U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice National Institute of Justice R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f Julie E. Samuels, Acting Director February 2001 Issues and Findings An Update on the “Cycle of ” Discussed in this Brief: Updated results of a longitudinal study that By Cathy S. Widom and Michael G. Maxfield compared the arrest records of abused and/or neglected children Do childhood and lead to through 1971 and tracked through with arrest records for children who adult criminal behavior? How likely is it official criminal records over approxi- were not abused or maltreated. that today’s abused and neglected chil- mately 25 years. Subjects included 908 substantiated dren will become tomorrow’s violent cases of childhood abuse or neglect ● A comparison group of 667 children, offenders? Did the picture change when processed by the courts from 1967 not officially recorded as abused or ne- these individuals’ records were updated through 1971 who were matched glected, matched to the study group ac- after 6 years? by sex, age, race, and approximate cording to sex, age, race, and approximate family socioeconomic status with a family socioeconomic status. comparison group of 667 children In one of the most detailed studies of the issue to date, research sponsored by the not officially recorded as abused or Although many individuals in both groups National Institute of Justice (NIJ) found neglected. had no juvenile or adult criminal record, that childhood abuse and neglect in- being abused or neglected as a child in- Initial results were gathered in 1988, creased the odds of future delinquency creased the likelihood of arrest as a juvenile when the average age of subjects and adult criminality overall by 29 per- by 59 percent, as an adult by 28 percent, and was 26 years. Those findings cent. When data were initially checked showed that childhood abuse and for a violent crime by 30 percent. neglect increased the odds of future in 1988, the average age of subjects was delinquency and adult criminality 26 years. About 65 percent of the sample The “cycle of violence” hypothesis sug- overall by 29 percent. The updated had passed through the peak years of gests that a childhood history of physical results discussed in this Brief are committing violent offenses (ages 20 to abuse predisposes the survivor to vio- based on additional arrest data 25 years). This update reports new arrest lence in later years. This study reveals gathered in 1994. data collected in 1994, when subjects that victims of neglect are also likely to averaged 32.5 years of age and only Key issues: Childhood victimization develop later violent criminal behavior. If 1 percent of the sample had not passed represents a widespread, serious so- violence is begotten by not only violence, cial problem. General delinquency through the peak offending years. The but also by neglect, far more attention research shows that childhood examination of updated data on the same needs to be devoted to the families of abuse (physical and sexual) is often subjects 6 years later reveals findings children who are abandoned and severely associated with delinquency and that are similar in some respects, but quite malnourished. that the early onset of maltreatment different in others. may increase the variety, serious- This study relied on arrest records to ness, and duration of problems. It is The study followed 1,575 cases from measure delinquency and criminality, also widely suggested that violence childhood through young adulthood, com- initially checked in 1988.1 Updated ar- begets violence—that today’s paring the arrest records of two groups: rest records were collected in 1994, and abused children become tomorrow’s results from this update are presented in violent offenders. ● A study group of 908 substantiated cases of childhood abuse or neglect this Research in Brief. Further, children who suffer from processed by the courts from 1967 neglect—not —are

Additional support for this study was provided by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and continued… Alcoholism and the National Institute of Mental Health. R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f

Issues and Findings Study design design allowed the study to separate known correlates of delinquency and …continued Several important design features distin- criminality (age, sex, race, and socioeco- also at risk. In one study of the guish this research from prior efforts to nomic status) from the experience of child influence of early malnutrition on study the intergenerational transmission abuse and neglect. Both groups were subsequent behavior, previously of violence.2 First, by following a large approximately two-thirds white and one- malnourished children had atten- number (1,575) of cases from childhood third black and were about evenly di- tion deficits, reduced social skills, through adolescence and into young and poorer emotional stability than vided between males and females. Most adulthood, this prospective study was a comparison group. were between the ages of 6 and 11 years able to examine the long-term conse- old at the time the abuse was documented Key findings: quences of abuse and neglect. The sam- or matches were made (see exhibit 1). ple, drawn from a metropolitan area ● Being abused or neglected as a in the Midwest, was restricted to children The study design also featured clear op- child increased the likelihood of who were 11 years of age or younger at arrest as a juvenile by 59 percent, erational definitions of abuse and neglect. as an adult by 28 percent, and for the time of the abuse or neglect. Combined with large sample sizes, this a violent crime by 30 percent. permitted the separate examination of Arrest records were originally examined physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, in 1988. When juvenile and adult crimi- ● Maltreated children were defined as follows: younger at the time of their first nal records were reexamined in 1994, the arrest, committed nearly twice as age of the subjects ranged from 18 to 40 ● Physical abuse cases included inju- many offenses, and were arrested years old. Fewer than 1 percent were ries such as bruises, welts, burns, more frequently. younger than 25 years of age, and the abrasions, lacerations, wounds, cuts, mean age of the group was 32.5 years. bone and skull fractures, and other ● Physically abused and neglected evidence of physical injury. (versus sexually abused) children Matching members of the study group to were the most likely to be arrested others whose official records showed no ● Sexual abuse charges varied from later for a violent crime. childhood abuse or neglect was an equally relatively nonspecific charges of ● In contrast to earlier research important feature of the research. This “assault and battery with intent to findings, the new results indicate that abused and neglected females Exhibit 1. Demographic characteristics were also at increased risk of arrest for violence as juveniles and adults. 80

● White abused and neglected 70 children were no more likely to be arrested for a violent crime than 60 their nonabused and nonneglected white counterparts. In contrast, 50 black abused and neglected chil- dren in this sample showed signifi- 40

cantly increased rates of violent Percent arrests compared with black chil- 30 dren who were not maltreated. 20 ● An out-of-home placement was not related to the number of arrests among those who were 10 removed from their homes due 0 only to abuse and neglect. Male Female White Black 0–3 yrs. 4–5 yrs. 6–11 yrs. Target audience: Juvenile au- Abused/neglected group Comparison group thorities, child welfare profession- als, police, teachers, and health care workers.

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gratify sexual desires” to more spe- Exhibit 2. Extent of involvement in delinquency, adult criminality, and cific ones, such as “fondling or violent criminal behavior, in percent touching in an obscene manner,” Abused and Neglected Group Comparison Group sodomy, rape, and incest. Type of Arrest (n = 908) (n = 667) ● Neglect cases reflected a judgment Juvenile 27.4 17.2 that the parents’ deficiencies in Adult 41.6 32.5 child care were beyond those found Violent Crime 18.1 13.9 acceptable by community and pro- Note: All differences are significant. fessional standards at the time. These cases represented extreme failure to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, and medical atten- nearly twice as many offenses (mean = and Social Services records) in another tion to children. 2.4 versus 1.4), and were arrested geographic area (Mecklenburg County, more frequently (17 percent of abused North Carolina). Zingraff and col- Juvenile court and probation records and neglected cases versus 9 percent leagues6 found that maltreated children were the source of information on of comparison cases had more than had higher rates of delinquency and abuse or neglect and family character- five arrests). This information is im- violence complaints than nonmaltreated istics. Arrest data were obtained from portant because of the finding in the school and impoverished children. Federal, State, and local law enforce- general delinquency literature that ment records. Recognizing that much shows early onset is associated with Thus, in three quite different prospec- (as well as later delin- increased variety, seriousness, and tive studies covering different parts of quent and criminal behavior) never duration of problems.4 the country and using cases from dif- comes to the attention of any official ferent time periods, childhood abuse authority, a second phase of this re- Our research was conducted in a met- and neglect have been found to increase search was undertaken to supplement ropolitan county area in the Midwest, risk of crime and delinquency. This is official records with interview results. using cases of abuse and neglect that important because similar findings A comparison of official records and came to the attention of the courts based on such different sampling pro- self-report information for these sub- during the years 1967 through 1971. cedures increase the validity of gener- jects is described in a recent article.3 Other researchers report similar find- alizing the results. Presently, NIJ is ings. As part of the Rochester Youth funding a fourth study to examine the Development Study, Thornberry and relationship between child abuse and Study findings his colleagues collected information neglect and subsequent criminal out- Of primary interest was the question, from the Department of Social Services comes in the Nation’s Northwest region. “Would arrest histories of those who in Rochester, New York, about abused had been abused or neglected be and neglected children in their longi- Sex. The experience of early child- worse than those with no reported tudinal study. Using self-reports and hood abuse or neglect had a substan- abuse?” The answer, shown in exhibit official arrest information, Smith and tial impact on individuals with little 2, was evident: Those who had been Thornberry5 found that child maltreat- likelihood of engaging in officially re- abused or neglected as children were ment was a significant risk factor for corded adult criminal behavior. Males more likely to be arrested as juveniles delinquency and self-reported violent generally have higher rates of criminal (27 percent versus 17 percent), adults behavior, even when gender, race or behavior than females, but females (42 percent versus 33 percent), and for ethnicity, family structure, and social abused or neglected in childhood were a violent crime (18 percent versus 14 class were controlled. 73 percent more likely than control percent). group females to be arrested for prop- Another study examined maltreated erty, alcohol, drug, and such misde- The abused and neglected cases were children and two nonmaltreated com- meanor offenses as disorderly conduct, younger at first arrest (mean = 16.5 parison samples (one from the schools curfew violations, or loitering. In years versus 17.3 years), committed and one from the Department of Health contrast to earlier findings, these

3 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f new results indicate that abused and juvenile or adult, despite the fact that for violence. For females, there is an neglected females were also at in- females are less likely to be arrested increased risk for participation. For creased risk of arrest for violence as for violence. This pattern was not evi- males, there is an increased risk in the juveniles and adults (see exhibit 3). dent for males. Compared with control frequency of participation (the number males, abused and neglected males of violent arrests). Childhood victim- Because these findings are based on were not at increased risk for violent ization increases arrests for violence official criminal records, it is possible offending as juveniles or adults. among females and males, but in dif- that differences represent spurious ferent ways. findings. It is particularly tempting to The apparent lack of increased risk dismiss the findings about females for violent offending by abused and Race. Both black and white abused because the base rates are so low. neglected males was surprising. One and neglected children were more However, these findings have been possible explanation is that having an likely to be arrested than comparison subjected to more stringent multivari- arrest for violence is not such an un- children. However, as shown in exhibit ate analyses with the same results. Be- usual occurrence among a sample like 4, the difference among whites was not cause few studies have looked at these this. For this reason, we reexamined as great as that among blacks. In fact, relationships, it is hard to explain the these data using a different dependent white abused and neglected children findings in any conclusive way. variable: the number of arrests for vio- were no more likely to be arrested for lence. Abused and neglected males a violent crime than their nonabused Interestingly, the pattern of increased were found to have a significantly and nonneglected counterparts. This risk differed for males and females. larger number of arrests for violence contrasts sharply with findings for Compared with controls, abused and than control males. Thus, a gender black children in this sample, who neglected females were at increased difference exists in the effect of child- showed significantly increased rates of risk of arrest for a violent crime as a hood victimization on risk for arrest violent crime arrests than black chil- dren who were not abused or neglected.

Exhibit 3. Involvement in criminality by gender, in percent This is a surprising finding. We can Type of Arrest Abused and Neglected Group Comparison Group only speculate that these results may reflect differences in a number of envi- Any Arrest ronmental factors, including poverty Male 62.1 54.8* Female 37.6 21.9*** levels, family characteristics, the na- ture of the abuse or neglect incident, Property access to counseling or support ser- Male 43.2 29.3*** Female 17.8 11.1*** vices, treatment by juvenile authori- ties, or exposure to levels of violence Order in the community. Understanding what Male 35.9 29.0* Female 16.3 7.2*** appears to be a differential effect of childhood victimization by race is an Violent important challenge for future research. Male 28.4 24.2 Female 8.2 3.6** Juvenile record. Abused and ne- Alcohol glected individuals were at higher risk Male 27.1 26.0 of arrest, at a younger age, with more Female 9.9 6.0* significant and repeated criminal in- Drugs volvement. Notably, however, among Male 22.8 17.1* those arrested as juveniles, abused or Female 6.9 2.1** neglected persons were no more likely

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001. to continue being arrested than control Note: Number of males = 777 and females = 798. subjects.

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somewhat misleading because victims Exhibit 4. Involvement in criminality by race, in percent of sexual abuse were overwhelmingly Abused and Neglected Group Comparison Group female (84 percent), and females less Type of Arrest (n = 900) (n = 667) often had a record of violent offenses. Juvenile Different types of abuse and neglect Black 40.6 20.9*** are not distributed evenly by age, sex, White 21.8 15.2** and race. However, even after control- Adult ling for age, sex, and race, the rela- Black 59.8 43.6*** tionship between childhood neglect White 33.8 26.6* and subsequent violence remained Violent Crime evident. Black 34.2 21.8** White 11.0 9.7 Nationwide, the incidence of neglect is almost two and a half times that of *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001. physical abuse (15.9 per 1,000 chil- dren in 1986, compared with 5.7 per 1,000 for physical abuse, and 2.5 per Exhibit 5. Does only violence beget violence? 1,000 for sexual abuse).7 Neglect also is potentially more damaging to the Percentage Arrested Abuse Group Number of subjects for Violent Offense development of a child than physical abuse (provided the abuse involves no Physical Abuse Only 76 21.1 neurological impairment). In one study Neglect Only 609 20.2 of the influence of early malnutrition Sexual Abuse Only 125 8.8 on subsequent behavior, previously Mixed 98 14.3 malnourished children had attention deficits, reduced social skills, and Control 667 13.9 poorer emotional stability than a com- parison group.8 Other researchers have found an array of developmental dif- ● In both groups, roughly the same Does only violence beget proportion of abused and neglected ferences associated with childhood violence? 9 children and controls with juvenile neglect. Coupled with the present To test the notion that childhood vic- arrests had arrests as adults (71 study’s findings of a greater risk of tims of violence resort to violence them- percent versus 66 percent). later criminal violence among ne- selves in later years, violent criminal glected children, these behavioral and ● Similarly, in both groups, about the behavior was examined as a function of developmental differences suggest a same proportion of those with violent the type of maltreatment experienced as need for concerted preventive action. juvenile arrests also had violent a child. The results are presented in arrests as adults (63 percent versus simplified form in exhibit 5. Furthermore, these research findings 61 percent). show the importance of improved pro- Exhibit 5 shows that physically abused cedures for the identification of child In short, childhood abuse and neglect (as opposed to neglected or sexually abuse and neglect. Referring to the had no apparent effect on the continu- abused) children were the most likely connection between child maltreat- ation of juvenile offending into adult- to be arrested later for a violent crime. ment and adult criminality, New York hood. Distinguishing the factors that The neglected group, however, was City instituted procedures for police promote the onset of criminal behavior only slightly less likely to be arrested response and followup in cases involv- from those that affect persistence in a for a violent crime. Victims of sexual ing suspected child abuse and ne- criminal career is recommended as an abuse were least likely to have an glect.10 In jurisdictions that have important topic for future research. arrest for violence, although this is adopted community policing, officers may be better able to detect early

5 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f signs of child maltreatment by foster- was about 5 years and sometimes lasted destructiveness, uncontrollable anger, ing closer ties to community residents. through childhood and adolescence. sadistic tendencies, and extreme defi- By making referrals to appropriate ance of authority. Whether the behav- social service agencies, police also As exhibit 6 shows, there was remark- ior problems caused the move or the may be able to prevent more serious ably little difference between the ar- moves contributed to the behavior problem outcomes down the road. rest records of those who remained at problems is unclear. In either case, home and those who were placed out- children with numerous placements side the home due to abuse and ne- Out-of-home placement and are likely to need special services. glect. Predictably, both groups were criminal consequences strikingly different from those placed These findings challenge the assump- Not all abused and neglected children outside the home due to both delin- tion that it is necessarily unwise to grow up to become delinquents, adult quency and abuse or neglect. At least remove children from negative family criminals, or violent criminal offend- for this sample, then, an out-of-home situations. Although stability of place- ers. What are some of the possible placement did not negatively affect the ment appears to be important, the po- mediating variables that act to buffer arrest measure for those who were re- tential damage of removing an abused or protect abused and neglected chil- moved from their homes due only to and neglected child from the home did dren? Placement outside the home was abuse or neglect. not include a higher likelihood of investigated as one possible buffer. arrest or violent criminal behavior. Scholars and practitioners have criti- Additional analysis showed that stabil- ity may be an important factor in out- cized out-of-home placements (foster Additional research in of-home placements. Children who care, in particular). Children placed progress outside the home are considered a were moved three or more times had particularly vulnerable group, because significantly higher arrest rates (almost A second phase of this research—with they have experienced both a dis- twice as high) for all types of criminal support from NIJ, the National Insti- turbed family situation and separation behaviors—juvenile, adult, and vio- tute of Mental Health, the National from their natural parents. Accord- lent—than children who were moved Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alco- ingly, child welfare policies today of- fewer than three times. In turn, chil- holism, and the National Institute on ten seek to avoid removing the child dren with multiple placements typi- Drug Abuse—was designed to address from home and instead try to mitigate cally had records of behavior problems many of the unanswered questions negative family situations through in their files. These notations covered from the first phase by finding and in- counseling and related support, such as a wide spectrum of problem behaviors, terviewing a large number of subjects intensive family preservation services. including chronic fighting, fire setting, 20 to 25 years after the childhood vic-

In contrast to today’s practices, the vast Exhibit 6. Juvenile and adult arrests as a function of placement experiences for majority of these children who were juvenile court cases only (N = 772) abused and neglected roughly 30 years ago were placed outside the home dur- Arrest (%) ing some portion of their childhood or Both Juvenile early adolescence. Annual information Type of Juvenile Adult and Adult Violent Placement N (n = 215) (n = 317) (n = 155) (n = 148) on placement was available from juve- nile court and probation records of 772 No Placement 106 16.0 44.3 10.4 15.1 children. For these, out-of-home place- Abuse/Neglect ments included foster care, guardians’ Placement Only 489 18.6 37.0 12.5 14.1 homes, and schools for the retarded or Delinquency physically handicapped. Only 14 per- Placement Plus cent of these abuse and neglect cases Abuse/Neglect 96 92.7 78.1 71.9 53.1 had no record of having been placed Significance *** *** *** *** out of the home through age 18. The average amount of time in placement ***p < .001.

6 R e s e a r c h i n B r i e f timization. Inperson followup inter- hood of delinquency, adult criminality, for juvenile court and child welfare views inquired about recollections of and violent criminal behavior. These action is the fact that neglect alone early childhood experiences, school- updated results document the persis- (not exclusively physical abuse) was ing, and adolescence; possible unde- tence of the relationship in demon- significantly related to violent cri- tected alcohol and drug problems; strable long-term consequences for minal behavior. A picture emerges possible undetected delinquency and criminal behavior. Poor educational where physical abuse may be only criminality; and important life experi- performance, mental health problems, one point on a continuum of family ences. The followup was designed to and generally low levels of achievement situations that contribute to vio- examine a much fuller range of conse- also characterize victims of early child- lence. Whether those situations re- quences of childhood victimization hood abuse and neglect studied here. sult in active physical abuse or more experiences and to determine why passive neglect, it is now quite clear some victims of childhood abuse and Earlier writings based on this research that both forms of child maltreatment neglect fare well, while others have emphasized that the majority of abused seriously threaten the healthy devel- more negative consequences. and neglected children in the sample opment of children. Neglect cases did not become offenders. That earlier represent the majority of cases tax- Findings based on 2-hour followup conclusion must be modified. At ing the child protection system. This interviews with 1,196 abused and ne- present, almost half of the abused and research shows that today’s victims glected and comparison group subjects neglected individuals overall (49 per- of neglect may well be tomorrow’s indicate that other negative outcomes cent) have had an arrest for a nontraffic violent offenders. may be common as well: offense (juvenile or adult). For some subgroups (blacks and abused and ne- ● Examine out-of-home placement ● Mental health concerns (suicide glected males), almost two-thirds have policies. This NIJ study focused attempts and posttraumatic stress been arrested as juveniles or adults. on cases during the period 1967 disorder11). Childhood victimization increased the through 1971, when out-of-home ● Educational problems (extremely risk of being arrested and being ar- placements were a common inter- low IQ scores and reading ability).12 rested for a violent crime. But it may vention. Detailed information avail- best be viewed as one among a constel- able for 772 cases revealed that a ● Occupational difficulties (lack of work, lation of risk factors. large majority (86 percent) were high rates of unemployment, and em- placed outside their homes for an ployment in low-level service jobs). These results suggest at least three average of 5 years. This contrasts ● Public health and safety issues messages to juvenile authorities and sharply with today’s efforts in many (prostitution in males and females13 child welfare professionals: places to avoid out-of-home place- 14 ment on the assumption that sepa- and alcohol problems in females). ● Intervene early. These updated find- ration may aggravate, rather than ings reinforce the need for police, In addition to documenting the broader ameliorate, a child’s problems. Yet, teachers, and health care workers to consequences of childhood victimiza- we found no evidence that those recognize the signs of abuse and tion, a goal of these followup interviews who were separated from their fami- neglect and make serious efforts to was to identify protective factors that lies fared any worse on arrest mea- intervene as early as possible. The may buffer the negative results of abuse sures than those who remained at later the intervention, the more diffi- and neglect. The ultimate goal was to home. Though these results are far cult the change process becomes. It provide a knowledge base on which to from definitive, they suggest that is suggested that special attention be build appropriate prevention and treat- child protective policies in this paid to abused and neglected chil- ment programs. area deserve close scrutiny. The dren with early behavior problems. assumption that removal from the These children show the highest risk home offers additional risk could Conclusions and implications of later juvenile and adult arrest, as not be confirmed by this study. Any Childhood victimization represents a well as violent criminal behavior. policy founded on this assumption widespread, serious social problem. ● Recognize the high risks of neglect, should be tested through careful Earlier reports demonstrated that child as well as of child physical abuse. local studies of the full conse- abuse and neglect increased the likeli- Also important in its implications quences of out-of-home placement.

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Notes tion on Subsequent Behavioral Development. II. 10. B. Ward, Commissioner, New York City Police Classroom Behavior,” Journal of the American Department, press release no. 17, May 22, 1989. 1. C.S. Widom, The Cycle of Violence, Research Academy of Child Psychiatry 24 (1983): 16–22. in Brief, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of 11. C.S. Widom, “Posttraumatic Stress Disor- Justice, National Institute of Justice, October 9. See, for instance, R.E. Allen and J.M. Oliver, der in Abused and Neglected Children Fol- 1992, NCJ 136607. “The Effects of Child Maltreatment on Language lowed-Up,” American Journal of Psychiatry Development,” Child Abuse and Neglect 6 (1982): 156 (1999): 1223–1229. 2. For further information on the design and 299–305; B. Egeland, A. Sroufe, and M. Erickson, sampling procedures, see C.S. Widom, “Child “The Developmental Consequences of Different 12. C.M. Perez and C.S. Widom, “Childhood Abuse, Neglect, and Adult Behavior: Research Patterns of Maltreatment,” Child Abuse and Ne- Victimization and Long-Term Intellectual and Design and Findings on Criminality, Violence, glect 7 (1983): 459–469; A. Frodi and J. Smetana, Academic Outcomes,” Child Abuse and Neglect and Child Abuse,” American Journal of Ortho- “Abused, Neglected, and Nonmaltreated Pre- 18 (1994): 617–633. psychiatry 59 (1989): 355–367; M.G. Maxfield schoolers’ Ability to Discriminate Emotions in and C.S. Widom, “The Cycle of Violence: Re- Others: The Effects of IQ,” Child Abuse and 13. C.S. Widom and J. Kuhns, “Childhood visited Six Years Later,” Archives of Pediatrics Neglect 8 (1984): 459–465. Victimization and Subsequent Risk for Promis- and Adolescent Medicine 150 (1996): 390–395. cuity, Prostitution, and Teenage Pregnancy,” American Journal of Public Health 86 (11) 3. M.G. Maxfield, B.L. Weiler, and C.S. Cathy Spatz Widom is Professor of (November 1996): 1607–1612. Widom, “Comparing Self-Reports and Official Psychiatry and University Professor Records of Arrests,” Journal of Quantitative in the Department of Psychiatry at 14. C.S. Widom, T. Ireland, and P.J. Glynn, Criminology 16 (2000): 87–110. “Alcohol Abuse in Abused and Neglected the New Jersey Medical School Children Followed-Up: Are They at Increased 4. R. Loeber and M. Stouthamer-Loeber, (UMDNJ). She is widely recognized Risk?” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 56 (1995): “Prediction,” in Handbook of Juvenile Delin- for her work on the cycle of violence. 207–217. quency, ed. H.C. Quay, New York: Wiley & Sons, 1987. Michael G. Maxfield is a professor Findings and conclusions of the research of Criminal Justice at Rutgers Uni- reported here are those of the authors and do 5. C. Smith and T.P. Thornberry, “The Rela- not necessarily reflect the official position or tionship Between Childhood Maltreatment and versity. He is the coauthor of Re- policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Adolescent Involvement in Delinquency,” search Methods for Criminal Justice Criminology 33 (1995): 451–481. and Criminology. The National Institute of Justice is a 6. M.T. Zingraff, J. Leiter, K.A. Myers, and component of the Office of Justice M.C. Johnsen, “Child Maltreatment and The research for this study was sup- Programs, which also includes the Bureau Youthful Problem Behavior,” Criminology ported by grants from the National of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice 31 (1993): 173–202. Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Institute of Justice (86–IJ–CX– Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for 7. Westat, Inc., Study Findings: Study of Na- 0033, 89–IJ–CX–0007, and 93– Victims of Crime. tional Incidence and Prevalence of Child Abuse IJ–CX–0031–S1) as well as the and Neglect: 1988, Washington, D.C.: U.S. De- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse This and other NIJ publications can be partment of Health and Human Services, 1988. and Alcoholism (AA09238) and the found at and downloaded from the NIJ Web site (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij). 8. J.R. Galler, F. Ramsey, G. Solimano, and National Institute of Mental Health W.E. Lowell, “The Influence of Early Malnutri- (MH49467). NCJ 184894

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