedby means of a cost analysis. This is a complex stage in the marketingof services since it means fixing a price for all the operations involved. Thedirect costs (identifiable for each service or activity as such) and the indirector hidden costs must all betaken into account.The latter category includes administration, maintenance, heating and other costs, whichmust be apportioned over the sales as a whole. Some people also speak of fixed costs and variablecosts. Fixed costs are those that must still be computed whena service is not provided - rent being an example. Variable costs dependon the quantity of services or products sold, for example, telecommunicationcosts for data banks.

Lastly, it is important when fixing pricesto identify the competition as customers usually make a comparision beforedecidingto buy. Prices must therefore be competitive.

Once these factors have been taken intoaccount managers may proceed to set the actual prices, which may be reduced, for example,for customers in off-peak periods. An appeal may also be madeto customer psychology- for example, by pricing a serviceatUS $4.95 insteadof US $5.00. Finally, methods of payment should be madeas flexible as possible so as not to inhibit sales, e.g. by offering customers credit facilities.

3.4.6 Suggested reading

Kotler, P., Marketing for non-profit organizations,Englewood Cliffs (N.J.), Prentice-Hall, 2nd ed., 1982. Section IV: Planningthe marketing mix.

Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C.B., Marketing for public and non-profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984. Part 4: The marketing mix.

Smith, B., 'Marketingstrategies forlibraries', Library Management. V.4, 1983. 'The product', pp. 29-38; 'Distribution',pp. 39-42. PGI-88/WS/1- page 54

3.4.7 Evaluation exercise

In order to help students acquirea better understadning of constituent elementsof supply, the various they may be askedto discuss the following question in groups andthen to share their conclusions with the entireclass: 1. How is the product of a public library (orany other information service) geared toa rural context?

2. At what pointare the following information products situated in the life cycle of theproduct?

Encyclopedias Paperbacks Thesauri Punched cards Data banks Software library Video cassettes CD ROM Dictionaries Card catalogues The selective disseminationof information

(Other productsmay be added)

3. What new products couldbe developed by to the participants? an information service known

4. What is the role of information brokers in the information distribution? process of

5. What shouldbe the standardprofile for front desk information services? staff in

6. What scale of charges wouldencourage the use of data banks large university library? in a

These questionsmay also be used inexaminations or as assigrunents for thestudents. individual PGI-88/WS/1 - page 55

Notes on Module 4

1. Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C.B., MarketinR for public and non-Profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984, p. 282.

2. Chirouze, Y., Le marketing de l'etude de marche au lancement d'unProduit nouveau, Paris, Chotard, 1985, p. 115.

3. Levitt, T., 'Marketing myopia', Direction, No. 150, May 1968,pp. 546-573.

4. Kotler, P.,Marketingfor non-profitorganizations, EnglewoodCliffs (N.J.), Prentice-Hall, 1982, p. 291.

5. Smith, B.,'Marketing strategies for libraries', Library management, V.4, 1983, pp. 30-31.

6. Chirouze, op. cit., pp. 126-173; Kotler, op. cit., pp. 112-127; Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C.B., Marketing for publicand non-Profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984, pp. 306-317.

7. Thompson, M.S., 'New product analysis of corporate informationservices', Special Libraries, V.77, 1986, pp. 90-95.

8. Perrien, J., et al., Rechercheen marketinsu_ methodeset decisions, Chicoutimi, Gaetan Morin, 1983.

9. Lovelock and Weinberg, op. cit.,p. 321.

10. Palmer, E.S., 'The effect of distance on public libraryuse: a literature survey', Library Research, V. 3, 1981, pp. 315-354.

11. Arnold, S.E., 'End-users: dreams or dollars', Online, V.11, 1987, pp. 71-81.

12. Lovelock and Weinberg, op. cit., p. 336.

13. Freeman, J.K., and O'Connel, K.A., 'The marketing of biomedical information service at the University ofMinnesota: creative error correction', in Woods, S., Cost analysis, costrecovery, marketing, and fee-based services, New York, Haworth Press, 1985,p. 168.

14. Houyoux, P., et al., Telecommunication:tele-reference: rapport d'une experience de consultation documentairepar satellite, Trois-eivieres, Universite du Quebec i Trois-Rivieres, 1977.

15. Lovelock and Weinberg, op.cit., p. 404 ss.;Darmon, R.Y. et al., kg marketing: fondements et applications, Montreal, McGraw-Hill, 1982, p. 326; Lambin, J.-J., Le marketinR strateRioue,Paris,McGraw-Fill, 1986, p. 291.

16. Berry, L., BiR ideas in services markgting, Duplicatedtext of a lecture delivered at Montreal on 16 April 1986 asone of the Lectures of the John Labatt Chair of Marketing of the Universite du Quebec i Montreal.

. Flipo, J.-P., Le management des entreprises de services, Paris,Editions d'organisation, 1984, pp. 89-90.

18. Hobson, C.J., et al.,'Circulation/reserve desk personnel effectiveness', Journal of Academic Librarianship, V.13, 1987,pp. 93-98. PGI-88/WS/1- page 56

19. Barnes, M., 'Staff/user interaction in public libraries; a non-participation observationstudy', in Information and of Librarianship, Leeds society, School Polytechnic, 1981,pp. 61-88.

20. Berry, op. cit.,pp. 3-4.

21. Leviennois,M., Marketinginterne et management des hommmes, Pa-is. Editions d'organisation,1987.

22. Boivin, R., etCaron, G., 'Le bibliothecaire,la bibliothequeet le changement', Argus, V.9,1980, pp. 53-56.

23. Savard, R., 'Bibliotheques a vendre', Argus, V.9, 1980, pp. 93-95; Plaisance, G., et al., 'Le centre de documentation; supprimer ou maintenir?', Commerce,August 1984, pp. 51-52.

24. Chaumier, J., Svstemesd'information. Marcheet technoloRies. Paris, Entreprise moderne d'édition,1986, p. 47.

25. Lovelock and Weinberg,op. cit., p. 349.

26. See on this subjectthe special issue of No. 4, 1983. Drexel Library Quarterly,V.19,

27. Beard, J.C., 'Service non compris.Le problemedupaiement dans les bibliothequespubliques',Bulletin des 1986, pp. 514-519. bibliotheoues de France,V.31, PGI-88/WS/1 - page 57

3.5 MODULE 5: The marketinx mix- communication strateRies

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:

Tointroducestudentsto marketing communication in thecontext of information services.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, the student shouldbe in a position to:

1. understand the natuie of marketing communication;

2. know how advertising is planned;

3. understand the importance of public relations as a tool of marketing communication;

4. understand theimpnrtance of promotional activities as a tool of marketing communication.

3.5.1 What is marketing communication?

Once an organization has identified the needs of the market and what it can supply,it might be thought that success would follow automatically. But the marketmust be informedofthe fact that theproductorservice is available. That is where marketing communication comes in.

Marketing communication is a series of techniques, often referred toas the communication mix, which make it possible 'to maintain systematic contact withmarket'(1) and thus to inform it abouttheproductsandservices available. As Lovelock and Weinberg(2) point out, there is a certain amount of confusion regarding the ingredients in the communication mix:some writers restrict marketing communication to advertising plus the sales force (whichwe have included in the staff mix). As the above definition suggests, however, managers have a much vider range of techniques for reaching their various sets of customers.

Butdespite theseoccasional differences of opinion,there exists a degreeofconsensusthat enables us to identify the components of the communication mix as advertising, public relations and promotional activities.

There is no problem in relation to advertising, which is undoubtedly the most visible component of maiketing communication.It may be defined as the entire range of techniques for direct communication with the market.

The term public relations covers the entire range of techniques for indirect communicationwith the market, as we shall see below. Public relations is particularly important for non-profit organizationsas it enables them to acquire a sort of free advertising.

The third component of marketing communication that we shall consider is what marketing specialists refer to as promotional activities. Darmon defines them as communication activities that do not fall into either of the other two categories(3).They are 'special activitiesorganized in supportof the advertising effort and the sales force'(4). In the business world thismeans , free gifts, free samples, etc.in the information field these

C'r PGI-88/WS/1- page 58

techniques can beapplied without modification or theycan be adapted to the context of non-profitorganizations: in libraries for example, theorganization of events may be considered asatype encourages library use. of promotional activityas it

The basic principle in marketingcommunication is the communication process:it involves same asin any a sender, a message anda receiver.

Figure 3,14: Ditgram of marketing communication

Figure 3.14 showsclearly how this important it is process works.It also showshav for the fields ofexperience of the overlap if the sender and thereceiver to message is to reach itstarget.

This ahared fieldof experience is It means that essential in marketingcommunication. an organization whichis trying to must be on thesame level or wavelength communicate with itsmarket understood. In as the market if itwishes to be the fieldof information professional this means that it must jargonaside anduse words which set example, 'journal' everyone understands: for or 'magazine' ratherthan 'periodical'.

It also means thatit is essential to understand customers' habits in orderto communicate motives and properly with them.For example, the tastes andlifestyle of young a knowledge of people is essentialfor good relations them. Market studiesprovide much useful with information in thisconnection. 3.5.2 The planning ofadvertisinR

As we see inour everyday lives, tool. But it requires advertising isan extremely powerful careful planning in order to achieveits objectives. Broadly speaking thereare four stages in the of advertising: planning of anyeffective piece

1. the setting of theobjectives;

2. the determination of the availablebudget;

3. the creation of themessage as such;

4. and the selection of the mediumor media. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 59

The manager must first have a very clear idea of why he wishes to make use of advertising: he must set the obiectives. The first task is to identify the principal customer for the product or service to be advertised. This will usually have been done at a previous stage in the context of the marketing plan (see Module 6). The basic rule which must be remembered is that it is impossible tosatisfy everyone with the same product, hence theneed for different messages addressed to each segment.

The next stage is to decide on the type of response which it is hopedto elicit fromthe public. This involvesstudying the purchase behaviour of customers. The phenomenon is a relatively complex one but the process may be said to involve just three stages: the cognitive stage, the affectivestage and theconative stage. People generally pass through the first two st.ages before acting:i.e. they must firstof all beinformed of the product's existence (cognitive stage),then be predisposedto buy the product or be drawn to it (affective stage). Experts generallyagreethat onecan not simultaneously set one's sights onall three objectives: publicizing a product, making consumers like it and getting them to buy it./t is essential to know which stage the potential purchaser has reached and then get him to move on to the following stage.

According to Chirouze, advertising objectives must havea quantifiable component so that some kind of check can subsequently be carried outon the achievement or non-achievement of the objectives(5). In setting his objective, the sensible manager will not forget to include two components: the proportion of the market to be reached and the time allowed for the purpose.

An advertising objective therefore has three components: the identification of the target, the required stimulus (to publicisea product or get consumers to like or buy it) and an exercise in quantification.

For example, the purpose of a piece of advertising might be to increase non-users' knowledge about a library by 50 per cent. Exampleone in Annex IV could have been designed for that purpose: it concernsa public library that persuaded a supermarket to distribute paper bags on which the library's slogan 'so much so close' was printedfree ofcharge. Thesebags, whichwere distribi.Led inlarge numbers,made many non-users aware of the library's existence.

Example two in Annex IV could also illustrate this type of objective. It involves a leafletdesignedbya Quebecois on-line host organization and appears to be addressed to managers. Its aim could be to familiarize at least 30 per cent of the managers in a specific region with the services of the firm concerned.

Examples seven and eight have an affective purpose and are intPnded for quite specific groups of customers. The firstis aimed at young people who like cartoons and science-fietion characters. It was designed by the American Library Association, which obtained free of charge therightto use the character concerned in order to promotethe use of documentary sources by young people. The colour drawing was reproduced as a poster and a bookmark.

The other example(8) isa poetic evaluation of the benefits of reading on the cover of a small leaflet prepared by an American public library for its users.

Exemples 13 and 14 are clearly more concerned with inducing peopleto act. The first is intended for young children and issues a (Erect invitation to them to come to the library. It forms the cover page of a small colour leaflet containing a cartoon story about children who discovera friendly and entertaining public library. PGI-88/WS/1- page 60

The other example(14)- directed at those interested technical information- is an announcement that in scientificand and which includes appeared in variousjournals a reply coupon invitingpeople to respond. Once the objectives have been fixedthe next task is budaet to be allocatedto them. Various methods to determine the which are based are available, thesimplest of on managers"instinct'.In the information generally the amountof money available. field the basis is based on the Other more sophisticatedmethods are relationship between sales advertising(6). forecasts and theimpactofthe

The next stage is the creation ofthe advertising is the 'creative'stage in advertising, message as such. This phases. It is which is itselfdivided into three necessary firstly to selectthe concept behind the content and,lastly, the format. the message, then

Selecting the conceptmeans finding the can most easily be approach through whichpeople reached. Theconcept adopted is closest in cultural generally the one thatis terms to the targetpublic. The possible for example, seriousor humourous tone, the options include, use or non-use oftestimonials and demonstrations (orevidence),an emotive or detached fantasy, etc. approach, realism or

This is a trickystage. The selection that may occur when of the wrongconcept is something people try to betoo original and it shocks a sectionof the target public. can prove disastrous if

An interestingexample that clearly Annex IV at 20(a). illustrates this ideais provided in A large universitylibrary that wished vandalism decidedto tackle the subject to campaign against The campaign directly and witha dash of humour. was much more effectivethan a 'repressive' been as that would approach would have have further antagonizedthe customers opposite of the desiredeffect. and produced the

A concept that appears to be much inuse in the field of may be seen from certainexamples in Annex information,as advertising by IV (No.18, in particular), means of evidenceor testimonials. is

Once the concepthas been selected the next stepis to decide actual content ofthe message. The on the for both printed words to be usedmust be carefully and audio-visualforms of advertising. chosen and Kirkpatrickan effort should be According to Tillman made to answertwo basic questions will be asked bythe target public: which

What can you andyour product offer me?

What advantages can I personally derivefrom this purchase?(7). Example 3 in Annex IV answers thesetwo questions both the text andthe image. rather well through

The next task ir to determine thr. format of the advertising it is a printedadvertisement it will message. If be necessaryto decide on the typography, illustrations,colour etc. In the graphics, it will be case of an audio-visualmessage necessary to decideon the pace, the decor, these factors the actors, etc.All of taken togethercan assist or impede message. E-1mp1es 6 and the communicationof the 19 are quite successfulin this respect. As Ch quze indicates there isno real theory describing effective m ges but certain the creation of semiological approaches some basic pr .pltts8). can help to identify C PGI-88/WS/1 - page 61

During the creative stage experts can sometimes be ofassistance to the librarians, documentalists and archivists responsible for theproject. Thus a graphic artist may be brought in on printed advertisementsand an actor or technical director employed for sound or visual recordings.

The fourth and last stage in the planning ofan advertisirg campaign involves the selectionofthe medium or media mostappropriate for the message, taking account of both the target public and theresources of the service concerned.

Managers have several options. The cheapest way of advertisinga product is to do it in person, visiting possibleusers: thus a documentalist may visit the various services in the institution where he works inorder to publicize the services offered by his documentation centre.

Another relatively economic approach that is widely used involvesthe printing of leaflets or booklets. Several examples of thistype of advertising are provided in Annex IV (2, 4, 8, 9 and 13). Distributioncan take place in various ways dependingonthetarget public andthe context(on-the-spot distribution, postal delivery, door-to-door, etc.) However, large-scale distribution is much more expensi:e. The greatest disadvantageof leaflets and booklets is undoubtedly the fact that they sometimesencounter a certain level of public saturation. Graphics should therefore beeye-catching in order for this type of advertising to be effective.

Badges, 11/okmarks and other similar activities (example 20 inthe annex) are also quite cheap and usually produced good results. However,these media are fairly unsophisticated and are not compatible with aimingat a wide range of advertising objectives and target publics(9).Posters, however, which are akin to these media, can reach specific target publicsmore easily as itis possible to select the points at which theyare displayed. This appears to be a very popular medium, particularly in North America (examples 10 and 12).

Advertising in newspapersand journals is often expensive but some information services have managed to negotiate cheaprates or even obtain free space because of their status as non-profit organizations. The advertisements mustbequite large, however, ifthey are not to go unnoticed:a small advertisement will not necessarily be seen by thetarget public, these media being addressed to all kinds of publics. Specialist journalscan target more effectively but the period between the submission of an item and its publication may be as much as eight to ten weeks, whichmeans that this is a less flexible medium from the point of view of advertisingplanning.

Radio andtelevision are mediato whichit is difficult to achieve access (high production costs,particularly in the case of television) but they can reach a very wide public. Organizations operatingin the field of mass information have already had recourse to these media, makinguse once again of their non-profit status.In North America several public libraries adv..rtise on local radioand television, using advertisements designedand produced at nationallevel by professionalassociations(American Library Association, Corpo ation des bibliothecaires professionalesdu Quebec). The difficulty with t...se media often has to do with the limitedamount of time available (usually 30 seconds) for the transmission of themessage.

Once the medium has been selected there is alsoa choice of carriers to be made and a timetable to be established. Each medium hasa certain number of carriers (the individual newspapers and journals, the varioustelevision and radio stations, etc.). Managers must decide which carriers willenable them to reach their target pu'' most effectively. Lastly, it isnecessary to decide, according to the results envisaged ant: the media selected, the frequency of the messages and the times at which they will be transmitted. 6 PGI-88/WS/1- page 62

3.5.3 Public, relations

As we have already pointed out at thebeginning of this relations are concernedwith indirect module, public and its various communications betweenan organization publics, unlikeadvertising which This means that adopts a directapproach. public relations isa continuous process activity like and not a sporadic advertising. Lovelock and Weinberg also state that difference betweenadvertisingand public relations the as ingredientsin the communication mix isthe levelof control which content of managersexert overthe the messages transmittedby these two message is determined channels: theadvertising directly by theorganization, whereas publicrelationsthe manager in the case of 'prepares theground' for (organizing events,press communiques, the communication etc.) butthefinal message is beyond hiscontrol(10). content of the

The aim of public relations is to beunderstood by the market manipulate it assome people might think. and not to it is easier The basic principleis very simple: to persuade the publicto use the services that createsa favourable impression. of an organization

Organizations will therefore polish their image knowledge that thepublic is not constantly, inthe indifferent to theoutward presentation any service. The wordpublic must be of context. It includes understood in avery broad sense in this not only theusers or the immediate press and media as well public but alsothe as administrative and case of non-profit political authorities.In_the organizations, potential patrons and important publicrelations target. donors are an

Good relations with users, then, are clearlyof the utmost retaining custom.Staff should therefore importance in be made awareof this point, have seen in theprevious module. as we

In its ccmmunication withusers and the organization must outside environment the ensure that the imagewhich it projects professionalism and is alwaysone of efficiency. Thus, severallibraries have own logotype foruse on their notepaper. designed their This is away of projecting image of the organizationto the outside world, a brand as shown in figure3.15. Good relations withthe pressare also very wishing to importantfor managers ensure the 'visibility'of their organization. journalists is Making contact with often easier thanone thinks. maintained by holding Such contactsmustalso be briefings at varyingintervals. An important event in the lifeof an information acquisition of a major service, suchas the collection or theannouncement of the new building, provides construction ofa an opportunity fora press conference. requires a great deal However, this of organizationand the event must to attract journalists. be importantenough

Press releasesshould be used to those organized in announce less importantevents such as public libraries.They should be drafted style. A good communiquehas a heading in a clear plain indicating clearly thatit is, in fact, a communique and statingits origin; the at the outset as briefly subject should beclearly identified as possible; the first paragraph should essentials and thetelephone number and keep to name of the personto contact further informationshould te provided. for PGI-88/WS/1 - page 63

Figure 3.15; Examples of notepaper headings with logotypes

PLAINS AND PEAKS REGIONAL LIBRARY SYSTEM

Bibilotheque Muncipaie de Vdleurbanne BROADMARKET SQUARE. SUITE D 2D. 1755 SOUTH Elth STREET coLonAco SPRINGS. COLORADO 00906 (303) 473-3417. 14300-332-7181 (TOLL FREE)

CENTRE DE

DOCUMENTATION 11010111. MISSISSIPPI ElCommerce extérieur Québec LIBRARY 770, rue Sherbrooke Quest COMMISSION Place Mercantile, 7 etage P.O. BOX 3280 /JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI 30207 Montréal, (Québec) H3A 1G1 (514) 873-5072

1.6%.

1111111./INE IC?S) South Central Library System

201 Wes: Main Skeet Modison, Wisconsin 53703 PGI-88/WS/1- page 64

In the public domain, greatcare is also with the necessary in handlingrelations administrative andpolitical authorities service may often on whom theinformation depend for itsvery existence. These always have the bestpossible image of authorities should an information the service. Aswe have already said, organization is a system independently, is subject which, far from operating to major influencesin its environment.

Those concernedshould not hesitate and to meet them to communicate withdecision-makers as often as possibleto let them know the institutionsor improvements in about developmentsin organized its services.Small receptions in connectionwith specific may be publication, however events such as thelaunching of modest, makingsure to invite all a political authorities. ,he administrativeand

The same degree of attention shouldalso be paid managers of other to relations withthe departments on which the communications between service depends. Good managers in the sameinstitution are always particularly whenthe time comes beneficial, to apportiona joint budget. Managers in non-profit information servicescan raise outside supplement regularfnnding sources. funds to common form of public Fund-raising campaigrsare an increasingly relations.Inthepast, operated with lowbudgets or inadequate information servicesoften them head funds and the on sothattheir managers economic crisisstruck are now obliged to contributions. This istrue in both the seek voluntary developing and thedeveloped countries. Most writers on the marketingof non-profit least a chapterto this type of organizations devoteat Several public public relationsand give many organizationsnow organize fund-raising examples(11). Public librarieshave set up activities each year: at $100 a head, lotteries. Archivecentres have organized with the profitsgoing to process meals libraries have organized a new collection.School reaching marathonswhereby the sponsored and theprofits go to the young participantsare sold off books institution. Universitylibraries have withdrawn from theircollections. The given a free reinin thisarea. imagination shouldbe

Some people even put a great dealof effort into individuals in theircompany to make bequests. persuading influential

Others get large companies to providefinance for such as theacquisition of manuscript specific activities, collections, the emblem on sweaters printing of thelibrary or the purchase ofcomputer equipment. even individuals are Some companies quite willing to and organizations make donations to - providing, of course,that the recipients non-profit by publicizingthe origin of show theirgratitude such donations.One should making proposals to not be diffidentabout individuals likely to respond approaches. favourably to such

Volunteers constitute another resourcewhich is available organizations. It may often to aon-profit prove very useful to non-speciali,:ed tasks.They can also be recruit them for management, in which asked to siton advisory boards case it is a goodidea to select of the community influential members who can convincetheir fellows of concerned. to make donationsto the service

Information servicesmay also seek donations in libraries have beenleft buildings kind. Some public down by business or premises- often branch offices organizations. Research closed equipment centres have been fortheir documentation given computer centres, andworks of art presented to universitylibraries. havebeen PGI-88/WS/1 - page 65

Public organi7ations will probably draw increasingly on external resources in the future and these techniques should also beadopted by the managers of information services.

3.5.4 Promotional activities

Promotional activities may also assume severalforms. Pierre Levasseur defines them as follows: 'The purpose of promotionalactivities, which provide backing for the advertising campaign and thework of the sales force, is to stimulate the sales of goods or services byvarious meansother than advertising or direct sales but drawingon both'(12).

Chirouze divides promotional activities directedat customers into three categories: price pr6motions,games promotions and goods promotions(13).

Price promotions are simply a matter of offeringcustomers lower prices for a fixed period or on specified conditions. Thusa data-base services company or information broker may launch a promotion involving price reductions for a limited period to those wishingto interrogate certain data banks. This type of operation generally stimulatesfuture use of the product and the lost income is recovered by the subsequentgrowth in the volume of sales.

Games promotions encourage the useof specific services by means of competitions or lotteries, forexample. This approach has been used quite often in public libraries: prizes for the 100,000thcustomer, prize lotteries for members, assorted competitions, etc.

The types of goods promotion highlighted by Chirouze are the distribution of samples and the inclusion offree gifts with every purchase. These techniques have been employed less frequently inthe information field although they appear to have a considerable potential, particularly in relation to data banks.

In the information field promotional activitiescan Oso take the form oforganizedevents, which areparticularly common in public and school libraries, orofdocumentation trainingfor users. Like other promotional activities they encourage the use of services bymeans other than advertising. Moreover, this typeof activity enablesinformationservices strongly to underline their distributive function, anticipatingthe customers' wishes in keeping with the idca of marketing.

Winiques for the organization of events in librariesare now quite well kni4On. Their forms vary enormously. Lectures,particularly lectures on books and reading, have always beenvery popular. Workshops are a sort of practical counterpart, during which those takingpart are introduced to such activitiesaspottery or draAng. Exhibitions are alsovery common.Some libracies organize film and video shows. Children'sstorytime and puppet shows are very common activities in public libraries throughout the world.

In some cases, libraries now offer continuing trainingto adults on such varied subjects as'investing in the stock exchange' or 'getting over your divorce'. Lecturers, who are sometimes unpaid,give courses on the collections in the library.

Many iLstitutions are now beginning to provide informationtraining for users. Documentation centres and university librariesappear to have already adopted this method of promotion, which has provedto be a powerful means of reaching the market. Customers are too oftenunaware of the treasures stored

7i' PGI-88/WS/1- page 66

in libraries, documentation centresand archives and the time which may be saved amount of valuable by cbnsultingan information specialist. thus highlights the User training facilities availableto the public. In institutions it is actually some educational a compulsory subject forthe students. As with the organization of events, the holdingof thia type of boosts the use otservices and increases activity and its staff. the visibility ofthe organization

Managers thushave a wide range of marketing communication tools available for use. Theymust therefore combine most effective these various techniquesin the manner possible, a blendwhich is often communication strategy. referredto as the

3.5.5 Suggested reading

Lovelock, C.H., andWeinberg, C.B.,Marketing managers, for public andnon-profit New York, Wiley, 1984. Chapter 14: The nature andmethodsof marketing communication, Chapter15: Attracting resources: Communication strategies,Chapter 17: funds, volunteers,and gifts-in-kind. Kotler, P., Marketing for non-profitorganizations, Englewood Prentice-Hall,2nd ed., Cliffs (N.J..), 1982.Chapter 16:Advertising and sales decisions,Chapter 17:Public relations promotion decisions, Chapter 18: Recruitment marketing: attractingpeople, Chapter 19: Donor marketing:attracting funds. Adams, M., and Morris, J.M.,Teaching library skills Phoenix (Ar.), OryxPress, 1985. for academic credit,

Kohn, R., and Tepper,R., You can do it. A PR skills manualfor librarians, Metuchen (N.J.), ScarecrowPress, 1981.

Leeburger, B.A., Marketing the Library, WhitePlains (N.Y.), Industry Publications,1982. Knowledge

Rummel, K.K., and Perica, E., (ed.), Persuasive libraries, Chicago, public relations for American Library Association,1983. Tod, M., 'The law of slowlearning: marketing Public Library Quarterly, at the Dallas publiclibrary', V.4, 1983, No. 2,pp.29-38. ALA graphics catalog, Chicago, American LibraryAssociation, annual. Un livre pour ous (video 3 min.), Montreal, Corporationdes bibliothecaires professionnels du Quebec,1983.

Take time to read (video30 sec.), Chicago, American LibraryAssociation, 1987. 3.5.6Evaluation exercise

In order to apply thelessons of Module 5, be asked to design groups of 4 to 5 studentsmay marketing communicationtoolsfor services: posters, existing information logotypes, advertising scenarios, students should be releases, etc. The allowed several weeksto complete this task and should thenreturn to the classroom (if possible) to present and discussthei, efforts. Discussiors may also be organized on the content of specific advertisements in theinformation field, using the examples inAnnex IV.

7,; PGI-88/WS/1 - page 67

Notes on Module 5

1. Vanetti, M.,La communication-marketing dans les petiteset moyennes entreprises. Geneva, Institut suisse pour la formation des chefs d'entreprises, 1984, p.19.

2. Lovelock,C.H. and Weinberg,C.B., Marketing for non-profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984, p.378.

3. Darmon, R.Y., Le marketing, Fondements et applications. Montreal, McGraw-Hill, 1982, p.327.

4. Pettigrew, D. and Turgeon, N.,Lesfondements du marketing moderne, Montreal, McGraw-Hill, 1985, p,227.

5. Chirouze, Y., Le marketing. Le choix des movens de l'action commerciale, Paris, Chotard, 1986, pp.118-119.

6. Ibid. pp.119-122; Darmon et al., op cit., pp.346-348.

7. Tillman, R. and Kirkpatrick, C.A., Promotion: communication en marketing, Montreal, Presses de l'Université du Québec, 1975, p.189.

8. See in this connection: Tillman, R. and Kirkpatrick, op. cit., pp.193-215; Joannis, H., Le processus de creation publicitaire,Paris,, Dunod, 1979.

9. Chirouze, op. cit., p.134.

10. Lovelock and Weinberg, op. cit., pp.396-400.

11. Lovelock and Weinberg, op. cit., Chapter 17,pp.494-530;Kotler, P., Marketing for non=profit organizations, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1982, Chapter 19, pp.422-447.

12. Levasseur, P., Comprendre le marketing, Montreal, Editions de l'homme, 1986, pp.156.

13. Chirouze, op. cit., pp.143-144. PGI-88/WS/1- page 68

3.6 MODULE 6: Marketing strategyand planning

GENERAL OBJECTIVE:

To understand the relationshipbetween planning and strategy inmarketing.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module thestudent should be in a positionto: 1. understand how marketingfits intothe services; planning of information

2. define marketsegmentation;

3. define the concept of the targetpublic; 4. identify the components of themarketing plan. 3.6.1 Strategicplanning

Marketing is a planning tool andit is therefore its contribution important to understand to this vitalmanagement function.

One of the basicprinciples of satisfy marketing is thatitis everyone with thesame product or impossible to evaluate a number service. Managersmust therefore of productsor services and select most appropriateto attain the the mean(s) theyconsider needs. That is why objectives establishedon the basis of marketing peoplespeak of strategy market decision-making and in connection selection processin which with the their organization managers mustengage to make as effective aspossible. Kotler explains that the termhas been borrowed and provides the from military following definitionof strategy: vocabulary selection of 'marketing strategy a (s),the choice of is the developmentof a competitive position, an effective marketingmix to and the customers'(1). It is reach andserve the chosen therefore aprocess which will provide planning of the the basis forthe organization's servicesand products, ingredients whichplay a key role involving quitespecific public, in marketing:theconcept the selection of an of a target advantageous position in competition, or theselection of relation to the the ingredients a 'niche', anda satisfactory of the marketingmix. definition of The first stage of thestrategy is market the division of segmentation. Thatis to say, the market intomore homogenous possible to pinpoint sections within target publics. A which it is of the targets particular mix isthen adopted for identified in orderto build up the each strategy, which will organization's marketing be set out in itsmarketing plan.

3.6.2 Marketsegmentation As we have already said, it isdifficult, if not everyone with thesame product. In order impossible, to satisfy strategy employs the to overcome thisobstacle marketing technique of marketsegmentation. This involves dividing the market intosections which because theyare more homogeneous. are easier to reach A mix can thenbe selected which more effectively to theirneeds. caters

7tJ PGI-88/WS/1 - page 69

The divisionorsegmentationof the market may be based on various criteria, the commonest of whichare undoubtedly sociological, such as age or sex. For example, it is a recognized fact that women do not use public libraries for the same reasons as men. There is alsoa difference of this kind betweeh older and younger users. Therefore publiclibraries will often have recourse to sociological segmentation with a view to the strategic exploitation of different products for each of those segments: e.g. action-packed novels for men,and literature with a greaterpsychological contentfor women;easy-to-read booksfor the very young, and a reference collection for adults.

At university level segmentation tends tobe based ^n the educational level of users: lecturers, Ph.D. students, M.A. studentsand undergiaduates. In this case, too, specificlibraryproductswillbe proposed for each segment: access to data bases, research collections, collectionsof journals, reference works.

Specialist and archive services may segment the m-rketaccording to the typical behaviour of their customers: dailycustomers, telephone customers, occasional customers, non-customers, etc. Different servicesmay be offered or drawn to the attention of each of thesegroups: the selective dissemination of information, access to the documentation centre's automaticcatalogue through their own terminals, accession lists, press-cutting service,etc.

National and international organizations suchas data-bank on-line hosts may adopt a geographic basis for segmentation. Through thecomponents of the mix, it willthen be possible to establish for each region of thecountry strategies that are moreeffective becausemore closely attuned to its specific geographic features.

Theseexamplesareverysimple butmarketsegmentation maybe more sophisticated, incorporating psychological criteria or a combination of criteria. .

The segmentation technique will help to identify the needsof different sets of customers more clearly and to reach themmore easily by personalizing, as it were, the relationship with the market.

3.6.3 The target public

For reasons of efficiency managers may choose to disregardone or several segments of their market. They will then concentrate theirstrategy on one or several segments which we shall call target publics.

A target public may be selected because it offers certain advantagesto the organization - being easier to reach, for example,as it consistsof people who have always used the service concerned (womenat home in the case of public libraries, research staff in the case of the documentationcentre of a major industry, or top pupils in the case of school libraries).

A target public may also have other advantages for the organization.A case in point would be the heads of large administrations, whose decisions affectlarge numbers of people,and also leaders of opinion who influence broad sections of the public. Mention may likewise be made ofLown councillors and other officials in the case of public libraries, vice-chairmen and senior management within business firms, and teachers in educational establishments. Once asmall group ofinfluentialindividuals has been reached it becomes easier to convince other potential customers of the importance of the information service as they tend to model their behaviouron that of their superiors. Such influential people may also be able to defend the service when the time comes. 76 PGI-88/WS/1- page 70

Priority may thereforebe given to given period one or several targetpublics for a even if attention is turned to the other segments Nevertheless,it is noeasy matter, later. in a public servicecontext, to neglect groups of customers thatone is supposed to terms of reference serve under the oftenvery broad assigned to informationservices. But taken to limit thenumber ot targets a decision must be as it is difficultto provide an adequate service for the entirepopulation.

3.6.4 The marketingplan

There arethree typesof organizations specialists: accordingto certain marketing 'those whichinstigate events, happening and those those which look at what is which wonder whathas happened'(2). the firstand The differencebetween the other twocategories may organization concerned depend on whetheror not the has a good marketingplan. The marketing plan sets out the organization'sstrategicchoices on paper, justifying themand explaininghow achieved. its marketing goalsare to be

Marketing plansmay cover periods of increasingly adopting varying length.Organizations are plans spreadover several years in frequency of the view of the scaleand changes currentlyconvulsing society, area of technology.A marketing plan particularly in the financial year. must cover a minimumperiodof one

The role of the plan is, ofcourse, to guide the staff the market. Itensures good communications in its approachto specifying exactly between all thoseinvolved by what is to be donein each sector in theprocess, of the organizationand, informs each andeveryone of the organization is moving. direction in which the

It also hasan important role to whether the organization's play when the timecomes to assess marketing objectives can then guide have been reachedor not. It managersin the draftingof the next plan. difficult than takingstock of a situation Nothing ismore was never accurately in which the taskto be completed defined in the firstplace.

An organizationmay have several plans, including a planfor its general development which willprobably stretch over a longerperiod marketing plan. Thedifference needs to than the be underlinedfor the goals of marketing planare concerned with the the market or marketsto be supplied and organization's relationshipwith those markets. the aspects of the organization, The general plancovers all including purely internalmatters. An organization may also have severalmarketing plans depending size. A managermay decide to adopt on its of product or service a marketing plan foreach majorcategory supplied. Thusa major archive service plan for regularlyconsulted documents may formulate one seldom or never consulted. and another fordocuments whichare

The marketing plan shouldtherefore be considered It may sometimes as a genuine work tool. prove extremely usefuleven before it comes into by providingsupport for managers' force, e.g. financial submissionsto their superiors. There are severalways of formulating a marketing plan. But,essentially, it involves answeringthe following questions: Where do we wish to 'What stage havewe reached? go? How can we getthere?'. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 71

The first part of a marketingplan is always an analysis of the situativa, during which thefirst question mustbe anSwered.Managers too often tendto dodgethisstage despite the fact that the veryrootsof marketing, liein ch an analysis:the strategies and all the act'ons that follow depend on this analysis. Itis therefore essential to ensure that the first stage is properly conduted.

The Information necessary for the analysis of the situation is provided by marketing research, which attempts to takestock ofthe marketand the environment, registering needs and significant factors, and also to review the situation of the organization,recording its strengths and weaknesses. This research is therefore divided into two parts:the external analysis and the internal analysis.

Figure 3.16: The marketing plan in outline

1. Outline uf the plan

2. Analysis of the situation:

- external analysis (market and environment) internal analysis (organization)

3. Strategic phase:

mission goals

4. Formulation of tactics

5. Budget

6. Monitoring procedures

The external analysisinvolves describing the environment outside the organization and determining the characteristics and needs of the marketas reflected in the marketing research findings. The external environment will be described in terms of the factors with a potential role in strategy formulation: the economic, socio-cultural, political, legal, technological and legal situation and the state of the competition.

Analysis of the economic situation will establish the prevailing economic conditions, such as the average income of customers.

Analysis of the socio-cultural situation willprovide anevaluation of the tastes, habitsand attitudes of the target market perhaps,even, the current fashion so as to prepare the ground for effective strategies.

The political situation may also influence strategies: itis necessary to identify trends as well asthe opportunities thatarise, such as new State subsidy schemes.

On the legal front some laws - for example,laws on consumers'rights - will have animpact on possible strategies. This ,pectof the environment must also be borne in mind.

It is particularly important to evaluate the technological environment in the information field: the developments are very numerous and they can play an important part in strategies. PGI-88/WS/l- page 72

It is generallybelieved that information the services, particularly wlblie sector, do notneed those in to worryabout competition. misconception. Although their This is a products are different, television, forexample, are in bookshops and competition withlibraries as they same audience andattract those who might have the also exists at the otherwise use libraries. generic level- in this case, information Competition and leisure. The characteristics and needs of themarket will be basis of thesecondary data determined on the or a collection ofprimary data, the module onmarketing research. as explained in

The internal analysis is an examination and evaluation organization's operation.It involves first of the organization. As and foremosta description of the a marketing planmust be as short included will as possible, thefactors essentially be thoselikely to have action. Forexample, the equipment an impact on strategyand described together and premises currentlyavailable will be with theirgeographical location, profile of the the number andtraining staff, the state ofthe collection, hours and, ofcourse, the budget. The the length of theopening on circumstances: other informationto be supplied for example,a brief view of the depends might even be organization's history included ifit is believed taken into account to be a factor whichought to be in the definitionof strategies. It is also essential to providethe frankest possible organization'sperformance using the assessment of the should be kept internal operationalstatistics, which up to date by theinformation services: of users, number number of loans,number of requests forinformation, etc. This secondpart of the internal analysis will also number of publications draw on thelarge concerned with theassessment of information such as the Unescostudy by Lancaster(3). services, of performance Such works suggest whichcouldprovide various indices internal analysis particularly usefuldiagnoses for in the marketingplan. the

Once the analysishas been completed This involves we move on to thestrategic phase. two operations:a statement of the the selection ofits goals. organization's missionand

The organization'smission has been but it must be discussed elsewherein generalterms referred to in themarketing plan An organization's as strategies dependon it. mission is thejustification for its society, the existence, its rolein purpose for which itwas created. The perceived bymanagers will necessarily way in which its missionis affectthe example,if the mission strategies adopted. For of a publiclibrary is defined books, its strategies chiefly in termsof will focuson that medium. But define their rolemore in terms of public librari'smay also American libraries information in general,as several North have recently done.These are two different the same organization, which will missions for strategies. In the necessarily beexpressed by different first case theemphasis will be the variety of the placed on suchfactors as book collectionor on activities to second case certainproducts will be promote reading. Inthe offered, such asa telephone information service, data banks,alternative media (video cassettes, films, records,etc.). The organization's mission shouldtherefore be restated during which it WUoften be reformulated. at this stage,

The second task in the strategicphase is such in terms of to define the strategies as the goalsto be attained. In strategy or order to discoverthe best strategies it is usually necessary imagination plays to lookat several. The an important part inthis process, and it is involve the staff ingroup discussions. often useful to

I ,) PGI-88/WS/l - page 73

The first component in the strategy is usuallythe choice of target or targets among the segments identified during theexternal analysis. The next step is to formulate a marketing programme for eachtarget selected,i.e. to identify the various ingredients in the marketing mix that will suit the public in question.

For example, a university librarymay select the teaching community as a target and base the corresponding marketingprogramme on the promotion of the product 'data banks'. This choice could be justified by thenovelty of the product and the interest it mayconsequentlyarouse, combined with the research role of the teachers, who are in theory alwayson the lookout for new developments in their field. The marketingprogramme will include such other ingredients as an appropriate distributionstrategy possibly providing for a decentralized service inthe various university departments,the hiring of additional staff,a pricing policy including cheap rates forthefirst piece of research undertaken, and a communicationstrategy based on the distribution of a leaflet.

A public library could for its part decideto focus its strategy on old people if they happened to benumerous in the neighbourhood and could organize promotional activities adapted to their specific needs or build up a collection of wotks specifically catering to their information needs, e.g. large-format books or musical recordings suitedto their taste.

The formulation of strategiesmay prove to be a more complex matter in an archive service as conservation is sometimesconsidered to be a more important functionthandistribution in archivesadministration. However, like all subsidizLiorganizationsarchiveservices must also increase their public visibility if they wish to prosper in thefuture. They must therefore identify their public clearly at the analysisstage and they will then find it easier to determine their strategies. For example,one useful strategy for an archive service would be to make itself known to possiblepatronsusingpublic relations and advertising: the latter mightdonate their personal collections andeven makefinancialcontributions towards the purchase of an important collection.

The documentation centre in a large company maydecide to select a segment which already makes extensive use of its services,such as research department staff, in order toencourage still greater use. This could be done by settingup a service to disseminate selectively information gearedto particular interests.

On-line hosts and information brokers should alsodevelop strategies in the same way, selecting oneorseveralsegments likely to yield greater profits,such asthe businesscommunity.They shouldthen put together a programme for their target public: a ptoductaimedspecifically at it; distribution geared to its habits; a staff capable of speakingits language; a pricerange corresponding to its needs andresources; andan advertising campaign that attains its target.

Anorganization may, ofcourse, select several targets and several strategies forthe sametarget. Its financial resources willnaturally be decisiveinthechoice of bothtargets and strategies. If resnurcesare limited it isa good idea to select one target and adopt a modest marketing programme. It should beborne in mind that it is impossible to satisfy everybody inthe same way,hencethe different programmes for the targets select.ed.

19r PGI-88/WS/1 nage 74

Once the 1.:ategieshave been settled it into practice. That must be decided howputthem is the beginning ofthe tactical phase. easyto distinguish between It is not always strategy andtactics. defined in Whereas a strategy is terms of rather generalgoals (target and marketing tactics explain how programme) these goals are to bereached. Thus, public library mightbe to provide one strategy for a a better service ina specific district (target) by includingthe opening of a branch (distribution) in themarketing programme. The tacticalcomponent of the strategy would the siting of the involve decisionson branch and the planningof its construction. In the example given above concerning universityteachers and data banks, the communicationstrategy adopted involved leaflet. But what the preparation ofan advertising message should the leafletcarry and what form should take? These arequestions which will it be answered at thetactical level. The strategy for the distributionof the selected product service in order to was to decentralize the reach teachers in their departments. should this But how exactly operation e carried out? Thestrategy alsostipulated additional staff wouldhay: to be hired. that But what type of staff?Full-time or part-time? With whattraining? On what salary? pricing strategy Similarly with regardto the comprising reductionsfor the first retrievals would concern the made, tactics precise way the schemewas to operate.

The marketing planwould not be complete serious plan must without a budgetcomponent. A assess the cost of eachstrategy so that it evaluated. Thisexercise is particularly can be properly submitted for the important when theplan isto be approval of boards ofdirectors or supervisory As most informationservices tend to authorities. have slenderresources, the presentation must beclear and meticulous. financial

Budgeting should not be too difficult once the worked out in detail strategies havebeen during the tacticalphase. All that needs toput a figure on the tactical to be done is operations listed above.The more clearly co-ordinated the tactics,the easier it will sums rapidly and accurately. be to calculate allthe required

Also for the sakeof clarity it is advisable referred to as to include what isusually an executive summaryon the first page of the of summary sketches plan. This type the broad outlinesof the plan and overall shape from the provides an idea ofits outset. A table ofcontents will usually after the summary forthe same reason. be provided

Managers must alsoestablish monitoring the smooth operation procedures enablingthem to check of the marketing planboth during compleri . implementation andon

The si-rategies adopted may quite conceivably failto work as planned and it must be possibleto identify such situations plads could be as quickly as possible.Annual checked every monthto see whether or reached. not the targetsare being

To this end, numerical targetswill be set strategies. These in the case of most targets may be an integralpart of the plan. A then be carriedout simply by comparing check may with the corresponding the statistics forthe relevant period targets. Tools suchas PERT (Programme Evaluation Review Technique)may and beemployed to produce diagrams activities, thus improving of the projected control of the marketingplan(4). The targets of profit-making organizationsare frequently formulated terms of profits and a31that need be done is in to check whether theprofits PGI-88/WS/1 - page 75

for a given period are satisfactory. In the case of non-profit organizations, statistics for attendance and use are among the criteria employed.

In difficultsituations someorganizationseven develop alternative, 'contingency' strategies, which they may putinto effect once the plan is under way if they realize that they have made a mistake. Once theplan has been launched a simple adjustment is sufficient in most cases, but the problems encounteredwillbe takenintoaccountwhen thetime comes to formulate strategies for the next year's plan.

Someone should be responsible for ensuring the smooth operation of these monitoring procedures. This is usually a task assumed by the directorof the organization, althoughsome organizationsappoint a marketing manager to supervise the plan. It should be realized that even anoutstanding and well-structured marketing plan will not be effective if left unsupervised.

3.6.5 Sugmsted reading

Lovelock, C.H., and Weinberg, C.B., Marketing for public .andnon-profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984. Chapter 10: Building a marketing plan.

Kotler, P., Marketing for non-profit organizations, Englewood Cliffs /N.J.), Prentice-Hall, 2nd ed., 1982. Chapter 3: The adaptive organization: developing strategic plans.

Grunewald, J.P., Developing a markettng_program for libraries, Clarion(Pa.), Clarion State College, 1983.

Yorke, D.A., Marketing the library service, London, Library Association,1977. Chapter 3: A plan of marketing action.

3.6.6 Evaluation exercise

In order to apply the lessons of this module and theentire range of marketing concepts which have been covered, students should be askedto design a small marketing plan of 15-20 pages in length fcr an information service with which they are already familiar. Thismay bea centre which they have attended for other courses, where they have been on placementor where they are already employed. The centre concerned must, however, be able to supply students with some information about its custme:s and its internal operation so that they have a basis on which to develop their strategies They may work in teams of two to three. The work may be spreadover several weeks andis intendedmainly for full-time students in pre-service training. Part-time students inin-ser ice training may tackle this exercisebydividing the training component into two sessions several weeks apart.

Whe7 their plans are ready the teams may present the results of their efforts to theirfellow students: this willenable those takingpart to discover other approaches and to discuss their content. PGI-88/WS/1- page 76

Notes on Module 6

1. Kotler, P. Marketing fornon-profit organizations,Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall,1982, p.103.

2. Kotler,P. McDougall,G.H., and Picard, J.L.,Principes de marketing, St-Jean-sur-Richelieu (Quebec), Ed. Préfontaine,1983, p.61 3. Lancaster, F.W., Guidelines for the evaluationof information services*, Paris,Unesco, 1978. systems and

4. Beckman, M.D., Boone,L.E., and Kurtz, D.L., Lemarketing: contemporaine, Montreal,HRW, 1980, pp.507-509. réalité

8ti PGI-88/WS/1 - page 77

4. CONCLUSION

4.1 Epilogue

There are several ways of bringinga course on marketing to a close. Some authorsrepeat the points made in the introductionin orde"to draw attention to the basic principles involved.Others prefer to discuss srecific applications of marketing and,in particular,the implications of marketing managementin an international business context. Itis always porc.:ble to wind up the course by looking at the very promising future for the apiication of marketing to information services.

In our viewIt is importantto end with some obsLrvations about the problems of marketing so that students are not left with the idea that things are too easy and that marketing will solve all of the profession's problems.

Just as computers alone cannot solve all of the problems encountered in the management of documentation services, marketing should not beseen asa panacea, a sort of deus ex machina which will remove all the obstacles in the path of information services. Marketing is more than a mere implement but it is still basically a tool of the trade: success depends on its prqper use.

Lovelock and Weinberg arerightto pointout that the application of marketing is no easy matter. Its success depends on a myriad of details and there is no automatic guarantee that an excellent strategy will bear fruit: 'Whileexcellent executioncannot save a misdirected strategy, only good execution can transform a sound strategy from plans on paper to reality'(1).

The main problem appears to bethat itis difficult to integrate the marketing approach at all levels in an organization. That is why Lovelock and Weinberg speak of 'the marketing of marketing'. The very idea of marketing is an innovation and it must be 'sold'to all the members of an organization in order to check the resistance to change which naturally affects the adoption of all new ideas.

The first task isto ensure that senior managementin the krganization endorses and understands the marketing approach. Without the support of their superiors,the managers responsible for marketing planningmay find their r,rojects blocked. We have already explained that the marketing approach may lead to major changes within an organization. And if an organization is to go along thatpath itis better to warn senior management in advance of the possibility and obtain their agreement.

Allthe manager-al staffin the organization must also beconvinced. While most managers recognize today that no single manao,ement function ismore important than the others and that what matters most i the co-ordination of all these functions, power disputes between managers still occur from time to time. In a marketing context, however,theefforts of allsectors inthe organization must be directed towards the same goal. Conflicts between the production side and customer services are not uncommon. In the field of information,for example, heads of technical services (cataloguing, indexing) nust co-ordinate their efforts with the heads )f customer services. It.may be a good idea to set up special committees to co-ordinate the marketing drive so as to involve the various managers. But such committees oust have the power to act.

Lastly, marketing demands the complete commitment of the staff, particularly front-desk staff. As we have already seen,the staff are on(of the five 'P's' inthemarketing mix. They can provide a basefor the

8 4 PGI-88/WS/1- page 78

marketing strategy but theycan also sabotage that marketing plan, strategy. An excellent however ingenious,can be demolished who areunaware of what in an instant bystaff is at stakeand ignorant of procedures, are discourteous tocustomers, casual in theirattitude, etc. Various methodsmay be employed by staff in marketing managers who wishto involve their planningso as to ensure that operation. The tney contribute tothe decentralizationof responsibility, establishments, makesall units particularly in large more aware of theimportance of their contribution to theorganization's overall own public libraries ouput for the public. Thus, large with severalbranches would be marketing planning well advised to and control tolocal level. decentralize Service manualsmay also be produced describinghow to customers: the importanceof smiling behave with andlooking at the expressions forusein approaching customer; key maximum wait time customers and answeringthe telephone; at the loanscounter, for bibliographies, etc. for retrievals,

Lastly, training sessions condnctedby exps.rts staff moreaware of may often helpto make the marketingapproach. present marketing It may not benecessary to concepts in depthat such sessions managers. Evena straightforward except,perhaps, for fire the enthusiasm lecture on basicp-inciples may of staff at alllevels. sometimes More important than anything else,perhaps, In a of informationservices is to course on the marketing enable studentsto acquire a attitude, that isto say, the belief service-oriented that users bothreal and potential be their centralconcern at all times. should

In thf; final analysis, the question is not special.sts shouldor should not become whether information since theyare involved in themarketing approach, alreadyinvolved. As marketing is we have explained,the purpose to maximizeexchanges, and of business of all exchangesarepartof the daily information Jervices. Moreover, we whose institutions are living ina society are based on the notionof exchange. others to a greateror lesser degree for We are dependenton services andproducts. The real question is, therefore,whether information to merely submitto the laws of this services arecontent will society basedon exchange or whether take the initiativeby fully utilizing they markettng represents. the tool of thefuture that

4.2 Suggested reading

Lovelock, C.H. and Weinberg, C.B., Marketing for managers, New York, public andnon-profit Wiley, 1984. Chapter19: program. Implementing themarketing

Darmon,R.Y. et al., Le marketing. Fondements McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition et applications, 1982. Chapter 13: Les Montreal, applications particulieres. Carroll, D. 'Library marketing: old and V.57, 1982, pp.212-216. new truths', WilsonLibrary Bulletin, PGI-88/WS/1 - page 79

Notes on the conclusion

1. Lovelock, C.H. and Weinberg, C.B., Marketing for public and non-profit managers, New York, Wiley, 1984, p.576.

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5. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE MARKETING OF INFORMATIONSERVICES

Adda,G., 'Le marketing documentaire', Re.ae maghrebine de documentationV.1, 1983, No.1, pp.9-17.

Arnold,.S.E., 'End-users: dreamsor dollars', Online V.11, 1987, pp.71-81.

Baecklei, V., aparkle: PR for library staff, Hopewell (N.J.),Sources, 1980.

Bellardo, T.and Waldhart, J., 'Marketing products and services in academic libraries', Ubri V.27, 1977, No.3, pp.181-194.

Bibby, L. andEast, H., 'Marketingofdatabasesproduced in the United Kingdom', Journal of Information Science V.12, 1986, pp.23-30.

Bouazza, A.,'Le marketing au service des bibliotheques', Revue maghrebinede documentation No.3, 1985, pp.65-82.

Brisfjitord, L.G., 'The four environments of the end user: marketing implications', ASIS Proceedings, 1986, pp.45-47.

Cairns, J.D.,'Preparing a marketing plan', Information and Library Manager No.73, 1983, pp.15-24.

Carroll, D.,'Library marketing: old and new truths', Wilson Library Bulletin V.57, 1982, No.3, pp.2I2-216.

Condous, C., Non-profit marketing: libraries' future?', AslibProceedings V.35, 1483, No.10, pp.407-417.

Conroy,B., 'Megatrend marketing: creating the library's future',Journal of Library Administration V.4, 1983, pp.7.-18.

Cronin, B., 'Information ', South AfricanJournal of Library and Information Science V.53, 1985, pp.115-119.

Davenport, L. and Cronin, B.,'Vertical integration: corporate strategy in the information industry', Online Review V.10, 1986, pp.237-247.

'Marketing elEctronic information', Online Review V.11, 1987, pp.39-47.

Dragon, A.C.,'The ABCs of implementing library marketing', Journal of Library Administration V.4, 1983, No.4, pp.33-47.

., 'Themarketingofpublic libraryservices', DrexelLibrary Quarterly V.19, 1983, No.2, pp.119-132.

Edinger, J.A.,'Marketing library services: strategy for survival', College and Research Libraries V.41, 1980, No.4, pp.328-332.

Eisner, J. (ed), Beyond PR: Marketing for libraries, Library Journal Special Report No.18, New York, Bowker, 1981.

Elias, A.W., 'Internationalmarketing aspects for information services', Information Services and Use V.1, 1981, pp.8/-94.

., 'Marketing for online bibliographic services', Online Review V.3, 1979, No.1, pp.107-117.

8'1i PGI-88/WS/1- page 82

Ferguson, D., 'Marketingonlineservices in Magazine of Online the university',Online: The Information Systems V.1,1977, No.3, pp.15-23. Freeman, J.E. and Katz, R.M., 'Information marketing', Information Science and AnnualReview of Technology V.13, 1978,pp.37-59.

French, S., 'Marketingthe art library', Art Libraries Journal,1977, pp.11-19. Frey, L.A. and Lee,A., 'Online throughout the product/technologylife cycle', Online Review V.11,1987, pp.33-37.

Fruithof, A.C., 'Marketingin public library V.4, 1986, No.1, pp.38-64. services in Belgium',Moussaion

Gibson, C.E. and Smith, H.B., 'Increasingend-userawarenessof services throughpromotion: library Grumman AerospaceCorporation', technical librariesV.5, 1984, pp.69-77. Scientific and

Gothberg, H.M.,'Understanding marketing or why you can't selllibraries like kitty litter', Libraryadministration and management V.1, 1987,pp.27-35. GrLat library promotionideas, Chicago, American Library Association,annual. Grunewald, J.P., Developinga marketing program for Clarion State College,1983. libraries, Clarion (Pa.),

0 'Steps to take: marketing the rural library', Libraries V.4, 1984,pp.21-35. Rural

Halperin, M., ' forinformation services', Quarterly V.17, 1982,No.2, pp.77-87. Drexel Library

Hannabuss, S., 'Measuring the valueand marketing the library benefit', Aslib service: an dpproach to Proceedings V.35, 1983,No.10, pp.418-427.

Hayden, V., 'Informationscientists and librarians the UK', Journal of as a market for viewdatain Information ScienceV.8, 1984, pp.149-165.

Heisser, D.C.R.,'Marketing U.S. government depository libraries',Government Publications Review V.13,1986, pp.55-65.

Houten, H.J. van (ed.), The competitivestrength ofthe communication industry in information and Europe, The Hague,Martinus Nijhoff, 1983.

Kennedy, S., Marketingof professional information services, Bradford (Great Britain), MCB Publications,1981.

King, M.F., 'The marketing approach appliedto special libraries a review of the in industry: literature', Scientificand Technical Libraries pp.119-152. V.6,1986,

King, W. R. aA Zaltman, G. (ed.), Marketingscientific and technical information, Boulder (Co.),Westview Press, 1979.

Kirkendall, C.A. (ed.), Marketing instructional selvices:applying private sector techniques to planand promote bibliographic instruction, Ann Arbor (Mi.); Pierian Press,1986.

Leerburger, B.A., Marketing the library, WhitePlains (N.Y.), Industry Publications,1982. Knowledge PGI-88/WS/1 - page 83

Leisner, T., 'Mission statements and the marketingmix', PublicLibraries V.25, 1986, pp.86-87.

Lewis, D.W., 'Bringing the markec to libraries', Journal of Academic Librarianship V.10, 1984, pp.73-76.

Matthews, A.J., 'Librarymarket segmentation: an effective approach 2or meetingclient needs',Journal of Library Administration V.4,1983,No.4, pp.19-31.

Moulton,B., 'Marketing and library cooperatives', Wilson Library_Bulletin V.55, 1981, No.5, pp.347-352.

Niekerk, R.V., van, 'The compatibilityof marketing with a philosophy of librarianship', South African Journal of Library and Information Science V.53, 1985, pp.178-182.

'Marketing as a means of enhancing the role of information services in agriculture',South African Journal of Library and Information Science V.54, 1986, pp.122-125.

Oldman, C., 'Marketing library and information services:the strengths and weaknesses of a marketing approach', European Journal of Marketing V.11, 1977, No.6, pp.460-474.

Pomart,P.-D., 'L'Etat et le marche de l'information', Documentaliste V.23, 1986, pp.175-179.

Rambhujun, N.,'Le marketing des bibliothiques universitaires: une approche theorique', Bulletin des bibliotheoues de France V.28, 1983, No.5, pp.485-496.

Rummel, K.K. and Perica, E., Persuasivepublicrelations for libraries, Chicago, American Library Association, 1983.

Savard, R., 'Bibliothaques a vendre', AMA V.9, 1980, pp.93-95.

'Les bibliothiques publiques du Quebec et leur positionnement en termes de marketing', ArRus, V.15, 1986, No.1, pp.21-25.

'L'approche marketing dans l'enseignement des methodes d'enquate sur le terrain', in Actes des ouatriemes iournees d'étude de l'AIESI, 24-29 avril 1984, Rabat, Ecole des sciences de l'information, 1985.

'L'enseignement du marketing aux specialistes de l'information documentaire', Arbido-R V.2, 1987, pp.26-31.

'L'information dans lesbibliothequea publiques comme nouvel instrument de marketing', Documentation et bibliothiques V.29, 1983, No.4.

Shapiro, S.J., 'Marketingand the information professional:odd couple or meaningful relationship' SPecial Libraries V.71, 1980, No.11, pp.469-474.

Shuter, J. and Worsam, M., 'Librarian in the Marketplace', Library ManaRement V.6, 1985, No.4.

Smith, B.B., 'Marketing strategies for libraries',Library Management V.4, 1983, No.l.

Sterngolg, A.,'Marketing for special libraries and information centers. The process', Special Libraries V.73, 1982, No.4, pp.254-259.

89 PGI-88/WS/1- page 84

Thompson, M.S., 'New productanalysis Special Libraries of corporateinformation V.77, 1986,pp.90-95. services',

Wasserman, P.,'Invention and design ofinformation products InfomediarY V.1,1985, pp.11-16. and services',

. and Ford, G.T., 'Marketing and library manager marketing research:what the should learn',Journal of Library No.1, pp.19-29. . Administration V.1, 1980,

Weingand, D.E. (ed.), Marketing for Norwood (N.J.), libraries and information Ablex Publishing,1984. agencies,

.(ed.), Marketing public Chicago, American library services. New Library Association,1985. Strategies.

.(ed.), 'Distribution ofthe library's innovation', Jo,:rnalof Library product: the need for Administration V.4,1983, pp.49-57. .(ed.), 'The role of marketing in thefuture of rural libraries', IllinoisLibraries, 1986, public - pp.490-498. Wish, J.R. and Wish, M.A.,'Marketing and American Society pricing of on-lineservices', in for InformationScience, Kid-Year roundup: proceedings, Meeting, 4th,Information Washington, ASIS,1975, pp.143-158. Wood, E.J., 'Strategic planning and the marketing applications', Journalof Academic process: library Librarianship V.9,1983,pp.15-20. Woods, S., Costanalysis, cost recovers% marketing,and Haworth Press, 1985,pp.143-157. fee-based services, Yorke, D.A., Marketing the libraryservice, London, Library Association,1977. Zachert, M.J. and Williams, R.V., 'Marketing services', Special measures for information Libraries V.77,.1986,No.2, pp.61-70. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 85

ANNEXES

ANNEX I: Case study: the University Library of Bellefeuille-sous-Bois

ANNEX II: Objective test

ANNEX III: Example of poor questionnaire- exercise

ANNEX IV: Examples of advertising PGI-88/WS/1 - page 87

ANNEX.I

Case study: The University Library of Bellefeuille-sous-Bois

Bellefeuille-sous-Bois is'a pretty little town some 50 km from thesea and about 100 km from the mountains and ski centres. Ttr ious past has made Bellefeuille a regional tourist capital. It ha few industries (electronics,wood and furniture), but it is the head' ,arters of several public and private service organizations (major insurance companies, well-known engineering firms, a government telecommunications centre, etc.).

The town has a population of 75,000 with an average income higher than the national average. In fact, Bellefeuille is basically a middle class town which still has an old aristocracy much appreciated by the populationas it provides confirmation of the town's past history. The old part of the town is located on a sort of plateau over 100 metres above sea-level. A working-class district has developed in recent years to the north-east of this plateaunear the electronic componentsfactory which isowned by an extremely powerful foreign holding company.

The University of Bellefeuille-sous-Bois is an institution witha very fine reputation. The campus occupies nearly two square kilometres to the north of the town close to the new district. It has 7,000 students and 170 teachers/researchers working in the following departments:

Humanities Social Sciences Pure Sciences

Arts Sociology Chemistry History Law Biology Visual Arts Criminology .Physics Theology Social Work Computer Science Translation Information Science Geology Management Mathematics Astronomy

1,650 students 2,860 students 2,490 students

The Departments of Management and Chemistry are particularly dynamic and have recently worked out agreements with the business community. However, the reputation, of the university rests largely on the History Department, which appears to be responsible for a large part of the research done on campus (the department has an archaeology section whose recent workon underwater archaeology has won international recognition). The Department of Information Science is also very active internationally and its teachers regularly take part in conferences abroad. Their courses touch on archives administration and documentation az; well as library science but few contacts have been made with the University Library Service as the teaching staff have been on poor Z.erms with the Director of Libraries for several years. PGI-881wS11- page 1te

The DireLL.,: ! (.t.stion is on the point of retirement, working life r' His entire *e.rt devoted to a majorproject for the central librar.: is intended to construction of a under one bring all the libraryservices oncampus rooC. Work startedtwo years ago and the scheduled for L:.-2 opening ceremony is start of next session. A small budget has for the celebrationof this event. been set aside several setbacks. The Director's projecthas experienced The style of architectureproposed was rather and the concreteshell gave the forbidding building anaustere look. No provision has yet been made for thedecoration and fittings several months'away. although the openingis only Moreover, the libraryhad to be built end of thecampus beside the building at the northern reserved for law studies. There is no Underground in Bellefeuillebut the campus is network. well served by thelocal bus

The Director's plan was to allocateone storey in the library major subjectarea to each andthe basement to the technical attached). The staff have services (see plan already been assignedtothese major There is one librarianin charge of the sectors. by another librarian service in eachsector who is assisted responsible for theselection of documents ofthe public. The team under the and reception includes three assistant head of service ineach sector also librarians and six other work. The library is staff for loans andshelving an open-acessone. responsible for the Its Director alsohas a deputy co-ordination ofcustomer services. As the university authorities have been obliged to reduce expeaditure, the library'stotal budget has their dwindled by 2per cent every year for the last fiveyears. The Director budget, which continued strongly defended hisacquisitions to grow in spiteof everything; had to be cutover the past three but 2.5 postshave years, includingone in the Social Sciences Sector. Thenumberof acquisitionshas thus been stabilized imposition of budgetlimits. since the

Delays in thecataloguing service, the time (one on the other hand,are increasing all post has also beencut there). signed an agreement Two years ago theDirector with acataloguingnetwork catalogue entries in enablinghim to locate a data bank and thusspeed up the work. appears to be a problem: the new procedures But there because the staff are lessefficient, perhaps have not reallybecome used to them does not functionpropely. or because the system

The library's general performance is notvery good: fell by 12 percent last year. the number of loans A rapid surveyof the teaching carried out but thisproduced little staff was low and the questionnaire information: the response ratewas very only contained five(open-eAded) questions. The services providedare quite limited. a.m. to 7 p.m., except The opening hoursare from 8.30 on Saturdays when the library closes at 5p.m. It is also closed on Sundays. Users have asked and on Sunday for it to be opened inthe evenings afternoons, but themanagement has no attendance which would justifythis step, although statistics of customers increases the staff have noticedthat the number at the end of theafternoon. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 89

It is believed that students who wish to work during theevening use the town library which has recently opered a branch in thearea near the campus: this is a modern, well-equipped and well-lit building witha large collection of reference books and journals (especially, historical). The bf,nch is open on Monday, Wednesday and Friday evenings until 10 p.m. and alsoon Saturday mornings. The town library will soon be making its catalogue available in machine-readable form, thereby improving its accessibility.

The University Library has two terminals for the inte..--ogationof data banks, which are located in the librarian's office. One of these terminals has been allocated for the exclusive useof thePureSciences Sector. Accordingto staff there does not appear tobe a heavy demand for this service. Research for the Pure Sciences Sector is carried out by a librarian. Research for the other two sectors is carried out by heads of service on receipt of a request.

A collection of microform documents (theses and foreign periodicals)is available and there are also some audiu-visual documentspurchased several years ago b5 the Biology Department. The History Department has recently expressed a wish to organize its own collection.

In the last fewyears some departmentshave also announced their intenticn of organizing their own documentation centre: one of these is the Astronomy Department, which, in addition to itsown collection of monographs, wishes to acquire a new collection of photographs and chartsof the sky and outer space. The Translation and Law Departments claim that theytoo have a right to their own collections as their students make 'laboratory'use of some types of documents (dictionaries in the case of the former and summariesof leading cases and decisions in the case of the latter).

The Department of Information Science obtained resources from the university five years agofor the establishmentof itsown documentation centre. Thoseresources weretaken from thelibrary'sgeneral operating budget.

You are a candidate for the post of Library Directoras the old Director is about to retire. You bave been invited to a selection interview together with the other candidates on the shortlist. The Vice-Rector of the University is the chairman of the selection board. He asks you to identify the library's major problems in terms of marketing and to suggest the strategiesand tactics which seem to you to be most appropriate. What is your response?

9,1 PGI-88/WS/l- page 90

Plan of newbuildinit

GROUND FLOOR

audio- visual technical services

Library entrance

loans

reading and reference room

611 00.10Ere

STANDARD FLOOR LAY-OUT

reading room staff office

monographs

librarian's office PGI-88/WS/1 - page 91

AliaL11.

Objective _test

True or False

T/F 1. Marketing in an organization is solely connected with sales operations.

T/F 2. The first stage in marketing is to adapt products and services to customer needs.

T/F 3. Marketing may be regarded as a philosophy of management.

T/F 4. The ideaof marketing is a productof the modern management techniques developed over the last two decades.

T/7 5. The five variables in the marketing mix are the product, distribution, communication, staff and production.

T/F 6. In marketing strategy, the various ingredients in the marketing mix may be selected independently of one another.

T/F 7. It is dangerous to define the market in terms of the product being. produced.

T/F 8. Segmenting a market means dividing a large mixed market into several relatively homogeneous segments.

T/F 9. Each market segment has its own marketing mix programme.

T/F 10. The information field benefits from a situation in which there is no competition.

T/F 11. The activities of competitors influence the product's life cycle.

T/F 12. The organization's task is to formulate a programme of activities necessary to achieve its goals.

T/F 13. The establishment of marketing strategies is the last stage in the process of marketing planning.

T/F 14. Once formulated the marketing plan should remain unaltered for the entire period in question in order to avoid subjective decisions.

9 G PGI-88/WS/1 - page 92

In the following diagram representing thetransfer ofinformation as conceived by Branda Dervin, identify the four main components:

15. A)

16. B) O 0 17. C) B 18. D) o '0

Multiple choices D

19. Which of the following factors does not form part of the marketing environment:

(a) the legal context (b) technology (c) the customers (d) the competition (e) the socio-cultural context

20. Which of thefollowing factors is an uncontrollable variable in marketing:

(a) the product (b) the competition (c) the location (d) the promotion (e) none of these answers

21. The market should preferably be defined in terms of:

(a) the product being supplied (b) unsatisfied needs (c) the resources of the organization (d) the legal constraints imposed by the environment (e) the pricing policies of competitors

22. The first stage in the marketing planning process involves:

(a) the development of possible activities (b) the drawing up of a schedule (c) an analysis of the situation (d) the formulation of strategies (e) the fixing of a budget

#41 9 PGI-88/WS/l - page 93

23. Which of the following alternativescannot provide a basis for market segmentation:

(a) the geographical location (b) the size of the population (c) the level of use of the service (d) psychological characteristics (e) none ofthese: all of the above factors may provide a basis for segmentation

24. Which of the following statements does not reflect the information-seeking behaviour of scientists:

(a) information must reach them rapidly (b) periodicals and research reports are practically the only data media they use (c) they never communicate orally with their colleagues (d) they tend to delegate their bibliographical and browsing activities (e) all of these statements reflect the information-seeking behaviour of scientists.

9 S PGI-88/WS/1 - page 94

ANNEX III

Example of poor questionnaire- exercise

1. Name: The beginning of the questionnaireistoo abrupt. It could havea titleand a brief introduction. Isthe nameofthe respondent really necessary?

2. Sex:

3. Age: 20 to 25 The age groups overlap. 25 to 30 What if the respondent is 30 to 35 under 20 years old? The over final category is unclear.

4. Do you visit the university library regularly every week duringterm time?

1. I practically never visit theUniversity library.

2. I visit the library at regularintervals.

3. I visit the library regularlyevery week.

This question is ambiguousto say theleast: it is possible to visit regularlyon a monthly basis. The possible answers proposedare also ambiguous and are not eXhaustive. PGI-88/WS/1 - page 95

5. Do you visit any libraries other than that of the University?

1. Never

2. Yes, occasionally

3. Yes, regularly. If so, which type?

The attendance categories suggested may mean different things to different respondents. It would be better to specify 'requency of attendance: once or twice a week, two to three times per term, etc.

6. Do you find the reception at the library:

1. Very efficient 2. Efficient 3. Inefficient

Efficiency may not be defined in the same way by all the respondents: the question could be more specific. Scales of this type should be as symmetrical as possible. Hence one category is missing: wholly inefficent.

7. Are you aware that data banks are available?

1. Yes 2. No

This question suggests an answer. The question could be more subtle and so could the suggested answers.

.100 PGI-88/WS/1- page 96

8. Do you thinkthat information trainingwould improveyour learning capability and enableyou to obtain better academic results?

This question has toomany implicationsand employs concepts which willbe difficult for respondents to handle. Furthermore open-ended questions of this sort produce highly disparate answers which are difficult to analyse. PGI-88/WS/1 ANNEX IV - page 97

Examples of advertising

2>

1 INFORMATHEOUE=

ORGANISER L'INFORMATION ET SERVIR LA PRISE DE DECISION

"So Much So Close"

Genesee District Library Flint, Michigan

1.

, 102 PGI-88/WS/1 page 98

If You ThinkSAZTEC

is just DataEntry... <3

You don't havethe Whole Picture Data Entry? To be sure. In fact, libraries, hospitals, publishers, SAZTEC guarantees its data entryto utilities, lawyers, and database be at least 99.95% accurate. producers and vendors worldwide. SAZTEC is the total database builder. But data entry is only one aspect of the whole conversion picture. SAZTEC offers everything neededto design and implementa database for use in-house or through an outside vendor.

SAZTEC can capture source documents, clerically code them for data entry, convert the information to tape, computer process the information, interface text with r - graphics or maps, generatereports, dill 1°1 edit, and format the data baseto any information system or CD-ROM system you require. SIZTEC SAZTEC Corporation SAZTEC provides the focus 27520 Hawthorne Boulevard, Suite170 necessary for a successful database Rolling Hills Estates, CA 90274 project. We develop databases for Call800222.9167. PGI-88/WS/1 page 99

5 >

Pour l'inginieur, l'industriel, l'entrepreneur

Un courtier en information vous offre son savoir-faire

le Service d'information documentaire de l'Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal

EittlirtV.

1 04 PGI-88/WS/1 page 100

6

Pregnancy The Nioga LibrarySystem's Health Library Project (HELP)is designed to Ering you, theconsumer, health in- formation byway of the public librariesin Niagara, Orleansand Genesee Counties. Healthinforma- tion is availableon a variety of topics including pregnancy/childbirth.The following titles and otherinformation on this topic can be foundat the libraries listedon the reverse side. Methods Of Childbirth Bean, Constance Doubleday, 1982 Surviving Pregnancy Loss Friedman, Rochelle Little, 1982 Fertility And Conception: An Essential Guide For ChildlessCouples Stange!, John NAL, 1980 Practical Pregnancy: All That'sDifferent In Life Because You're Pregnant Wolfe, Maxine Warner, 1980 110."

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NORA EPHRON THEODORE H. WHITE HERMAN %YOUR Some oftheir best works began in the same setting.

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MA& Appeir Fru. Et branchez-vous sur la plus importante banque d'information technique du Canada.

L'ICI ST Ore la plus ra. ow rim ow mu am a. a Un Service de données importante collection Veuillez me faire parvetiir de plus numeriques scientifiques amples renseignements sur les ser- Le systeme CAN/ SND d'information scientifique et vices de rICIST suivants. technique du pays. Grace a vous fournit des données un réseau d'experts en recher- 0 CAN/OLE numériques évaluées par 0 CAN 'SDI des experts che documentaire au Conseil O Service de prêt et de photocopie national de recherches, 0 Centre bibliographique des L'ICIST met a votre portée sciences de la sante I Un Service de reference plus de 3 millions de livres, de O CAN 'SND II effectue pour vous des comptes rendus de confe- 0 Service de reference I recherches documentaires, rences, de rapports, de publi- O Repertoire des traductions répond a des questions cations en série et de revues scientsfiques I techniques ou vous dirige du monde entier. Nom I au besoin vers des experts Nous vous offrons: Titre I Un Repertoire des traduc- 1 tions scientifiques 11 Un Service de recherche Organisme vous indique oi trouver documentaire en direct I les traductions faites au Le système CAN/ OLE Adresse Canada ou a l'étranger vous donne acces a plus de I 35 bases de données >1 Pour savoir comment vous Leléphone Un Service de diffusion brancher sur l'ICIST, com- selective de l'information im no me low immt norunesj posez le (613) 993-1600, Le systeme CAN/ SD: adrcssez un message via le met a votre portée !Infor- réseau ENVOY 100 à CISTI. mation la plus récente Un Centre bibliographique INFO ou renvoyezla formule dans votre domaine des sciences de la sante de demande a: d'intérét II vous donne acces au Service de publicit é et des MEDLARS, le système communications Un Service de pret et de de bases de données de ICIST (Institut canadien de photocopie Les ouvragcs pointe dans les domaines rinformation scientifique sont prêtés gratuitement de la médecine et de la et technique) et les frais de photocopie toxicologie Conseil national de recherches sont minimes Ottawa (Ontario) K IA 0S2

Conseil national de recherches National Research Council Canada Canada Canadg PGI-88/WS/1 - page 106

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Un document a retrouver dans vos fichiers ? Ne cherchez plus. Laissez faireMICRO OUESTEL pour saisir, gérer et exploiter toutes vos informa- tions. Connectez-le a un centre serveur, meme eloigne et rapa- triez sur votre site tout ce qui vous intéresse. MICRO OUESTEL est utilisable sur IBM XT etcompatibles meme par des non-spécialistes de l'informatique.

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Micro Questel votre tete chercheuse. 111:=1110,71,%T/1161N9rtrZMS Guest& 83-85, bd Vincent-Auriol 75013 Paris, France. 1NFODIAL STAND tic' 1 D 136 33 III 45.82.64.64. du 14 au 19 Avril

1 1; PGI-88/WS/1 page109 "Itsachallenge to keepupwith ourcommunity's growth. Dialog has helpedagreat deal:' Homer Fletchen City Librarian, San Jose Public Library f

-

Homer Fletcher has been a head librar- never looked back, continuing to offer itsdon in our society that has the mission ian for 30 years, and over half of those patrons the advantage of online infor- of the public libraryto provide infor- years he has headed up the San Jose mation retrieval. mation and access to ideas for all Public Library system. Today, the library's online depan- thc public!' As San Jose has grown, so has its ment is one of the most progressive In the As ivlr Fletcher summed it up, library. From 10 branches in 1970 tu 17 nation. According to senior librarian "The sooner a library goes online the today. During that time, Mr Fletcher Martha Schmidt,"Our department is better." and his staff have worked hard to keep staffed by -seven librarians who now For more information on how tu get pace with their community's growth handle nearly 700 request:, a month for started with DIALOG in your library and needs. online searches': or in your community, call us at ,-800- They have taken an approach that The majority of those searches arc 3-DIALOG and we will send you is responsive to the diverse nature of completed through DIALOG.That's an information brochure. Or write their community. As a result, the library bee.; use DIALOG's reliability and avail- DIALOG, marketing department, 3460 host, a 1.arge foreign language collection.ability is better than 99.8%.With featuresIddlview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 01104 It's hardly surprising that, in 1973, and searching capabilities available the library was one of the first in the un no other system. And DIALOC givesDinwoINFORMATION SERVICES INC nation to participate in online services the library's patrons access to the world's A SUOSIOARY O. LOCKHEED CORP through a grant from the National largest collection of knowledge, online. The world's largest online knowledgebank Science Foundation. From that pioneer-Which fit, Mr. Fletcher's philosophy ing beginning San Jose Public Library quite well."There's not another instuu-800-3-D1ALOG -f-.

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PGI STUDIES AND DOCUMENTS RELATING TO TH2ORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TRAINING

ATHERTON, P. - Guidelines for theorganizationoftraining courses, workshops andseminars in scientific and technical information and documentation. - Paris : Unesco, 1975. - 88 p. - (SC-75/WS/29). Also available in French and Spanish

ATHERTON, P. - Handbook for informationsyst.msandservices. - Paris : Unesco, 1977. - 259 p. (ISBN 92-3-101457-9). Also available in French, Russian and Spanish

COCHRANE, P. - User based information services. A slide-tapepresentation. limited nuMberof copies Paris : Unesco, 1987. - (PGI-86/WS/27). Only available

COOK, M. - Guidelines oncurriculum developmentininformationtechnology for librarians, documentalists and archivists. - Paris : Unesco, 1986. - 123 p. - (PGI-86/WS/26). Spanish and French versionsin preparation

COOK, M. - Guidelines for curriculum development in records managementand the administrationofmodern archives : a RAMP study. - Paris : Unesco, 1982. 74 p. (PGI-82/WS/16). Also available in French and Spanish

EVANS, A.J., RHODES, R.G., KEENAN, S. - Education andtraining of usersof. scientific andtechnical information : UNISIST Guide for teachers. - Paris : Unesco, 1977. - 143 p. (ISBN 92-3-101452-5). Also availableinFrench, Russian and Spanish

FISHBEIN, M.H. - A Model curriculumfor theeducation and training of archivists in automation : a RAMP study. - Paris : Unesco, 1985. - 33 p. (PGI-85/WS/27). Includes a biblibgraphy. Also available in Spanish

GUINCHAT, C., MENOU, M. - Introductiongenerale aux sciences et techniques de l'information et de la documentation. - Paris :Les Presses de l'Unesco, 1981. 402 p. (ISBN 92-3 201860-80). Also vailable in English and Spanish. Arabic and Chinese versions in preparation. Price: 90FF

HALL, N. - irachers, information andschool libraries. - Paris : Unesco, 1986. - 110 p. (PGI-86/WS/17). Also available in Spanish. Frenchversion in preparation

HARMONIZATIONoftraining in librarianship, information science and archives. - Paris: Unesco, 1987. - 13 p. - (PGI-87/WS/2). Also available in French and Spanish

HARRIS, C. - Training package on informationand documentation. - Paris Unesco, 1987. - (PGI-86/WS/28). Only limited number of copies available

INTERNATIONAL Symposium on harmonization of educationand training programmesin information science,librarianship and archival studies. Unesco House, Paris, 8-12 October1984. Final Report. - Paris : Unesco, 1984. - 13 p. (PGI/E.T./HARM. II/80). Also available in French PGI-88/WS/1- page 114

KATHPALIA, Y.P.- A Model curriculum for the training of specialistsin document preservation and restoration : a RAMP study with guidelines.- Paris: Masco, 1984.- vi, 31 p. (PGI-84/WS/2). Also available in French and Spanish

LANCASTER, F.W. - Guidelines forthe evaluation of trainingcourses, workshops and seminars in scientific andtedhnicalinformation and documentation. -Paris: UheSco, 1975. - 102 p. (SC-75/WS/44). Also available in French and Spanish

LANCASTER, F.W. - Guidelines forthe evaluation of training courses, workshops and seminars (second edition). - Paris: Unesco, 1983. - 129 p. (BEP/83/III). English only

LARGEJ.A. - A Modularcurriculumininformationstudies. Paris: Unesco, 1987.- 89 p. (PGI-87/WS/5). Also availablein French. Spanish version in preparation

MODERNarthives administrationand recordsmanagement: aRAMP reader compiled by Peter Walne with the assistance ofa working group ofthe International Councilon Ardhives. - Paris: Unesco, 1985. - 587 p. (PGI-85/WS/32). Also availablein French and Spanish

MOORE, N.- GUidelines for conducting information manpower surveys; Vol. I The Manual; Vol.II Questionnaires and accompanyingdocuments. - Paris: Unesco, 1986.- 88, 34 p. (PGI-86!WS/3). Also available in French and Spanish

NEELAMEGHAN, A. - Guidelines forformulatingpolicyoneducation, training and development of library andinformationpersonnel. - Paris: Unesco, 1978. - 38 p. (PGI-78/WS/29). Also available in French andSpanish NEWSLETTER on education and training programmesforinformation personnel. Published by FIDunder Unesco contract.- The Hague: FID, 1979-

PARKER, J.S. - Library and information science and archive administration: a guide to building up a basic collectionfor library schools. - Paris: Unesco, 1984.- 148 p. (PGI-84/WS/11). English only

REGISTER of short-term education and training activities in librarianship, information science and archives / Inventaire des activites de formation de breve (lurk dans le domaine de la bibliotheconomie, dessciencesdel'information et dF l'archivistique Inventario de las actividadesde formation de brava durationen la esfera de la bibliotecologia, las ciencias de la informacion y laarchivologia / Second edition. Compiled and edited by M.L. DOSAand J. COLLIN. - The Hague, Paris: FID andUnesco, 1984, 187 p.

SARACEVIC, T. - A course ininformation consolidation. A education and training Handbook for in analysis,synthesis and information repackaging of (preliminary version). - Paris: Unesco, 1986. - 128 p. (PGI-86/WS/14). Englishonly

SAUNDERS, W.L. - Guidelines for curriculum developmentin information studies. Paris:Unesco, 1978. French and Spanish - 38 p. (PGI-78/WS/27). Also available in

iZO PGI-88/WS/1 - page 115

SIMMONS, P. - Teachingpackage on the useof inforwtion handling standards: computeraspects of bibliographic records, computer hardware, computer software (Preliminary version). - Paris: Unesco, 1986. (PGI-86/WS/4). Various pagings. FUrther modules to be issued later.

THOMPSON, A.H. - Guide to the production and use of audio-visual aids in library and information science teaching. - Paris: Unesco, 1983. - 125 p. (PGI-83/WS/17). Also available in French and Spanish

VAN PATTEN DE OCAMPO, E.M.. - Laintegracion de labiblioteca escolar/centro de recursos de aprendizaje al curriculum de las escuelas. Programa de capacitacionpara sutmo en lasescuelasformadoras de maestros. - ocho Modulos. 27, 19, 18, 40, 34, 33, 40, 23 p. - Unesco: Caracas, 1987. (PGI/LAC-87/WS/2). Availablefrom Unesco Caracas Office. Spanish only

VAUGHAN, A. - Reader on management. Tbbe issued in 1987. French and Spanish versions in 1988

WASSERMAN, P., RIZZO, J.R. - A Course in administration for managers of information services: design, implementation and topicaloutline. - Paris: Unesco, 1977. 79 p. (SC-76/WS/110). Also available in French

WATSON, D.G. - Guidelinesforthe organization ofshort courses and workshops on thedisseminationof data inscience and technology. - Paris: Unesco, 1986. 73 p. (PGI-86/WS/11). French and Spanish versions in preparation. Also available in French and Spanish

WHITE, B. - Directory ofaudio-visualmaterials for use in records management andarchives administration training. - Paris: Unesco, 1982. 71 p. (PGI-82/WS/8). English only

WILSON, T.D. - Guidelines for developing and implementing a national plan for trainingand educationin information use. - Paris: Unesco, 1980. 50 p. (PGI-80/WS/28). Also available In French and Spanish

WORLD Guide to library schools andtrainingcourses indocumentation / Guide mondial desecolesdebibliothecaires et de documentalistes. - Second edition. - London: Clive Bingley; Paris: The Unesco Press, 1981. 549 p. (ISBN 0-85157-309-6). Out of print

Copies of the Above studies and documents are available from:

Division of the General Information Programme UNESCO 7, Place de Fontenoy 75007 PARIS France

October 1987

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