International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-5 Issue-11, November 2020

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE ISSN-2213-1356 www.ijirk.com

Rethinking National Identity through Sports Branding in

Fred Ernest Nasubo Pan African University, Institute of Governance, Humanities and Social Sciences, Yaoundé, Cameroon

Isaac Tarus Department of Philosophy, History and Religion, Egerton University

Abstract Brand Kenya, a state corporation has been in the forefront signing sponsorship agreements and distributing branded items to sports teams and sports personalities. While their participation and victories in the international competition offers visibility of the nation brand logo, it also serves as a powerful and visible symbol of national pride, patriotism, and positive image. Challenge, however, remains on how to strengthen national identity from the country’s brand due to the traditional role of branding for attracting investments, tourism and trade. Hence, a main goal of this article is to explore whether Brand Kenya’s involvement with sponsorship and branding of sports strengthens the country’s national identity.

Keywords: Nation-state, National identity, Nationalism, Nation branding, Sports

Introduction Kenya has built its reputation over the years as a sporting nation which has enabled the country to project itself in the global arena. Besides, the country continues to use international sporting events to make visibility its national identity to the world. Among the aspects of national identity presented to the global arena include raising of the national flag, singing of the national anthem and displaying of national prestige (source of talent). Major international sports such as the all-, , and the Olympics have seen www.ijirk.com 1 | P a g e

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Kenya consistently winning medals and gaining a global reputation as a sporting nation. However, the challenge remains on how to brand Kenya, in that sports carves out a national identity encompassing the majority, if not its entire population.

Sports in Kenya draws back to the pre-colonial era where the indigene engaged in traditional sporting activities such as dancing, wrestling, hunting, archery, running, jumping and throwing (Bale & Sang, 1996, pp. 47-69). These sporting activities were held within the confines of the pre-colonial societies and were a part of the livelihoods and fabric that tied the people together (Kipchumba & Chepyator-Thomson, 2015). The pre-colonial communities used sports as an educational tool for children to learn from their elders by assimilating ideas, which informed the formation of their identity (Sifuna, 1990). It was a sure way of developing a cultural identity among children and youths; by acquiring social, physical and cognitive skills needed for adult experience (Chepyator-Thomson, 1990). Running and throwing for example, aided members with skills that would be later needed for hunting, fighting and defence (Bale & Sang, 1996, p. 47).Wrestling, on the other hand, not only revealed a person’s masculine and stamina but it was also used to mediate disputes, and entertaining both locals and migrant workers (Carotenuto, 2013, pp. 1890-1892). Sporting, in accordance with age and gender, not only served as an epithet of culture reservoir but also ensured that the youths are adequately prepared for adult life (Zaslavsky, 1973). As such, sports served as an instrument of socialisation, cultural preservation, and a record of changes occurring in society (Chepyator-Thomson, 2012, p. 380).

The very sense that inspired sporting in pre-colonial Kenya took a new shape with the advent of colonisation. On one hand, the colonialists exclusively introduced sports such as golf, tennis, cricket, horse racing, and polo for the white settlers. While on the other hand soccer, boxing, and athletics were intended for the indigenous peoples (Njororai, 2010). Soccer, one of the games introduced by the colonial government and promoted by the school teachers, farmers and missionaries targeted to instil colonial hegemony and racial discrimination (Darby, 2002). As such, the imperialists considered football a civilising tool for freeing African minds, indoctrinating Christianity, teaching discipline and doing away with the African's traditional culture, which was considered pagan (Njororai, 2016). British sports, conveyed via education, beset to disorient the organisation of the indigenous clan systems so as to maintain an instituted discipline amongst the community (Mählmann 1992). African players were also taught norms of superiority and values which undermined their identity formation (Mählmann, 1988). A different view by Carotenuto (2013, p. 1894) points out that Europeans curtailed Africans from participating in combative sports like wrestling as it would encourage them to revolt.

The study, however, notes that upon independence important changes regarding the country’s identity took place in which the nation derives meaning. Among them include the institution of the Flag, coat of arms, composition of national anthem, and the symbolic replacement of the British monarch with a Kenyan president. As such, most aspects of the independent Kenya were interpreted in relation to the newly established symbols of national identity. Even the inherited European games that dominated African sports could now reflect the country’s history and ideals, evoking emotional attachment that connect the peoples beyond community bounds. Thus, understanding the meaning of new symbols of national identification will reveal ways sports evokes emotional attachment and national pride. As such, the next section provides conceptual understanding of national identity as well as explaining some of the identification symbols used in sports.

Sports and Construction of National Identity Sports on one hand, is considered at present as a more potent form of national performance (Edensor, 2002, p. 78), while on the other hand, it is perceived as an essential marker of national identity" (Bairner, 2015, p. 378). In the modern world, especially during medal ceremonies, sports appeal to a sense of 'imagined communities' (Anderson, 2006) by invoking national identity through playing of the National Anthem and waving of the flag. Symbolic elements are considered as visual signs signifying a shared identity. As such, Anthony Smith (1998, p. 182) argues that symbols are vital to the existence of identification, as they aid in differentiating 'us' from 'them.'

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The nation is "one of many traditions 'invented" through sports "by political elites to legitimise their power in a country" (Hobsbawn, 1983, p. 5). Dilwyn Porter (2015) observes that the process of inventing traditions saw various governments from Europe and North America using sports in the nineteenth and early twentieth century to legitimise their positions. Even in contemporary times, just like the past, presidents and state dignitaries attend sporting events where they sing national anthems, national flags are raised and the sportsmen and sportswomen wear distinctive national uniforms.

A study by Alan Bairner (2008) argues that sports is more likely to contribute to the strengthening of national identities. The study asserts that the expressions demonstrated by the players and teams during sporting competition is linked to nationalism. On the other hand, the fans who follow their nations to the international competition in their part either underlies, a sense of national identity and robust attachment to one's nationality or both. The majority of people attending international sporting events are perceived to bear strong ties with their nations. It is more comfortable for those representing their nations during these mega sports to sing national anthems, and to wear the colours of their nations, which are considered symbols of national identity.

Norbert Kersting (2007, pp. 2-18) argues that nation-states can use significant sport events to promote national values such as team spirit, discipline, tolerance, multiculturalism and solidarity. The study acknowledges elements such as public holidays, national anthems, national flags that can be used by a diverse society to strengthen national unity and build the idea of a community. However, it further notes sports patriotism as the most important source of a nation's identity and pride. Kersting (2007, p.17) further observes that "Sport patriotism should be oriented toward goals such as cultural tolerance (multiculturalism), fairness, unity, social empathy, equality and democratic values."

According to Porter (2015), sports has proven to be instrumental in constructing and asserting national identities all over the globe. It plays a role in generating "great shared events" that invokes the notion of national identity through "a shared sense of nationhood" (Topič & Coakley, 2010). Nation-states use international sporting events such as the Olympics and the World Cup to portray distinct aspects of their national identity, while asserting that they are modern states. Greece, for example, used the 2004 in Athens to display distinctive elements of their national identity, their historical links with classical civilisation all the while, reaffirming that it is a modern nation-state. During the 1938 World Cup, President Gétulio Vargas of Brazil installed loudspeakers at street corners to allow the Brazilians to follow the match commentary. This act has been termed as a pathway to promote the conception of Brazilian national identity (Maranhão, 2007).

International sports have also offered independent nations the opportunity to compete against their former rulers (Stoddart, 1988). Victory over former colonial powers in sports is regarded of great symbolic prominence in addition to demonstrating the disassembling of colonial mantle. An article by Albert Grundlingh presented an interesting analysis of rugby-regarded as a British sport-how it gave the Afrikaners an opportunity to literally ‘beat the British at their own game’, hence, marking it as their cultural symbol (Grundlingh, 1994). While the win by Faith Kipyegon of Kenya over Laura Weightman of Great Britain during the 2014 Women's 1500 metres Commonwealth games did not attract dramatic and symbolic celebrations in Kenya, it depicted the country’s strength, great talent, hard work and pride. The same can be said of England’s defeat by Kenya rugby [nicknamed Simba] (12-0) in the Vancouver Sevens quarter-finals on 11th March 2018.

Sports and Contestation of National Identity On the contrary, sports do not always promote nation’s identity. For example, the defection of sports persons and the link between sports and national identity. Some countries had to lose their best sportsmen and sportswomen who move from their nation by adopting new nationality, hence taking on different identities. Stephen Cherono, who became Saif Saeed Shaheen, after changing his nationality from Kenyan to Qatar, competed and won against the Kenyan Champion at the 2003 steeplechase World Athletics Championships in Paris (Lukalo, 2005, p. 129). Other Kenyan athletes who have changed their citizenship www.ijirk.com 3 | P a g e

International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge ISSN-2213-1356 include Qatar’s Ali Thamer Kamel formerly known as Thomas Kosgei, Rasheed Essa Ismael who was Daniel Kipkosgei and Salem Jamal previously known as Thomas Katui. Others who defected to Bahrain are Abadeen Eshaaq known as Isaac Waweru, Ali Belal Mansour who was John Yego, Khamees Adam formerly Hosea Kipkemboi (Omulo, 2015).

The question of citizenship and name change in the above cases poses great challenge to national identity in that, sports perceived as a sign of pride, unity and patriotism in Kenya is undermined and depicted as a symbol of resistance. Another instance of a contested national identity involves Saif Saeed Shaheen previously Stephen Cherono winning World Championship, whereas the winner is Kenyan the national Flag raised, and national anthem played is Qatari. Some have argued that the defection emanates from the view that the government does not meet the personal, social and economic needs of individual athletics (Castells, 1996). Other cited reasons include few career opportunities for athletes, athlete catering for their training cost and inadequate competitive environment to make it to national team.

More recently is the INEOS challenge held on 12th October 2019 in which Eliud Kipchoge set a new world record by running a in less than two hours. The record boosted Kenya's identity on the global map. An identity that inspires the world – as portrayed by the hashtag ‘no human is limited.’ Beside lifting and waving the country’s national flag in the presence of international media, Kipchoge’s success also symbolised Kenya as a source of talent, one to be proud of.

On the other hand, it can also be argued that the INEOS challenge presented a paradox involving nation branding and product branding. While the former deals with ‘a country’s whole image’ ranging from political, economic, historical to cultural dimensions, the latter is concerned with marketing of particular product or product category (Fan, 2006, pp. 7-9). As such, the 1:59 challenge prompted the question as to what was being branded. Was it Kenya’s brand identity, one endowed with talent and prestige, or it was a marketing strategy for INEOS’ chemicals and oil products, whose brand originates from Britain. Even though Eliud Kipchoge, a Kenyan was hailed for breaking the 1:59 challenge, the event offered brand visibility of INEOS whose brand logo was depicted on the athlete’s attire and displayed along the lane.

Locally, the country has come to appreciate sports personalities whose performance in international competitions is exemplary, branding them as national heroes. In the past, national heroes were men and women linked to nationalism, who served as models of valour, and selflessness after succeeding in the liberation of the nation from the colonial yoke (Smith, 1999, pp. 64-65). During Kenya's Mashujaa Day (Heroes Day), the historical freedom fighters and nationalist leaders would be recognised and celebrated as emblems of independent Kenya. Among them is Jomo Kenyatta, the founding father; Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, the first vice president of the Republic of Kenya; the Mau Mau fighters (who have attracted scholarly debate), Tom Mboya, Acheing’ Oneko, Paul Ngei, Bildad Kaggia, Kung’u Karumba among others (Coombes, 2011).

The contemporary heroes, however, are those that society admires, identifies with, and perceived as moral beacons or representatives of society's beliefs and systems. They range from celebrities, sports personalities and charismatic leaders in the Weberian mould. Of importance to this article are the sports heroes, those ‘who acquire a special status by virtue of extraordinary and prestigious sporting skills and sometimes moral qualities’ (Bifulco & Tirino, 2018). Their victories embody collective meanings, projecting appreciated values such as bravery, excellence and sacrifice perceived to constitute national identification. Thus, as symbols of national pride that reinforces notion of belonging, sports heroes are honoured and branded as country ambassadors, representing collective identity and particular national values.

Kenya marked a departure from the normative practice that only recognised nationalist heroes to include sports personalities during the Mashujaa Day celebrations. The sports persons who had performed well in various local and international competitions were acknowledged while others conferred with national honor. For example, President Uhuru Kenyatta noted on 20th October, 2019 during Mashujaa day celebrations that, the country

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"celebrates those who have built Kenya with their bravery, their sacrifice and their fidelity. We celebrate and honour those that go above and beyond the call of duty" (PSCU, 2019). One of them being Eliud Kipchoge, after breaking the 2019 INEOS 1:59 challenge, and conferred Elder of the Order of the Golden Heart (EGH), the second-highest honour granted to any civilian in Kenya. The president described Kipchoge as a "living legend" and the "greatest of our time" (PSCU, 2019). Other sports heroes that were honoured during the celebrations include, former national football team-coach Mohammed Kheri, former national team goalkeeper Mahmoud Abbas, cricketer Martin Suji, swimmer Jason Dunford, and former World Javelin Champion (Mutai, 2019). Other sports personalities who were recognised are Volleyball star Mercy Moim, Boxer Rayton Okwiri and Golfer Rose Naliaka.

While excellent performance from athletes boost national identity and prestige, their disqualification from competing in the international sports games tarnishes national brand as well (Koller, 2008). In a bid to produce better results some athletes have often resorted to the use of performance enhancing drugs. This has however resulted to their sanctioning from participating in the international sports competition as it amounted to the violations of anti-doping rules. Whereas doping is regarded a problem of an individual rather than culture, its consequences on an athlete is perceived as a ‘national disgrace’ (Kidd, Edelman, & Brownell, 2001). Among Kenyan athletes banned for breaking anti-doping regulations include three-time world and Olympic winner Asbel Kiprop, former 2016 Olympic marathon champion Jemimah Sumgong, World record holder Abraham Kiptum, Rita Jeptoo the 2016 Winner, 2019 African 10,000 meters winner Joyce Chepkirui and 2017 winner Sarah Chepchirchir among others.

Despite some of the Kenyan athletes testing positive of performance enhancing drugs and even banned from international competitions, none of them has so far been prosecuted. In contrast, when Marion Jones a US athlete was found guilty of breaking the anti-doping rules she was charged and prisoned for a maximum of six months (Koller, 2008, p. 91). While sentencing Marion Jones, the judge noted that "athletes in society ... serve as role models to children around the world. When there is a widespread level of cheating, it sends all the wrong messages" (CNN, 2008 in Koller, 2008, p.91). In doing so, the government condemned cheating in sports, but more importantly safeguarded its reputation as one that values honesty, hard work and integrity. Similarly, Kenyan government needs to put in place legislations that criminalize doping among athletes in the country. Whereas the current law only stipulates up to three years jail term for staff found culpable in connection with doping, it leaves out athletes who are the greatest culprits.

Brand Kenya, Branding National Identity? Brand Kenya, a state corporation established in March 2008 was tasked with among other responsibilities; ensure international marketing of Kenya, promote local products and services for economic growth, and uniting Kenyans to promote patriotism and national pride. The organisation inauguration was after the 2007/2008 post- election violence with the agenda of creating a positive national image after being tainted by the conflict. Since its establishment, brand Kenya has run several campaigns among them the "Brand Ambassadors program", "Make it Kenya", "Fashion Fridays Challenge", "Nitakuwepo" and "+254Tuko Na Plus Kibao" (Brand Kenya, 2011).

After its inception, Brand Kenya created national brand which is represented by the national brand logo (see Figure 1.1). The logo is a combination of elements derived from various national symbols, including the national flag and public seal. The logo is circular, decorated with multiple layers of colours from the national flag: red, green, white and black. As earlier explained, the colour black symbolises indigenous people of Kenya, red represents the blood that was shed during the struggle for independence, and green signifies the natural resource and the country's vast, rich landscape, and white stands for peace and honesty. All of which are considered as elements of Kenya's national identity. As such, any item or person bearing the logo is deemed as promoting the country’s identity. www.ijirk.com 5 | P a g e

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Figure 1.1: (Brand Kenya Logo and Slogan) Source: Brand Kenya Website (brandkenya.go.ke/)

Tournament and team sponsorships is one of the ways Brand Kenya promotes national brand through sports. The corporation became the official shirt sponsor of the National Sevens Rugby Team, a deal that was made public on the 24th May, 2018 in , Kenya (Cardovillis, 2018). The new shirt was printed with the Nation's Brand logo (see Figure 1.1) with the slogan reading, "Make It Kenya." The partnership meant that Kenya Sevens were the official Kenya global ambassadors. Considering the global rankings of the Kenya Sevens and their consistent featuring in the Seven Series Rugby competition, the nation's brand would receive plenty of visibility and exposure. Besides, the logo promoted Brand Kenya's mandate of fostering patriotism and national unity every time the Kenya Sevens were playing and even better, winning.

This, however, was short-lived as during the June 2018 Paris Sevens rugby competition, in Paris France, the Kenya Sevens in their branded shirts, played with the Brand Kenya Logo concealed. Despite defeating Fiji 22- 19, the Kenya Sevens masked the Brand Kenya's slogan "Make It Kenya" that was on the front of their jerseys (Ayodi, 2018). The delay by the sponsors Brand Kenya, to pass on remittances, resulted in the team protest for their allowances. While covering the logo did not prevent people from recognising the Kenyan team, it raised questions on the corporation’s commitment in promoting national brand which is also a symbol of national identity.

Other than sponsoring Kenya’s national teams, Brand Kenya also distributes branded items bearing national brand such as lapels, bags, wrist bands and national flags among others. While addressing Kenya Prisons and Kenya Pipeline teams at Kasarani in 2018, former brand Kenya C.E.O Mary Lusaka reiterated the importance of branding the team as a way of repositioning the country in the global stage for trade, tourism and investment. She further reaffirmed Brand Kenya’s board commitment in using sports to position Kenya locally, regionally and globally ‘as a modern, vibrant African rising star’ (MichezoAfrikaTV Kenya, 2018). Her visit followed the qualification by the two teams to represent Kenya at the 2018 Africa Women Volleyball Club Championships in Tunisia. The two teams pooled stunning results despite competing for the third place with Kenya pipeline defeating Kenya Prisons. Thus, their good performance not only provided visibility of the national brand globally, but also enhanced national pride among Kenyans, a good feeling of being associated with the winning brand.

It is however important for Brand Kenya to draw a line between nation branding for trade, tourism and investment on one hand and promoting national identity on the other hand. The corporation appears to be focussing more on the former with the latter receiving little attention. For example, the idea behind nation brand logo with a tag line ‘Make It Kenya’ aims ‘to position Kenya as the destination of choice for trade, tourism and investment globally’ (Brand Kenya, 2011). It is more of attracting tourists and investment opportunities rather than fostering national identity among Kenyans. Whereas the national brand logo bears marks and colors that stands for the country’s identity, its involvement with sports have little to do with the promotion of the national identification but more with trade, tourism and investment. As such, while the participation of the branded national teams offers visibility of the national brand, it is their good performance that has always inspired pride among Kenyans in relation to the brand.

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Conclusion The study shows that the coming of the British led to the introduction of new sports games leading to the dissolution of some of the ‘traditional sports’. Consequently, a new identity, that which represent the Europeans was installed. However, at independence, while most of the European sports were retained and adopted by the African government, they were accorded new identity emerging from the nationalist struggle. As such, the new identity was symbolised by Kenyan flag, national anthem, national pride and patriotism, thus gaining a new meaning. The study has further demonstrated that, while good performance in sports by athletes promotes nation brand identity, their negative character dents national image, whether or not they are world champions. Additionally, there is a contradiction arising between nation branding and product branding as a result of athlete’s sponsorship by a corporate organization in an international sports event. Both the nation and the sponsoring agency competes for visibility with each striving to display unique features of their image/products. Finally, the article calls for the need by Brand Kenya to draw a line between nation branding for trade, tourism and investment on one hand and promoting national identity on the other hand. Whereas the nation brand logo bears element for national identity, sponsoring and branding national teams [with branded bracelets, lapels and attires] does not necessarily translates to promoting national identity. This is because other factors such as team performance are critical in eliciting national pride and patriotism in relation to nation brand.

Declarations Funding - No funding was received for conducting this study. Conflicts of Interest – The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

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