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Genocide and nationalism share common the Serbian etnicko ciscenje, which began to etymological roots: genocide derives from be used widely in the global media since the ancient Greek genos (stirp, race, kind, cate- the 1990s. Initially, it was a more ‘benign’ gory, overlapping with class, tribe and people), way to describe the same unspeakable event, subsequently leading to the Latin gens.1 genocide. Nationalism comes from the Latin verb nascor, The exaltation of a dominant nation as supe- nasci , natus sum (to be born), later leading to rior to all others, particularly subaltern groups, the substantive natio, nationis. The suffix -cide, inevitably leads to a series of discriminatory from the Latin caedo, caedere, cecidi, caesus acts against competing nations, ranging from (to cut (down) or kill), has been added onto assimilation and marginalization to genocide. the Greek root.2 The world itself was coined The role of central governments and the mili- in 1944 by the Polish-born US jurist Raphael tary appears to be crucial in most instances of Lemkin (1944: 19). A new term needed indeed genocide, together with media censorship and to be minted as humanity emerged from a popular misinformation. crime without historical antecedents, the Since they developed often simultaneously, a Holocaust (Hebrew, Shoah). Since the combi- crucial question arises: how intense is the rela- nation of genocide and nationalism character- tionship between nationalism and genocide? ized the darkest era of human history and Nationalism is the doctrine that ‘the rulers occurred during the past century, both are should belong to the same ethnic (that is, often associated with modernity and rapidly national) group as the ruled’ (Gellner 1983: 1). modernizing societies. Moreover, both relate to The doctrine assumes that a ruler belonging to a third set of terms also describing common an alien nationality or ethnic group is illegiti- descent and membership in a single ‘extended mate (Connor 2004). However, the inverse family’: ethnicity, ‘ethnie’ and ethnic group. formula is a sure recipe for ethnic cleansing, In its original Greek connotation, ethnos was forced assimilation, mass deportation and already associated with the idea of shared genocide: to claim that the inhabitants of a spe- descent and lineage.3 The term ‘ethnic cleans- cific constituency must share the same ethnic ing’ has various origins, but its contemporary lineage of its leaders is to give carte blanche to popular usage is a verbatim translation of mass expulsion and the drastic re-drawing of Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 321

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boundaries to suit the group’s pedigree. with German and other Western nationalists. Nationalism also holds that ‘nation and political So the Young Turks movement was inspired power should be congruent’ (Gellner 1983: 1). by, and mimicked, its post-1789 Western This longing for congruence, or ethnopolitical archetypes. Paradoxically, the main victims of purity, is the historical hallmark of most Turkey’s secular and anti-Islamic nationalism nationalist attempts to erase ethnic distinctive- were non-Muslim minorities which had previ- ness by homogenizing entire populations. ously enjoyed protection and prosperity under Nationalism was generally accompanied by the more liberal ‘consociational’ laws of the assimilationism which, in turn, entailed an Ottoman Empire (Mann 2005: 62, 114–19; effort to absorb or eliminate cultural minorities. Nimni 2005: 10, 79). The very intolerant nature of the assimilation- ist modern state has created the preconditions for turning its unprecedented powers against MODERNITY, GENOCIDE AND hapless minorities (van den Berghe 1990, THE NATION-STATE 1992). This was made easier by the fact that nationalist mobilizations were either ushered or accompanied by state militarism. Hence The twentieth century has been widely recog- ethnopolitical, ideological and religious oppo- nized as the century of nationalism and geno- sition was marginalized and reconceived cide. Most historians and social scientists within a ‘discipline and punish’ framework are in concordance on this grim assessment of (Foucault 1991). the past century (see Carmichael 2005; Probably, the earliest avatar of this tragic Hobsbawm 1995; Kuper 1981; Levene 2000, trend was the (Melson 2005b; Melson 1996; Shaw 2003): Never before 1996). Large pogroms had already occurred in has been carried out on such a vast 1894–96, when Westernizing nationalism scale and in such a short span of time. emerged as an influential force, first in the Nationalism has become a truly ‘global’ Balkans, then among Turkish elites. But the political movement and the dominant ideol- 1914–16 mass extermination campaigns were ogy of modernity. From its European core, unprecedented by any humanly acceptable and it has slowly shifted and mutated, adapting recognizable standard. This was a direct conse- its chameleonic shape according to geography quence of rapidly modernizing state structures and history. Thus, the modern itinerary of emulating Western models and the ensuing col- genocide follows the trail of nationalism and lapse of empire (see also Mazower 1999, 2001; Westernizing modernity. McCarthy 1996).4 In other words, the Ottoman The connection between Westernization, Empire was then living under the simultaneous modernity, has become rela- impact of massive Westernization accompanied tively established in academia. These historical by territorial losses. Turkish nationalism devel- developments are strictly related to state forma- oped amongst the returning diaspora, particu- tion in an age of militarized nationalism. Thus, larly refugees from the Balkans and Russia. many Holocaust scholars describe genocide as These refugees often mimicked ‘modernizing’ an entirely modern and Western event with nationalism, particularly in the latter case its unprecedented systematicity and techno- (Lieven 2000: 134). bureaucratic dimension (Bauman 1989). The Westernization materialized also in the form French historian Léon Poliakov (1974) argued of victorious secessionist movements mobiliz- that was legitimized as a triumph ing their peoples behind ethnic banners and of Western civilization, the latter being con- attacking the empire from within – although ceived in terms of racial superiority against spu- they were most often supported from abroad. rious Oriental, non-Western influences which Young Turk army officials fought against suc- could imperil civilization from within and lead cessful nationalist uprisings in the Balkans and to its fatal decadence. Genocide is therefore ended up imitating them – while forging links intensively related to European inter-state Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 322

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rivalry, government expansion, imperialism and fear of armed mutinies and defenestration. To the state’s intrusion into the private realm via engage rogue elements of the army and the the consolidation of central power. Patriotism party in mounting spirals of massacres and and nationalism provided its ideological glue counter-massacres provided a vital ‘safety valve’ and emotional underpinning. for the continuity and survival of these leaders. The correlation between nationalism and But even the Reign of Terror during the French modernity largely depends on how the latter is Revolution could be seen as a sign of state weak- defined. Whether we identify modernity entirely ness or paranoid leadership. Yet,the sheer power within the philosophical (Enlightenment and of the state’s bureaucratic machine contributed post-Enlightenment), the political (French to mass murder on an unprecedented scale, such Revolution), the economic (ascent of the bour- as the Vendée massacre (1793–94). French his- geoisie), the scientific (Darwinism) or the tech- torians have debated whether this can be nological (Industrial Revolution) sphere, we can defined as the first modern genocide or ‘populi- find each of them well represented within cide’ (Lebrun 1985). State power was indeed radical nationalism, particularly . The further emboldened by nationalist fervour at latter was indeed inconceivable without, or the very peak of its ‘weakness’,leading to the first outside, modernity as intended in any of the levée en masse (August 1793). The impact above senses: it can be associated with the spread of state-led nationalist terror on ordinary of Jacobin-inspired centralism and state idolatry, people was in fact devastating. Hence, it is not the protection of bourgeois interests, the diffu- the state’s alleged ‘strength’ or ‘weakness’ which sion of ‘only-the-fittest-survive’ logic, and, matters, but the perception of personal threat finally, massive industrialization. experienced by state elites. This brings us to the role of the modern Yet, in all of the documented cases of geno- state and its bureaucratic-military machine. cide, the power of even the ‘weakest’ states was Basically, two trends have confronted each unmatched in comparison with the inade- other in : the ‘strong-state’ quate, futile means of self-defence available to thesis (Rummel 1994, 2003; Harff 1986; Harff isolated rural communities and other hapless and Gurr 1988; Horowitz 1980) and the ‘weak- targets of genocidal practices. state’ thesis (Bloxham 2003; Mann 2005; Although most interpretations of genocide Mommsen 1997). The former, often identified tend to be modernist or state-centred, it is as the intentionalist explanation, argues that essential to look briefly at the major alternative genocide is rooted in the absolute concentra- explanation linking genocide to the overseas tion of power into the hands of tiny elites. The expansion of Western empires. Colonial geno- latter, or functionalist explanation, diagnoses cides are therefore to be conceptually distin- its emergence in the collapse of empire, state guished from modern .5 disintegration, political chaos and other forms of state ‘weakness’. One view concentrates on the intention to kill, the other on the chain of ECOLOGICAL CATASTROPHE circumstances as they unfold independently AND IMPERIALISM from full governmental control. The structure– agency debate remains in fact a substantial cleavage in the literature. Historically, genocide occurred in the wake of However, it should be noted that the two both imperial expansion and disintegration. approaches are not incompatible. What matters Even before the conquest of the Americas, is the subjective perception of weakness experi- the fate of the indigenous Guanches of the enced by state elites, rather than any actual ‘Fortunate’ Islands (present-day Canaries) ‘weakness’ to be objectively measured. For anticipates a pattern of European expansion instance, ‘paranoid’ leaders, such as Saddam leading to cultural destruction, environ- Hussein, Stalin and the Young Turks, tended to mental collapse and physical extermination radicalize their oppressive policies out of sheer (Crosby 1986). Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 323

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Pre-modern genocides are often linked to from Kenya, Britain committed massive ecological disaster, rather than modern state- atrocities, establishing its own ‘gulag’ system to building and ideologies consciously aiming control the natives, ritually engaging in torture at the eradication of cultural differences. The and mass murder of children, elderly, disabled, worst instances occurred among settlers over women and men alike (Elkins 2005). As late which the imperial government had scarcely as 1968, the entire population of the ‘British any control – and eventually lost control after Indian Ocean Territory’ of Diego Garcia in the they declared independence. Thus, the newly Chagos Islands was secretly deported to leave independent states emerging from the decolo- space for a US air base (Curtis 2003: 414–30). nization of the Spanish Empire pursued their However, the end of empire can hardly com- genocidal campaign with even greater fervour. pare with its opposite and competing develop- Some areas, like southern Argentina, had ment, the advent of the modern state. Even been completely ‘cleansed’ of their indigenous more than with erstwhile empires, the key elements, while others, like Chile, nearly suc- legitimizing ideology of the new centralizing ceeded in the same goal, bar for surviving state was one of ‘unlimited progress’ and, in exceptions like the Mapuches. Not by chance, its totalitarian version, the promise of a new these countries were situated at the antipodes of society and a ‘new man’.This radical shift could Europe, at the further reaches from Madrid. only befall with modernity. Indeed, the more Likewise, the complete annihilation of rapidly modernization was imposed, the more Tasmania’s aborigines could more easily take genocidal it tended to become, independently place in an area most removed from direct from its association with nationalism. British rule. This interpretation has been advanced with particular sharpness by Michael Mann (2005: 70–110), who expands the mod- RAPID DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL ernist approach by incorporating the fate of CHANGE AND GENOCIDE Native Americans and other indigenous peo- ples. An important trend in genocide studies is now devoted to the study of what David The obsession with industrial-economic devel- Stannard (1992) has famously described as the opment and Westernization has been a recur- ‘American Holocaust’ (see also Churchill 1997). rent feature in most genocides. The concept of Mike Davis (2001) has observed how British ‘developmentalism’ can be useful in this rule was marked by cyclical regular ‘holo- context: it can be defined as the ruling elites’ causts’,during which the settlers and the impe- attempts to enforce rapid modernization upon rial core saw an opportunity to weaken the largely defenceless, disconnected, disorganized colonial peasantry and increase their depen- and mainly rural populations. The adjective dence on empire.6 This was the era of liberal ‘developmentalist’, with its ideological implica- dogmas justified by a blind belief in Adam tions, should be distinguished from the more Smith’s (1723–90) ‘invisible hand of the widespread term ‘developmental’, which may market’ as a self-regulatory mechanism of not refer to hastily implemented development, supply and demand. We can therefore discern but to a variety of other possible applications. implications for contemporary globalizing In most countries affected by developmental- trends, which Davis specifically links to envi- ism, peasants and workers have been systemat- ronmental degradation and climate change. ically uprooted. The peak of the tragedy was of It was not only expanding or pre-modern course reached under totalitarian regimes, empires which spawned genocide. Downsizing which turned citizens and peasants into pliable semi-authoritarian states or contracting auto- ‘masses’ through their overwhelming state cratic empires, such as the French in Algeria machines and justified this in the name of during the 1950s or the Ottoman in its death ‘progress’ and economic development. Extreme throws, occasionally display genocidal behav- developmentalism, or the obsession with ‘catch- iour (Melson 1992, 1996). Before withdrawing ing up’ with the West irrespective of its human Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 324

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costs, was already visible in the ‘desperately light of his anti-Western rhetoric. However, the modernizing’ drive of the Russian military well dictator and his entourage were avid devourers before the Bolshevik revolution (Mann 2005: of cowboy movies and other US consumerist 99), as well as in the Ottoman Empire before its items (Sebag-Montefiore 2004: 167–9 and 262). collapse (Mann 2005: 114–19). As in Turkey’s case, modernization was to be In the twentieth century, Taylorism became a achieved by Westernizing terror. Rapid mass key influence as a method of maximizing indus- industrialization led to the annihilation of trial efficiency and serializing mass production. Russian and Ukrainian kulaks and peasants This was essential in shaping the Soviet Union’s classes by either direct or indirect methods. NEP (New Economic Policy, 1921–1928) since Stalin’s extermination campaigns have pro- 1928. Lenin ‘saw Taylorism’s “scientific” meth- duced a voluminous body of literature. Mao’s ods as a means of discipline that could remould Great Leap Forward (1959–62) led to similar the worker and society along more controllable results. Over China’s long history, the worst and regularized lines … Lenin encouraged the ever mass famine was a direct consequence of cult of Taylor and of another great American Mao’s top-down industrialization, costing industrialist, Henry Ford, inventor of the egali- between 20 and 40 million Chinese lives tarian Model “T”, which flourished throughout (Mann 2005: 15–16, 334, 336; Shaw 2003: 158, Russia at this time: even remote villagers knew 166, 178). Mao’s rapid development plan the name of Henry Ford (some of them believed turned into the largest single case of mass he was a sort of god who organized the work of death in the whole twentieth century (Becker Lenin and Trotsky)’ (Figes 2002: 463). This cult 1997).8 China’s entire countryside was devas- for discipline and work became part of a wider tated as ‘a direct and foreseeable consequence militarization of society which reached its apex of Mao’s attempt to subordinate the peasantry under Stalin. Some radical Taylorists envisaged to his will. The Great Leap Forward was a indeed ‘the mechanization of virtually every policy of do-it-yourself industrialisation and aspect of life in Soviet Russia, from methods of agricultural change forced on the peasant class production to the thinking patterns of the com- to destroy their traditional way of life’ (Shaw mon man’ (Figes 2002: 463). 2003: 39, emphasis added). Shaw argues that Taylorism’s weight upon Hitler’s plans was similar forms of extreme developmentalism even more substantial:7 Only recently, the are still visible in China’s current rush to ‘mod- mutual admiration between the Führer and ernize’ (that is, Westernize) and its obsession Henry Ford has begun to attract scholarly atten- with economic ‘progress’. Many projects tion (Baldwin 2003; Gray 2003; Silverstein 2002; adopted by ruling elites in developing coun- Wallace 2003). By 1938, the more than 2000 km tries, such as Turkey and India, have led to Autobahn network began to surpass in exten- massive human dislocations, for instance to sion the United States’ highway system, while clear space for the building of huge dams. Hitler’s idea of a Volkswagen (car of the people) Saddam Hussein annihilated the millennial dated back as early as 1933, owing much to culture and livelihood of the Marsh Arabs after Ford’s Model T. Henry Ford’s extreme anti- drying out their wetland environment under semitic views also found a fertile reception in a 15-year reign of terror in the region. Hitler’s Germany (Baldwin 2003). In fact, at least Particularly affected are indigenous peoples in in its organizational and technological sphere, countries such as , Malaysia and the US model was posited as the ‘correct’ path to Brazil, with the destruction of rainforests for progress throughout the world well before the commercial goals (Shaw 2003). Cold War (Shaw 1994: 11). The concept of Even the one which, at least on the surface, ‘developmental dictatorship’ has been applied to appeared to be the least ‘industrializing’ the cases of Italy’s (Gregor 1979) and of these regimes, that of the Parisian-born Spain’s francoism (Saz 2004). in Cambodia, promoted the Further East, Stalin’s attempt to compete goal of remaking a totally new society, com- with the West has often been interpreted in the pletely detached from tradition and permeated Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 325

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by a collectivist ethos dedicated to the total highly manipulable mob which inevitably extirpation of all traces of religion (particu- opened the gateway to totalitarianism. larly Buddhism). The goal of the penal labour In short, nearly all of the genocidal regimes camps in which millions perished was rapid in history obeyed to a strong developmental development. The agricultural surplus pro- logic and Westernizing impetus. On the other duced by forced collectivization was expected hand, there is an area which finds scholars in to generate the income needed for heavy even greater agreement: the relationship industrialization by import–export (Chandler between war and genocide. 1993, 1999). The term ‘auto-genocide’ (self- genocide) has hence been used to distinguish the extreme distortion of nationhood by WAR AND GENOCIDE dictators such as and Atatürk through a deep-reaching subversion of history. Exter- minating one’s own people and culture appar- War situations typically lead to states of emer- ently do not contrast with the restoration of gency wrapped up in ‘securitization’ discourses. ancient monuments like Angkor Vat (the In these circumstances, even democratically largest temple in the world). elected governments can silence public opinion, The most problematic case was, of course, not dissimilarly from authoritarian-born that of Kemal Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal Pasha), regimes. In times of war, patriotism can be who could only conceive development as utter, invoked by both dictatorships and democracies remorseless and complete Westernization to target internal ‘enemies’, terrorists, deviants, (Atabaki and Zürcher 2004). This led him to outsiders and ‘security threats’,hence proceeding the extreme paroxysm of banning key elements to their elimination. War can be used as a cover of popular Turkish culture, such as the fez to destroy opposition and engineer ‘final solu- or tarboosh, a hat common to most Ottoman tions’.It is significant that the Holocaust’ s inten- Mediterranean lands, which he replaced with sity increased as German borders expanded Western, particularly British, hats and suits – eastward. Its quantum leap occurred on non- to the great benefit of Western textile indus- German soil, in the newly occupied lands of an tries.9 Rummel (1997: 233–6) calculates that expansionist Third Reich. 264,000 Greeks, 440,000 Armenians, as well as The relationship between war and genocide other minorities and countless Turks perished has been explored particularly well by Melson under his ‘reign of terror’. and Shaw. Both argue that genocide is actually Another important factor pointing to the ‘war carried out by other means’. For Melson relationship between developmentalism and (1992) it was the chaos brought by revolution, genocide is the use of new technology by dis- following war and empire meltdown which led proportionately powerful state elites. With new to genocidal massacres. Genocides tend to technology, increasing channels of communi- occur in the midst of war, as in the Armenian cation and the potency of weapons, the ability case (1915–16). For Shaw (2003), genocide is a to kill large numbers of people in very short form of war directed against civilian popula- periods of time and with minimal planning tions, while the boundary between genocide can only become greater. Some authors like and ‘degenerate war’ (aerial bombing, mass Bauman (1989) relate the modern capacity of destruction of civilian populations as carried destruction not only to technology, but to the out by the Allies during World War II) is too rise of the post-Westphalian bureaucratic thin to be firmly established. state.10 Hannah Arendt (1958) has similarly In all cases, it is the state which can more related the Holocaust to the advent of moder- easily harnesses patriotism in order to prop up nity as massive human dislocation leading political, economic and military elites (Horowitz to the arbitrary removal of individuals from 1980). The introduction of illiberal laws under their localities, positions, jobs. For Arendt, this the pretext of protecting ‘national security’ is a process resulted in the creation of an uprooted, first indicator of radical centralization attempts Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 326

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that may result in the persecution of minorities Alternative terms, such as ‘’, and their culture. Mann (2004) argues that the connote that wanton acts of cultural annihila- Nazis married extreme statism with extreme tion occur in the wake of, even independently nationalism, hence Fascism can be defined as from, genocide. On the other hand, cultural extreme ‘nation-statism’. genocide may encompass a physical dimension Holocaust scholars have long debated of murder, like the elimination of the intellec- whether the war was a triggering effect of the tuals and professional cadres. This took place Shoah during Germany’s eastward expansion. under many Third World dictatorships, like Some identify it as the major catalyst (Fettweis Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, Major Mengistu Haile 2003). The same argument has been applied to Mariam’s Ethiopia, General Abacha’s Nigeria, the case of Turkey, where a ‘cumulative radical- and Turkey in the 1980’s with the elimination ization’ effect has been diagnosed as the main of moderate Kurdish and Islamist leaders. trigger of the Armenian genocide (Bloxham Most important, cultural genocide is often car- 2003), although the root causes may be ried out in tandem with physical genocide, and searched in the Young Turks’ ideology. Other is hence an intrinsic part of it. Ethnic cleansing scholars have analysed the causality of war by in Bosnia and Croatia was supplemented by comparing genocide across continents and attacks on cultural heritage and symbols, the timespans (Bartrop 2002).11 blowing up of churches, mosques and libraries, Civil wars, as conceptually distinguished from the forcible change of names, and various inter-state wars, can also lead to genocidal out- assimilationist policies (Carmichael 2002; comes. In both instances the long-term devasta- Cigar 1995; Gallagher 2003). The term ‘ethno- tion inflicted on the civilian population tends to cide’ has in the past been used as a replacement outlast various generations, even exceeding the for cultural genocide (Palmer 1992; Smith numbers of people directly killed by war 1991: 30–33), with the obvious risk of confus- (Ghobarah et al. 2003). This was certainly the ing ethnicity and culture. case of Russia’s potentially genocidal war on Man-made environmental disaster has often Afghanistan and its daunting legacy of massive resulted in actual genocide. Historians of loss of human life and destruction of the local empire have studied the destruction of economy, mostly due to millions of land-mines. both self-sustainable eco-systems and local economies (Crosby 1986; Davis 2001). The term ‘ecocide’ has been applied to a variety of man-made disasters leading to massive human FORMS OF GENOCIDE: loss, particularly in the former Soviet Union (Ehrlich 1971; Feshbach and Friendly 1993) Fenton (2003: 8) remarks that ‘one of the and the United States (Churchill 1997, 2003). notable things about Yugoslavia is that the Finally, the devastation of home and habitat press (in English) always referred to ethnic (‘domicide’ for Porteous and Smith 2001) conflict and ethnic cleansing. But conflicts in acquires cogent meanings for its relationship the United States which bear some similarities with nationhood, given the ensuing destruction (without being full scale civil war) are of security and community. described as racial conflict and racial segrega- In other words, restricting the definition of tion’ (see also Churchill 1997). He argues that genocide only to acts involving death fails to different countries share different discourses, reflect real patterns of genocide. In Bosnia, so in the United States ‘the idiom of race is the for example, while concentration camps were mainstream one, elsewhere it is the idiom of used as genocidal tools, parallel ‘acts’ included ethnicity, to which one may eventually associ- systematic mass rape and the destruction of ate the idiom of nationality’ (see also Conversi Croatian and Muslim cultural icons (that is, 2004a, 2004c; Banton 2004). architecture, religious symbols, books) Physical atrocities and murder are often seen (Carmichael 2002; Gallagher 2003). These acts as the key criteria for establishing genocide. do not necessarily involve death, but constitute Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 327

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an ‘intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a into the mainstream culture. The victims and national/ethnic group’.12 For instance, genocidal targets are frequently indistinguishable, rape has served to traumatize and destroy the similar-looking groups, often sharing the same reproductive capacity of entire groups, while the language, outlook and customs. The Tutsis in offspring from such acts are seen as supplanting Rwanda, the Croats and Muslims in Bosnia the group in its ethnic continuity.13 and the Jews in Nazi Germany were fully inte- Another problem lies in the forms of mass grated into their societies and assimilated into killing subsumed under the heading ‘genocide’. the mainstream culture of their time and place. Shaw (2003: 35–7) has argued that, because the Why does genocide so often involve groups UN Convention on the Prevention and which are indistinguishable from the sur- Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was laid rounding majority? Why do victims and per- down by the victors of World War II, it was a petrators appears to be alike and identical to curious melange of Stalinist and Allied self- each other, sharing the same outlook – at least apologies. The Convention’s definition of to the external observer? Probably one of the genocide clearly circumscribed it to the delib- most important linkages is the one existing erate destruction of entire groups. It drew a between homogeneity and genocide yet, this is sharp line between genocide and other forms a question still left largely unexplored (see of mass killing or degenerate forms of war. Conversi 1999), although there is abundant It did not encompass the annihilation of civil- literature inquiring into the linkages between ians for strategic calculations, a practice genocide and state-led programmes of homog- followed by Anglo-American forces during enization and assimilation. World War II. Thus, Treblinka was genocide, Modern ethnically driven genocides do not but the annihilation of Hiroshima and normally occur in the incipient stages of Dresden were not to be classified as such. homogenization or during colonial expansion, Moreover, a pro-Soviet bias was also present in but rather during the final stages of the the Convention’s excision of any reference to assimilation process, when inter-group differ- the mass murder of class and ideological ene- ences and peculiar traits have all but disap- mies, thus condoning Stalin’s elimination of peared, yet group consciousness persists. The class and political opponents, like the kulaks main counter-case is the Porrajmos or Roma (Shaw 2003). Holocaust (Burleigh and Wippermann 1991: For this purpose, the terms politicide and 113–35; Hancock 1996; Huttenbach 1991): The have posteriorly been introduced. Roma were typically seen as borderless, and ‘Politicide’ can be defined as the mass murder hence as incompatible with the nationalist con- of political opponents on the part of a govern- cept of an homogeneous, territorially bounded ment because of their political beliefs and and self-contained nation-state. In general, it activities (Harff and Gurr 1988).14 ‘Democide’ was a matter of ‘border-making’ and population is instead the broader umbrella term used to control.15 describe ‘the murder of any person or people In short, cultural differences are never in by a government, including genocide, politi- themselves a cause of genocide or any other cide, and mass murder’ (Rummel 1997: 1–2, forms of political murder (Conversi 1999). 1997: 36, 2003). In both instances, the state or Modern genocides and inter-ethnic wars government is the main perpetrator. are rarely, if ever, directed against wholly dif- ferentiated groups. The opposite pattern can instead be discerned, with largely assimilated, un-hyphenated (yet self-conscious) ethnies HOMOGENIZATION AND GENOCIDE providing the usual targets. In other words, genocide tends to take place more readily Most nationalist-led mass murders are when groups share many characteristics. directed against minorities which are fully In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, murdered King integrated, un-differentiated and assimilated Duncan’s son Donalbain preciently utters: Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 328

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‘There’s daggers in men’s smiles: the near in A similar argument about passive conformism blood, The nearer bloody’.16 as complicity can be applied to international It is debatable whether we tend to sympathize diplomacy: it is hardly conceivable that the with people who look visibly and openly ‘other’ existence of the Nazi gas chambers was from us. When the Yugoslav army attacked unknown by Western elites, despite Hitler’s Slovenia and Croatia, perhaps the most ruthless censorship attempts.17 The fate of East ‘Europeanized’ of the Yugoslav republics, Timor was deliberately kept secret by interna- Europe did not come to their rescue (Ramet tional media, because the Indonesian govern- 1999, 2004). European imagination was cer- ment was classified as a Cold War ally by the tainly struck by the wanton destruction of trea- United States (Cribb 2001; Hitchéns 2001). sured cities like Vukovar and, most of all, Saddam Hussein’s extermination of 100,000 Dubrovnik. However, a compassionate sense of Kurds in the Arbil/ (1988) human solidarity was more widely felt when the could be safely ignored by the media when victims of the plight became ordinary Kosovars the Ba’athist regime was a key Western and (with all their baggage of differences, including Soviet ally in the war against revolutionary dress and lineaments/traditions). Throughout Iran (Makiya 1998). In all these cases, interna- Europe grassroots charity initiatives and other tional public opinion was kept in the dark forms of mobilization spontaneously sprang up about ongoing events, often deliberately. On in their aid. the other hand, the war in Bosnia has been Two other possible factors should be explored, defined as the first case of ‘simultaneously one active, the other passive. First, there may broadcasted, ‘instant’ genocide (Baudrillard arise a sense of potential rivalry among ‘simi- 1996; Cushman and Mestrovic 1996). lar’ groups. This may lead to a series of active Passivity and indifference make up the ‘raw measures, even without radicalization. material’ of genocide. British initial appease- Secondly, we often find widespread ignorance ment of Hitler’s Germany and Milosevic’s Serbia about a nation’s valuable cultural heritage, the was essential in safeguarding these regimes latter easily leading to indifference. While during their incipient destructive undertakings active hatred is insufficient as a catalyst, much (Simms 1996, 2001). The French government more determinant is the role of apathy and and media massively concealed the Tutsi geno- insensitivity. These often go along with con- cide in Rwanda (Uvin 1998). And the British formism, obedience and widespread states of media was being swamped with news from denial (Cohen 2001). The ‘bystander’s’ role is South Africa’s first post-apartheid elections, just hence a crucial angle through which to explore as genocide in Rwanda was unfolding. genocide. This particularly affects global ‘audiences’ or spectators, as genocides can unfold due to CONCLUSIONS international apathy and heedlessness (Power 2003). Indifference towards collective rights and dignity can feed the machine of mass destruc- We have seen how genocide and nationalism tion. Indeed, Hanna Arendt (1994) famously are clearly related, although most nationalist explained how the key element of genocide is movements have never developed genocidal not inter-ethnic hatred, as commonly assumed, trends, while the worst forms of mass murder but simple indifference towards fellow human occurred under officially ‘non-nationalist’ beings. She described the perpetrators as ordi- (Socialist) totalitarian regimes. nary, order-obeying citizens with unremarkable During the Cold War, the two superpowers lives and no hint in their CV that one day they competed in support of genocidal regimes. would later become mass murderers. In 1915 Noam Chomsky (1993) argues that the crimes Antonio Gramsci (1980) wrote a few touching committed by the United States in places like pages about Europe’s fateful indifference to the Nicaragua, Guatemala and Indonesia have Armenian genocide. been of a genocidal nature.18 If advanced Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 329

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Western democracies can be held indirectly kind’. The latter was cognate with the Greek genos (‘race, responsible for genocide, the United States and kind’) and gonos (birth, offspring, stock). Britain may stand out as the most ‘genocidal’ 2 This was inferred from words such as ‘homicide’ (killing of a human being), and, more political, ‘tyranni- international power players of the post-Cold cide’ (killing of a tyrant). War era, given their simultaneous record of 3 Classical authors used ethnos to refer to contiguous direct backing of genocidal regimes (Curtis peoples, while the Oxford English Dictionary renders it as 2003, 2005; Hitchens 2001) and comfortable ‘nation’.A fourth more malleable term, phylon, was also used non-intervention when genocide was actually to describe race, class, tribe or nation (Fenton 2003: 15–16). The concept of patriotism also shares family-like connota- occurring (Cushman 1998, 2004; Gallagher tions, coming from the Latin pater (father, as in patria). 2003; Kent 2005; Melvern 2000; Power 2003; 4 Although Justin McCarthy has produced excellent Simms 2001).19 From a Native American per- work on the fate of Muslim minorities in the Balkans, he is spective, the United States can be identified as not a reliable source on Armenian genocide, to the point of the most genocidal state that has ever existed being regarded as a ‘genocide denier’ by most Armenian scholars. in human history (Churchill 1997, 2003). 5 Palmer (1998) reformulates this distinction as one Globalization provides a third, still unex- between ‘societal’ and ‘state’ genocides. Two other inter- plored, element in the triangular relationship pretations of genocide should be briefly considered here: including nationalism and genocide. Will global- The ‘primordialist’ one, shared by many nationalists who ization lead to new holocausts? Mark Davis see genocides as recurring patterns of ever-lasting persecu- tion. Many Armenian historians share this view. And the (2001) argues that the twisted logic emanating ‘barbaric hordes’ one, describing episodes of wanton from contemporary free market ideology is a destruction during barbarian invasions as genocidal acts, replica of the unchallenged dogmas prevailing in such as the occasional burning of entire villages and the the Victorian era. Then, the results were decades massacres of harmless people. The most commonly of economic sabotage culminating in the geno- adduced cases are Attila’s Huns and the Mongols under Genghis Khan. cidal famines and the deaths of up to 32 million 6 Mike Davis (2001) asks how British rulers could be so people in India, China and Brazil (1876–1900) immune to the sufferings of the multitudes they ruled. under the impact of direct or indirect colonial One can find answers not simply in classical racism, but in rule. Davis skilfully relates this to the contempo- the very supercilious aristocratic Victorian attitudes which rary trend towards climate change (see also characterized the upwardly mobile, rapidly enriching classes vis-à-vis Britain’s sub-human lumpenproletariat. Levene 2004, 2005b). Paradoxically, it is this very lumpenproletariat which Like nationalism, globalization is destroying remains the unquestionable and loyal reservoir of man- whole lifestyles and communities, exerting power in times of war and colonial expansion through unprecedented homogenizing pressures (Barber the British-specific ideology of imperial patriotism or 1995; Chua 2003). However, not only is this ‘missionary nationalism’ (Kumar 2003). 7 Gottfried Feder’s (1883–1941) cult of technocracy occurring on a larger scale and at a quicker closely resembled Taylor’s idea of a society ruled by engi- pace than ever before, but it is also accompa- neers, as did Fritz Todt’s (1891–1942) ideology of road nied by unprecedented ecological degradation building as key to German economic strength. and environmental disaster. A strong state 8 It should be pointed out that, although it is impossi- endorsing a developmental ideology may be ble to calculate the exact number of dead, Becker’s esti- mate of 40 million victims might be slightly inflated. redundant nowadays, simply because neo-lib- 9 There are parallels here with the Khmer Rouge’s ban- eral development has taken an unrestrained ning of all forms of traditional Cambodian music and dance course of its own. It would be tempting to and its replacement with military hymns, revolutionary extrapolate from this that the age of genocide chants and other form of radically Westernizing cultural is far from being left behind. manipulation, often inspired by China’s even more devas- tating ‘cultural revolution’ (Shapiro-Phim 2002). 10 More recently, Bauman (2005) has extended this critique to neo-liberal globalization. NOTES 11 The ‘cumulative’ approach has also been applied to indigenous people: Madley’s (2004) comparative study of ‘frontier genocides’ among Tasmanians (Australia), Yuki 1 In ancient Rome, gens (gen. gentis) referred to both (California) and Herero (Namibia) has revealed common tribe and clan and sometime translated as ‘race’ and patterns developing in three phases: (1) invasion and ‘nation’, from genus (pl. genera), referring to ‘race, stock, destruction of the local economy; (2) aboriginal response Delanty-3375-Ch-27.qxd 1/20/2006 7:14 PM Page 330

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