Georgia State University ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University History Dissertations Department of History 11-20-2007 Public and Private Voices: The Typhoid Fever Experience at Camp Thomas, 1898. Gerald Joseph Pierce Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/history_diss Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Pierce, Gerald Joseph, "Public and Private Voices: The Typhoid Fever Experience at Camp Thomas, 1898.." Dissertation, Georgia State University, 2007. https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/history_diss/7 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of History at ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in History Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE VOICES: THE TYPHOID FEVER EXPERIENCE AT CAMP THOMAS, 1898 by GERALD J. PIERCE Under the direction of Wendy Hamand Venet ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the experience of those involved in the typhoid fever outbreak at Camp Thomas, Chickamauga National Military Park, Georgia between April and August 1898. Among American volunteer soldiers in the Spanish-American War, those stationed at this camp suffered the highest number of typhoid cases and deaths from typhoid. Treatments of the war have referred to the outbreak and some studies have examined it as part of wider subjects, but none from the standpoint of those involved, commanders, doctors, civilians, officers and enlisted men. The mobilized soldiers represented numerous states and reflected the disease experience of civilian society. The study considers the mobilization process, the disease outbreak and the aftermath. INDEX WORDS: Spanish-American War Disease, Typhoid Fever, U.S. Volunteers, Walter Reed, Camp Thomas, Chickamauga PUBLIC AND PRIVATE VOICES: THE TYPHOID FEVER EXPERIENCE AT CAMP THOMAS: 1898 by GERALD J. PIERCE A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the College of Arts and Sciences Georgia State University 2007 Copyright by Gerald J. Pierce 2007 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE VOICES: THE TYPHOID FEVER EXPERIENCE AT CAMP THOMAS, 1898. by GERALD J. PIERCE Committee Chair: Wendy Hamand Venet Committee: Stuart L. Galishoff Charles G. Steffen Electronic Version Approved: Office of Graduate Studies College of Arts and Science Georgia State University December 2007 iv DEDICATION This work is dedicated to two remarkable women without whom the work would not have happened. They are Genevieve Henderson Pierce, my mother, who fostered in me a lifelong love of learning, and to Diane Jacobs Pierce, my late wife, who supported her “professional student” through two graduate degrees and the beginning of my doctoral program. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All students of history recognize that their work rests on the shoulders of those who have come before. This work has benefitted from the support of numerous individuals and organizations. I begin with my dissertation committee. Doctor Wendy Hamand Venet has guided my studies throughout the doctoral program. Her support and guidance, coupled with a willingness to listen has made the learning process effective. Doctor Stuart Galishoff has lent his wide expertise in the field to public health and disease to keep me on track, suggesting additional sources and approaches. Doctor Charles Steffen has provided a keen eye for the structural organization and the overall context of my arguments. Research facilities are key to the identification of source material. The staff of the William Russell Pullen Library at Georgia State University, in particular the interlibrary loan service, has made it possible for me to examine material from other, distant institutions. Mr. James H. Ogden III, historian at the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Battlefield Park gave me insights into scholarship on the park and suggestions about research sources early in my research. The William S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection at the Health Services Library of the University of Virginia, Charlottesville has significant material pertaining to Walter Reed’s life and military career. Mrs. Joan Echtenkamp Klein of this facility was most helpful with my research in this collection. The staff of the Chattanooga Public Library provided assistance with copies of the Chattanooga News. Dr. Richard J. Sommers of the U.S. Army Military History Institute in Carlisle, Pennsylvania gave me significant assistance in finding material. This facility has resources that are indispensable for a historian of United States military vi history. The National Library of Medicine and in particular the staff of the History of Medicine Room facilitated my research into the literature on typhoid before and after the Spanish-American War. The staff of the National Archives was most helpful, even to escorting me into the storage area of that facility to examine documents of potential use. Finally, the Library of Congress staff was supportive of my research efforts in that facility In addition, I must thank three other persons for their support of my research. My daughter, Renee, also a student of history, helped me with formatting and proofreading. My daughter, Patricia gave moral support for my efforts. Finally, my fiancee, Patricia Roth, was most understanding of the effort required and gave me her unstinting support through the final steps of the doctoral program. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 34 3 TYPHOID FEVER IN AMERICA 62 4 CAMP THOMAS - CHICKAMAUGA NATIONAL BATTLEFIELD 92 5 ARMY MANAGEMENT AND NEWSPAPER C OVERAGE 143 6 THE INVESTIGATIONS AND TESTIMONY 176 7 IMPACT OF THE OUTBREAK 241 8 CONCLUSION 284 BIBLIOGRAPHY 298 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Organizations at Camp Thomas 108 Table 2: Second Division, First Army Corps 108 Table 3: Third Division, First Army Corps 109 Table 4: First Division, Third Army Corps 110 Table 5: Second Division, Third Army Corps 110 ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS DCR U.S. Congress. Senate. Report of the Commission Appointed by the President to Investigate the Conduct of the War Department in the War with Spain. 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1900. S. Doc. 221. (Dodge Commission Report) TCR Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps During the Spanish War of 1898. 2 vols. (Washington, D.C. GPO, 1904.) (Typhoid Commission Report) 1 Chapter 1 -Introduction “Arma virumque cano.” I sing of arms and a man. Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil)1 This is a story of soldiers, but not of battles. It is a story of men called to war who suffered, and in some cases, died, not from enemy action but from disease. It is a story of men who volunteered to serve their country, and what happened to them after they went into military service. The men represented every part of the United States, and their particular experience mirrored that of the civilian society from which they came. The conditions that prevailed represented those happening in different parts of the country, to greater or lesser degree, but the results of these conditions were worsened by their presence in large numbers in a fairly concentrated area. Their story has been told in part by historians studying the period, but no study has concentrated on the voices of these soldiers. Despite the use of the singular in the quotation above, Virgil’s Aeneid dealt with the experiences of many men. This story also deals with the experiences of many men. This study arose from a question. During research for a paper on newspaper coverage of the Spanish-American War in an urban history seminar, I was struck by numerous references to the purity of the water supply in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Further 1Virgil , Aeneid, trans. John Dryden, The Harvard Classics 13 (New York: P.F. Collier & Son Company, 1909), 75. 2 investigation revealed that United States Volunteer regiments assembled at Camp George H. Thomas near Chattanooga suffered an extensive outbreak of typhoid fever.2 This dissertation will examine the experience of people involved and how their participation related to the outbreak. I will also study the impact of the illness affecting almost one in every four soldiers at the camp on military and civilian medical care in the years after the war. All told, almost half of all military cases of typhoid fever during the Spanish-American War occurred at Camp Thomas.3 The outbreak, as an individual event, has not been studied extensively by scholars. Discussions of disease in the Spanish-American War literature have largely focused on yellow fever in Cuba and the medical care and disease research on that disease. The typhoid fever outbreak is treated in a summary manner in historical literature. There has been no study looking only at Camp Thomas, and the military units present during the outbreak. I argue that the experience of those involved with the outbreak at Camp Thomas has not been studied in detail by using available sources, both government documents and contemporary accounts. Accounts to date have described the activity as part of a larger picture and have not isolated the mobilization, disease experience and the voices, both public and private, of those at Camp Thomas. 2 The camp was located on the Chickamauga National Battlefield outside the city. 3 Walter Reed, Victor C. Vaughan and Edward O. Shakespeare, Report on the Origin and Spread of Typhoid Fever in U.S. Military Camps During the Spanish War of 1898. 2 vols. (Washington, D.C. GPO, 1904), I:675. Hereafter cited as TCR . Total deaths from typhoid fever were 1,580, and those at Camp Thomas 761, or 48% of the total. 3 There has been one monograph and a single article that specifically addressed the typhoid outbreak. The monograph dealt with both disease and wounds in the Spanish- American War as a whole.