James Macqueen, Thomas Fowell Buxton and the Abolition of Slavery

CAPTIVATED BY AFRICA’S GEOGRAPHY: MACQUEEN, FOWELL BUXTON AND THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 35

Captivated by Africa’s Geography : James MacQueen, Thomas Fowell Buxton and the abolition of slavery

America would abolish its own slave trade achieved in terms of the wider, foreign slave Dr David Lambert , Reader in Historical in 1808, other European nations (apart from trade, however, Buxton was not satisfied. The Geography at Royal Holloway, University of Denmark) continued their involvement twin strategy had proved both costly and of London, tells the story of an unlikely alliance in in the Atlantic slave trade. Urged on by limited impact. Instead, Buxton hit upon the British efforts to stem the sources of the slave abolitionist campaigners, the British govern- idea of attacking the sources of the Atlantic trade in Africa, and describes how geographical ment signed bilateral treaties with Spain, slave trade in Africa itself, in part by knowledge – derived from displaced slaves them- Portugal and the Netherlands whereby each encouraging alternative, ‘legitimate’ forms selves – contributed to abolitionist endeavours. agreed to end its trade (though, in the case of of commerce. Buxton’s plan was for an Portugal, only north of the Equator) and expedition to travel from the Gulf of Guinea, Two hundred years ago, Parliament abolished grant the right of stop-and-search for up the River Niger, into the interior of Africa, the British slave trade. Thirty years later in suspected slaving ships that carried their where anti-slave-trade treaties would be 1837, the abolitionist leader, Thomas Fowell national flag. In effect, this meant that the signed with local African rulers, model free- Buxton, surveyed the progress that had been Royal Navy, the most powerful naval force labour plantations established and trade made subsequently against the slave trade in at the time, took up responsibility for initiated. Such an ambitious scheme as this general. He was far from happy and began to suppressing much of the Atlantic slave trade Niger Expedition would need government develop an ambitious scheme to attack the and a squadron of its ships operated along support and Buxton began to formulate his source of the trade in Africa itself. To assist the coast of Africa. case. him in this task, Buxton sought the help of In 1837, Thomas Fowell Buxton assessed this Buxton’s plan had been anticipated almost James MacQueen, a well-known geographer anti-slave trade strategy of diplomatic treaty two decades earlier by a geographer named of Africa. This was a remarkable and and naval patrol. Buxton had taken over from James MacQueen. As he prepared his surprising collaboration for both men – not William Wilberforce in 1823 as the leader of proposals for the expedition to central Africa, least because of the reason why MacQueen the British abolitionist movement and had Buxton drew heavily on MacQueen’s writing had been first captivated by the geography of spearheaded the successful Parliamentary and even went so far as to approach him to that continent. His was a story that started campaign to emancipate the slaves in the ask for help. During the summer of 1838, the and ended with slavery. British colonies. Reviewing what Britain had two men worked closely together. MacQueen

Although 1807 was a significant year, in that it saw the Parliamentary abolition of the British slave trade, it was only a beginning. Slavery itself continued in the British Empire for more than a quarter of a century until it was abolished between 1834 and 1838. Moreover, although the United States of

Left: Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, first Baronet (1786–1845), by Benjamin Robert Haydon, 1840. National Portrait Gallery, London

Right: The Niger Expeditio n .. .off Holyhead.. . Aug–Oct 1841. HMS Albert, also shows Sudan and Wilberforce. © National Maritime Museum, London

British Academy Review, issue 10. © The British Academy 2007 36 CAPTIVATED BY AFRICA’S GEOGRAPHY: MACQUEEN, FOWELL BUXTON AND THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY

Sugar Cane Harvest, Antigua, West Indies. From Ten Views in the Island of Antigua by William Clark (London, 1823). Courtesy of the John Carter Library at Brown University

slavery, MacQueen was typical of many early nineteenth-century anti-abolitionists in that he claimed to oppose it in principle (‘We are no advocates for slavery – let it be abolished in the spirit of Christianity, which is justice’, he wrot e 2), but remained forthright in condemning the abolitionist campaign. Certainly, he had a personal stake in the maintenance of West Indian slavery. More than this, though, MacQueen was a forthright, if misguided, patriot who believed that slavery was vital for the success of the West Indies and that these colonies were, in turn, the most important part of Britain’s empire. The significance that MacQueen attached to the West Indian colonies also supplied information on the political and Like many other young British men at the explains his apparent about face and physical geography of Africa, provided maps, time, MacQueen’s period in the Caribbean rapprochement with Buxton. Once the drafted the treaties that were to be signed and established his livelihood. After he returned parliamentary Act was passed in 1833 to offered general feed-back and advice to to Scotland and moved to Glasgow in the first emancipate the slaves in the West Indies, Buxton. MacQueen also took his place decade of the nineteenth century, he MacQueen was concerned that this would alongside the grandees of British abolition- maintained commercial links to the region hand a competitive advantage to plantation ism when he joined the committee of the and worked as an importer of rum. During his owners outside the British Empire who were African Civilization Society, the organisation time in Glasgow, he also became involved in still able to use slave labour. Therefore, if the founded by Buxton to spearhead the Niger the campaign to oppose the abolition of West British colonies were not to suffer, steps had Expedition. What is most remarkable about Indian slavery. He was appointed editor of to be taken to reduce the supply of slaves to this collaboration is that for almost two the Glasgow Courier and used this newspaper Britain’s rivals. To this extent, MacQueen decades the two men had been implacable to promote the interests of the West Indian agreed wholeheartedly with Buxton’s enemies, on opposite sides of the great debate colonists and Glaswegian merchants who assessment that the twin-track diplomatic about slavery – with Buxton leading the traded with them. He also came to the and naval strategy had failed and that other abolitionist campaign and MacQueen one of attention of the national pro-slavery measures were needed to suppress the foreign his most outspoken opponents. Even more campaign centred on the London-based West slave trade by attacking the African sources. astounding is the fact that although India Committee. MacQueen spent more and At the same time, MacQueen saw great MacQueen was well-known as an expert on more time in London, working closely with commercial possibilities in that continent African geography and was later elected a merchants and West Indian plantation and believed that if Britain did not take Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (in owners to produce a series of books and advantage of these, then other countries, 1845), he never actually visited Africa during pamphlets designed to counter the efforts of notably France, certainly would. his entire life. So who was MacQueen and Thomas Fowell Buxton and the other Despite the fact that these two former why did he know so much about a place he abolitionists. He was a vigorous and adversaries came to agree on the need to take had never seen? trenchant writer, whose scathing descriptions the anti-slave-trade fight to the heart of Africa of ‘Buxtonian philanthropy’ as ‘rashness and James MacQueen had been born in Crawford, itself, MacQueen’s position within Buxton’s folly’ that would bring ‘catastrophe’ to the Lanarkshire, in Scotland in 1778. As a young great undertaking was never secure. He faced West Indies delighted those opposed to the man he travelled across the Atlantic Ocean to bitter opposition from other abolitionists abolitionist campaign in Britain and beyond. 1 the West Indian island of Grenada, which was who – unlike Buxton – never forgave As a result, a number of West Indian colonial then a British colony. There he worked as an MacQueen for the vitriolic attacks he had legislatures, which were dominated by overseer on a sugar plantation. He was made on them previously. Yet, Buxton’s belief plantation owners, awarded him money for responsible for the day-to-day management in MacQueen’s importance was unshakeable his unremitting defence of slavery. of the estate, including ordering, inspecting, and he deemed his help essential. If the story disciplining and punishing the three What might have motivated MacQueen to of the collaboration between these former hundred or so slaves who worked in the fields become such a prominent opponent of the adversaries is surprising, then even more and elsewhere in the production of sugar. abolitionists? In terms of his own attitude to remarkable is the reason why MacQueen’s CAPTIVATED BY AFRICA’S GEOGRAPHY: MACQUEEN, FOWELL BUXTON AND THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 37

knowledge of Africa turned out to be so seemed particularly interested in those parts After all, MacQueen was asking questions of important for Buxton. To understand this, we of the account concerning the River Niger or them about a region in which they had been have to return to his early days in Grenada. what Park, in the language of the Mande- born before being taken on slave ships across speaking peoples from West Africa, called the the Atlantic and forced to work as slaves MacQueen’s time in Grenada marked not ‘Joliba’. It transpired that the slave was what in Grenada. So what was for MacQueen a only the beginning of his involvement with Europeans termed a ‘Mandingo’ who had captivating opportunity to acquire infor- Caribbean slavery and the associated trade in lived his early life in that part of Africa and mation about African geography was for the slave-produced exports, but also his interest knew much about the course of the River slaves a reminder about a lost home and their in the geography of Africa. One night on Niger and the surrounding geography. own captivity. the estate for which he was the overseer, MacQueen sat reading to a friend the MacQueen was intrigued and fascinated by This did not seem to worry MacQueen and he account, by the famous explorer and fellow this opportunity to acquire a first-hand proceeded with his geographical enquiries. Scot, Mungo Park, of his Travels in the Interior account of Africa’s geographical features. He He also spoke to slaves and slave-owners on Districts of Africa (1799). 3 This was one of the began to collect as much information as he other estates and, after returning to Scotland, most popular and widely-read accounts of could from the young male slave and the to merchants who traded on the coast of Africa at the time and had been published not other ‘Mandingo’ slaves on the estate. How Africa. Moreover, MacQueen sought out as long after MacQueen had first come to work they might have felt about serving as sources many written descriptions of the geography on the island. It described Park’s journey, of information for MacQueen is impossible to of Africa as he could, from those by Classical sponsored by the Association for Promoting know as there are no records. It may have Greek, Roman and Arabic scholars, to more the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, been a very difficult and painful process. recent accounts by European travellers and from the River Gambia through present-day Senegal and Mali in search of the upper course of the River Niger. Whilst reading Park’s account aloud, MacQueen noticed that a young male African slave in the room, whose duty may have been to wait on MacQueen, was listening intently to him. He

Below: Mandingo Man Clothing Style, 1780s. From Rene Claude Geoffroy de Villeneuve, L’Afrique, ou histoire, moeurs, usages er coutumes des africains, le Senegal (Paris, 1814), vol 3. Courtesy of Special Collections, University of Virginia Library 38 IBADAN 1960

explorers. He brought these various sources Moving forward to 1837, as Buxton began to together in his first book on Africa, which prepare his case for an expedition up the Dr Lambert received a Small Research Grant to was entitled A Geographical and Commercial River Niger, it was MacQueen’s Geographical support his researches. He is currently in receipt View of Northern Central Africa and published and Commercial View of Northern Central of a further grant from the Academy to fund in 1821. 4 The book’s most remarkable claim Africa (1821) to which the abolitionist leader further study building on his original project. was about the River Niger. At the time, first turned. This prompted Buxton to contact Europeans knew relatively little about this MacQueen directly and seek his help. Notes river, especially its lower course and Although Buxton knew all about MacQueen’s 1 termination. Rather, there were a host of past involvement with slavery, it is unclear Glasgow Courier , 30 September and 11 October 1823. competing theories – such as that it flowed whether he was aware of the original source 2 into Lake Chad, disappeared in the Sahara of MacQueen’s geographical knowledge of Glasgow Courier , 20 May 1823. Desert or even that it joined up with the River Africa. In the end, the Niger expedition, 3 Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Nile far to the east. Yet, MacQueen insisted according to Buxton at least, was a failure, as Africa: Performed Under the Direction and Patronage of the African Association, in the Years 1795, 1796, that the River Niger actually turned back on is well known by historical scholars. Yet and 1797 (London: printed for W. Bulmer, 1799). itself and entered the Atlantic Ocean at the MacQueen’s involvement in its planning is 4 James MacQueen, A Geographical and Commercial Bights of Benin and Biafra in present-day little known and even less so the original View of Northern Central Africa: Containing a Nigeria. It was not until an expedition led by captive source of his knowledge. Thus, the Particular Account of the Course and Termination of Richard and John Lander in 1830 that the unlikely collaboration between these two the Great River Niger in the Atlantic Ocean course of the River Niger was observed by men gives a fascinating glimpse not only of (Edinburgh: printed for W. Blackwood, 1821). Europeans at first hand. In what was a how geographical knowledge played a role in 5 Charles Withers, ‘Mapping the Niger, 1798 –1832: remarkable piece of ‘armchair’ geography, it the effort to end slavery, but also how slaves Trust, testimony and “ocular demonstration” in the late enlightenment’, Imago Mundi , 56 (2004). turned out that MacQueen’s theory was themselves could be the very source of broadly correct. 5 geographical knowledge.

Dr Will Rea , of the School of Fine Art, History of Art and Cultural Studies at the University of Leeds paints a picture of Ibadan, sketching the history and describing Ibadan 1960 the unique characteristics of the city, that gave rise in the 1960s to the remarkable ‘Ibadan renaissance’ of writers and artists.

Running splash of rust Blessing unto indigenes out in all directions, is a statue of Shango, and gold – flung and scattered And settlers alike Yoruba deity of thunder and tutelary deity of among several hills like broken the Oyo, the founding genitors of the city. china in the sun. 1 The city of Ibadan, located 78 miles inland from Lagos in Yoruba-speaking southern Mapo Hall provides the defining motif for The poet’s image is of Ibadan, the rust and Nigeria, is a city of hills; it has multiple another visual characterisation of the city, gold splashed, as Rome was, against seven highpoints, each of which forms a centre that of an Adire starch-resist indigo-dyed hills. These hills within which the city of around which different districts form their cloth that is known as Ibadan dun (Ibadan is Ibadan is set are, however, the rolling deep distinct characters, but the centre of the city sweet). The motif of Mapo would have been green hills of still remaining tropical rain- falls from the tallest of the hills, tumbling entirely appropriate, a reference to wealth forest which, fading to a gunmetal, smoky down the hillside in a seemingly chaotic and status, on cloth that told the wearer and blue surround the city. The city anthem, the jumble of rusting corrugated iron roofs and the viewer that not only Ibadan was sweet, oriki praise poem, highlights both the crumbling mud buildings, tumbling from the but that life too was sweet, and that life in space of the city and the prevailing culture building that presides over the town – Mapo Ibadan was the sweetest life one could have, of the place: Hall. This is the great architectural declar- as living in Ibadan meant living in the ation of British colonial rule built in 1929, wealthiest and most modern city in all of the Ibadan Ilu ori oke and designed as meeting place for the Yoruba-speaking regions. Ibadan dun indeed. Ilu Ibukun Oluwa disputatious nobility of Ibadan, and as a Ibadan has always been a modern city or K’Oluwa se o ni ‘ bukun visual statement that somehow it would be perhaps more accurately, a city of modernity. Fun onile at’alejo able to impose its version of order upon the city. And yet it is an order the city knows as Ibadan was founded in the mid-nineteenth Ibadan of the hilly structure alien and imposed; and in front of Mapo, century. The history has been well published, Blessed city overlooking Ojoba market as it cascades and the most recent account by Ruth Watson May god make you a downhill, market wares seemingly sprawling is an excellent analysis of the history of the