Sarvasastraprayojanamatmadarshanam "The end of all the scientific pursuit and endeavor is to know our own self."
Human existence on earth, as per the Hindu mythology, dates back to over million years. These years have been divided into four "yugas," vi!. Satyuga #.$ million years%, Treta &.' million years%, (wapar '.$ lakh years% and the present yug ")alyug" that started approximately #*** years ago. +ncient ndian literature was considered to be written around #***-&*** /. +ncient ndian literature was considered to be written around #***-&*** /&%. 0&1
ndian thinkers placed enough emphasis on consciousness as the primary reality. This also led to thehe conjecture that first and foremost, we are conscious self, one with Brahman. The proof in psychology was considered to be subjective experience. The ndian tradition has approached the problem by focusing on the 2uality, purity, and concentration of the antahkarana, the inner instrument of knowledge used by the person who has experience. The ndian tradition has developed a plethora of methods to enhance the 2uality and reliability of inner observation. The relook in ndian conceptuali!ation of human nature reveals interesting observations about the doctrines of mind, personality and self. ndian writing has placed enough emphasis on the positive view of human nature. The human nature is viewed to be having strong inwardly character. Human nature is kaleidoscopic3 this has been amply stated by both eastern and western scientists. 041 5estern literature referred to experiences of self nearly $*** years ago3 the experiences during sleep and dreams were considered to be wandering, shadow-like entities, which in Shamanism came to be known as "spirits." This idea of a wandering spirit capable of ethereal travel into and outside the body has existed among cultures until thth -# -# thth century /. Homer explained the presence of these entities, i.e. spirit, as the "soul." nterestingly, the location of these spirits was considered to be head by Homer. 061,,0'1,,0#1
n ndian scriptures, the roots of psychology can be traced back to the vast storehouse of ancient religious and philosophical text. The analysis of various sources like +tharveda, the 7panishads, the 8ahabharata and others reveals the fine aspect of human nature. +ncient ndian thinkers were characteristically synthetic in their views. +ccording to ndian conception, human nature is not the accidental offshoot of an unconscious nature, but has its root like every other thing in the being of an absolute self. 0$1
Transpersonal psychology as a developing branch, also referred to as fourth force, has found in the ndian tradition a significant body of knowledge on transcendental dimension of human nature. 091 Tart 01 has referred to ancient traditions like uddhism, /hristian mysticism, Hinduism, Sufism and others as spiritual psychologies. He is categorical in asserting that modern psychology developed in western context has nothing to offer about self and one has to look toward these spiritual psychologies to fill the void. Thus, transpersonalists have found ndian wisdom literature like :eda, 7panishads, ;ogaga Sutra and others as spiritual psychologies and also as consciousness disciplines 0<1which offer insight into farther reaches of human nature. The thought has close affinity to that of 8aslow, 0&*1 who referred to the transcendental dimension of human existence. ndian tradition has much to offer by way of theoretical models and practical techni2ues in enhancing human potential and optimal well-being. n fact, the Holistic Therapy concept of body-mind-spirit has been influenced by the ndian tradition, in particular by +yurveda and ;oga.
Evolution of ATMAN Concept in Indian Psychology
The analysis of the ultimate reality can be traced back to the upanishadic terms ofof Brahman and Atman.. Brahman in 7panishads meant "prayer," being derived from a root brh% meaning "to grow" or to burst forth. Brahman as prayer is what manifests itself in audible speech. The philosophic significance it bears in the 7panishads is the primary cause of the universe that bursts forth spontaneously in the form of nature as a whole and not as mere speech.
Atman originally meant "breath" and then came to be applied to whatever constitutes the essential part of man, his self or soul. The distinctive meaning of Brahman is the ultimate source of outer world while that of Atman is the inner self of man. Though they seem to be having independent significance, they were used interchangeably. The source of the central essence of the individual is distinguished from the physical form leading to the development of the word Atman as the meaning of soul or self. Atman as the soul or self is the inmost truth of man3 the method of unveiling the truth was subjective and often it was based on introspection. The concept of universal consciousness was universali!ed, i.e. the universe was described as parts of purusa or a giant man. To exemplify few, the departed soul was addressed in the funeral hymns as "let thin eye go to the sun, thy breath, to the wind, etc." The notion of parallelism between the individual and the world runs throughout the literature of the later vedic period. Atman as the self or inmost truth of man becomes the cosmic soul or self. The concept of unity is so wonderfully integrated into the upanishadic teaching that is expressed in the great saying 8ahavaka% like " am Brahman*" or by the e2uation Brahman- Atman. The individual as well as the world is the manifestation of the same reality and both are therefore at bottom one. There is continuity between nature and man. The :edantic psychology asserts that Brahman is the innermost universal being characteri!ed by pure consciousness Chit % and Atman the self% is the innermost individual being characteri!ed by individual consciousness Chitta%. The essence of personality is something beyond body, life, mind and intellect. t is Atman, the self. ts chief attribute is consciousness. The self exists before, in and after the various states of consciousness= wakeful, dream and sleep. (enial of consciousness means denial of everything else. Hence, mind and self are not identical. The self is knower kshetrajna%, the seer drasta%, the witness sakshi %, and the immutable kutastha%. The composite whole of chit and achit consciousness and matter%, kshetrajna and kshetra knower and known%, karta and karana doer and its instrument% is the total personality called Jiva and Jivatman - the embodied self. Jiva the individual%, Purusha the person%, Samsari the worldly person%, Vijnanaghana/Vijnanatma, Prajna, Atma/Pratyagatma, Sariri , Karta, Bhokta, and Kshetrajna are synonymous.
This concept of manas had existed in the upanishadic teaching as cosmic soul. The 7panishads use two other terms for the soul, vi!. bhoktaexperiment% and karta agent%, they together emphasi!e the psychological or conscious aspect of the activity. The principle of unconscious activity is termed prana and that of conscious activity is termed as manas. The conscious side activity of soul is carried out by the manas with the aid of the &* indriyas= # of knowledge cakus, srota, tvak , ghrana, touch, smell and flavor% and # of action vak , pana, pada, payu andupastha, which are respectively the organs of speech, holding, moving, excretion and generation%.
/ognition= n ndian psychology, the root of the word "mind" was originally used in the sense of thinking and that of the "soul" in the sense of a substantial principle different from it, of which the physical body and development are manifestations.
Mind in Upanishads
The +itareya 7panishad gives the following as the names of manas= samjnana, ajana, vjana, prajnana, medhasdtisttidhrti , mati , manias, giti ,smuti , sankalp, kratu, a su, kama and vasa. The cognitive aspect of human nature was 2uantified in these descriptions. The functions of manas may be translated as to determine knowledge, feeling of lordship, differential cognition and intelligence. esides the word manas, the word citta is also used in this 7panishad. Chitta is what understands the pragmatic value of things.
Mind in Advaita Vedanta
8ind in the +dvaita is described as the internal organ antahkarna%. The external organs are instruments of either action or perception. Hands, feet, etc. are organs of activity3 eye, ear, etc. are organs of sense perception. The five sense organs have as their objects, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. 8ind is capable of establishing contact with all the external organs. The entire apparatus of the internal organs consists of four divisions= manas, buddhi, ahanakara and citta. The +dvaitins often include ahankar in manas and citta in buddhi , and divide antahkarna into budddhi and manas only.
Mind in the Purva Mimansa
The theory of mind according to >urva mimansa is different from +dvaita. The two leading exponents of the mimansa are >rabhakara and )umarila. +ccording to >rabhakara, manas is a substance dravya%, atomic anu%, eternal and extremely mobile. )umarila, like >rabhakara, treats manas as an organ indriya%. t is never operative apart from the body. +dvaita treats antehkarna as being composed of four divisions3 the mimansa as a whole treats it as being composed of only one entity manas.
Mind in the Samkhya and Allied Schools
The Samkhya account of mind is akin to that of the +dvaita3 mind is called antahkarna or inner organ and consists of only three divisions=buddhi , ahankara, and manas. !anas is called an indriya or organ, the number of indriyas thereby becoming && instead of &*. t has a special function to perform, namely, perceiving sukha pleasure% and dukkha pain%.
Atman or purusa is different from antahkarana. t is pure cit or consciousness. Antahkarna is due to the reflection of Atman in prakrti , which is composed of three gunas constituents%= sattva purity%, rajas activity% and tamas insensibility%. ?ut of prakrti comes mahat or buddhi 3 out of buddhi comes ahankara" out of ahankara comes manas and &* organs of sense and action.
!anas is regarded as both an organ of sense and an organ of action, for the reason that it directs the activities of both kinds of organs. +ll these mental processes, i.e. buddhi , ahankara, manas and the senses can operate either simultaneously or in succession.
Mind-in the yay and Vaisesika School
Atman, according to the 7panishads, is sat existence%, cit consciousness% and anand bless%. So, every form of happiness or pleasure, the +dvaita maintains, should be derived from the ananda of Atman.
+ccording to @yayavaisesika, Atman has &' 2ualities= buddhi knowledge%, sukha pleasure%, dukha pain%, iccha desire%, dvesa hatred%,yatna strivin g%, sankhya number%, pramiti si!e%, prathaktva distinctness%, amyoga contact%, vibhya separation%, bh avana imagination%,dharma merit% and adharma demerit%.
uddhist literature has no conception of manas apart from buddhi , citta, or vjnana. The concept of atman and pudgala are used interchangeably in uddhist school of thought. t designates self with soul atman%. They regarded it as being composed of five skandhasaggregates%= rupshandha or the aggregate of matter, vednanshandha or the aggregate of concept, sanskaraskandha or the aggregate of latent forces like instincts third skandha "samjna" means perception or the capacity to conceptuali!e things, and vijnanaskandha refers to the aggregate of consciousness. Averything except rupshandha is having psychological component. >ersonality is viewed just as an aggregate of aggregates.
Mind in !ainism The concept of manas in Bainism is neither a single function nor a single entity. The name is given to two different things - dravyamanas or substantial manas and bhavamanas or ideal manas. The former is the matter or pudgale and the latter is jnana or buddhi and so belongs to Atman. There is a material as well as spiritual manas. f we look at the analysis done by ndian authors, manas can be defined as a functional concept constituted by mood, thought, and intellect, which are nicely amalgamated and synchroni!ed and cannot function in isolation. They always function in unison. 0&&1
Affect " Indian Perspective
ndigenous contribution theory in this sphere is the theory of rasa. #asa is esthetic pleasure, which is said to be taken to the sublime bliss of Cod reali!ation rahmasradesahodara%. The 7panishads say that the nature of Braham is ananda bliss%.
The writers on alankara rhetoric, poetics% follow the upanishadic view and say that rasa is one and is Braham. ut it can take different forms, which are usually accepted as nine corresponding to nine bhavas emotions or sentiments%. They are sringara love%, una heorism%, karunapity%, adhbuta wonder%, hasya laughter%, bhayanak dread%, bi bhatsa disgust%, raudra fury%, and snata 2uiet or peace%. +t their base lie the corresponding dominant feelings of rati sexual craving%, utsaha energy%, soka sorrow%, vismaya astonishment%, hasa mirth%, bhaya fear%,yugupsa av ersion%, krodha anger% and nirveda self-disparagement%. esides the description of various rasas, they have been given different symbolic meanings in consonance with their respective nature. The furious, the terrible, the comic, the erotic, the pathetic, the horrible, the marvelous and the heroic are supposed to be red, black, white, dark gray, dark blue, orange and yellow, respectively.
nterestingly, pleasure sukha%, happiness pitti %, and bliss ananda% are supposed to form an ascending series. The neutral feeling which characteri!es the state of dispassion or indifference vairagya% is necessary for attaining the highest condition of the mind or soul. Higher feelings are those connected with spiritual elevation, e.g. contentment, peace, magnanimity, love, kindness, humility, honesty, etc. and those proceeding from an enlightened interest in the well-being of fellow greatness3 they are classified under the four forms= ma$tre, karuna, muditaand upeksa. The training to master the feeling and achieving the higher goals was inherent in our system, which is time and again reflected in modern psychology under adaptability and emotional 2uotient.
Conation " Indian Perspective
There are four ideals of life which prompt a man to act. They are dharma duty%, artha wealth%, kama desire% and moksa liberation%. Though a big part of voluntary action is connected with the obeying of scriptural injunctions, performance of appointed duties are the cultivation of spiritual disciplines. /onation occurs in the whole range of behavior of human philosophy. Bainism gives the longest list of actions that men perform for their moral elevation or undoing.
#ypes of $uman ature 8edical man undertook studies on human nature in terms of two main habits - the phthisis and apoplectic - or in terms of four humors, i.e. food, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. ndian medical classification categori!es men according to the preponderance of vayu mind%, pittabile%, and kapha phlegm%. The subse2uent classification systems of (r. )retshmer and (r. 5 Sheldon are e2ually comprehensive.
The (harma Sastra has given a psycho-sociological scheme of classification in order to establish the fourfold social structure catuvana% on the sattva, rajas, and tamas. 7nder the distinctive principle laws, karma and heredity are the determining factors in the development of human nature,
/araka= The exponent of the +yurveda system of medicine has analy!ed the human constitution as a mind-body complex, with a view to discovering the etiology of bodily and mental diseases and their remedies.
/arakaDs classification
+%
&. Brahmasattva type - Highly intellectual and moral 4. Aryasattva type - Andowed with care perception
6. Aindrasattva type - Anergetic powerful
'. %amyasattva type - Andowed with presence of mind
#. Varunassattva type - /alm but courageous
$. Kauberasattva type - Eond of family life
9. &andharvasattva type - Eond of music
% Eollowing are named after demonic and aggressive animal species in which the element of rajas predominates=
&. Asurasattva type - /haracteri!ed by physical prowess 4. #aksasa type - 8arked by enduring wealth, aggressively cruel
6. Paisava type - /owardly
'. Sarpa - Heroic in anger
#. Praithya - Foving food
$. Sakura - Civen to sensuous desires
/% The following are named after lower animals, vegetation. These are the classes wherein the element of tamas predominates. &. >asavasattva type - (irty in dress 4. 8atsyasattva type - Civen to anger
6. :anaspatya type - Fiving a purely vegetative life
/lassification of human nature in hagavad Cita is based on the main faculties of human mind= thinking, will, feeling knowledge, devotion and action%. They are being conceived as the margas or ways of life. The individuals in whom will prevails take to karma yoga. hakti marga pursues the path of devotion. The Cita attempts another classification of manDs nature according to his sraddga preponderant desire%, sattviki, rajasiki or tamasiki resulting from the dominating influence of the fundamental constituting components of sattva, rajas or tamas in life of desire.
#herapeutic Aspects of Indian Cultural #raditions
ndian cultural traditions call it religious rituals or customary traditions. +ll of them are nicely woven into the system providing cushioning impact. The supportive or reassuring aspect of ndian psychological intervention is built in within the network of relationships. The nurturant aspect of relationships is the most uni2ue part of ndian culture. The significant word in the therapy is "arise" uthishthe%. This arousal is from their areas of inactivity, from ignorance to knowledge, from apathy to a positive feeling and from inertia to purposeful activity. Cita brings out the ingredients of the relationship so well that )rishna considers his pupil as a friend capable of intelligent interrogation and exercising the power of discrimination. There is on the part of +rjuna, a total sense of surrender and readiness to be instructed and to be told what is to be done. The master and the pupil in Cita display what is extremely necessary for a rapport. The counseling on the battle field was akin to crisis intervention and a noteworthy brief intervention. The immense potentiality in resources of human mind is brought about in the discourse on the battle field. These parameters indicate Cita as a masterpiece of psychotherapy touching upon every aspect of mental activity.
@asto 8ohan Smritit Fabdha tvatprasadhanmayacyuta
Sthitosrigatsamsehah
)arisyecacnamtava "8y delusion is destroyed. have regained my memory through your grace +chyuta. am firm. am free from doubt. shall act according to your word."
These psychotherapeutic traditions provided a global framework of physical psychological and spiritual health. The rescue from teen jap-addhi, uyaadhi and upaadhi was the goal of these traditions.
#he %uddhist tradition
The way of @irvana was provided by the uddhist tradition. >sychology of @irvana considered @irvana to be the goal of mental health. @irvana is attained as a result of transformation - a transformation is a state of self-fulfillment, realistic self-evaluation, freedom from inner conflicts and a stable emotional life.
#he yogic tradition ;oga means union -union of the individual consciousness with cosmic consciousness. The ancient ndians set a high value on introspection and reflection. Through the meticulous study and practice of ;oga, they perfected their faculty of intuition, attained serenity of mind, and made very careful analyses of the constitution of the mind and the mental processes. The uddha synthesi!ed and integrated the main ideas of the :edanta, Samkhya and ;oga schools, laying emphasis on the exercise of concentration, and developed the most comprehensive psychology of intuition, in which intuition was considered as a higher levelGform of consciousness or odhi. 0&41
#he %hakti tradition
Saheja is seen as an ideal of mental health. Saheja is both a process and a state characteri!ed by spontaneity, bringing about harmony with oneself and culminating into illumination.
/arl Custav Bung was significantly influenced by the teachings of the Aast, 0&61 Augene Taylor, in his book 0&'1 , on the history of spirituality, comments on the basis of existing trends that ndian psychology is bound to have an increasing influence on the world culture, especially as a new epistemology. t will be appropriate to conclude that the core of ndian psychology is its spiritual understanding. ts real value will show itself when this spiritual knowledge is used not only for individual liberation, as it has done in the past, but also for a comprehensive, collective transformation of life, and this has future implications. The ndian philosophy and ndian psychology has a treasure house of practical and spiritual knowledge as its heritage.
Conclusion
+n attempt has been made here to present, in brief, the main thrust of different schools of ndian philosophy in as much as it relates to an understanding of human personality and its behavioral paradigms. t is evident from the above that the vast reservoir of knowledge and wisdom that forms an inherent part of ndian philosophers and thinkers has much to offer to the students of psychology. The immense psychotherapeutic value that each school of thought individually offers is indeed promising to the mental health professionals.
http=GGwww.industrialpsychiatry.orgGarticle.aspissnI*<94-$9'J6yearJ6(4*&*J6volume J6(& slamic eliefs about Human @ature +ccording to the KurDan, +llah "created man from a clot of blood" at the same time he created the jinn from fire. L&MHumans are the greatest of all creatures, created with free will for the purpose of obeying and serving Cod. The KurDan includes a version of the biblical story of the fall of +dam KurDan 9%, but it does not conclude from it the doctrine of original sin as some /hristian theologians have. n the Kuranic version of the story, +dam and Ave begged CodDs forgiveness 9=46% and he punished them with a mortal life on earth but added, "from it 0earth1 you will be taken out at last" 9=4#%. Since +llah forgave the sins of the first pair, 8uslims believe, all are born in Al'(itra, a natural state of submission to +llah. L4M True repentance from sin returns a person to this original sinless state. +ccording to 8uslim theology, mankindDs chief failing is pride and rebellion. n their pride, humans attempt to partner themselves with Cod and thereby damage the unity of Cod. Thus pride is slamDs cardinal sin. The cardinal virtue, then, is submission, or islam. Neferences &. KurDan <$=&-6. 4. KurDan 4*=&44-46. http=GGwww.religionfacts.comGislamGbeliefsGhuman.htm &ualities of human life The status of life as a human, at first glance, has nothing very special about it. n the hierarchy of uddhist cosmology it is low but not entirely at the bottom. t is not intrinsically marked by extremes of happiness or suffering, but all the states of consciousness in the universe, from hellish suffering to divine joy to serene tran2uility can be experienced within the human world. Humans can be seen as highly favored, in that they have an immediate reason to seek out the (harma and yet also have the means to listen to it and follow it. +mong the lower realms, >retas aka hungry ghosts%, and dwellers in the @arakas uddhist hells%% are gripped by pain and fear, and can only endure their lot but cannot better themselves. +nimals are intellectually unable to understand the (harma in full. The way of life of the +suras is dominated by violence and antithetical to the teachings of the (harma. 8ost of the rahmas and (evas simply enjoy reaping the fruits of their past actions and think that they are immortal and forever to be happy and so they donDt try to practice the (harma. 5hen their past karmas have all had their result, these devas will fall into lower worlds and suffer again. The lowest sorts of devas deal with strife, love, and loss just as humans do, but even so they lack the spur of imminent mortality that can lead humans to seek, not merely a better future life, but an escape from sam OsPraaltogether. However there are stories of beings in these realms deciding to practice and reaching enlightenment. 041061 Eor this reason, life in the world of humans is known as "the precious human rebirth". orn close to the pivot point of happiness and suffering, humans have a uni2ue capacity for moral choices with long term significance.0'1 The human rebirth is said to be extremely rare. The 8ajjhima @ikaya &4< alapandita Sutta% compares it to a wooden cattle-yoke floating on the waves of the sea, tossed this way and that by the winds and currents. The likelihood of a blind turtle, rising from the depths of the ocean to the surface once in a hundred years, putting its head through the hole in the yoke is considered greater than that of a being in the animal realm, hungry ghost realm or hell realm achieving rebirth as a human. This is because, according to the sutta, in these realms there is no (hamma Sanskrit (harma%, no practicing what is right, no doing what is wholesome, and no performing of merit. However it is generally implied that if one is already living as a human they will continue to be reborn in the human world based on good works and so they will be one again and again as long as they are moral and good in the ways described in uddhist rules regardless of whether or not they are uddhist themselves. The idea is that one must be good and moral because falling below the human realm is dangerous as the odds of one becoming a human again with any great fre2uency is slim. 0#1 +mong humans there are also better and worse conditions for attaining enlightenment. esides being born as a human, the favorable conditions for obtaining enlightenment are= eing born a human at a time when a uddha has arisen, has taught the (harma, and has left a Saṅgha that carries on the teachings3 at such times there is a chance to learn the (harma. eing born a human in countries where the (harma is known. uddhist commentaries contrast the "central lands" where uddhism is known and can be practiced originally just northern ndia, but now including a much larger portion of the globe% with "border countries" where uddhism is unknown or cannot be practiced due to legal or practical impediments, for instance, a lack of 2ualified teachers. Technically a "central land" is one which possesses any one of the uddhist saṅghas of bhiks Ous, bhiks Oun O Qs, upPsakas or upPsikPs. eing born a human who has the physical and intellectual capacity to grasp the basic message of the (harma. +ccepting the relationship between good or evil actions and their conse2uences, believing that good actions will lead to a happier life, a better rebirth or to enlightenment. /onfidence in the moral teachings conveyed in the :inaya. +voiding crimes against people and against the (harma. 0$1 Having sincere compassion for other people. Bust as it is difficult to obtain birth as a human, it is also difficult to be born at the time when a uddhaDs teaching is still available. ?ut of the infinite kalpas incredibly long periods% in time, most have no uddhas appearing in them at all. The present kalpa is called "Eortunate" because it is said that &,*** uddhas will appear in it, something that is very unusual.091 Eor this reason, uddhist teachers say that oneDs present condition as a human should be valued very highly, and not allowed to slide by, as the combination of existence as a human and the presence of a uddhaDs teaching may not come again for a very long time. +ny human, in this view, who finds himself or herself in a position to learn the (harma, would be remiss if he or she did not take advantage of it. This view also stands in contrast to those who would claim that, if one is to be reborn multiple times, there is no need to worry about oneDs actions in this life as they can always be amended in the future3 rather, there is no assurance that in a long series of lives one will ever obtain the right circumstances for enlightenment, so it is important to sei!e the day. 5ith regard to a fortunate human life, >abongka Ninpoche said= "nstead of feeling so much regret when we lose our money, we should develop regret when we waste our human life." 01 'edit(Myth of human origins +ccording to the +ggaRRa Sutta (@.49%, humans originated at the beginning of the current kalpa as deva-like beings reborn from the bhPsvara deva-realm. They were then beings shining in their own light, capable of moving through the air without mechanical aid, living for a very long time, and not re2uiring sustenance. ?ver time, they ac2uired a taste for physical nutriment, and as they consumed it, their bodies became heavier and more like human bodies3 they lost their ability to shine, and began to ac2uire differences in their appearance. Their length of life decreased, they differentiated into two sexes and became sexually active. Eollowing this, greed, theft and violence arose among them, and they conse2uently established social distinctions and government and elected a king to rule them, called 8ahPsammata, "the great appointed one". Some of the kings of ndia in the uddhas day claimed descent from him. 'edit(ature of the human realm n the visionary picture of the human realm presented in uddhist cosmology, humans live on four continents which are, relatively speaking, small islands in a vast ocean that surrounds the axial world- mountain of Sumeru, and fills most of the AarthDs surface. The ocean is in turn surrounded by a circular mountain wall called /akravPd Oa Sanskrit% or /akkavPl Oa >Pli% which marks the hori!ontal limit of the earth. ecause of the immenseness of the ocean, the continents cannot be reached from each other by ordinary sailing vessels, although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled, communication between the continents was possible by means of the treasure called the cakraratna >Pli cakkaratana%, which a cakravartin and his retinue could use to fly through the air between the continents. The four continents are= !am%udv)pa Sanskrit% or !am%ud)pa >Pli% or 南阎浮提洲 阎浮提 is also translated as 赡部 in /hinese% is located in the south. P*rvavideha or Pu%%avideha or 东毗提诃洲 毗提诃 is also translated as 胜身% is located in the east. Aparagod+n)ya or Aparagoy+na or 西瞿陀尼洲 瞿陀尼 is also translated as 牛货% is located in the west. Uttarakuru or 北俱卢洲 is located in the north. http=GGen.wikipedia.orgGwikiGHumanUbeingsUinUuddhism @o age knows so much and so many things about human nature as does ours, yet no age knows less about what man really is. Having lost their awareness of Cod, many people today are concerned primarily with their present existence. The loss of awareness of Cod makes many people uncertain about the meaning of life, because it is only in reference to Cod and His revelation that the nature and destiny of human life can be truly understood. The 2uestion of human nature has been a consistent concern in the history of 5estern thought. n chapter & we noted that, historically, most /hristians have defined human nature dualistically, that it consists of a material, mortal body and an immaterial, immortal soul which survives the body at death. eginning with the Anlightenment a philosophic movement of the &th century%, attempts have been made to define man as a machine that is part of a giant cosmic machine. Human beings hopelessly are trapped within a deterministic universe and their behavior is determined by such impersonal and involuntary forces as genetic factors, chemical secretions, education, upbringing, and societal conditioning. >eople do not have an immaterial, immortal soul, only a mortal, material body that is conditioned by the determinism of the cosmic machine. This depressing materialistic view that reduces human beings to the status of a machine or an animal negates the iblical view of man created in the image of Cod. nstead of being "like Cod," human beings are reduced to being "like an animal." >erhaps as a response to this pessimistic view, various modern pseudo-pagan cults and ideologies like the @ew +ge% deify human beings. 8an is neither "like an animal" or "like Cod," he is god. He has inner divine power and resources that await to be unleashed. This new humanistic gospel is popular today because it challenges people to seek salvation within themselves by tapping into and releasing the powers and resources that slumber within.