Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42080-8 — Civil War in Syria Adam Baczko , Gilles Dorronsoro , Arthur Quesnay Index More Information

Index

Abboud, Samer, 27 Municipal Council, 129 Abud, Hassan, 184 offensive against, 92 Afghanistan, 1, 9, 19, 221 police, 61, 115, 127 Islamic Emirates of Afghanistan, 200 Revolutionary Security ofﬁce, 105, 115 Omar, mullah Mohammed, 220 Russian bombing in 2015, 153 Taliban movement, 10, 20, 220 supply route, 244 Afrin, 164, 167, 252 transit point, 264 Ahfad al-Rasul, Alwiyat, 194, 195 wheat supply, 248 Ahmed, Commander in Azaz, 126 Allsopp, Harriet, 28 Ahrar al-Sham, 88, 114, 184–186, 191, Aluch, Zahran, 184 194, 250 Amn al-Mintaqa (Neighborhood court creation, 123 Security), 125 funds from Muslim Brotherhood, 183 Amn al-Thawra (Revolutionary Security), Air Force Intelligence (al-Mukhabarat 114, 127 al-Jawwiyya), 244 Amnesty International, 230 AKP (Justice and Development Party), 161 Aoun, Michel, 160 Alawites, 52, 54, 55, 85, 108, 262 AQM (al-Qaida in Mesopotamia), control of security institutions, 57 202, 219 Islamic State and, 259 Arab belt, 58 massacre by ISIL, 262 Arab League, 136, 152 militias, 257 Arab Spring, 2, 36, 37, 70, 71–73, refugees in solidarity with, 161 76–81, 178 ruling elite from, 55 Al Arabiya, 82 status, 261 armed groups, 123 and Sunnis, 263 administration, 21 Aleppo, 108 aims, 14 armed groups, 94, 107, 110, 181 attempts to merge, 114 Coalition support and, 140 border control, 248 demonstrations, 60, 66, 72, 77 competition between, 267 divisions in 2013, 113 coordination and professionalism, 112–117 education challenges, 141 corruption in, 249 elections in Gaziantep (Turkey), 130 criminalization/depoliticization, 14 factories, 243 economic interests, 15 Free Police (Shurtat Halab formation, 10, 40, 94 al-Hurra), 124 ideology, 183 ISIL kidnappings, 193 Islamic rhetoric for, 181 Jabhat al-Nusra’s Judicial judicial organizations, 119 Committee, 189 networks within governorate, 105 Kurds in, 52, 59 resources, 111, 246–250 looting in, 251 tactical expertise, 98 mayor, 64, 130, 231–232 territorial control by, 19 Military Council, 113 Army of Conquest (Jaysh al-Fatah), 191

312

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-42080-8 — Civil War in Syria Adam Baczko , Gilles Dorronsoro , Arthur Quesnay Index More Information

Index 313

Army of Emigrants and Companions of the Boëx, Cécile, 62, 79 Prophet (Jaysh al-Muhajirin wa-al Boko Haram, 221 Ansar), 205 borders Army of the Mujahidin (al-Jaysh emergence of internal, 19 al-Mujahidin), 114 international system and stability, 268 al-Aroor, Sheikh Adnan, 156 stabilized, 15 al-Assad, Bashar, 34, 47, 57, 63, 75, 76, 84, Boudon, Raymond, 4 86, 91, 149, 165, 186 Brahimi, Lakhdar, 152 protesters and, 76 Brigade of the Dawn of Freedom (Liwaʿ repressive machinery, 84 Fajr al-Hurriyya), 261 al-Assad, Hafez, 56, 57, 60 Brigade of the Northern Front (Liwaʿ Assistance Coordination Unit (ACU), 139, Shams al-Shimal), 261 232, 233 British Parliament, 270 al-Atassi, Souheir, 137, 139, 140, 233 Bustan al-Qasr, 126 Atmeh, 194 al-Buti, Muhammed Saʿid Ramadan, 59 Avahi (Kurdish Youth Movement), 166 Ayn al-Arab, 167, 169, 252 caliphate, 199–222 Islamic States offensive against, 175 Islamic State proclaimed as, 199 PYD control, 164 over parts of Iraq and Syria, 38 Azaz, 95, 96, 116, 192 capital punishment court, 121 death by stoning, 190, 194 ISIL in, 194 executions, 93, 94, 216 neighborhood militia, 125 public, 207, 209 response to old grievances, 86 Centlivres, Pierre, 180 revolutionaries and deserters, 106 Cheikh, Mériam, 212 Azuz, Ahmed, 130, 231 chemical weapons Ghouta attacks, 132, 150 Baath Brigades, 156 Russian proposal, 152 Baath party, 202 China, 151 flag, 75 Christia, Fotini, 9, 10 influence of satellite institutions, 49 Christians, 53, 55, 161, 260 Baathist State, 34 books bonfire, 259 suppression of dissent, 61–64 decline in 2000s, 58 al-Bab, 96, 229 dhimmi (protected persons), 260 capture, 97 entrepreneurs, and Sunni, 54 City Council, 123 extortion of, 262 court, 121 historical concentrations, 52 Free Police, 126 legal status, 261 revolutionaries and deserters near, 106 militias, 87 Revolutionary Security Center, 105 of Mosul, 259 wheat supply, 248 in resistance, 108 Bab al-Hawa, 194 and Sunnis, 258 Bab al-Nasser, 251 taxes, 247 al-Baghdadi, Abu Bakr, 187, 199, 209, 210 City/Local Council (Majlis al-Madina Balanche, Fabrice, 27, 49, 65 /Mahali), 128, 131 Banyas, 92 Civil Defense (al-Difaʿ al-Madani), 132 Barzani, Masud, 135, 173 civil institutions Bates, Robert, 4 in northern Syria, 31, 118 Bayanouni, Sadreddine, 183 rapid reconstruction, 38 Bayık, Camil, 167 civil servants, salaries, 254 Beath, Andrew, 9, 10 civil war, 3, 5, 7, 33–37, 266 Ben Ali, Zine al-Abedine, 71 definition, 11–18 Berman, Eli, 9 identity regime, 52–61 Bin Laden, Osama, 219 and military capital accumulation, 40 Binnish, 245 neopositivist studies, 6

314 Index

civil war (cont.) in Katibat al-Faruq, 104 peaceful protests transition to, 35 number of, 106 social capital loss in, 226 Diwan al-Hisba (Regulation Bureau), stakes and dynamics in, 14 208, 214 Clinton, Hillary, 149 Doctors Without Borders, 141 cognitive dissonance, 201 Donati, Caroline, 47, 55, 63 Collier, Paul, 4, 8 droughts Communist People’s Party, 182 2006–2010, 49 Correlates of War (COW), 7 government failure to respond to, 27 Court of the United Judicial Council of Druze, 58, 257 Aleppo (Mahkamat Majlis al-Qadaʿ historical concentrations, 52 al-Muwahhad), 110, 120, 121, 122, militias, 87 123, 230 population statistics, 53 Critical Mass Theory (CMT), 68 Duma, court, 121 cult of martyrs, 258 Dupret-Schepens, Catherine, 52

Dadikhi, ʿUmar, 116, 123, 250 economic resources, accumulation Daesh. See Islamic State of, 40 Damascus economy active militants in 2004, 49 in civil wars, 18 collusion with violent networks, 34 destruction, 226, 240–246 demonstrations, 60, 66, 72, 104 economic zones, 47, 244–245 execution, 94 for war, 239–255 fighting, 113 maps, 241 Kurds in, 52, 59 nationalization in 1960s, 46 local elections, 130 of capitals, 18–19 Military Council, 114 territorial variation, 243 neighborhoods, 50 weakness in 1990s, 62 rebel infiltration, 97 Egypt, 1, 36 Damascus Declaration, 136 fluctuating Syria policy, 157 al-Dana, ISIL in, 192, 193 protests in, 37 Dar al-Qadaʿ (Houses of Justice), 190 revolution in, 71 Daraa, 85 Syrian entrepreneurs move to, 243 army occupation, 91 electricity supply, 128 court, 121 Daesh control, 206 evacuation, 93 shortage, 226 Governorate Council creation, 129 elite Military Council, 114 conspicuous consumption by, 51 as mobilization area, 70 social and educational capital, 233 regime efforts to crush protests, 94 Elwert, Georg, 239 Daraa incident, 65, 67 Enikopolov, Ruben, 9, 10 de Waal, Alex, 239 Erbil Deir ez-Zor, 98 Islamic State attack, 218 armed groups control of oil and gas KNCS formation in, 172 resources, 248 Erbil agreements, 173 Armenian Church destruction, 259 Ersal (Lebanon), 160 Governorate Council creation, 129 European Union, 149 intertribal problems, 120 aid from, 138, 140 Islamic State control, 220 mobilization in, 70 Facebook, 83, 230, 234, 264 oil pipelines, 246 early calls for unity for, 82 tribal opposition to Islamic State, 212 Syrian Revolution 2011 page, 72 Derluguian, Georgi, 16 Fatah Halab (Aleppo Victory), 198 deserters, 85, 94, 95, 106 Fearon, James, 4, 5 FSA help for, 105 Feyat, Sheikh Ahmad, 116

Index 315

fighters Harakat al-Sahwa al-Suniyya (Sunni aesthetic world of, 181 Awakening Movement), 204 appearance in Aleppo, 181 Harakat Hazm (Movement of foreign Steadfastness), 144, 197 defense of holy sites, 156 Hariri, Rafic, 34 in Islamic State, 204 assassination, 154 mobility between units, 37 Hasaka flags, 75 Islamic State control, 220 black with shahada (Islamic creed), 180 oil pipelines, 246 Foucault, Michel, 200 tribal opposition to Islamic State, 212 The Free of Sakhur (Ahrar al-Sakhur), 79 Hassan, Hassan, 27 The Free of Salahaddin (Ahrar al- Hassun, Sheikh Muhammad Adib, Salahaddin), 79 bombardment of tomb, 263 Free Officers Movement (Harakat al-Dubat Hay’at al-Arkan (General Staff), 113, 142 al-Ahrar), 142 Hay’a al-Sharʿiyya (Judicial free rider paradox, 6, 68 Committee), 189 Free Syrian Army (al-Jaysh al-Suri al-Hur; al-Helou, Fares, 75 FSA). See al-Jaysh al-Suri al-Hur Hezbollah, 2, 153, 154, 156, 270 (Free Syrian Army; FSA) in-kind aid from, 253 Free Syrian Lawyers (al-Muhamin al- refugees as threat, 160 Suriyyin al-Ahrar), 122, 261 regime and, 39, 84 French Institute of the Near East sectarianism and, 147 (IFPO), 25 in Syrian security, 268 Friends of the Syrian People, 117, 138, Hito, Ghassan, 137, 138 139, 149 Hoeffler, Anka, 4, 8 Front of the Kurds (Jabhat al-Akrad), 261 Hokayem, Emil, 26, 27 FSA. See al-Jaysh al-Suri al-Hur (Free holy sites Syrian Army; FSA) destruction, 262, 263 foreign combatants defense of, 156 Gaddafi, Muammar, 71 protection of, 156 game theory, 5 homosexuals, execution of, 207, 209 gas, 248 Homs, 85, 198 Gaziantep, 139 army deserters, 94 Geisser, Vincent, 160 army in, 92, 107 Geneva II negotiations, 152 Clock Square occupation attempt, 76 Ghalioun, Burhan, 135, 136, 142 evacuation, 93 Ghouta mobilization in, 70 army in, 92 protesters from, 66 chemical attacks, 132, 150 revolutionary actions, 96 local elections, 130 urban-rural split, 107 Green, Daniel, 4 hospitals, 132 Group of Free Lawyers (Tajammuʿ al- conditions in 2013, 141 Muhamin al-Ahrar), 122 Hossein, Sheikh, 118, 122 Gulf States, 154, 155 humanitarian aid, 139–141 Gunter, Michael, 28 ISIL control of, 193 Russian proposal, 152 habitus, 22, 232 UN, 151 Haddad, Fawwaz, 63 Hama, 198 Idara Zatiyya (Autonomous bombing, 92 Administration), 164, 176, 268 evacuation, 93 identity, 55 military units, 107 complexity and ambiguity, 264–265 Hama massacre (1982), 34, 91 discrimination, 261–264 Harakat al-Dubat al-Ahrar (Free Officers identity capital, 18, 19 Movement), 142 identity regime, 40, 52–61, 256

316 Index

Idlib, 198 blocking by PKK in Iraqi Kurdistan, 175 elective office requirements, 229 border control, 249 fighting, 113 breaking of insurgency, 191–194 Governorate Council, 129, 235 closure of, 202–205 mobilization area, 70 competition with al-Qaida, 219 Russian bombing in 2015, 153 control of petrol, 246 school exams, 132 Dabiq magazine, 220 Idriss, Salim, 186 economic models, 252 imams, 78, 213, 229 elimination of competing groups, 38 indivisible goods, 244, 245 See also fighters’ appearance, 205, 214 electricity supply foreign fighters in, 204 cooperation and, 40 ideology, 256 industrial zone, 47 identity regime, 257 infitah process (liberalization), 47 in Raqqa, 194–195 institutions income tax, 247 access to positions, 228 international jihadism, 219 competing networks of, 20–21 Jabhat al-Nusra split with, 190 objectivization of new, 20 judicial system, 207–208 revolutionay capital conversion to lack of coordination with insurgency, 194 positions, 231 massacre of Alawites, 262 international aid, 133, 138, 240 military operations against, 218 international order, 149–153 military victories, and U.S. bombing, 150 Internet, 227 non-Sunnis expulsion or elimination, 212 for synchronization, 82 offensive against Ayn al-Arab, 175 Iran, 2, 268, 270 organizational closure, 209 competition with Saudi Arabia, 2, security-centered apparatus, 206–209 147, 153 Security Office (Maktab al-Amn), 207 funding for regime, 252 radical ethnic Sunni agenda, 147 Iranian revolution, 72, 179 resistance, 216 Iran-Iraq war (1980s), 153 rejection of the international order, Iraq 217–222 American intervention, 1, 153 threat to Saudi Arabia, 157 armed forces from, 2 victories in Iraq, 157 border control, 114 Ismaili, 55 civil war, 153 al-Ittihad al-Islami al-Ajnad al-Sham community support for (Islamic Union of the Soldiers of refugees, 162 Levant), 144, 197 former military personnel in Islamic State, 203 Jabal al-Zawiya, 93, 96, 106 refugees in, 147 Jabha al-Islamiyya (Islamic Front), 183, refugees in Syria, 50 194, 197 Syrian crisis impact, 162 Jabha al-Islamiyya al-Suriyya (SIF, Syrian U.S. prisons in, 203 Islamic Front), 143, 183, 197 Islam Jabhat al-Akrad (The Front of the as language of protest, 179 Kurds), 261 meanings of, 179–184 Jabhat al-Nusra, 27, 30, 88, 109, 153, 160, rhetoric for armed groups, 181 184, 186, 194, 195, 249, 268 Islamic Front (Jabha al-Islamiyya), 183, court creation, 123 194, 197 Islamic State and, 190, 220 Islamic State, 27, 30, 114, 160, 171, 184, Judicial Committee setup, 189 186, 191, 204 Jabhat Tahrir Suriyya al-Islamiyya (SILF; abduction risk, 141 Syrian Islamic Liberation Front), assassinations by, 194 143, 183, 197 allegiance, 221 Jabhat Thuwar Suriyya (Syrian ban on music, 215 Revolutionary Front), 144, 197

Index 317

Jarablus, 192 al-Khayyer, Abdelaziz, 88 Jarba, Ahmad Assi, 138 Kobane, battle of, 176 Jasper, James, 67 Kodmani, Bassma, 136 Jaysh al-Fatah (Army of Conquest), Kuftaro, Ahmed, 59 191, 198 Kuran, Timur, 68 Jaysh al-Islam (Army of Islam), 184, 197 Kurdish National Council in Syria Jaysh al-Muhajirin wa-al Ansar (Army of (KNCS), 172 Emigrants and Companions of the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP; Partiya Prophet), 205 Demokrat a Kurdistane), Syrian Jaysh al-Mujahidin (Mujahidin Army), 114, branch, 59 144, 197 Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), al-Jaysh al-Suri al-Hur (Free Syrian Army; 163, 173, 218, 268 FSA), 103, 142, 211, 249 Turkey support of, 147 brigades in Raqqa, 194 Kurds, 28, 153, 165, 175, 256 help for deserters, 105 citizenship, 86, 165 ISIL clashes with, 193 concentrations, 52, 53, 59 looting by, 251 discrimination, 58 and SNC, 136 fragmentation, 172–175 and YPG, 259 ISIL and, 192 Jaysh al-Yarmuk (Yarmuk Army), 197 mobilization, 164–167 Al Jazeera, 82 protests, 64, 165, 174 Jazeera region, 59, 167, 252 self-governance, 171 Jisr al-Shughur, 95, 198 territorial expansion, 176 Jordan, 243 trade negotiations, 245 refugees in, 147, 161 Kurzman, Charles, 69, 72 Joumblatt, Walid, 161 Kuwait, 160 journalists. See media judicial system, 20, 230 Laitin, David, 4 development, 119 Landis, Joshua, 25 involvement in political debates, 229 Latakia, 107 of Islamic State, 207–208 evacuation, 93 Jabhat al-Nusra and, 189 local defensive militias formation, 87 personnel recruitment, 121 shelling, 92 recruitment, 122 Lebanon, 2, 147, 243 Sharia law, 120, 185, 261 civil war (1975–1990), 153 TEV-DEM and, 170 refugees in, 147, 160, 162 al-Julani, Abu Muhammad, 184, 191 Syrian army withdrawal, 46 Jund al-Sham ﬁ Bilad al-Sham (Soldiers of Syrian war economic impact, 162 the Levant in Syria), 205 Leenders, Reinoud, 27, 69 Leverrier, Ignace, 25 Kadi, Osama, 234 Libya, 1, 18 Kalyvas, Stathis, 8, 11 intervention in, 149 Karayılan, Mourat, 167 Lister, Charles, 27 Kataʿib al-Faruq, 96, 104, 112, 116, Liwaʿ ‘Asifat al-Shimal, 125 194, 195 Liwaʿ Ahrar al-Shahaba, 112 Katiba Abu Bakr, 116 Liwaʿ Ahrar Suriya, 263 Katibat al-Mustaqbal (Bataillon of the Liwaʿ al-Haqq, 184 Future), 110 Liwaʿ al-Tawhid, 98, 111, 112, 114, 121, KDP (Kurdistan Democratic Party; Partiya 127, 197 Demokrat a Kurdistane), Syrian and Court of the United Judicial Council branch, 59 of Aleppo, 121 Keen, David, 239 court creation, 123 Kessab, 198 funds from Muslim Brotherhood, 183 Khalid ibn al-Walid mosque, 263 leaders, 109 al-Khatib, Moaz, 137, 138 military police unit, 115

318 Index

Liwaʿ al-Tawhid (cont.) middle class, 85, 231 wheat supply, 248 and old elite disappearance, 232 Liwaʿ al-Umawiyyin, 112, 113 economic crisis impact, 51 Liwaʿ Fajr al-Hurriyya (Brigade of the women in, 234 Dawn of Freedom), 261 military capital, 18, 40, 103–117 Liwaʿ Shams al-Shimal (Brigade of the military unit civil functions, 110 Northern Front), 261 organization of units, 108–109 Liwaʿ Suqur al-Sham, 88, 184, 186, 197 private, 12 court creation, 123 recruitment, 104–108 funds from Muslim Brotherhood, 183 Military Council, 142–144 Liwa al-Raqqa, 194, 195 lack of resources, 117 Lohmann, Susanne, 68 Saudi Arabia and U.S. support for, 137 Lyall, Jason, 9 mobilization, 133–144, 267 approaches to explaining, 67 Maaloula, 55 Arab Spring and, 70, 76–81 Mahkamat Majlis al-Qadaʿ al-Muwahhad by deliberation, 73 (Court of the United Judicial from SNC to provisional government, Council of Aleppo), 110, 120, 121, 135–139 122, 123, 230 humanitarian aid, 139–141 Majed, Ziad, 26 initial, and personal engagement, 36 Majlis al-Askiri al-Aʿla (Supreme Military key opposition in exile, 133–135 Council), 113, 142, 143 messengers’ roles between al-Majlis al-Intiqali al-lil-Thawree groups, 82 Muhafadha (Revolutionary military leadership, 142–144 Transitional Council of the moral grammar, 74–76 Governorate), 129 Moral Shock Theory, 67 Majlis al-Madina/Mahali (City/Local Mubarak, Hosni, 71 Council), 128, 131 al-Muhamin al-Suriyyin al-Ahrar (Free Majlis al-Muhafadha (Governorate Syrian Lawyers), 122, 261 Councils), 129 Free Syrian Lawyers (al-Muhamin al-Majlis al-Watani al-Suri. See Syrian al-Suriyyin al-Ahrar), 261 National Council (SNC; al-Majlis Mujahidin Army (Jaysh al-Mujahidin), al-Watani al-Suri) 144, 197 Majlis Qiyadat al-Thawra al-Suriyya al-Mukhabarat al-Jawwiyya (Air Force (Syrian Revolutionary Command Intelligence), 244 Council), 143, 196, 197 mukhtar, 61, 211 Makhlouf, Rami, 48 Muslim Brotherhood, 64, 134, 136 Maktab Iʿlami (media centers), 111, Qatar and Turkey support for, 137 230 recruiting efforts, 183 Mala Gel (People’s House) Saudi Arabia and, 157 fuel and food distribution by, 172 Syrian branch, 182 and TEV-DEM, 170 al-Maliki, Noor, 220 Nanaa, Muhammad Yahya, 130 Malley, Robert, 270 Nasrallah, Hassan, 154 Mamluk, Ali, 57 Nasserist Socialist Party, 182 Maraa, 93, 96, 104 National Coalition, 137, 152 capture of, 97 and police force creation, 124 ISIL attack, 194 split with SILF military units, 143 police force, 61 United Arab Code training, 122 March, Andrew, 200 National Committee for Democratic media, 229 Change (NCDC), 88, 107, 136 and rebel funding, 111 National Defense Forces (Quwat al-Difaʿa in insurgent areas, 229 al-Watani), 87, 156 international, role in Arab Spring, 71 neopositivism, 2–11 ISIL rules for, 193 news media. See media

Index 319

NGOs, 21, 140–141 al-Raʿi, 115 aid seized by military groups, 250 court, 121 Arche Nova, 141 Raqqa, 56 ISIL banning, 193 capture of, 98 People in Need, 141 ﬁghting, 113 state efforts to control, 161 Governorate Council creation, 129 Islamic State in, 193, 194–195, 205, 212, Obama, Barack, 149, 152 213, 220, 259 Öcalan, Abdullah, 60, 256 local elections, 130 oil resources Rastan, 92, 93 armed groups control of, 248 Rational Choice Theory (RCT), 3, 4, 6, revenues in Syria, 46 35, 67 refugees, 9, 28, 157–163, 261 Palmyra, 198 internationalization of crisis, 147 Pearlman, Wendy, 27 political activism and, 135 Petersen, Roger, 11 sanctuary in neighboring country, 14 Picard, Elizabeth, 47, 66 Sunnis as, 258 Pierret, Thomas, 28, 55, 63, 212 Relative Deprivation Theory, 66 PKK (Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan, Reporters Without Border, 230 Kurdistan Workers Party), 20, Resource Mobilization Theory, 66 21, 28, 29, 147, 161, 167–172, Revkin, Mara, 200 175, 247, 252, 263, 269. See revolutionary capital, 80, 225, 228–234 also PYD (Partiya Yekitiya Revolutionary Security (Amn al-Thawra), Demokrat, Democratic Union 105, 114, 127 Party) Rhodes, Ben, 270 Autonomous Administration, 268 Roussel, Cyril, 28 elimination of competing groups, 38 Russia, 2, 268 expansion into northern Syria, 175–177 intervention in Syria, 150–153, 195, 198 Syrian Kurds monitoring by, 60 subsidies from, 252 as U.S. ally, 176 PUK (Patriotic Union of Kurdistan; Sabbagh, Mustafa, 137, 140 Yekitiya Nistimani Kurdistane), 60 Sabra, George, 137 Putin, Vladimir, 152 al-Sadr, Imam Musa, 56 PYD (Partiya Yekitiya Demokrat, Saif, Riyadh, 48 Democratic Union Party), 60, 164, Salama, Aziz, 109, 114, 116 198, 268 Saleh, Ali Abdullah, 71 border control, 249 al-Salqini, Sheikh Ibrahim, 63 control of oil and gas wells, 248 Saluq, 93, 106, 192 and ethnicity, 258 Saud (Abu Muslim al-Turkmani), 203 expansion into northern Syria, Saudi Arabia 175–177 and insurgency leadership, 157 ﬁnancing, 172 arms contracts offer to Russia, 151 identity regime, 257 competition for regional leadership, 2, and KNCS, 172 147, 153 funding for Coalition, 138 al-Qadir Salah, ‘Abd, 109, 114, 116 Islamic State and, 221 al-Qaida, 88, 190, 202, 219 Savelsberg, Eva, 28 Qamishli, 171 Sayda, Abdel Basset, 136 Kurdish protest, 60 Schlichte, Klaus, 16 Qaradawi, Sheikh Yusef, 156 SDF (Syrian Democratic Council; Meclîsa Qatar, 84, 154 Demokratîka Suriya), 176, 177 and insurgency leadership, 157 sectarianism, 39, 147, 156 support for Muslim Brotherhood, 137 sectors of activity, reconstruction of, 20 Qusayr, 138, 160, 198 Sednaya prison, 184 Qutb, Sayyid, 201 Seurat, Michel, 46

320 Index

Shaaban, Buthaina, 85 Syrian Islamic Liberation Front (SILF; al-Shami, Leila, 26 Jabhat Tahrir Suriyya al-Islamiyya), Shapiro, Ian, 4 143, 183, 197 Shapiro, Jacob, 9 Syrian National Council (SNC; al-Majlis Sharia law, 120, 185, 261 al-Watani al-Suri), 107 hudud and, 188 France recognition of, 135 al-Sheikh, Ahmed Abu Isa, 184 FSA and, 142 al-Sheikh, Mustafa, 106, 142 KNCS and, 173 Shelaf, Adib, 126 provisional government, 135–139 Shiites, 153 Syrian Revolutionary Command Council alliance with Sunnis, 148 (Majlis Qiyadat al-Thawra al- call to solidarity, 155 Suriyya), 143, 196, 197 Islamic State and, 259 Syrian Revolutionary Front (Jabhat Thuwar population statistics, 53 Suriyya), 144, 197 proselytizing, 56 Syrian Social Nationalist Party, 156 protests, 155 al-Shishakly, Adib, 233 Tabqa, 108 SILF (Syrian Islamic Liberation Front; revolutionaries and deserters near, 106 Jabhat Tahrir Suriyya al-Islamiyya), Tadmur, 198 143, 183, 197 Taif, Abu, 195 SNC. See Syrian National Council (SNC; Tajammuʿ al-Muhamin al-Ahrar (Group of al-Majlis al-Watani al-Suri) Free Lawyers), 122 social capital, 39–40, 225–238 takfir (excommunication), 200, 201 in civil wars, 18 Tal Abyad, 211 definition, 225 Tal Rifaat, 93 limitations, 78 Tamo, Meshaal, 88 loss of, 226–227 tansiqiyyat (coordinating committees), relationship to politics, 46 128, 228 revolutionary, 80 Tarrow, Sydney, 6 teacher’s loss of, 227 Taymiyya, Ibn, 201 Soldiers of the Levant in Syria (Jund al- Tejel, Jordi, 28 Sham fi Bilad al-Sham), 205 Tevgera Ciwanen Kurd (TCK; Kurdish State Youth Movement), 173 Bourdieu’s conception of, 16 Tilly, Charles, 6 formation of, 14, 15 Tlass, ‘Abd al-Razzaq, 104 as monopoly on legitimate violence, 12 Tlass, Mustafa, 57, 90 withdrawal, 19 torture, 1, 32, 62, 89 Sunni Awakening Movement (Harakat al- of Daraa teenagers in March 2011, 65, 67 Sahwa al-Suniyya), 204 tribes Sunnis, 86, 153, 176, 179, 210 and conflict expansion, 159 alliance with Shiites, 148 and social capital, 226 call to solidarity, 155 Tunisia, 36 and Christians, 258 protests in, 37 entrepreneurs, and Christians, 54 revolution in, 71 Islamic State and, 210 Turkey, 2, 17, 176, 270 jihadism, 29 business in, 244 population statistics, 53 cost to control refugee flow, 161 protests, 86 disputes with Syria, 154 repression of, 70 elections in, 130 tribal elites, 58 opposition groups in, 134 Turkish support of, 161 PKK action in, 60 Suweis, Abdul Rahman, 184 refugees in, 147, 161 Syriac Military Council, 88 Sunni population protection, 155 Syrian Islamic Front (SIF; Jabha al- support for revolutionaries, 134, 137 Islamiyya al-Suriyya), 143, 183, 197 support of KRG, 147

Index 321

Syrian refugees, 158 Vlassenroot, Koen, 16 al-Turkmani, Abu Muslim (Saud), 203 Wada, Sheikh, 122 Ukeydi, Abd al-Jabbar Muhammad, Walter, Barbara, 5, 11 113, 116 Weber, Max, 14, 33 Uniﬁed Arab Code, 120 Wedeen, Lisa, 27, 34 United Nations, 151 Weinstein, Jeremy, 4 High Commissioner for Refugees Wood, Elisabeth, 6 (UNHCR), 158 humanitarian aid, 253 Yassin-Kassab, Robin, 26 Ofﬁce of Human Rights in Yazidis, 53, 259 Afghanistan, 10 evacuation, 175 Resolution 2165, 138, 152 Yemen, 1 Security Council, 151 Islamic State and, 221 United States, 147, 149–150 revolution in, 71 aid from, 138, 140 YPG (Yekineyen Parastina Gel; People’s Air Force, studies, 10 Protection Units), 171, Assad regime and, 184 258 Military Council and, 137 Yusef, Sheikh, 125, 126, 229 PKK and, 176, 198 State Department on Jabhat al-Zarqawi, Abu Musab, 219 al-Nusra, 188 al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 191, 219