Thought Reform and Totalism the Psychology of the LDS Church Missionary Training Program by Scott D

Thought Reform and Totalism The Psychology of the LDS Church Missionary Training Program By Scott D. Miller ttempts at human manipulation have focused program of reeducation. In other words,. occurred in virtually every society in his- the term brainwashing represents the process tory, from as far back as the early Mosaic through which some outside agent--be it thera- A ritual to today’s secular self-help programs. pist, communist, or religious leader--attempts to. In recent decades, however, dramatically reform the thoughts of another. Thought reforma- new approaches to reeducation have ap- tion, then, is the essence of the brainwashing, peared. These modern-day methods first received phenomenon. public attention in the 1950s, when American In addition to thought reform, brainwashing journalist Edward Hunter coined the term brain- also attempts to achieve ideological formalism, an washing to characterize indoctrination activities all-or-nothing behavior change which replaces a of the Communist party in Red China (see Brain- person’s normal ideological convictions with washing in Red China). Unlike earlier attempts at fanatic, exclusive, totalistic preoccupations with behavior control, these new approaches have, the controlling belief system. Individuals affected through advances irt psychology, achieved a in this manner, for example, may be observed to degree of sophistication that gives today’s ma- adopt abruptly new, uncommon behavior, in- nipulators a better chance of succeeding where cluding shaving their heads, ~radically altering: their predecessors may have failed. clothing or living arrangements, or severing Despite its historical image, brainwashing is long-time social and familial rellationships. not "an all powerful, irresistible, unfatlhomable, Unlike normal education, then, brainwashing and magical method of achieving total control or thought reformation tends to seek totalitarian over the human mind" (Robert J. Lifton, Thought control over the person rather than enhance- Reform and the Psycholo,~y of Totalism, p. 4). Rather, it ment of personal autonomy. Reason,. critical is an entirely real and ~aonmystical process aimed thinking, and logic are usually placed i~ subser- at either reforming or strengthening existing pat- vience to emotion, simplified thinking, and. terns of thought through a highly specialized and obedience--that is, if they are given any credence

24 SUNSTONE whatsoever. Likewise, access to available infor- Mormon missionaries undergo intense training mation vital to the decision-making process is in a variety of areas such as proselyting, lan- either completely restricted from the person or guage, spirituality, and etiquette. Interestingly, befuddled in biased group rhetoric. (Richard this training process embodies a number of sig- Delgado, Society, March-April 1980, pp. 26, 28.) In nificant parallels to the eight criteria of thought sum, the educational process involved in reform outlined by Dr. Lifton. A comparison of the thought-reform environment is one of these eight themes with MTC methods provides constriction. insight into missionary training procedures and Through his extensive studies on thought raises important ethical questions. reform, Dr. Robert J. Lifton has outlined eight I. Milieu Control. This first criterion is defined dominant psychological themes recurrent in the as an attempt "to establish domain over not only underlying educational processes in thought- the individual’s communication with the outside reform environments. Those eight themes are: (all that he sees and hears, reads and writes, (1) milieu control; (2) mystical manipulation; (3) experiences and expresses) but also ... over the demand for purity; (4) personal confession; what we may speak of as his communication with (5) the acceptance of basic group dogma as himself" (Lifton, Thought Reform, p. 240). Experts sacred; (6) the constriction or "loading" of the in the study of thought reform agree that this language; (7) the subordination of person to doc- element is the most basic feature of the thought- trine; and (8) the dispensing of existence. Accord- reform environment (Delgado, Society, p. 27). ing to Lifton, these themes may be used as "a set Indeed, the control of stimuli impinging upon the of criteria against which any environment may individual creates the optimum psychological be judged" by considering first the total number disposition for successful reform. of themes present in a given environment and Milieu control disrupts the individual’s normal second the degree to which that environment balance between self and the outside world. Con- enforces each theme. (Lifton, Thought Reform, trol of external, environmental input and inter- p. 420. In order to better fit the religious mode of nal, individual reflection deprives the individual thought reform, these themes have been modern- of the ability to test the reality of his environ- ized and altered according to J. T. Underleider ment and to maintain an identity that is separ- and D. K. Wellisch, American Journal of Psychiatry, ate from it. March 1979, p. 219.) There appear to be a number of elements pres- THE LDS MISSION EXPERIENCE ent in the MTC and mission field resembling this As part of its proselytizing program, The criterion of milieu control. Indeed, the rigid con- Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints pre- trol and regulation of the Mormon missionary pares its missionary force through a highly environment is perhaps the most basic character- sophisticated process of education. A central part istic of the MTC and mission field. One is hard- of this process occurs during the missionaries’ pressed to find an area of missionary life that is stay at the Missionary Training Center (here- not governed by some regulation. after referred to as the MTC). During a period Both the MTC and the mission field have that lasts from two to eight weeks at the center, established rules regulating what is to be seen,

SUNSTONE 25 heard, read, written, experienced, expressed, and environment" (Lifton, Thougi~t Reform, p. 422). thought. For example: These manipulations are intended to enhance ¯ Missionaries follow a rigid schedule of daily the validity and omniscience of the prevailing activities from 6:00 A.M. until 10:30 r’.M., seven ideology and leadership through mystical expe- days a week. Deviation from the schedule is riences. However, such experiences are usually not tolerated. There are no vacations, and only generated through entirely nonmystical pro- a day of free time per week. This day is to be cesses, such as the direct manipulation of indi- used for completion of "worldly" necessities. vidual emotional variables and the exte.nsive use Often part or all of that free time is set aside in of post-hoc reasoning (the fallacious assumption order to proselyte. of a cause-effect relationship) or self-fulfilling ¯ Missionaries are always assigned to a same-sex prophecy (behavior influenced by an observer’s companion whom they are required to "be with expectations). According to experts, the more Rules at all times" (Missionary Handbook, p. 19). Mis- mystical or unprovable the supposed relation- regulate what sionaries are never to be alone and are instructed ship between cause and effec~t or prophecy and always to address each other as either "elder" fulfillment, the more omniscient and chosen the is to be seen, or "sister."’ interpreters of that relationship appear to be. heard,, read, ¯ The MTC and mission field employ an elabo- rate reporting system. Missionaries are en- The MTC and the mission fMd use such forms written, expe- couraged to comment on their companions to of mystical manipulation. The practices; surround- rienced, ex- various representatives in the mission leader- ing goal-setting in the MTC, for example, seem pressed, and ship. Each missionary writes a weekly letter to to involve direct manipulation of individual emo.- the mission president and district leader. Dis- tional variables: thought. trict leaders report to zone leaders, and they in Within the first week’s stay at the MTC, mis- turn to the assistants to the president. (cf. sionaries were at one time required to set goals Lifton, Thought Reform, p. 421.) for the number of discussio~ts or proselytizing ¯ Missionaries are required to read only Church- presentations (eight in all) that they would published books and magazines. This is usually memorize during their eight-week stay. Im- interpreted as including the LDS standard mediately preceding a formal goal-setting works, James E. Talmage’s Jesus the ,Christ and session, the missionaries were shown the BYU The Articles of Faith, the Ensign, and the Church production, John Baker’s Last .Race. Imrnediately News (Missionary Handbook, p. 14). thereafter, the missionaries were removed to ¯ Missionaries are not allowed to watch tele- their respective classrooms to set goads. Inter- vision, listen to the radio or modern music, estingly, research has shown that this film, read newspapers, magazines, books,, or other which portrays a young man’s struggle against~ literature. cancer and revolves around a theme of persis- ¯ Correspondence is regulated in various ways. tence, instills in the audience a tendency to There are no phone calls allowed to home or persist longer at problem-solving tasks for friends, and"no correspondence.., within the which no solution exists (Scott D. Miller, "The mission boundaries" is allowed eithel~ (Mission- Effects of Positive Affective Modeling on ary Handbook, p. 14). Persistence-related Tasks," Unpublished paper’, ¯ At times, tape recorders and. tape recorded 1982). messages have been prohibited in the MTC. ¯ Missionaries are to "put out of [their] lives all thoughts and discussions of home, school, girl friends, and worldly things" (Missior,~ary Hand- book, p. 20). To this end, missionaries are often encouraged to dewgte every momertt to missionary work. Time spent waiting in meal lines, for example, is considered a good oportunity to read the missionary pamphlets or memorize scriptures and discussions. Space does not permit an elucidation of the many other examples of apparent regulation of the LDS missionary environment. The important thing to note is that milieu control[ does not consist of any one of these examples but is the result of their powerful combination in a single environment. 2. Mystical Manipulation. Following milieu control, the practitioner of thought reform attempts "to provoke specific patterns of behavior and emotion in such a way that [these patterns] will appear to have arisen spontaneously from the

~ SUNSTONE More recent examples of mystical manipula- Reform, p. 425). tion from the MTC are attributable to either the Personal confession appears to play an impor- use of post-hoc reasoning or self-fulfilling pro- tant role in the entire missionary process. For phecy. For example, one mission required that example: missionaries wear black derby hats during win- ¯ A candidate for missionary work is interviewed ter months. Missionaries reluctant to don the by his bishop with a series of questions con- out-of-style hats were told that because they cerning the candidate’s worthiness. At this refused to participate, they, as well as their fel- time, the prospective missionary is expected to low missionaries, would not be able to find con- confess any unrepented sins. Thereafter, the verts. Such predictions and explanations, sincere candidate is given another interview, this time and uncomical, appear to be the rule in the mis- by the stake president, who asks the same sionary environment. questions. In some cases, General Authorities 3. Demand for Purity. Here, the thought-reform or the First Presidency may be asked to inter- The environment attempts to polarize the world of view a prospective missionary (Spencer W. thought the individual into the ideology’s preconceived Kimball, Ensign, October 1974, pp. 2-14). reform envi- definitions of purity and impurity: "The good ¯ Confession continues in the MTC with weekly and the pure," observes Lifton, "are of course ronment gener- those ideas, feelings, and actions which are con- inerviews with the district leader and biweekly sistent with the totalist ideology" (Lifton, Thought interviews with the branch president. Too, ally asserts Reform, p. 423). The criteria for purity are gener- missionaries are constantly urged to clear away, that its basic ally defined through the establishment of regula- through confession, any pending or new sins. dogma is tions extending into every aspect and domain of 5. Acceptance of Basic Group Dogma as Sacred. The individual life. Further, absolute compliance with thought-reforming environment generally asserts sacred. regulations is demanded in order that purity be that its basic dogma is sacred. Therefore, indi- maintained and the greater mission--always de- viduals are usually required to dispense with the pendent upon the purity of the group-- "ordinary concerns of logic" and on faith accept accomplished. the dogma as absolute truth. Lifton points out How does this result in thought reformation? that these totalistic assertions of sacred dogma Lifton explains: "By defining and manipulating and concomitant rejections of ordinary logic are the criteria for purity, and then by conducting an usually "evident in the prohibition (whether or all-out war upon impurity the [controllers] create not explicit) against the questioning of basic a narrow world of [individual] guilt and shame" assumptions and in the reverence which is de- (Thought Reform, p. 424). Such feelings of guilt and manded for the originators of the Word, the shame are then easily manipulated to achieve present bearers of the Word, and the Word itself" individual rededication and reformation. (Thought Reform, pp. 427-28). As already demonstrated, the MTC and mis- This aura of sacredness, prohibition against sion field are highly regulated environments. It questioning, and required reverence of officials also seems evident that these environments allows the individual to escape effectively the operate under high demand for purity as out- resonsibility of making decisions. Over time, lined by mission leadership and LDS church individuals learn to censor their own decisions policy. For an example, one need look only to and instead submit to the decisions of those in the stringent rules governing missionary sexual control. Erich Fromm has called this phenom- behavior or the constant emphasis on sexual pur- enon of the totalitarian environment "escaping ity found in the missionary environment (Mis- from freedom" (Escape from Freedom). sionary Handbook, pp. 13, 14, 15, 20). Here again, the MTC and mission field appear 4. Personal Confession. In the thought-reform to use Lifton’s criteria. For example, missionaries environment, there is usually a great deal of per- are frequently instructed that questioning the sonal confession, often occurring in combination dogma or criticizing the leadership hinders the with the theme of demand for purity. In this process, work of God. To this end, any thought or action the environment enacts rigid and extensive regu- which questions the sacredness of the dogma, lation, follows those enactments with the de- the logic of the assumptions, or the dictates of mand that all regulations be observed, and con- the leaders brings immediate rebuke. cludes by insisting that each infraction be con- 6. Constriction or "Loading" of the Language. In this fessed to the appropriate authorities. In such a process, language is "characterized by the thought- manner, where "sinfulness is artificially induced, terminating cliche. [In other words,] the most ... confession becomes a means of exploiting far-reaching and complex of human problems rather than offering solace for [personal] vulner- are compressed into brief, highly reductive, de- abilities" (Lifton, Thought Reform, p. 425). finitive-sounding phrases, easily memorized and Lifton describes such personal confession acts easily expressed" (Thought Reform, p. 429). Such as "a means of maintaining a perpetual inner loading of the language works to constrict the emptying or psychological purge of impurity .... verbal capabilities of the individual. Since the self surrender .... and total exposure" (Thought human experience of thought and feeling are

SUNSTONE 27 dependent upon that capability, constriction of 8. The Dispensing of Existence. In this last criterion, the language results in impaired intellectual "the conviction [is] that there is just one path to functioning. true existence, just one valid mode of being, and It is not difficult to find examples of language that all others are perforce invalid and fake..’" constriction in the MTC and mission field. Per- According to Lifton, the notion is conveyed to haps the most obvious occurrence of language- individuals in the thought-reform erwironment loading in these environments is the use of the that the prevailing ideology is "the ultimate standardized missionary discussions. In these moral vision for the ordering of hu~nan exis- discussions, complex issues are reduced into tence" (Thought Reform, pp. 434, 42.7). In this brief, authoritative-sounding statements to be manner, meaningful existence becomes equated memorized by the missionary. Indeed, recent with an individual’s acceptance of group dogma. revision has further’ reduced their length and Such acceptance of basic dogrna is also enhanced The MTC complexity to levels compatible witlh a fifth- by the consensual validation offered the indi- and mission grade education. Furthermore, in the past even vidual through the group. In other wolrds, those field clearly personal testimony has been rehearsed, with the who accept or rally the group ideology are them.- discussions pointing out when the missionary selves accepted and rallied. They become a part of promote Inter- was to bear testimony and what generally was the "good" or the "worthy," part ot! the all- pretations of life to be said. Missionaries are directed to deliver encompassing mission. Simply put, they are the discussions eitlher as outlined or word granted existence or being. For those who are events consis- perfect to prospective converts. convinced in this manner, any question or serious tent witll their logical contemplation of the ideology becomes a Other examples of this criterion in the MTC questioning of personal existence~-a crisis of purpose. and the mission field include: being versus nothingness. Such a technique ¯ After three days’ stay in the MTC, foreign- effectively prevents individual question of group language missionaries are required to speak dogma. only in their mission language (the "Speak For young LDS members, the dispensing of exi:;- Your Language" or SYL program). Not surpris- fence appears to begin much earlier than upon ingly, the materials are highly loaded with their arrival at the MTC as a missionary. From vocabulary items specific to the LDS faith and childhood, Mormons are taught that theirs is the missionary work. "only true and living church upon the face of the ¯ In many instances, missionaries are instructed whole earth" (D&C 1:30). Those who deny this to memorize the Missionary Handbook containing faith and apostatize may become "sons of perdi- mission policy and regulations. tion," residing in "outer darkness." Such are "the icy and regulations. only ones upon whom the second death shall have any power," and "it had been better for 7. Subordination of Person to Doctrine. Thi:~ criterion them never to have been born’" (D&C 76:37, 32’,t. is imposed in the thought-reform environment Such teachings may explain in part the extra- in an attempt to create a schism between actual ordinary devotion many Mormons give to their human experience and the interpretati.on of that Church and mission leaders. experience by the prevailing ideology. Specifi- This theme is also found in the encouragement cally, individuals are required to accept on faith young Mormons receive to serve a missio~t. the ideology’s interpretation of past, present, Recent leaders have begun advocating tlhat every and future events. Personal or outside interpre- LDS male prepare to serve a mission. As a result,. tations of those same events are considered parents, Church teachers and’~ leaders instruct "unorthodox" and are to be disregarded. As Mormon males to anticipate and prepare for that a result, in.dividuals are thrust further into day when they will leave to serve a miss!ton. Such the reforming influences present in their teaching and preparation appears to act as a pre- environment. disposing influence, eliminating the possibility of The MTC and the mission field clearly pro- a negative decision regarding mission service. mote interpretations; of life events consistent with their purpose. For example, one mission ETHICAL AND THEOLOGICAL CONCERNS required missionaries to leave their res:idences to The preceding analysis indicates that the begin missionary work by 9:25 A..M. instead of by Mormon missionary environment uses a number 9:30 ?,.M. as specified in the Missionary Handbook (p. of strategies similar to those operating in tradi-- 15). The extra five minutes, the missionaries tional thought-reform environments. Charges were told, would prove to the Lord that the mis- that the Church employs such an approach to sionaries really wanted to baptize. Thereafter, achieve its goals demand careful consideratio~t, missionaries not leaving their homes by 9:25 A.M. particularly because of moral repugnance that were criticized for hindering the work of God. resides in the notion of "brainwashing" and the The acceptance of such an interpretation acts to ethical and theological issues it raises. enhance the supposed orthodoxy of the mission- In defense of such methods, some have argued ary. The missionary environment contains many that thought reform already permeates most: other examples of this practice. areas of human life. Television, advertising, mili-

28 SUNSTONE Additionally, the use of such educational methods raises an important theological issue. It should be remembered that the thought-reform milieu attempts to arrange the environment in such a manner that individual choice and careful consideration are eliminated. As a result, individuals are manipulated into adopting systems of belief and action which, under circumstances conducive to choice and consideration, might be completely different. Such forced choice (coer- cion) appears to conflict with basic LDS theology. Indeed, Joseph Fielding Smith remarks that it was "Satan’s plan in the beginning.., to compel" The and that free agency "is a divine principle .... the only principle upon which exaltation can come" entire Issue (Joseph Fielding Smith, Doctrines of Salvation, 1:70). of thought re- LDS scripture and literature are replete with form can be similar statements stressing the eternal verity of choice and free agency. Therefore, the existence viewed as symp- of influences in the Mormon missionary environ- tomatic of ment detrimental to these doctrines seems not a a larger little ironic. tary training schools, alcohol and drug-abuse concern. centers are often cited as examples of its practice. At present, there appears to be little indication Generally, the use of such methods in these that the LDS leaders will revise the missionary instances is looked upon favorably. After all, such training program in the near future. In fact, the practices appear to be motivated by a justifiable Church’s Evaluation Correlation Committee has goal, the betterment of mankind. Too, the use of hired a battery of social scientists and has appro- these processes in organizations such as the mili- priated an estimated half-million-dollar annual tary, law-enforcement, and self-help programs budget in order to identify the variables often tends to enhance their validity and acceptance. present in religious conversion and missionary What harm, then, can there be in the LDS church indoctrination. This study is intended to produce utilizing this approach to convert the world to better institutionable, programmatic, and pro- the gospel of Jesus Christ? ductive missionary programs. As an additional defense, it might be noted that Perhaps the entire issue of thought reform in the MTC merely employs a sophisticated, rapid, the LDS missionary environment can be viewed and apparently effective process of educating as symptomatic of a larger concern. Erich Fromm missionaries along such dimensions as language, illustrates how small organizations experiencing culture, and proselyting techniques. Indeed, these massive growth typically turn toward totalitarian accomplishments have been recognized as ex- methods in maintaining and controlling their tremely successful by significant outside agen- membership (Escape from Freedom, p. 304-27). Sim- cies, including the armed services, international ilarly, as membership in the LDS church has businesses, language training experts, and others grown at impressive rates over the last few (Marvin K. Gardner, Ensign, October 1983, pp. decades, so has the tendency toward more cen- 12-13). At every turn, the methods used to tralized control and comprehensive management. accomplish this work seem to be prompted by As long as such tendencies persist, "liberty of altruistic desires to further God’s plan or practi- thinking and believing as [one] please[s]" which cal considerations in managing the training of Joseph Smith saw as characteristic of the Latter- such a large and diverse body of young people. day Saint religion, will be in jeopardy (History of the Unfortunately, indications of effectiveness and Church, 5:340; 5:215). piety of purpose overlook the fundamental ethical problem in thought-reform environments. The underlying processes involved in such indoctrination procedures, while useful in enforcing group cohesion, deter the expression of individuality. Indeed, when conformity, stereotyping, and group goals are placed above the worth of the individual, individuality ceases to exist. While secular organizations such as corporate entities, businesses, or the armed services may thrive in such sterile environments, it seems to me that SCOTT D. MILLER graduated cure laude from Brigham Young the religious experience ought to remain a deeply University in psychology and is working as a graduate assistant in personal, individual experience. the counseling psychology program at the University of Utah.

SUNSTONE 29