Bioscience Discovery, 5(2):204-217, July - 2014 © RUT Printer and Publisher (http://jbsd.in) ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print); ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Received: 02-06-2014, Revised: 19-06-2014, Accepted: 23-06-2014e

Full Length Article

Vascular diversity of , district, Tamilnadu,

S Sukumaran1 and B Parthiban2

1Department of Botany, Nesamony Memorial Christian College, , , Tamilnadu, India 2Department of Botany, South Hindu College, , Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu, India [email protected]

ABSTRACT In this study, a systematic investigation on the of Udayagiri Fort was made, that the species composing of plants in the fort are analyzed and discussed, intending to provide scientific gist for the ecorestoration of the fort. The results showed that there were 346 plants species, which belonged to 265 genera and 90 families. Taxonomically dicotyledons plants were the most species rich and contribute 292 taxa belonging to 218 genera and 75 families, whereas monocotyledonous plants contribute 54 taxa belonging to 47 genera and 15 families. Fabaceae and was the most speciose famiy with 21 species each. Most plant species of the study area are of considerable ecological and economic importance, useful as bioresources to wild fauna and human beings. Of the total 346 wild/naturalized plant species, most are useful as medicinal plants, and others are valuable as edible fruits, timbers, fuelwood, etc. Most of the plants recorded from the fort are economically important. The medicinal plant ranked first with 191 species, 50 species having ornamental value, 13 species had timber value, edible 11 species and 58 species were regarded for green manure. Many multipurpose species were also reported from fort.

Key words: Archaeological sites, Biodiversity, Kanyakumari district, Udayagiri fort.

INTRODUCTION Udayagiri fort, a biodiversity park in the Biodiversity reflects variety and variability within southernmost district of peninsular India, still and among living organisms, their associations and harbours some patches of tropical dry evergreen habitat-oriented ecological complexes. Natural and forests. It is necessary to document the floristic cultural heritage sites frequently have wealth and also to identify those plant species that nonoverlapping or even conflicting conservation are in urgent need of conservation, as the priorities, because human impacts have often Biodiversity Park is highly disturbed by habitat resulted in local extirpations and reduced levels of alteration. Moreover, before implementing any native biodiversity (Ben et al., 2013). Conservation conservation strategy it is of utmost necessity to of biodiversity is essential for the proper understand the existing vegetation profile and to functioning of ecosystems and for the maintenance select the appropriate species for ecorestoration of the environmental services they provide (Lopez- program. In the past, workers such as Raj and del-Toro et al., 2009; Lal and Singh, 2012; Sukumaran (1997), Swamy et al. (1998), Jeeva et al. Sainkhediya and Ray, 2012; Soromessa and (2005a,b, 2006), Kingston et al. (2006) and Prakash Kelbessa, 2013; Suba et al., 2014). The et al. (2006) have studied the phytodiversity of the preservation of archeological sites does not always region. Nayar (1959), Lawrence (1960), Henry and overlap with the conservation of biodiversity. Swaminathan (1981), Sundarapandian and Swamy http://biosciencediscovery.com 204 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) S Sukumaran and B Parthiban (1997), Swamy et al. (2000) and Mahesh et al. Thambi Dalava. In the later years, the English East (2010) have explored the vegetation of India Company's troops were stationed there till Kanyakumari district.Plant diversity and the middle of the 19th century. Foundry for the conservation status of some sacred groves of manufacture of guns, mortars and cannonballs Kanyakumari district were studied by Raj and were also established within the fort under the Sukumaran (1997), Sukumaran (1997), Sukumaran supervision of the General. and Jeeva (2008) and Sukumaran et al. (2008, The fort is built of massive granite blocks 2009). Plant diversity in the traditional homestead around an isolated hillock. The tombs of the Dutch agroforestry system was explored by Paul (2009), Admiral Eustachius De Lannoy, (in whose honour Anami and Kingston (2009) and Geetha (2011). the fort was once called Dillanai Kottai— De Recently, Sukumaran and his coworkers (2011a, b) Lennoy's Fort), and of his wife and son can still be studied the wetland plants of the district with found inside a partly ruined chapel in the fort. De limited objectives. The previous plant explorers Lannoy's body was buried within the fort and a have paid much attention to forests, sacred groves chapel was built at his burial site. De Lannoy's and wetlands and not protected areas and tombstone lies within the walls of the ruined archaeological sites. Hence, there is an urgent need chapel. The inscriptions on his stone are both in for the exploration of the plant wealth in the Tamil and in Latin. His wife and son were buried by Udayagiri Fort, Kanyakumari district, Tamilnadu, his side. India. With this background, the present study was Recently, officials of the Department of intended to assess the untapped floral resources Archaeology found an underground tunnel within and prepare a floral inventory of Udayagirir Fort at the fort. Presently, the fort has been turned into a Puliyoorkurichi of Kanyakumair district, Tamilnadu, bio-diversity park by the forest India. department, with sites of historical importance, such as De Lannoy's tomb, remaining as protected MATERIALS AND METHODS archaeological sites under the Archaeological Study Area Department of India. The fort in Tamil Nadu is located at a distance of Climate and Soil 14 km from Nagercoil town in Kanyakumari District. The climate of Kanyakumari district is The fort is situated on theThiruvananthapuram- warm and humid. Summer starts from March to Nagercoil National highway at Puliyoorkurichi May followed by southwest monsoon from June to (8°14′38.4″N 77°19′55.2″E). This was the most September. October and November constitute the important military barracks of post-monsoon or retreating monsoon season with the Travancore rulers, when frequent thunderstorms. From December to was their capital. The port had been originally built February, northeast monsoon season (is confined in the 17th century, and then rebuilt later by with rains) and the remaining months generally Maharaja of Travancore in the have bright weather. Rainfall varies from 103 cm to 18th century. Enclosing an area of about 90 acres 310 cm, and elevation from sea level to 1829 m (36 ha), with an isolated hill 260 feet (79 m) high, above sea level (Figure 1). Gneissic rocks are the fort contains an old foundry which was used for predominant in this region. The soil is red, varying casting guns. in the quantity of ferruginous element. The fort was rebuilt during the reign Biodiversity of Udayagiri Fort of Marthanda Varma, Venad King, during 1741-44 The picturesque Udayagiri Fort harbours under the supervision of Eustachius De Lannoy, a native tropical vegetation, and plantations; there Flemish naval commander of the Dutch East India are still portions of the fort with native vegetation Company, who later served as the Chief of of tropical dry evergreen forest, tropical dry the Travancore Army. In the early days, the fort evergreen scrub, savannah and thorn forests. The was of strategic importance. Prisoners captured in plant wealth and biodiversity of the fort is the campaign against Tippu Sultan were confined in augmented by the plant wealth in the plantation the fort for some time. In 1810, the East India inside the fort. The plantation is endowed with Company's Army under Colonel Leger marched into some of the rare, endemic and endangered plants the Travancore State through the Aramboly Pass to of the Western Ghats. quell a rebellion under the leadership of Velu http://biosciencediscovery.com 205 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Bioscience Discovery, 5(2):204-217, July-2014 ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print) The medicinal garden inside the fort has a precatorius, Achyranthes aspera, Cissus vitiginea, C. large number of medicinal plants, used in the quadrangularis, Carissa spinarum, Sansevieria traditional medicinal system of Kanyakumari roxburghiana, Trichosanthes tricuspidata, etc. Two district. The medicinal plants of the fort are the species of parasitic angiosperms were reported, control of Tamilnadu Forest Department by which include Dendrophthoe falcata and Cuscuta Kanyakumari Forest Division. reflexa. The shrub D. falcata, a partial stem Floristic Survey parasite, can be seen frequently parasitizing the The task of inventorying the plant diversity trees Mangifera indica and Anacardium of Udayagiri fort was undertaken systematically occidentale. Cuscuta reflexa is a commonly and intensively from November 2013 to April 2014, occurring total stem parasite, parasitizing shrubs to cover most species in flowering and fruiting and trees of the biodiversity park. stages and also to cover various seasons. Plant A large number of exotic flora were species were identified using regional floras reported from the Udayagiri Fort which include (Gamble, 1921-1935; Mathew, 1991; Nair et al., Acacia nilotica, Ageratum conyzoides, Annona 1983; Henry et al., 1987, 1989). Angiosperm squamosa, Asparagus racemosus, Bauhinia phylogeny group II was followed to classify the purpurea, Cassia occidentalis, Chenopodium album, species. For all documented species, the binomial Clitoria ternatea, Crotolaria medicaginea, Croton and author citation were checked thoroughly with sparsiflorus, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, International Plant Name Index (IPNI). Well- Datura metel, Gomphrena globosa, Heliotropium preserved specimens with voucher numbers were indicum, Lantana camara, Melia azedarach, deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Melilotus alba, Mimosa pudica, Oxalis corniculata, Botany and Research Centre, Nesamony Memorial Parthenium hysterophorus, Physalis minima, Christian College, Marthandam, Tamilnadu, India. Pithecolobium dulce, Portulaca oleracea, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum, Sphaeranthus indicus, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Tridax procumbens, Urena lobata and Ziziphus Plant Diversity mauritiana. A total of 346 plant species were enumerated from Figure 3. Life-form classification of plant species the Udayagiri Fort (Table 1). The 346 plant species collected form the park. (including a gymnosperm) belonged to 265 genera Shrubs like Ziziphus nummularia, Z. and 90 families. For all the enumerated wild and oenoplia and Z. xylopyrus often appear as stray naturalized plant species, information such as plants in the grasslands of the fort. Herbaceous botanical name, family and habit are provided. species like Boerhaavia diffusa, Lippia nodiflora, T. Contribution of herbaceous plants to total diversity procumbens and thymifolia are more is the maximum, i.e. 133 species (38%) beloinging frequent along the hedgerows of the fort. to 108 gnera and 42 families, followed by trees – The plant species in the checklist and their 93 species (27%) belonging to 77 genera and 38 photographs are arranged in alphabetical order to families, shrubby plants – 84 species (24%) facilitate their use not only by botanists, but also belonging to 70 genera and 38 families, climbers by all interested in plants. including creeping plants – 23 species (7%) and the Family Richness remaining species were lianas (12) and epiphytes (1 The most diverse families in the Udayagiri species) (Figure 2 and 3). Fort includes Fabaceae and Acanthaceae (21 Taxonomically dicotyledons plants were species each with 17 and 12 genera respectively), the most species rich and contribute 292 taxa Poaceae(19 species and 16 genera), belonging to 218 genera and 75 families, whereas (18 species and 9 genera), (16 species monocotyledonous plants contribute 54 taxa and 11 gnerea), Lamiaceae (13 species and 9 belonging to 47 genera and 15 families (Figure 4). genera), Malvaceae (13 species and 8 genera), Among the monocotyledonous plants Aristida and Verbenaceae with 11species setacea, Apluda mutica, Heteropogon contortus each with 10 and 7 genera respectively, and Perotis indica were collected from scrub Caesalpiniaceae, Asteraceae and Moraceae savannas. Many species of plants enumerated in (9 species each), Mimosaceae (8 species), Rutaceae the Biodiversity Park are medicinally valuable and Asparagaceae (7 species each), resources, which include Aloe vera, Abrus Amaranthaceae, Arecaceae, Convolvulaceae and http://biosciencediscovery.com 206 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) S Sukumaran and B Parthiban Solanaceae (6 species each), Asclepiadaceae, , Cyperaceae, Myrtaceae and Lauraceae (5 species each), Menispermaceae, Aeraceae and Combretacae (4 species each) and Anacardiaceae, Clusiaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Sterculiaceae, , Vitaceae and Cleomaceae (3 species each). Thirteeen families (Amaryllidaceae, Boraginaceae, Loranthaceae, Melastomaceae, Moringaceae, Oleaceae, Rhamnaceae, Salvoradaceae, Sapotaceae, Celastraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Piperaceae and Talinaceae) were represented by two species each, whereas 42 families were monospecific (Table 2; Figure 5 and 6).

Table 1. List of plant species recorded from Udayagiri Fort Botanical Name Family Habit Armature Uses VN Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet. Malvaceae S UA M 1339 Abrus precatorius L. Fabaceae L UA M # Acacia auriculiformis Benth Mimosaceae T A Ti 1356 Acacia caesia (L.) Will Mimosaceae C A Ot 1377 Acacia mangiumWilld. Mimosaceae T A Ti 1419 Acalypha amentaceaRoxb. Euphorbiaceae H UA We 1423 Acalypha lanceolata Willd. Euphorbiaceae S UA Or 1475 Acalypha indica L. Euphorbiaceae H UA M 1487 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae H A M 1460 Acorus calamus L. Araceae H A M # Adenanthera pavonina L. Mimosaceae T UA M 1436 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. Amaranthaceae H UA M 1433 Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Rutaceae T A M # Ageratum conyzoides(L.) L. Asteraceae H UA M 1366 Aglaonema commutatum Schott. Araceae H UA Or 1465 Alangium salvifolium (L.f) Wang Alangiaceae T A Ti 1389 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. Mimosaceae T UA Ti 1392 Allamanda cathartica L. Apocynaceae S UA Or 1498 Alloteropsis cimicina(L.) Stapf. Poaceae H UA M 1453 Alocasia hypnosa J.T.Yin,Y.H. Wang&Z. F.xu Araceae H UA Or 1360 Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G.Don Araceae H UA M 1408 Aloe vera(L.) Burm.f Asparagaceae H A M 1476 Alpinia galanga(L.)Willd. Zingiberaceae S UA M # Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae T UA Or 1343 Alstonia venenata R.Br. Apocynaceae S UA Or 1445 Alysicarpus vaginalis(L.)DC. Apocynaceae H UA F # Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae H UA Ed 1397 Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiaceae T A M # Ananas comosus(L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae H A M 1376 Andrographis echioides(L.) Nees Acanthaceae H UA M # Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees Acanthaceae H A M 1402 Anisomeles indica(L.) Kuntze Lamiaceae H UA M # Anisochilus scaberBenth. Lamiaceae H UA M 1478 Annona muricataL. Annonaceae T A Ed 1431 Annona reticulate L. Annonaceae S UA M 1321 Annona squamosal L. Annonaceae T UA M 1421 Apluda muticaL. Poaceae H UA We 1486 Arenga wightiiGriff. Arecaceae T A M # Argemone mexicana L. Papaveraceae H A We 1507 Aristida hystrixL.f Poaceae H UA Ot 1386 Aristida setaceaRetz. Poaceae H UA We 1506 Aristolochia indica L. Aristolochiaceae C UA M # Artocarpus communis G.Forst Moraceae T UA M # Artocarpus hirsutus Lam. Moraceae T UA Ti # Artocarpus heterophyllusLam. Moraceae T UA M 1488 Asystasia gangetica(L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae H UA We 1393 Asparagus racemosusWilld. Asparagaceae C A M # Atalantia missonoids D.S Rutaceae T A M # Atylosia scarabaeoides L. Fabaceae S UA M 1375 Azadirachta indica A.Juss. T UA M 1485 Azima tetracantha Lam. Salvodaraceae C A M # Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss Poaceae S A Ti #

http://biosciencediscovery.com 207 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Botanical Name Family Habit Armature Uses VN Bambusa vulgarisSchrad. Poaceae H A Or 1385 Banfderia (Whitetl) Acanthaceae H A We # cuspidata F.Heyne ex Nees Acanthaceae S A Or # Barleria mysorensis B.Heyne ex Roth Acanthaceae S A Or 1316 Basella albaL. Basellaceae H A M 1430 Basilicum polystachyon(L.)Moench Lamiaceae S UA M # Begonia malabarica Lam. Begoniaceae H UA M # Blepharis maderaspatensis(L.) B. Heyne ex Roth Acanthaceae H UA M 1359 Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae H UA We 1384 Bombax ceiba L. Malvaceae T A Ti # Bombax malabaricum DC. Bombucaceae T A M # Borassus flabelifer L. Arecaceae T A M # Bougainvillea spectabilisWilld. Nyctaginaceae S A Or 1347 Brachiaria semiverticillata (Rottler)Alston. Poaceae H UA F 1473 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Crassulaceae H UA M 1309 Butea monosperma Lam. Fabaceae T UA Or # Callistemon lanceolatus (Sm.) Sweet Myrtaceae S UA Or # Calophyllum inophyllum L. Clusiaceae T UA M # Calotropis procera(Aiton) Dryand. Asclepidaceae S UA M # Canthium diccocum (Gaertn.) Tegsm &Binn. Rubiaceae T UA Ti 1505 Canna indica L. Cannaceae H UA Or 1355 Canthium coromandelicum(Burm.f.) Alston Rubiaceae S UA M 1374 Capparis zeylanica L. Capparaceae S A M # Capsicum annum L. Solanaceae H UA M 1472 Carcia papaya L. Caricaceae T UA Ed # Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Sapindaceae C UA M # Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae S A We # Caryota urens L. Arecaceae T UA Or 1365 Cascabela thevetia(L.)Lippold Menispermaceae L UA M # Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae T UA Or 1513 Casuarina equisetifolia L. Casurinaceae T UA Ot 1334 Cassytha filiformis L. Lauraceae L UA M # Catharanthus roseus(L.) G.Don. Apocynaceae H UA M 1429 Cayratia pedata(Lam.) Gagnep. Vitaceae L UA M # Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae H UA We 1404 Centella asiatica(L.) Urb. Apiaceae H UA M # Centrosema pubescens Benth. Fabaceae C UA We 1461 Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae H UA We 1398 Chromolaena odorata(L.)R.M.King &H. Rob. Asteraceae S UA We 1484 Cinnamomum camphora(L.) J.Presl Lauraceae T UA M # Cinnamomum malabatrum(Burm.f).J.Presl Lauraceae T UA M # Cinnamomum verum J.Presl Lauraceae T UA M # Cissampelospareira L. Menispermaceae C UA M # Cissus quadrangularis L. Vitaceae S UA M # Cissus vitiginea L. Vitaceae L UA M # Citrus aurantifolia (Chri)Swi Rutaceae T A M # Cleome viscosa L. Cleomaceae H UA M 1344 Cleome rutidosperma DC Cleomaceae H UA M 1504 Cleome gynandra L. Cleomaceae H UA M # Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn Verbenaceae S UA M 1354 Clerodendrum villosum Blume Verbenaceae S UA M 1446 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae C UA M 1493 Centrosema virginianum(L.) Benth Fabaceae H UA M 1512 Coccinia grandis (L.) J.Voygt. Cucurbitaceae C UA We 1378 Coccinia indica W&A Cucurbitaceae C UA M # Cocos nucifera L. Arecaceae T UA M 1467 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae H UA We 1324 Cordia peruviana Roem. & Schult. Boraginaceae T UA Or 1499 Cordyline terminalis(L.) A.Chev Asparagaceae S UA Or # Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. Asteraceae H UA Or # Costus speciosus (J.Konig) C.Specht Costaceae H UA M # Couroupita guianensisAubl. Leythidaceae T UA Or # Crinum asiaticum L. Amaryllidaceae H UA Or 1471 Crossandra infundibuliformis(L.) Nees Acanthaceae H UA Or # http://biosciencediscovery.com 208 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Botanical Name Family Habit Armature Uses VN Crotalaria laburnifolio L. Fabaceae S UA Or # Crotalaria pallida Ait Fabaceae H UA Ot # Croton bonplandianumBaill. Euphorbiaceae H UA M # axillaris(L.)Don ex Sweet Commelinaceae H UA We 1383 Cyanotis tuberosa(Roxb.)Schult.& Schultes.f. Commelinaceae H UA We # Cycas circinalis L. Cycadaceae T UA M # Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers Poaceae H UA M 1495 Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Poaceae H UA M # Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae H UA M 1492 Dactyloctenium aegyptium(L.) Willd. Poaceae H UA We 1331 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae T UA Ti # Delonix regia (Boj)Rafin Caesalpinaceae T UA Or 1437 Dendrocalamus strictus(Roxb.) Ness Poaceae S UA Ot # Dendrophthoe falcata(L.f)Ettingsh. Loranthaceae S UA We 1391 Datura metal L. Solanaceae S UA M # Derris scandens(Roxb.) Benth. Fabaceae L UA M 1503 Desmodium triflorum(L.)DC Fabaceae S UA We 1353 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae H UA We # Dracaena reflexa Lam. Asparagaceae S UA Or 1454 Dregea volubilis(L.f) Stapf. Apocynaceae L UA M # Drimia indica(Roxb.) Jessop. Asparagaceae H UA M 1319 Duranta repens L. Verbenaceae S UA Or 1466 Dypsis lutescens(H. Wendle.) Beentje&J.Dransf. Arecaceae T UA Or 1358 Ecbolium ligustrinum (Vahl) Vollesen Acanthaceae H UA Or # Ehretia microphylla Lam. Boraginaceae S UA M 1438 Eleusine indica(L.) Gaertn Poaceae H UA We 1364 Emilia sonchifolia(L.) DC. ex D C Asteraceae H UA We # Eriochloa procera(Retz.) C.E Hubb Poaceae H UA F 1470 Erythrina variegate L. Fabaceae T A M # Eucalyptus globulusLaill. Myrtaceae T UA M # Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. Myrtaceae T UA M # Euphorbia antiquorum L. Euphorbiaceae S A We 1511 Euphorbia cyathophoraMurr. Euphorbiaceae S UA Or 1340 Eunulus alsinoides L. Euphorbiaceae H UA M 1449 Evolvulus alsinoides(L.)L. Convolvulaceae H UA M # Evolvulus nummularus(L.) L. Convolvulaceae H UA M # Feronia limoniaWrrea. Rutaceae T A M # Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae T UA M 1462 Ficus hispida L.f Moraceae T UA M # Ficus microcarpa L.f Moraceae T UA M 1332 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae T UA M 1448 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae T UA M # Flueggea leucopyrusWilld. Euphorbiaceae S UA We 1362 Garcinia gummi-gutta L.(Roxb) Clusiaceae T UA M # gummifera L.f Rubiaceae T UA M # Gloriosa superba L. Clochicaceae C UA M 1401 Glycosmis pentaphylla(Retz.) DC. Rutaceae T UA M # Gmelina arborea Roxb. Verbenaceae T UA Ot # Gmelina asiatica L. Verbenaceae C UA M # Gomphrena celosioides Mart. Amaranthaceae H UA We 1413 Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br.ex Sm Asclepidaceae C UA M # Hamelia patensJacq. Rubiaceae S UA Or 1480 Helicteres isora L. Sterculiaceae S UA M # Hemidesmus indicus(L.) R.Br. Periplocaceae C UA M # Hibiscus micranthus L.f Malvaceae H UA We 1439 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae S UA M # Hibiscus vitifolius L. Malvaceae S UA We 1373 mystax L. L UA M # Hydnocarpus laurifolia(Denn.)Sle. Flacourtiaceae T UA M # Hybanthus enneaspermus(L.)F.Muell. Violaceae H UA We 1483 Hyptis suaveolens(L.) Poit. Lamiaceae S UA M 1382 Ichnocarpus frutescens(L.)W.T.Aiton Apocynaceae L UA M 1432 Ilysanthes veronicaefoliaUrban. Scrophulariaceae H UA Ot 1497 Indigofera linnaeiAli. Fabaceae H UA We 1326 http://biosciencediscovery.com 209 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Botanical Name Family Habit Armature Uses VN Indigofera enneaphylla (L.) Fabaceae H UA M 1424 Indigofera tinctoria L. Fabaceae H UA M # Ipomoea carneaJacq. Convolulaceae S UA M 1412 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolulaceae S UA We 1390 Ipomoea teristris L. Convolulaceae S UA We 1479 Ixcora coccinea L. Rubiaceae S UA M # Ixcora parviflora Lam. Rubiaceae S UA Or 1455 Jasminum auriculatumVahl. Oleaceae C UA Or # Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae S UA Ot 1477 Jatropha glanduliferaRoxb. Euphorbiaceae S UA M 1428 Jatropha gossypifolia L. Euphorbiaceae S UA M # Jatropha multifidaJacq. Euphorbiaceae S UA Or 1447 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae S UA M 1400 Justicia diffusaRoxb. Acanthaceae H A M 1387 Justicia gendarussa Burm.f Acanthaceae H A Or 1363 Justicia glaucaRott. Acanthaceae H A M 1463 Justicia simplex D.Don Acanthaceae H UA M 1361 Justicia tranquebariensisL.f. Acanthaceae S UA We # Kleinia grandiflora(Wall.ex DC.)Rani Asteraceae S UA We 1394 Kyllinga monocephalaRottb. Cyperaceae H UA We # Kyllinga tricepsRottb. Cyperaceae H UA We # Lannea coromandelica(Houtt.)Merr. Anacardiaceae T UA Ti 1328 Lantana camaraR.Fern. Verbenaceae S UA We 1336 Leucacna leucocephala Lam. Fabaceae S UA We 1352 Leucas aspera(Willd.) Link Lamiaceae H UA M # Leucas biflora (Vahl) R.Br. Lamiaceae H UA M 1415 Lipocarpha sphacelataKunth. Cyperaceae H UA Ot # Litsea glabrataHook.f. Lauraceae T UA M # Loranthus longiflorusDesr. Loranthaceae S UA M # Malvastrum coromandelianum(L.)Gracke Malvaceae H UA We 1441 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae T UA M # Manilkera zapota (L.)P.Royen Sapotaceae T UA Ed 1327 Melochia corchorifolia L. Sterculiaceae H UA We 1381 Memecylon umbellatum Burn.f. Melastomataceae T UA Or # Merremia tridentata (L.)Hall.f. Convolvulaceae H UA M # Mesua ferrea L. Clusiaceae T UA Ot # Michelia champaca L. Magnoliaceae T UA Or # Micrococca mercurialis L.(Benth) Euphorbiaceae H UA We 1367 Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae H A M # Mimusops elengi L. Sapotaceae T UA Ed 1482 Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctoginaceae H UA Ed # Mollugo lotoides O.Kuze Molluginaceae H UA We # Moringa tinctoriaRoxb. Rubiaceae T UA Ed 1320 Moringa umbellata L. Rubiaceae L UA Ot # Moringa oleiferaLamk. Moringaceae T UA M 1440 Moringa pterygosperma C.FGaertn. Moringaceae S UA M 1500 Muntingia calabura L. Elaeocarpaceae T UA Ed # Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng Rutaceae T UA M # Musa paradisiaca L. Musaceae H UA Ed 1416 Mussaenda frondosa L. Rubiaceae S UA We # Mussaenda glabrata Vahl Rubiaceae S UA Or # Myristica fragransHoutt. Myristicaceae T UA Ot # Myxopyrum serratulum A.W. Hill. Oleaceae C UA M # alata Wight & Arn. Menispermaceae C UA M # Neolamarckia cadamba(Roxb.) Bosser Rubiaceae T UA M 1345 Ocimum americanum L. Lamiaceae H UA M 1502 Ocimum bassilicum L. Lamiaceae H UA M 1388 Ocimum orthocipumL. Lamiaceae H UA M # Ocimum tenuiflorum L. Lamiaceae S UA M # Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Rubiaceae H UA We 1468 Oldenlandia umbellate L. Rubiaceae H UA We # Opuntia dillenii(Ker Gawl.).Haw Cactaceae H A We 1474 Orthosiphon thymiflorus(Roth.)Sleesan. Lamiaceae H UA We 1409 Paspalum raginatum Sw Poaceae H UA Or # http://biosciencediscovery.com 210 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Botanical Name Family Habit Armature Uses VN Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae C UA M 1414 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae H UA We # Pavonia zeylanica(L.) Cav. Malvaceae H UA M 1379 Pedalium murex L. Pedaliaceae H UA We 1315 Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC) K.Heyne Caesalpinaceae T UA Or 1335 Pennisetum hohenackeriHochst,ex Steud. Poaceae H UA F 1351 Pennisetum polystachyon(L.)Schult Poaceae H UA F # Pentas lanceolata (Forssk.)Deflers. Rubiaceae H UA Or # Pentatropis capensis(L.F.)Bullock. Asclepidaceae C UA M 1442 daemia(Forssk.)Chiov. Asclepidaceae C UA M # Peristrophe bicalyculata(Retz.)Nees. Acanthaceae H UA M 1395 Phoenix pusillaGaertn. Arecaceae T A Or # Phyllanthus amarusSchum&Thonn. Euphorbiaceae H UA M # Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae T UA M # Phyllanthus micrandrus(Mull Arg.)G.L.Websler Euphorbiaceae H UA We # Phyllanthus myrtifolius(Wight) Mull. Arg. Euphorbiaceae S UA Or # Piper barberiGamble. Piperaceae C UA M 1348 Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae S UA M # Pithecellobium dulce(Roxb.)Benth. Mimosaceae T A M 1456 Plectranthus amboinicus(Lour.) Spreng. Lamiaceae H UA M 1427 Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae H UA M # Polyalthia longifolia(Sonn.)Thwaites Annonaceae T UA Or 1509 Pongamia pinnata(L.) Pierre Fabaceae T UA M 1329 Portulaca tuberose Roxb. Oleraceae H UA M 1501 Prosopis cineraria(L.) Druce Mimosaceae T UA Ot 1450 Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae T UA Ed 1369 Pterocarpus marsupiumRoxb. Fabaceae T UA M # Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. Fabaceae T UA M # Punica granatum L. Lythraceae S A M 1510 Pycreus sanguinolentus(Vahl) Nees. Cyperaceae H UA Ot 1380 Pyrenacantha volubilisHook. Icacinaceae L UA M 1489 Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. Apocynaceae S UA Or # Rhinacanthus nasutus(L.) Kurz Acanthaceae S UA M # Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae S UA M 1417 Rosa indica L. Rosaceae S A Or 1396 Ruellia patula Jacq. Acanthaceae S UA M 1491 Ruellia prostrataPoir. Acanthaceae H UA Or 1318 Ruellia tuberosaL. Acanthaceae H UA M 1434 Salacia reticulate Wt Celastraceae L UA M # Salacia oblonga L. Celastraceae S UA M 1405 Salvadora persica L. Salvodaraceae S UA We 1496 Sansevieria trifasciataPrain. Asparagaceae H UA M 1422 Sansevieria roxburghianaSchult.f. Asparagaceae H UA M # Saraca asoca(Roxb.) Willd. Caesalpiniaceae T UA M # Santalum album L. Santalaceae T UA M 1443 Scadoxus multiflorus(Martyn) Raf. Amaryllidaceae H UA Or 1464 Scoparia dulcis L. Plantaginoceae H UA We 1508 Scutellaria violacea B.Heyne ex Benth Lamiaceae H UA M 1368 Senna didymobotrya(Fresen.)H.S.Irwin & Barneby Caesalpiniaceae T UA M 1370 Senna occidentalis(L.) Link Caesalpiniaceae S UA M 1337 Senna siamea (Lam.)H.S.Irwin&Barneby Caesalpiniaceae T UA M # Senna tora(L.) Roxb Caesalpiniaceae S UA M 1451 Setaria palmifolia(J.Koenig) Stapf. Poaceae H UA We 1425 Sida acutaBurm.f. Malvaceae H UA M # Sida cordifoliaL. Malvaceae H UA M 1342 Sida rhombifoliaL. Malvaceae H UA M # Sida spinosaL. Malvaceae S UA M 1420 Solanum americanumMill. Solanaceae S UA Ed 1322 Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae S A M 1469 Solanum trilobatum L. Solanaceae S A M 1457 Solanum virginianum L. Solanaceae H A M 1403 Spathodea campanulataiP.Beauv. Bignoniaceae T UA Or # Spermacoce hispida L. Rubiaceae H UA We 1323 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.)Vahl. Verbenaceae H UA We 1494 http://biosciencediscovery.com 211 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Botanical Name Family Habit Armature Uses VN Stachytarpheta indica(L.) Vahl. Verbenaceae H UA We # tetragonum DC. Bignoniaceae T UA Ti 1349 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae T UA M # Strobilanthes foliosus T. And Acanthaceae S UA M 1426 Strychonos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae T UA M # Stylosanthes fruticosa(Retz.) Alston Fabaceae H UA We 1444 Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.)S.Moore Symplocaceae T UA M 1407 Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae H UA We 1452 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels. Myrtaceae T UA M 1333 Tabernaemontana alternifolia L. Apocynaceae S UA M # Talinum fruticosum(L.) Juss Talinaceae H UA Ed 1490 Talinum paniculatum L. Talinaceae S UA M 1406 Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae T UA M 1435 Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex K.Schum. Rubiaceae S UA M 1371 Tecoma stans(L). Juss. ex Kunth Bignoniaceae S UA Or 1481 Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.)Lindl. Bignoniaceae S UA Or 1317 Tectona grandis L.f. Verbinaceae T UA Ti # Tephrosia purpurea(L.) Pers. Fabaceae H UA M 1410 Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.ex.DC)Wight&&Arn Combretaceae T UA Ti # Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn) Roxb. Combretaceae T UA M # Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae T UA M 1458 Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae T UA M # Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol ex Correa. Malvaceae T UA M 1418 Tibouchina longifolia (Vahl) Bail Melastomataceae T UA Ot 1346 Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers Menisprmaceae L UA M 1325 Toddalia asiatica(L.) Lam. Rutaceae S A M # Tridax procumbens(L.) L. Asteraceae H UA M 1357 Triumfetta pilosaRoth. Malvaceae H UA M 1459 Tylophora indica(Burm.f.) Merr. Asclepidaceae C UA M 1338 Urochloa panicoides P.Beauv. Poaceae H UA F 1372 Vanda tessellata (Roxb) Hook. Ex G. Don Orchidaceae Ep UA Or # Ventilago maderaspatanaGaertn. Rhamnaceae C UA M 1350 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Asteraceae H UA We 1330 Vitex leucoxylon L.f. Verbenaceae H UA M # Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae S UA M # Waltheria indica L. Sterculiaceae H UA M 1411 Wrighitia tinctoria R.Br. Apocyanaceae T UA Ot # Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill. Rhamnaceae S A M # Abbreviations: A-Armed; C-Climber; Ed-Edible; Ep-Epiphyte; F-Fodder; H-Herb; L-Liana; M-Medicine; Or-Ornamental; Ot-Others; S- Shrub; T-Tree; Ti-Timber; UN-Unarmed; VN-Voucher number; We-Weed; #- Specimens not collected due to permission issues.

Table 2. Familywise distribution of plant species in the Udayagiri Fort

Family Genus Species Family Genus Species Fabaceae 17 21 Cucurbitaceae 1 2 Acanthaceae 12 21 Moringaceae 1 2 Poaceae 16 19 Piperaceae 1 2 Euphorbiaceae 9 18 Talinaceae 1 2 Rubiaceae 11 16 Alangiaceae 1 1 Lamiaceae 9 13 Apiaceae 1 1 Malvaceae 8 13 Aristolochiaceae 1 1 Apocynaceae 10 11 Bambucaceae 1 1 Verbenaceae 7 11 Basellaceae 1 1 Caesalpiniaceae 6 9 Bromeliaceae 1 1 Asteraceae 9 9 Cactaceae 1 1 Moraceae 3 9 Capparaceae 1 1 Mimosaceae 6 8 Caricaceae 1 1 Rutaceae 7 7 Casurinaceae 1 1 Asparagaceae 6 7 Cannanaceae 1 1 Amaranthaceae 6 6 Clochiaceae 1 1 Arecaceae 6 6 Costaceae 1 1 Convolvulaceae 3 6 Crassulaceae 1 1 Solanaceae 3 6 Cycadaceae 1 1 Asclepidaceae 5 5 Elaeocarpaceae 1 1 http://biosciencediscovery.com 212 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Family Genus Species Family Genus Species Bignoniaceae 5 5 Flacourtiaceae 1 1 Cyperaceae 4 5 Icacinaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 4 5 Leythididaceae 1 1 Lauraceae 3 5 Linaceae 1 1 Menispermaceae 4 4 Loganiaceae 1 1 Araceae 3 4 Lythraceae 1 1 Annonaceae 2 4 Magnoliaceae 1 1 Combretaceae 1 4 Meliaceae 1 1 Anacardiaceae 3 3 Molluginaceae 1 1 Clusiaceae 3 3 Musaceae 1 1 Nyctaginaceae 3 3 Myristicaceae 1 1 Sterculiaceae 3 3 Oleraceae 1 1 Commelinaceae 2 3 Orchidaceae 1 1 Vitaceae 2 3 Papaveraceae 1 1 Cleomaceae 1 3 Passifloraceae 1 1 Amarylidaceae 2 2 Pedaliaceae 1 1 Boraginaceae 2 2 Periplocaceae 1 1 Loranthaceae 2 2 Plantaginaceae 1 1 Melastomataceae 2 2 Plumbaginaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 2 2 Rosaceae 1 1 Rhamnaceae 2 2 Santalaceae 1 1 Salvodaraceae 2 2 Sapindaceaea 1 1 Sapotaceae 2 2 Scrophulariaceae 1 1 Celastraceae 1 2 Symplocaceae 1 1 Violaceae 1 1

Diversity of wild/naturalized plant species Some of the most striking plant species of Most plant species of the study area are of the Udayagiri Fort include the deciduous tree considerable ecological and economic importance, Artocarpus hirsutus, wild edible Syzygium cuminii useful as bioresources to wild fauna and human and the representative element of tropical dry beings. Of the total 346 wild/naturalized plant evergreen forest Schleichera oleosa among trees, species, most are useful as medicinal plants, and the shrub Dodonaea angustifolia and the endemic others are valuable as edible fruits, timbers, herb Sansevieria roxburghiana. Lianas, the woody fuelwood, etc. climbers, are dominated by Cissus vitiginea, Ecologically the non-woody species provide Coccinia grandis, Capparis zeylanica, Ichnocarpus fleshy fruit resources to fauna, indicating the frutescens, Rivea hypocrateriformis, Zizyphus extent of the faunal dependence of plants for oenoplia and the semi-parasitic twiner, the laurel various ecological processes. Some of the wild and dodder Cassytha filiformis. In scrub savannas, naturalized edible fruit trees in the park are dense growth of grasses such as Aristida setacea, Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. hirsutus, Anacardium Apluda mutica and Heteropogon contortus, with occidentale, Mangifera indica, Schleichera oleosa, clumps of thorny bushes characterized by Albizia Syzygium cuminii, etc. The medicinally and lebbeck as the central tree and surrounded by the commercially important species, Santalum album is endemic thorny, dwarf palm species Phoenix widely distributed in the Biodiversity Park. pusilla, and a diverse group of twiners and herbs Leaves of several species are edible to enriching bush diversity, is a common feature in folivores, several flowers yield nectar which is fed undisturbed areas of the Fort. upon by a diverse group of nectarivores, especially Economically important plants sun birds and insects, particularly butterflies and Most of the plants recorded from Udayagiri fort of moths. Various ecological services including Kanyakumari district are economically important. pollination and dispersal are rendered by the The medicinal plant ranked first with 191 species, faunal communities, utilizing plant rewards in the 50 species having ornamental value, 13 species had process. Of the total 346 wild and naturalized timber value, edible 11 species and 58 species plants, about 85% species are dispersed by the were regarded for green manure. Many autocorous mode and the remaining species are multipurpose species were also reported from fort. wind-dispersed with winged fruits/seeds or seeds Of these, 6 species are used as timber, medicine, with tuft of hairs atop. and minor forest produce (Figure 7).

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Climbers Lianas, Epiphyt 500 33 450 , 23 12 e, 1 32

400 C) 350 31 0 300 30 250 Trees, 29 200 93 150

Rainfall Rainfall (mm) 28

100 ( Temperature 27 50 Herbs, 0 26 133 Shrubs, J F M A M J J A S O N D 84 Study period

Rainfall Minimum Temperature Maximum Temperature

Figure 1: Figure showing the climate of the study area Figure 2: Habitwise distribution of plant species in the Udayagiri Fort 140 133

120 108 Family 75 15 93 100 84 77 80 70 Genera 218 47 60 38 38 42 40 23 22 16 Taxa 292 54 20 12 12 8 1 1 1 0 Trees Shrubs Herbs Climbers Lianas Epiphyte 0 100 200 300 400

Taxa Genera Family Dicotyledons

Figure 3. Life-form classification of plant species collected Figure 4. Taxonomic classification of the form the park. taxa collected from the study area. 25 25 20 20 15 10 15

5 10 0 5

0 1 6 11162126313641465156616671768186 Genera Taxa Family Rank Figure 5. Distribution pattern of top ten families of the study Figure 6. Familywise distribution of plant area. taxa of the study area. The important medicinal plants growing in alsinoides, Ficus glomerata, F. religiosa, Hyptis the Udayagiri Fort include Abutilon indicum, suaveolens, Elephantopus scaber, Hemidesmus Achyranthes aspera, Adhatoda zeylanica, Aegle indicus, Leucas aspera, Melia azedarach, Moringa marmelos, Albizia lebbeck, Ammania baccifera, oleifera, Ocimum canum, Oldenlandia corymbosa, Andrographis paniculata, Azadirachta indica, Oxalis corniculata, Phyllanthus niruri, Physalis Bauhinia purpurea, Boerhaavia diffusa, Calotropis minima, Pongamia pinnata, Scoparia dulcis, Sida procera, C. gigantea, Cassia fistula, C. occidentalis, veronicaefolia, Solanum nigrum, S. xanthocarpum, C. tora, Centella asiatica, Clerodendrum viscosum, Streblus asper, Syzygium cuminii, Tephrosia Coccinia grandis, Commelina benghalensis, Costus purpurea, Terminalia arjuna, T. bellerica, speciosus, Cynodon dactylon, Eclipta alba, Evolvulus Trianthema monogyna, Tribulus terrestris,

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Series1, Series1, Fodder, 6, 2%Others, 16, 5%

Series1, Ornamental, Series1, Edible, 50, 14% 12, 3% Series1, Medicine, 191, Series1, Green 55% manure, 58, 17%

Series1, Timber, 13, 4%

Figure 7. Distribution of economically important plant in the study area.

Urena lobata and Wrightia tinctoria. The exotics grown as avenue plants in the Dalbergia sissoo, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta Udayagiri Fort are represented by Acacia indica, Tamarindus indica, Bombax ceiba and auriculiformis, Acacia mangium, Cassia siamea, Syzygium cuminii are the important timber-yielding Kigelia africana, Melia azedarach, Peltophorum tree species. pterocarpum, Swietenia mahagonii and A higher proportion of the exotic flora of Tamarindus indicus. Several of the exotics are the Udayagiri Fort is represented by ornamental weeds. These include Ageratum conyzoides, plants, which include Allamanda cathartica, Agave Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, neriifolia, Aloe vera, Asparagus racemosus, Anagallis arvensis, Cassia occidentalis, C. tora, Bauhinia purpurea, Bougainvillea spectabilis, Croton bonplandianum, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus Calendula officinalis, Callistemon lanceolatus, rotundus, Eclipta prostrata, Eragrostis tenella, Canna indica, Catharanthus roseus, Coleus blumei, Euphorbia hirta, Euphorbia thymifolia, Ipomoea Delonix regia, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Gladiolus fistulosa, Melilotus alba, Oxalis corniculata, hybrid, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Jatropha Parthenium hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Physalis gossypifolia, Kalanchoe pinnata, Lantana camara, minima, Portulaca oleracea, Sonchus oleraceus, Lawsonia inermis, Millingtonia hortensis, Mirabilis Sphaeranthus indicus, Sporobolus diander, jalapa, Mussaenda luteola, Polyanthes tuberosa, Taraxacum officinale, Tridax procumbens and Plumeria rubra, Quisqualis indica, Ravenala Urena lobata. These exotic flora are naturalized to madagascariensis, Rhoeo discolor, Samanea Indian conditions and hence grow successfully saman, Tagetes erecta, T. patula, Tecoma stans without any human assistance. and Thevetia peruviana. These plant species had Of the total plant species reported from been planted for the ornamentation of park the fort, Parthenium hysterophorus was observed managers of the Udayagiri Fort. to be harmful to native flora. This American flora Certain species of the exotics are edible has spread very fast in the last couple of decades in fruit-producing plants of the study area. These are the campus, infesting all types of terrestrial represented by Annona squamosa, Artocarpus habitats and posing a threat to the biodiversity of communis, Carica papaya, Manilkara zapota, the campus. Exotics are referred to as biological Morus alba, Passiflora edulis, Psidium guajava, pollutants due to their destructive effects on Punica granatum, Vitis vinifera and Ziziphus natural and man-managed ecosystems mauritiana. A large number of exotics are (Westbrooks, 1991). Serious ecological effects of represented by vegetable crops which are chiefly the fast-spreading introduced flora have been cultivated in kitchen gardens of residential reported (Di Castri et al., 1990; D' Antonio and compounds to meet the needs of fresh vegetables. Vitousek, 1992; Hobbs and Huenneke, 1992; These include Abelmoschus esculentus, Capsicum Punalekar et al., 2010) and non-indigenous plant annuum, Colocasia antiquorum, Dolichos lablab, species are considered a major threat to Lactuca sativa, Lycopersicon esculentum, Phaseolus biodiversity (Mooney, 1988; Lodge, 1993; Huston, vulgaris and Vigna sinensis. 1994; McGeoch et al., 2006). http://biosciencediscovery.com 215 ISSN: 2231-024X (Online) Bioscience Discovery, 5(2):204-217, July-2014 ISSN: 2229-3469 (Print) The study reveals that the campus is rich in Henry AN and Swaminathan M, 1981. Observation on exotic flora, represented mostly by ornamental the vegetation of Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu. plants, edible fruit trees, food crops, vegetable Bull. Bot. Sur. Ind., 23: 135–139. crops, avenue plants and weeds. Flora of American Henry AN, Chitra V and Balakrishnan NP, 1989. Flora of origin dominates the exotic floristic composition of Tamilnadu, India, Series I: Analyis, Vol. 3, Botanical Survey of India, , p. 171. this campus. Herbaceous exotics dominate the Henry AN, Kurmai GR and Chitra V, 1987. Flora of woody exotics. Fabaceae, Asteraceae and Poaceae Tamilnadu, India, Series I: Analyis, Vol. 2, Botanical are the dominant families of the exotic floristic Survey of India, Coimbatore, p. 285. composition of the Biodiversity Park. Hobbs RJ and Huenneke LF, 1992. Disturbance, diversity In conclusion, the present study shows and invasion: Implication for conservation. Conser. Biol., that, priorities for the conservation of archeological 6: 324-337 sites and terrestrial biodiversity overlap and are Hong Q, 1999. Spatial pattern of diversity complementary in their targets. Anthropogenic in North America North of Mexico and its floristic activities can influence native plant biodiversity relationship with Eurasia. Ann. 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