AUTHORITARIAN POPULISM IN

Authoritarian Populism in Malaysia

Anne Munro-Kua First published in Great Britain 1996 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills. Basingstoke. Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-1-349-39578-1 ISBN 978-0-230-37991-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230379916

First published in the United States of America 1996 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division. 175 Fifth Avenue. New York. N.Y. 10010 ISBN 978-0-312-15826-2 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Munro-Kua. Anne. 1948- Authoritarian populism in Malaysia 1 Anne Munro-Kua. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-312-15826-2 1. Malaysia-Politics and government. 2. Democracy-Malaysia. 3. Authoritarianism--Malaysia. 4. Populism-Malaysia. 5. Malaysia• -Economic conditions. 6. Capitalism-Malaysia. I. Title. JQ1062.A91M85 1996 320.9595-dc20 96--15990 CIP ©Anne Munro-Kua 1996 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1996 978-0-333-64491-1 All rights reserved. No reproduction. copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced. copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright. Designs and Patents Act 1988. or under the terms of any licence pennitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. 90 Tottenham Coun Road. London WI P 9HE. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 05 04 03 02 OJ 00 99 9S 97 96 Dedicated to all victims of detention without trial

Contents

List of Tables ix Acknowledgements X List of Abbreviations XI Glossary XVI Maps of Malaysia XVIII

1 Introduction: Capitalist Economic Success and Democracy 1 The Semblance of Political Stability 2 Weaknesses of Traditional Academic Analyses 4 The Authoritarian Populist State 5 Can Malaysia be Described as Democratic? 6 Class and Communalism 7 The Limits of Malaysian Democracy 8

2 The Colonial Roots of Authoritarian Populism 10 Communal Strategy of British Colonialism 11 Capitalist Development and Ethnic Divisions 13 The Radical Nationalist Movement 16 The Emergency: Precedent for Authoritarianism 18 The Alliance Formula and Populism 22

3. The Post-Colonial State 26 The Post-Colonial Economy 27 Preventive Detention 31 The Ideology of 'National Security' 36

4 Suppression of Political Opposition 40 Disaffection with the Alliance Coalition 40 The Opposition Challenge 42 Raising the Communist Bogey 45 Opposition to the Creation of Malaysia 50 Crisis of the Power Bloc, 1969 54

5 Restructuring the State and Society 58 The 1969 Crisis and the National Operations Council 59 The New Economic Policy as Populist Reform 62

vii V111 Contents The State Communalizes the Poverty Issue 66 The Costs and Effects of Bumiputra Trusteeship 71 Bumiputraism and Cultural Policies 76

6 State Repression in the Seventies 81 Crackdown on Students and Academics 81 Executive Interference in the Judicial Process 84 The Death Penalty under ESCAR 85 Criminalizing Political Dissent 88 The Campaign against ESCAR 95 Suppression of Trade Union Activists 100

7 Charismatic Leadership and Authoritarian Populism 105 Capitalist Restructuring in the Eighties 106 Authoritarian Populism under Dr Mahathir Mohamad 112 Nationalism and the National Question 115 Islam, Populism and the Malay Masses 118 The Media and Ideological Mediation 121

8 Class Contradictions and Popular Protest 126 Protest against the ISA 126 Tensions and Crises 130 State Repression as a Resolution of Crisis 133 United Against the ISA 137 Executive Manipulation of Power 138

9 Conclusion and Postscript 143

Appendix: Theoretical Considerations 154 Notes 167 Bibliography 183 Index 194 List of Tables

1.1 Gross domestic product by industry of origin 2 1.2 Parliamentary elections, 1974-90 4 2.1 Number of strikes and days lost, 1947-85 20 2.2 Population growth by ethnic group, 1911-84 23 3.1 Public development spending 1956-70 31 3.2 Armed forces personnel killed and injured in security operations: selected years, 1948-82 34 4.1 General election results, Peninsular Malaysia, 1959-69 54 5.1 Public development allocation and expenditure, 1971-95 64 5.2 Outstanding loans of government agencies, 1991, above RM$50 million 73 5.3 Public sector financing and expenditure, 1966-90 74 5.4 Distribution of scholarships and loans by ethnicity, 1980-90 79 5.5 Bumiputra student intake at residential schools and MARA junior colleges, 1981-90 79 6.1 Number of persons condemned to the death penalty, 1980-93 104 7.1 Top foreign investors in Malaysia, 1983 and 1990 Ill 8.1 Incidence of poverty, 1976 and I 990 142 9.1 Data on ISA detentions (certain years) 146 9.2 Statistics on arrests and detentions 152 A. I Employment by sector and ethnic group, 1957 156 A.2 Employment by sector and ethnic group, 1990 157 A.3 Employment restructuring, 1970 and 1990 158 A.4 Ownership restructuring, 1970 and 1990 164 A.5 Ownership of pioneer companies, 1962 and 1969 165 A.6 Ethnic breakdown of enrolment in tertiary institutions, 1970 and 1985 166

ix Acknowledgements

This work is drawn from my doctoral thesis, submitted to Manchester University in 1993. First of all I owe a debt of gratitude to those who supported me when my own husband was detained under the ISA in 1987: my colleagues at work, my students, my neighbours and most importantly, the concerned group of lawyers and human rights activists who extended practical and moral help to all the families affected. Their com"mitment and support were an inspiration to embark on more formal research of the issues involved and for which I shall always be grateful. Other Malaysians who provided inspiration and encouragement include the ex-detainees themselves and their families, many of whom kindly gave of their time to share their experiences with me. In particular I would like to thank Koh Swe Yong for making available his newspaper cutting col• lection as well as Kah Leng for her meticulous translation of the vernacu• lar press. The Huazi Research and Resource Centre also provided invaluable assistance in my search for documentation. In the completion of the thesis I am especially grateful to Dr Paul Kelemen of Manchester University for his supervision and advice, and for his patience and fortitude in the face of my numerous drafts and rewriting. At the centre of this drama was my husband. It was through his stead• fast commitment to truth and justice and his ability to endure, to retain his humour, to emerge after 445 days of incarceration - without bitterness - that in itself was an inspiration. He has continued to be a major source of encouragement despite my moments of doubt at the size of the task I had undertaken. Last but not least I owe a debt to the other members of my immediate family: my parents, who carried out a campaign for my husband's release from Scotland, my late father-in-law for his constant trust in my judge• ment and our two wonderful children, Hua Ying and Bi Hua, for making me laugh in times of despair.

ANNE MUNRO-KUA

X List of Abbreviations

ABIM Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (Islamic Youth Movement of Malaysia) AI Amnesty International ALI RAN Aliran Kesedaran Negara (National Consciousness Movement) APU Angkatan Perpaduan Ummah (Organization for the Unity of the Muslim Community, made up of PAS, Semangat 46, Hamim, Berjasa) A SEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASN Amanah Saham Nasional (National Trust Fund for Bumiputras) AWSJ Asian Wall Street Journal BERJASA Barisan Jemaah Islamiah Se-Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Assembly Front) BERJAYA Bersatu Rakyat Jelata Sabah (Sabah United Peoples Party) BMA British Military Administration BMF Bumiputra Malaysia Finance BN (National Front) BT Business Times CAP Consumers' Association of Penang CHOGM Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting CIC Capital Issues Committee CLC Communities Liaison Committee co Colonial Office CPM Communist Party of Malaya (also MCP) CRC Civil Rights Committee of the Chinese Associations CT Communist Terrorist CUEPACS Congress of Unions of Employees in the Public and Civil Service DAP DTC Deposit Taking Co-operative EPF Employees Provident Fund EPSM Environment Protection Society of Malaysia EPU Economic Planning Unit ESCAR Essential (Security Cases) (Amendment) Regulations 1975

XI xii List of Abbreviations FAMA Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority FEER Far Eastern Economic Review FELDA Federal Land Development Authority FFYP First Five-Year Plan ( 1956-60) FIC Foreign Investment Committee FIDA Federal Industrial Development Authority, now MIDA FIMA Food Industries of Malaysia FifthMP/5MP Fifth Malaysia Plan FirstMPIIMP First Malaysia Plan FMM Federation of Malaysia Manufacturers FMS Federated Malay States (Perak, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor) FO Foreign Office FoMP/4MP Fourth Malaysia Plan FTZ Free Trade Zone GDP Gross Domestic Product GERAKAN Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Malaysian Peoples Movement, a party in the ruling BN coalition) GLU General Labour Union GSP Generalized System of Preferences HAMIM Hisbul Muslimin, member of APU HI COM Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia HYV High Yielding Variety (re-crops) IADP Integrated Agricultural Development Programme ICA Industrial Coordination Act ICU Implementation and Coordinating Unit IMP Industrial Master Plan ISA Internal Security Act I SEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies JCA Journal of Contemporary Asia JMBRAS Journal of Malayan Branch of Royal Asiatic Society KL KLSE Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange KMM Kesatuan Melayu Muda (Union of Malay Youth) KRIS Kesatuan Rakyat Indonesia Semenanjung-Union of Indonesia & Malayar People (Kris =Malay dagger) KSM Malaysian Multi-Purpose Cooperative Society LPN Lembaga Padi Negara (National Rice Authority) LUTH Lembaga Urusan Tabung Haji (Islamic Pilgrims Fund Management Board) List of Abbreviations Xlll MARA Majlis Amanah Rakyat (Council of Trust for the People, in reality only for Bumiputras) MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute MB Mentri Besar (Chief Minister of state) MB Malaysian Business (Periodical) MCA Malaysian Chinese Association, the 'Chinese' component of the ruling BN coalition MDU Malayan Democratic Union MIC Malaysian Indian Congress, 'Indian' component of the ruling BN coalition MIDA Malaysian Industrial Development Authority MIDF Malaysian Industrial Development Finance MISC Malaysian International Shipping Corporation MNC Multinational Corporation MNLA Malayan National Liberation Army MNP Malay Nationalist Party MPAJA Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Army MPAJU Malayan Peoples Anti-Japanese Union MPHB Multi-Purpose Holdings Berhad MTR Mid-Term Review MTUC Malaysian Trades Union Congress OPP I & 2 Outline Perspective Plan I (1971-90) Outline Perspective Plan 2 (1991-2000) NASMA Parti Nasionalis Malaysia NCC National Consultative Council NECC National Economic Consultative Council NEP New Economic Policy, 1971-90 NFPE Non-Financial Public Enterprise NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIC Newly Industrializing Country NLR New Left Review NOC National Operations Council NST New Straits Times NUJ National Union of Journalists NUPW National Union of Plantation Workers OPP Outline Perspective Plan PAP Peoples Action Party (Singapore) PARC Perak Anti-Radioactive Committee PAS Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (formerly PMIP) xiv List of Abbreviations

PBB Partai Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu PBDS Parti Bangsa Dayak Sarawak (Sarawak Dayak Peoples Party) PBS Parti Bersatu Sabah (United Sabah Party) PEKE MAS Parti Keadilan Masyarakat Malaysia (Social Justice Party of Malaysia) PERNAS Perbadanan Nasional Berhad (National Trading Corporation) PES AKA Parti Pesaka Anak Sarawak PETRONAS National Petroleum Corporation PM Prime Minister PMCJA Pan-Malayan Council of Joint Action PMFTU Pan-Malayan Federation of Trade Unions PMIP Pan-Malayan Islamic Party (precursor of PAS) PNB Permodalan Nasional Berhad, a State Agency PPP Peoples Progressive Party PRM Parti Rakyat Malaysia (formerly PSRM) PROTON Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional (National Automobile Industry) PSRM Parti Sosialis Rakyat Malaysia (now PRM) PUTERA Pusat Tenaga Rakyat (Centre of Peoples Action) RIDA Rural and Industrial Development Authority RISDA Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority SAM Sahabat Alam Malaysia (Friends of the Earth) SCCP Sabah Chinese Consolidated Party SDP Social Democratic Party SEDC State Economic Development Corporation SEMANGAT 46 Spirit of 46, the breakaway party from UMNO SERU Social and Economic Research Unit SFYP Second Five-Year Plan ( 1961-65) Sixth MP/6MP Sixth Malaysia Plan SGS Selangor Graduates Society SMP/2MP Second Malaysia Plan SNAP Sarawak National Party SS Straits Settlements (Penang, Malacca and Singapore) ST Straits Times (Singapore) SUPP Sarawak United Peoples Party TMP/3MP Third Malaysia Plan UCSCAM United Chinese School Committees Association UCSTAM United Chinese School Teachers Association UDA Urban Development Authority List of Abbreviations XV

UDP United Democratic Party UEM United Engineers (Malaysia) UMBC United Malayan Banking Corporation UMEWU United Malayan Estate Workers Union UMNO United Malays National Organization UMS Unfederated Malay States (, Trengganu, Johore, Kedah & Perlis) UMSU University of Malaya Students Union USNO United Sabah National Organization wee World Council of Churches ZOPFAN Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (principle declared by the ASEAN countries) Glossary

A gong Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Sovereign King of the Federation elected from among the Malay Rulers AI Arqam Muslim organization banned by the Malaysian government as deviationist in 1994 Baba Straits-born Chinese Barisan Front Bumiputra Indigenous person (literally 'prince of the soil') Ceramah Political meeting in a non-public place: the only permit• ted form of electioneering, as rallies are banned Chettiar Indian moneylender Coolie Derogatory term for labourer Dakwah Islamic revivalist movement Daerah District Fa twa A ruling by an Islamic authority Haji Status accorded pilgrims who have been to Mecca Halal Legitimate, permissible for Muslims Hartal Economic boycott Hokkien Chinese/dialect from the Fukien province of China Hoi Guan Chinese association Imam Islamic religious teacher Jihad Holy war Kadi Judge in Muslim matters Kafir Infidel Kampong Village Kangany System of lahour recruitment from India by company foreman who was paid his passage and a commission Kangchu Contract system to employ Chinese migrant labour Kapitan Overseers in the Chinese community Masjid Mosque Mentri Besar Chief Minister of state Merdeka Freedom or Independence Mukim Islamic parish Nanyang The South Seas or Southeast Asia Orang Asli The aborigines Pendatang Immigrant/foreigner Penghulu Village headman Parang A machete

XVI Glossary xvii Pikul Weight measure equal to 133 1/3 pounds Pondok Hut, usually refers to village school Pribumi Indigenous Rakyat The people Ringgit The Malaysian dollar Rukunegara The National Ideology promulgated during the NOC Semenanjung Peninsula Malaysia Surat layang 'Flying letter', photocopied leaflets often containing allegations against political leaders Surau Islamic prayer house Teochew Another Chinese dialect in the Guangdong province Tow kay Tycoon, usually refers to Chinese business man Tun Honorific title conferred by the Yang di-Pertuan Agung, equivalent to 'Sir' Ulama Muslim scholar and theologian Ummah The Islamic community of believers Zakat Islamic tithe THAILAND IPeninsular Malaysiaj

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