MEASURING AND REPORTING ON EUROPEANS’ WELLBEING: FINDINGS FROM THE EUROPEAN SOCIAL Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 1

Understanding and improving CONTENTS INFORMING THE DEBATE ABOUT EUROPEANS’ WELLBEING wellbeing requires a sound evidence Informing the debate about 1 Europeans' wellbeing base that can inform policymakers Measuring subjective wellbeing 2 Questions regarding what The ten contributions presented here in the ESS constitutes subjective wellbeing include an exploration of the complex, and citizens alike where, when, and how both individual and multidimensional nature of subjective ESS participating countries 4 wellbeing. ESS wellbeing data provide a societal wellbeing might be and for whom life is getting better… Wellbeing matters 5 valuable source of data for going beyond improved now occupy a summary measures of happiness and To be most useful … subjective Dimensions of wellbeing 6 prominent place on research exploring different dimensions of individual Happy and flourishing? 6 and policy agendas. Cross- and societal wellbeing. Contributions draw wellbeing data need to be collected on the rich variety of topics addressed by Wellbeing: A multidimensional 8 national surveys such as the the ESS to fully explore different drivers with large and representative samples concept European Social Survey (ESS), of wellbeing including: working conditions, What is a decent society? 10 which provide high-quality gender, parenthood, migration, democracy, and in a consistent way across comparative data on public the environment and cultural values. The Drivers of wellbeing 12 attitudes and behaviour, have ESS also allows researchers to explore the different population groups and over Work-life balance across Europe 12 experiences of particular subgroups within an important role to play in the population, for example, migrants from time… Subjective wellbeing data can Gender inequalities and depression 14 answering these questions. eastern to western Europe, and to compare Does parenthood bring happiness? 16 the wellbeing of groups such as parents provide an important complement This booklet ‘Measuring and reporting on versus non-parents. Migrating to find happiness? 17 Europeans’ Wellbeing’ presents findings on Europeans’ wellbeing using data from All of the research presented here offers a to other indicators already used for Satisfied with democracy, 18 the first six rounds of the ESS. We aim to comparative, cross-national perspective and satisfied with life? monitoring and benchmarking showcase the scope that ESS data provide illustrates how experiences of wellbeing can Subjective wellbeing and the 20 for exploring the definition, distribution vary significantly across countries. Many of countries’ performance… environment and drivers of subjective wellbeing across the contributions draw on contextual data Europe and to encourage others to make from outside the survey to explore how Life satisfaction, emotions and 21 full use of ESS data in advancing society’s institutional, societal and cultural differences cultural values Martine Durand understanding of these important issues. between and within countries might explain OECD Chief Statistician, Want to know more? 22 this variation. We have collaborated with leading experts ESS: Looking beyond wellbeing 23 Director of the OECD Statistics Directorate on wellbeing in Europe and prominent This booklet provides only a brief snapshot A successful European 24 researchers in fields such as sociology, of ESS research on wellbeing. All the Foreword to OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-being, 2013 collaboration political science, , psychology contributions included here can be explored and geography, to identify some highlights in more detail via the interactive website from the rich body of research into wellbeing www.esswellbeingmatters.org which carried out using ESS data. By making accompanies this publication. We encourage a variety of innovative, methodologically you to visit the site to access further results sophisticated, and policy-relevant findings and to find out more about the different easily accessible we hope to make a valuable aspects of wellbeing that can be explored contribution to both academic and policy using ESS data. debates around wellbeing.

GO ONLINE www.esswellbeingmatters.org 2 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 3

The availability of high quality data is central to the measurement and understanding of MEASURING wellbeing. The ESS has been collecting methodologically robust cross-national data on wellbeing every two years since 2002. 2 SUBJECTIVE The survey includes headline measures of subjective wellbeing such as 'life satisfaction' and 'happiness' as part of its ROUND 2 WELLBEING core , asked of respondents in 2004/05 each round. More in-depth data on wellbeing • Work, family and wellbeing is also provided for some rounds where 1 • Health care seeking IN THE ESS thematic ‘rotating modules’ (which vary from • Economic morality round to round) have focused on different 3 aspects of wellbeing. These data on wellbeing ROUND 1 The ESS provides free access to a rich are collected alongside a large number of 2002/03 socio-demographic background variables and • Citizenship variety of high quality data on different questions asking about other important social • Immigration ROUND 3 and political topics, providing researchers and 2006/07 aspects of wellbeing (and other topics) policymakers with a rich dataset with which to • Personal and social wellbeing 4 for more than 30 European countries explore Europeans’ wellbeing. • The timing of life

8 ROUND 4 2008/09 • Attitudes to age and ageism 5 ROUND 8 • Welfare 2016/17 • Climate change 7 and energy ROUND 5 • Welfare 2010/11 • Work, family and wellbeing in recession ROUND 7 • Trust in justice 2014/15 6 • Health inequalities • Immigration CORE TOPICS IN ALL ROUNDS • Moral and social values ROUND 6 • Health and wellbeing 2012/13 • Trust in institutions • Personal and social wellbeing • Education and occupation • Understanding and evaluations • Social capital and social trust of democracy • Household circumstances • Citizen involvement and democracy • Social exclusion • Political values and engagement • Socio-demographic characteristics • Immigration • Crime 4 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 5

Many people would agree that one of the The growing field of subjective wellbeing ESS 30 WELLBEING key aims of a democratic government should research has been made possible by PARTICIPATING MATTERS be to promote a life of high wellbeing. In the increasing amount of data available. the past, rather than focusing directly on Surveys such as the ESS are central to the Annie Quick achieving wellbeing, most countries have measurement of wellbeing. The data they COUNTRIES New Economics Foundation, UK 3 tended to prioritise economic growth. provide on individuals’ experiences can be However, the relationship between economic used by policymakers to understand: The findings in this booklet Researchers and policymakers growth and wellbeing is not as close as might are based on ESS data from 14 increasingly recognise the be expected. This suggests that, rather • Different dimensions of wellbeing 9 the first six rounds. Data importance of measuring than focusing solely on economic growth, • Drivers of wellbeing policymakers need to look directly at the • How wellbeing is distributed across on wellbeing are available and understanding ultimate outcome – human wellbeing. different groups within the population for more than 30 countries 19 subjective wellbeing across Europe which Focusing policy on subjective wellbeing There is also increasing interest in making 26 took part in at least one 31 has a number of advantages. Research cross-national comparisons, allowing the 2 shows that higher wellbeing contributes to macroeconomic and societal factors that of the first six rounds 28 many other important outcomes such as determine wellbeing, and the policies that 26 of the ESS. better health and higher productivity influence them, to be explored. The ESS 7 at work. Furthermore, dialogue with the – and the methodologically robust cross- 16 8 10 public suggest that people can relate to national data it provides on a wide range 5 the idea of wellbeing. By putting people’s of topics – makes a particularly important 1 own experiences centre stage, wellbeing contribution in this regard. 32 18 21 20 has the potential to reconnect people 17 with policy, helping to overcome the high Over recent years wellbeing research 6 ESS Participation 4 15 levels of citizens' disengagement with the has established a number of key findings 12 33 political process. regarding the drivers of wellbeing and 27 29 ROUNDS 1-6 policymakers can start shaping policy Encouragingly, in recent years, the need to to improve wellbeing. However, our 22 6 ROUNDS 36 look beyond GDP and focus on wellbeing understanding of wellbeing still lags behind 1 Belgium 11 13 35 has been increasingly recognised. A 2009 other domains such as health or income 24 2 Denmark 34 commission convened by the French which have benefited from decades of 3 Finland President Nicolas Sarkozy, the Commission research using rich data sets. Continued 4 France on the Measurement of Economic research on wellbeing, supported by data 5 Germany Performance and Social Progress, advocated from surveys such as the ESS, is needed to 6 Hungary 23 focusing on wellbeing. There have been a better inform the response to the economic 7 Ireland number of initiatives to produce alternative and societal challenges facing Europe. 25 8 Netherlands headline indicators of progress, such as the 9 Norway OECD’s Better Life Initiative, which include 10 Poland measures of subjective wellbeing. Wellbeing DID YOU KNOW? 11 Portugal is now being studied from a range of Research shows that 12 Slovenia 5 ROUNDS 4 ROUNDS 3 ROUNDS 2 ROUNDS 1 ROUND academic perspectives drawing insights from 13 Spain 17 Austria 22 Bulgaria 27 Italy 29 Croatia 35 Albania economics, sociology, neuroscience and higher wellbeing 14 Sweden 18 Czech Republic 23 Cyprus 28 Lithuania 30 Iceland 36 Kosovo human needs theory. contributes to many other 15 Switzerland 19 Estonia 24 Greece 31 Latvia 16 UK 20 Slovakia 25 Israel 32 Luxembourg important outcomes of 21 Ukraine 26 Russia 33 Romania interest to policymakers, 34 Turkey such as better health and higher productivity at work 6 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 7

HAPPY AND Questions regarding what exactly Scandinavia and lower than average in parts DID YOU KNOW? wellbeing consists of can be traced back of southern and eastern Europe. However, Data analysis of the DIMENSIONS FLOURISHING? to philosophical debates in ancient Greece. it is important to keep in mind that these The hedonic school of thought, exemplified country-level findings hide a significant ESS Round 6 rotating Bram Vanhoutte by Epicurus, believed a good life to be amount of within-country variation. Analysis University of Manchester, UK module on 'Personal OF WELLBEING filled with happiness. Aristotle dismissed shows that that only 15% of the variation in this narrow conception, and instead hedonic and 7% of the variation in eudemonic and Social Wellbeing' Hedonism (happiness) and proposed eudemonia, or flourishing, living wellbeing can be explained confirms that hedonic and eudemonia (flourishing) are in accordance with your true self, as a way at the country level with the remainder eudemonic wellbeing are both important components to lead a good life. This same distinction explained by differences between individuals. between happiness and flourishing is present Exploring how socio-demographic two distinct concepts of individual wellbeing and are in debates about wellbeing today. characteristics such as gender, age and present to varying degrees education are related to both the hedonic across Europe Although these philosophical conceptions and eudemonic dimensions of wellbeing of wellbeing may come from two different may provide useful insights for policymakers perspectives, there is a lot to be gained from seeking to understand and address thinking about them alongside one another. differences in wellbeing within society. Large scale surveys such as the ESS which measure different aspects of wellbeing allow us to do this. We can evaluate empirically the extent to which there is in fact a distinction between hedonic and eudemonic wellbeing as experienced by individuals in society today. We can also look at whether and how levels Hedonic and eudemonic wellbeing across Europe by country of these two types of wellbeing vary across countries and between different sub-groups 1.5 of the population within a country. 1.2 Factor analysis of the data from the ESS 0.9 Round 6 (2012/13) rotating module on ‘Personal and Social Wellbeing’ confirms that 0.6 hedonic and eudemonic wellbeing are two 0.3 distinct concepts. 0

However, there is a strong correlation -0.3 between both factors – meaning that Country mean score people with a high score in terms of hedonic -0.6 wellbeing also tend to have high scores -0.9 on eudemonic wellbeing. Cross-national -1.2 comparison further suggests that in nearly all countries both forms of wellbeing go in the -1.5 UK

same direction of the overall ESS mean, i.e. Italy Israel Spain Russia Ireland Poland France Finland Albaina Cyprus Estonia Iceland countries that score above average in terms of Kosovo Ukraine Norway Belgium Bulgaria Slovakia Sweden Portugal Slovenia Hungary Lithuania Germany hedonic wellbeing also score above average Denmark Switzerland on eudemonic wellbeing. Netherlands Czech Republic

Wellbeing, especially hedonic wellbeing, Hedonic wellbeing Eudemonic wellbeing varies across countries. For example, hedonic wellbeing tends to be higher than average in Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13). Design weights applied. 8 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 9

WELLBEING: A Average score on different dimensions of wellbeing by country Evaluative MULTIDIMENSIONAL wellbeing CONCEPT 0.4 0.2 Karen Jeffrey and Saamah Abdallah 0 Community Emotional New Economics Foundation, UK -0.2 wellbeing wellbeing -0.4 -0.6 Taking a nuanced, -0.8 Hungary multidimensional approach -1 Russia to wellbeing can tell us much Switzerland about how experiences of wellbeing vary across and within countries Vitality Functioning

Supportive Collecting robust data on wellbeing, i.e. how of wellbeing being considered. For example, relationships people evaluate and experience their lives, analysis of ESS data shows that whilst is essential if we are to begin to understand vitality and emotional wellbeing decline Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13). Post-stratification weights applied. which features are most likely to contribute steadily with age, supportive relationships to higher wellbeing, and to identify groups and evaluative wellbeing scores are within society which might benefit most from both at their lowest amongst the middle Average score on different dimensions of wellbeing by age group interventions designed to increase wellbeing. age group. But how can such a complex concept as 0.3 wellbeing be measured systematically? Household income is generally positively 0.25 correlated with all dimensions of wellbeing A common approach is to ask people to We see that where respondents within a DID YOU KNOW? though more so for some dimensions 0.2 evaluate their experience in terms of how country report high scores on one wellbeing (evaluative wellbeing) than others (vitality). Where respondents 0.15 happy or satisfied with life they are overall. dimension, they tend to also report high However, the relationship between However, whilst offering a fairly good scores on the other wellbeing dimensions within a country report community wellbeing and income varies 0.1 overview of wellbeing, a single, catch-all (e.g. Switzerland) and vice versa. However, high scores on one across Europe. In Scandinavia and western measure might also hide interesting details this is not always the case. For example, Europe community wellbeing is positively 0.05 that a more multidimensional approach in Hungary, whilst people report quite low wellbeing dimension, associated with household income. However, 0 can reveal. wellbeing across most of the dimensions, they tend to report high in southern Europe there is a significant they report a much higher score for the negative association between income and -0.05 scores on the other Standardised wellbeing score Using data from the ESS Round 6 community wellbeing dimension. In Russia, community wellbeing. (2012/13) rotating module on ‘Personal the average score for the functioning wellbeing dimensions, -0.1 and Social Wellbeing’ it is possible to dimension is much lower than the scores for These varied findings demonstrate the but not always -0.15 identify six distinct dimensions of subjective each of the other five dimensions. importance of being able to differentiate <25 25-34 35-49 50-64 65-74 >75 wellbeing and conduct a nuanced analysis between related but distinct dimensions of Age group of how wellbeing varies both within and It is also important to consider how wellbeing wellbeing. The insights provided by such across countries. These six dimensions are: is distributed across the population and in-depth analysis of wellbeing can help Evaluative wellbeing Emotional wellbeing Functioning evaluative wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, whether there are notable inequalities in policymakers seeking to target resources Supportive relationships Vitality Community wellbeing functioning, vitality, community wellbeing and wellbeing between different groups. Again, effectively in order to increase the wellbeing supportive relationships. this can depend on the specific dimension of the population. Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13). Post-stratification and population weights applied. 10 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 11

As well as being interested in individual society across these four ‘quadrants’. Many of the countries which rank lower on Overall Subjective Index scores across Europe WHAT IS A wellbeing, researchers and policymakers On the basis of this Subjective Index, Social Inclusion than we might expect given DECENT are concerned with wider societal wellbeing. Norway is the country where people have their overall ranking (Norway, Denmark, Whether a country can be considered a the most positive views of their society, Sweden, France, UK) have relatively low SOCIETY? ‘decent society’ will depend of course on the closely followed by the other Scandinavian rates of self-reported church attendance, objective conditions in that country. However, countries together with Switzerland. At the whilst other countries which perform relatively Pamela Abbott, Claire Wallace it is also relevant to ask whether countries bottom lies Ukraine, together with most of well in terms of Social Inclusion compared and Roger Sapsford are perceived by their residents as fit for the other former socialist states of central with their overall ranking (Ukraine, Bulgaria) University of Aberdeen, UK purpose. The ESS is a rich source of data on and eastern Europe. are distinguished by relatively high rates people’s experiences and beliefs, helping us of church attendance. This suggests an Europeans vary in the extent understand the extent to which Europeans There is a strong element of ‘general interesting area for further research – can think they live in a ‘decent society’. approval’ across different aspects of society the church perhaps promote social inclusion to which they think they live – scores on one quadrant are fairly predictive and welfare where this function is not taken in a ‘decent society’, i.e. one The Social Quality Model identifies four broad of scores on the others at the country level. on by governments? that promotes the wellbeing requirements for a ‘decent society’: However, Social Inclusion appears to be of its citizens evaluated differently (sometimes better, ESS data provide valuable insights into • Economic Security sometimes worse) from other aspects how people perceive their society and how • Social Cohesion of a ‘decent society’ in many countries. this varies across counties. In combination • Social Inclusion For example, Switzerland and Finland with more objective indicators on how • Empowerment perform well in terms of Economic Security far the conditions in a country meet the and Social Cohesion in comparison to requirements for a ‘decent society’, such Using data from ESS Round 6 (2012/13) most other countries but score relatively insights can offer potentially useful guidance measuring aspects of society including low in terms of Social Inclusion. Iceland, to policymakers seeking to identify what economic evaluations, trust in institutions, on the other hand, scores relatively low on aspects of their political and social regime attitudes towards minority groups and social Economic Security and Empowerment but may be in need of reform in order to promote and political participation, we can construct a high on Social Inclusion. citizens’ wellbeing. Subjective Index of how people perceive their

DID YOU KNOW? DID YOU KNOW? Social Inclusion appears The country with the to be evaluated differently highest Subjective Index from other aspects of score, i.e. where people a ‘decent society’ in have the most positive many countries views of their society, is Norway

>53 49-53 <49

Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13). Post-stratification weights applied. 12 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 13

Work-life balance, i.e. how individuals Satisfaction with work-life balance by country group WORK-LIFE integrate paid work with the rest of their life DRIVERS OF BALANCE and balance the demands of different roles, 0.9 is an important component of wellbeing. 0.8 ACROSS EUROPE Rising female employment, lone parenthood, WELLBEING falling fertility and an ageing population have 0.7 Helen Russell and Frances McGinnity all brought the issue of reconciling work and Economic and Social Research 0.6 caring demands to the fore. Conflict between Institute (ESRI), Ireland the demands of work and family life has 0.5 been linked to poorer outcomes in marital 0.4 Working conditions such as relations and child development as well as job satisfaction, absenteeism and stress. working hours, autonomy and 0.3 flexibility are important for work- The demands of work and family life are 0.2 life balance. However, working known to vary across countries depending relative to Transition countries relative to Transition 0.1 conditions – and hence feelings on the different employment and welfare regimes in place to organise work and caring of work-life balance – vary 0 responsibilities. The ESS provides valuable in satisfaction with work-life balance Difference significantly across Europe cross-national data with which to explore the -0.1 Regime + Demographic + Family + Working + Work effect of these institutional differences on Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Hours Conditions work-life balance. Model 4 Model 5

Analysis of data from the ESS Round 5 Nordic Continental Liberal Southern (2010/11) module on ‘Work, Family and Wellbeing’ uncovers significant differences Data source: European Social Survey Round 5 (2010/11). Data weighted by labour market FERTILITY in working conditions across countries weights created by the authors. depending on the type of employment Note: Regression coefficients showing difference in work-life balance relative to the Transition regime. Working hours are lower, and job countries (reference category), after controlling for demographic, family and working conditions. flexibility and feelings of job control higher, in Base for analysis is all employees, 20-64 years, living with partner. more worker-oriented employment regimes (Nordic countries and the Continental countries i.e. Belgium, Netherlands and These differences in working conditions However, differences in work-life balance Germany) compared with southern European in turn help to explain the significant across the country groupings are significantly MIGRATION and central-eastern ‘Transition’ countries variation in perceptions of work-life balance reduced when we take account of where union density and workers’ collective found across Europe. The figure above differences in working hours and other bargaining power is weaker. summarises the results of analysis which working conditions (Models 4 and 5). Family W R models differences in self-assessed work- demands are also important (Model 3) but, CULTURE E life balance across country groupings as a compared with working conditions, appear O D function of a range of different family and to explain less of the variation in satisfaction R N work-related factors. with work-family balance across Europe. K GE DID YOU KNOW? High satisfaction with Regime type clearly matters: satisfaction These findings point to some clear lessons work-life balance in with work-life balance is highest in the for policymakers and/or employers seeking Nordic countries, followed by Continental to promote work-life balance. Predictable the Nordic countries and Liberal countries i.e. UK and Ireland working hours that are not too long, is related to differences in (Model 1). Satisfaction is lowest in southern employee autonomy, and the ability to European countries and Transition countries decide start/finish times and working during working hours and better (which provide the reference group against the standard working week, are all likely to working conditions which other regimes are compared). enhance work-life balance. 14 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 15

GENDER Mental health is an important component Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression If the incidence of depression is related DID YOU KNOW? of wellbeing. Women are around twice Scale – CES-D8) at any age. Both men and to social conditions we might also expect The gender gap in INEQUALITIES as likely to report depressive symptoms women experience an increase in depressive the degree of gender inequality in society and major depression as men. However, symptoms with age. However, the negative to play an important role. The figure depression between men AND DEPRESSION this gender gap is not observed in all effect of age is more pronounced for below shows that this is indeed the case. and women is smaller countries and also varies across the life women, leading to a more prominent gender Both women and men experience less Piet Bracke, Rozemarijn Dereuddre span. The ESS can be used to examine difference in depression among those aged depressive symptoms in more gender-equal in more gender-equal and Sarah Van de Velde why this might be and to explore the 61 and older. countries. However, the positive effect of Ghent University, Belgium countries role that gender inequality has to play in gender equality in reducing depression is explaining differences in the depression Women’s relatively disadvantaged position more pronounced among women than men. gender gap. Because depression, in society (for example in terms of reduced This means the gender gap in depression More gender-equal societies lack of control, and powerlessness are opportunities for employment) may between men and women is smaller in related we would expect a greater gender explain the gender gap in depression. The more gender-equal countries (scoring high promote better mental health Gender gap in depression by country-level gender inequality among both men and women gap in depression in more gender-unequal cumulative negative effect that this relative on the Global Gender Gap Index) than in societies. disadvantage has over the life course may less equal countries. In countries where 10 and reduce the gender gap in in turn explain the presence of a larger women face more unequal treatment, the depressive symptoms Analysis of ESS Round 3 (2006/07) and gender gap among older people. In support lifelong accumulation of this disadvantage 9 Round 6 (2012/13) data from 29 countries of this explanation, we find that controlling in is more pronounced and the gender gap confirms that women are more likely than analysis for differences in individuals’ family in depression which emerges with age 8 men to experience depressive symptoms and employment status significantly reduces is greater. 7 (as measured by a shortened version of the the gender gap in depression observed. Most studies of depression focus only on 6 the individual social positions of women and men, and hence, underestimate the impact 5 of gendered societal arrangements on Age differences in depressive symptoms among women and men 4 depression. It is important to notice that less Depression score 10 gender inequality goes hand in hand with 3 better mental health for both women and 9 men (though especially women). This has 2 implications for policymakers, emphasising 8 1 the important role that policies to promote 7 gender equality may have in improving 0 citizens’ wellbeing. 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 6 Age 5 Women GGI low Men GGI low Women GGI high Men GGI high 4 Depression score

3 Data source: ESS Round 3 (2006/07) and Round 6 (2012/13). Design weights applied. Note: Gender inequality measured by Global Gender Gap Index (GGI) (World Economic Forum, 2013). DID YOU KNOW? 2 ESS data confirm the 1 well-known gender 0 difference in depression 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 Age with women reporting higher scores on the Women Men depression scale Data source: ESS Round 3 (2006/07) and Round 6 (2012/13). Design weights applied. 16 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 17

DOES MIGRATING PARENTHOOD TO FIND BRING HAPPINESS? HAPPINESS? David Bartram University of Leicester, UK Arnstein Aassve Bocconi University, Italy Most European countries are now The first notable finding is that there is a Migrating to a wealthier Letizia Mencarini experiencing fertility levels well below positive relationship between the level of University of Turin, Italy the replacement level of two children per development in society – as measured European country will not woman, posing significant challenges by the Human Development Index (HDI) necessarily lead to an increase Maria Sironi for policymakers faced with an ageing – and both happiness and fertility rates. University of Oxford, UK in happiness population. However, despite the general Despite development historically being a prior differences in happiness, we find that, may provide significant potential for decline, fertility rates vary considerably strong predictor of fertility decline, once One might reasonably expect that migrants for migrants from Bulgaria, Estonia, Poland, disappointment. One possible explanation across European countries. Examining countries reach a certain threshold of moving to wealthier countries would improve Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine, it may even be for this is that happiness depends on your the relationship between parenthood and development – as is generally the case in their lives in significant ways. Analysis of the case that migration leads to a decrease in position relative to others. Although their Whether parenthood brings subjective wellbeing may help to shed some Europe relative to the rest of the world – the ESS data on intra-European migration, happiness rather than an increase (green bars). absolute income may be higher following light on these trends in fertility. relationship appears to be reversed. Across happiness depends on your however, suggests that migrants might not migration, many migrants find themselves ESS countries, the higher the level of gender and whereabouts in experience greater happiness after moving Migrants’ lives might well improve in ways having to accept relatively low-status jobs, We use data from ESS Round 6 (2012/13) development, the happier people are and to a wealthier country. that indicate higher objective wellbeing, but with potentially negative consequences for Europe you live to explore fertility decisions across Europe. the higher fertility rates. in subjective terms, it appears migration their sense of wellbeing. A straightforward comparison between Comparing the experiences of parents and migrants from central-eastern to western Happiness of mothers and non-mothers by country and level of development non-parents directly, it appears that across Happiness differences between migrants and stayers by country Europe and stayers in central-eastern Europe fathers are happier than non-fathers. (statistically significant results only) 9 Europe, suggests that migrants are generally However, for women the relationship happier than stayers (shown by the blue 3 between happiness and parenthood is FI DK bars in the figure below). More than half 8.5 less straightforward. Mothers are happier 2 IS NO of this difference is due to differences in CH than non-mothers but only in the most characteristics between migrants and NL highly developed European countries. 1 8 DE stayers; migrants are generally younger, SE The relationship between motherhood and PL SIBE healthier, and therefore happier than stayers. ES 0 EE happiness also depends on other contextual FR Nevertheless, after controlling for these 7.5 factors including accessibility of childcare differences we still find that migrants from CY IT and the proportion of women in parliament -1 UK most countries are still significantly happier IE (used as a proxy for female empowerment SK than stayers (red bars). -2 7 LT CZ in society). UA -3

Average Happiness (0-10) Average However, before concluding that migrants AL PT For women, it seems that the relationship 6.5 have gained happiness as a consequence HU between childbearing and happiness is of moving to a wealthier country, we need to -4

dependent on societal conditions including in happiness (migrants – stayers) Difference 6 consider another possibility: migrants might the presence (or lack) of institutions that -5 BG already have been happier than stayers prior support the combination of childbearing and Bulgaria Czech Croatia Estonia Hungary Poland Russia Slovenia Slovakia Turkey Ukraine to migration for reasons that we cannot paid work. This has potentially important Republic 5.5 observe. Analysis using specialist statistical implications for policymakers, especially 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 techniques (‘treatment effects’ analysis) Direct comparison of migrants to stayers given that countries in which motherhood Human Development Index 2012 (*10) to isolate the ‘true’ effect of the decision Comparison adjusted for observed characteristics is associated with greater happiness also Comparison adjusted for pre-existing differences in happiness Mothers Non-mothers to migrate suggests that this is indeed the tend to be countries in which fertility rates case in many countries. After controlling for Data source: ESS Rounds 1 – 6 (2002/03 – 2012/13). Design weights applied. Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13) and UN Human Development Index (2012). Design weights applied to ESS data. are higher. 18 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 19

Most people around the world tend to countries, such as the Nordic countries, SATISFIED WITH think that democracy is preferable to any where democracy performs better (as DEMOCR ACY, other political regime; and that people live measured by the World Bank’s Worldwide better lives under democratic governments. Governance Indicators), levels of satisfaction SATISFIED However, is this necessarily the case? The with life are higher than in countries where question of whether democratic regimes democracy performs worse (such as Russia WITH LIFE? do in fact result in higher wellbeing for or Ukraine). The correlation between Mónica Ferrín citizens remains contested and there is a average satisfaction with life and democratic University of Zurich, Switzerland need for further evidence. The ESS Round performance is 0.79. 6 (2012/13) module on ‘Europeans’ Understandings and Evaluations of There is also evidence that individuals’ Democracy’ provides a valuable source of satisfaction with life (measured on a 0-10 People are more satisfied with data with which to examine the link between scale) is positively associated with their life in countries where the quality democracy and wellbeing. evaluations of democratic performance. of democracy is high and when Using the ESS Round 6 (2012/13) module Country-level analysis reveals that subjective on democracy we can test the extent to they believe in the legitimacy of wellbeing varies across countries in a similar which individuals’ satisfaction with life varies their democratic regime way to democratic performance. In ESS depending on whether or not they perceive X OT BO BA BALL LLO T B OX Effect of belief in democratic legitimacy on life satisfaction by quality of democracy

8

7.5

7

their political regime to be legitimate, i.e. DID YOU KNOW? weaker relationship between legitimacy 6.5 they evaluate that democratic reality lives beliefs and wellbeing. It may be that in high up to their expectations of what democracy Individuals' satisfaction quality democracies, citizens have become should be. We find a significant positive with life varies depending used to the good functioning of democracy 6 association between perceived democratic on whether or not they and, therefore, their subjective perceptions Satisfaction with life (0-10) legitimacy and satisfaction with life. This as to whether democracy is or is not is the case even after controlling for perceive their political performing quite as well as they would like 5.5 individual characteristics and the economic regime to be legitimate matter less. performance of the country, supporting the 5 idea that it is not only economic performance These findings highlight the importance DID YOU KNOW? 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 which matters for satisfaction. of democratic legitimacy not only in ensuring ESS Round 6 included Perceived democratic legitimacy (0-1) measured by World Bank Indicators). As the the continuation of democratic regimes but The importance of democratic legitimacy figure shows, in countries where democracy also for ensuring citizens’ wellbeing. The a rotating module High quality democracy Medium quality democracy Low quality democracy for wellbeing does, however, appear to performs worst, beliefs that the system is challenge for governments across Europe, vary across countries. Interestingly, the nevertheless legitimate clearly make especially but not only those in low quality on ‘Europeans' Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13). effect of democratic legitimacy beliefs on citizens more satisfied with their lives democracies, is to do everything they can to Understandings and Note: Marginal effect of beliefs in democratic legitimacy (liberal dimension) on satisfaction with life (0-10) based on results of multilevel regression. Quality of democracy measured using Worldwide Governance life satisfaction is stronger the less the whereas in countries where democratic improve democratic performance in line with Evaluations of Democracy’ Indicators (World Bank, 2012). objective democratic quality of a country (as performance is better there is a much people’s expectations. 20 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 21

It is widely acknowledged that a person’s to be lower than average. Regional analysis Strength of the relationship between life satisfaction SUBJECTIVE surroundings and local environmental suggests that the association between LIFE and positive emotions by country WELLBEING conditions can be important determinants pollution levels and wellbeing may be even SATISFACTION, of quality of life. Poor air quality, particularly stronger than previous analysis at national AND THE the presence of the pollutant sulphur level has suggested. EMOTIONS ENVIRONMENT dioxide (SO2), has long been a concern AND CULTURAL for policymakers. We use Geographic The negative association between SO2 levels Finbarr Brereton, J. Peter Clinch Information Systems (GIS) to combine and life satisfaction is robust and remains and Tine Ningal ESS data from Rounds 1 to 3 (2002/03 to apparent even after conducting statistical VALUES University College Dublin, Ireland 2006/07) with data from public air quality modeling to control for other individual Anu Realo, Liisi Kööts-Ausmees database AirBase and produce the first and contextual factors (e.g. economic and Jüri Allik cross-national examination of the association conditions) that may influence wellbeing. University of Tartu, Estonia

There is a significant negative between subjective wellbeing and SO2 levels Some of the negative association between at a sub-national i.e. regional level. SO and wellbeing is no doubt explained by relationship between regional 2 In general people who the fact that higher SO concentrations are concentrations of sulphur 2 Our analysis shows that average life associated with poorer health which in turn experience more positive dioxide (SO2) in the satisfaction in Europe varies not only across is associated with lower life satisfaction. emotions also feel more atmosphere and life countries but also within countries at regional However, SO2 has an additional direct effect satisfied with life. However, satisfaction across Europe level. Similar national and regional differences on subjective wellbeing even after controlling the importance of positive are observed in SO concentrations. for differences in physical health. 2 emotions varies depending Countries with the lowest SO2 concentrations – Norway and Denmark – are also among These findings demonstrate the importance on cultural values the countries with the highest life satisfaction. of studying the effect of the environment on Within countries such as Poland, the areas people’s wider wellbeing and of taking steps At first glance, it appears self-evident

where SO2 concentrations are highest, are to minimise the potential harmful effects of that positive emotions enhance our life also those areas where life satisfaction tends poor environmental conditions. satisfaction, whereas negative emotions bring us down and decrease our satisfaction with life. However, can we be satisfied with life without being happy? The answer may 0-0.14 0.15-0.29 0.30-0.39 0.40-0.49 differ depending on who you are and where you live. People with different cultural values Data source: ESS Round 6 (2012/13). Post-stratification weights applied. may attach different levels of importance to Note: Life satisfaction was predicted by positive affect scales measuring emotional experiences in each of the emotions when determining how satisfied 29 European countries in a series of multiple regression analyses. Darker colours indicate a stronger relationship. they are with life. One factor which may influence the strength in ESS countries which (according to Across European countries, positive of the relationship between emotions and the ) place greater emotions are generally positively associated life satisfaction across countries is the emphasis on survival than in countries with life satisfaction, whereas negative level of socio-economic development. where self-expression is more highly valued. emotions are negatively associated with Analysis suggests that positive emotions Interestingly, however, a lack of negative life satisfaction. However, analysis of data matter less in determining life satisfaction in emotions appears to be equally necessary from ESS Round 6 (2012/13) shows countries which score higher on the Human for being satisfied with life regardless of that the contribution of positive and Development Index. whether countries score high or low in terms negative emotions to life satisfaction varies of survival/self-expression. significantly across countries. Of the 29 Cultural values – specifically the extent to countries that participated in ESS Round 6, which people value survival, i.e. physical and These findings emphasise the importance the relationship between positive emotions economic security over self-expression – of taking a cross-national perspective on and life satisfaction is strongest in Bulgaria, may also be important. Statistical analysis wellbeing and remaining alert to the fact the Czech Republic and Portugal (see shows that life satisfaction tends to be more that the determinants of wellbeing may vary the map). strongly dependent on positive emotions across cultures. 22 www.esswellbeingmatters.org Measuring and Reporting on Europeans' Wellbeing 23

ESS website: which allows unrestricted ESS: LOOKING access to the project’s protocols, methods, BEYOND data and other resources. www.europeansocialsurvey.org WELLBEING

The ESS is a major European research infrastructure with resources to inform academic and policy debate on a range of social, moral and political issues

Seven ESS surveys have now been conducted, carried out every two years since 2002 and addressing the key challenges facing European society in the 21st Century. As well as the promotion of individual and societal wellbeing these include: increased migration, democratic (dis)engagement, changing patterns of work and family life, and pressures on welfare provision. The ESS The website has fuller versions of all of contains data relevant to all these topics Nesstar: an online data analysis tool which WANT TO the contributions summarised in this and many others. The survey’s rigorous can be used to explore ESS data publication and offers the opportunity methodological standards and emphasis KNOW MORE? on knowledge transfer have helped to ESS multilevel Data: combines data from to explore the findings in more detail via place it at the forefront of quantitative ESS respondents with national and regional interactive charts and tables of results. social measurement and make it a valuable level data from sources such as OECD, You can explore ESS findings on The site also has “Find out more” sections resource to inform social policy at both a Edunet: an online training resource using WHO and Eurostat to make it easier for providing background on the different national and European level. ESS data to guide students through the researchers to explore how contextual factors analysis of large-scale cross-national data might influence attitudes and behaviour wellbeing in more detail by going theoretical and methodological approaches Information on the survey’s coverage, covered and suggestions for further reading methodology and findings are readily to our interactive website: on different aspects of wellbeing to be available through a range of channels: www.esswellbeingmatters.org explored using ESS data.

ESSTopline Results Series: accessible short reports of findings on topics such as welfare, trust in justice, work and family, attitudes to democracy, and personal and social wellbeing ESS Findings: compendiums of ESS Policy Seminar Series: specialist published research on a range of topics seminars bringing together leading academics using ESS data from the first three rounds and policymakers to discuss how ESS data and the first five rounds of the ESS can inform debate on the key social and WELLBEING MATTERS MEASURING WELLBEING DIMENSIONS OF WELLBEING DRIVERS OF WELLBEING economic challenges facing Europe

24 www.esswellbeingmatters.org

A SUCCESSFUL Go online to find out more: EUROPEAN COLLABORATION www.esswellbeingmatters.org

The research highlighted in this booklet paints a vivid picture of the subjective wellbeing of citizens in Europe and the key drivers thereof. During a period of economic and political challenge it is especially important to identify patterns and trends in wellbeing and to evaluate the usefulness of this concept as a barometer for evaluating society. The ESS provides high quality data to support this illumination of Europeans' wellbeing. Further, the ESS also covers a range of other topics (including democracy, immigration, welfare, energy and the environment, health inequalities and institutional trust) to support academically rigorous analysis of the grand societal challenges facing Europe in the 21st Century.

It is therefore reassuring that over 80,000 people from across the world have chosen to register at the ESS website to access its detailed data or protocols. Equally significant is the growing number of publications, already numbering over 3,000, in the form of articles, books and other manuscripts that use ESS data. In addition to this output, the ESS continues to exert its influence on cross-national methodology by championing the most rigorous standards in survey design and .

None of this would have been possible without the hard work and dedication of Our biggest debt, however, is to the over hundreds of researchers right across the 300,000 respondents across Europe who European Research Area (ERA). Within have devoted around an hour of their time to the ESS itself, the Core Scientific Team share their views with trained interviewers. (CST) has driven the project academically, Continued public participation in social supported by excellent advice from both its surveys is essential in order to produce Scientific Advisory and Methods Advisory data that can lead to better policy – and a Boards. Meanwhile a series of National better Europe. Coordination teams has excelled at the task of implementing the demanding ESS Rory Fitzgerald, ESS ERIC Director, specification within their countries. City University London, 2015 FIND OUT MORE ABOUT THE ESS The European Social Survey is a European Research Infrastructure Consortium (ESS ERIC) that provides rigorous cross-national data about public attitudes and behaviour over time. Since 2002 the survey has been carried out in over 30 European countries. See www.europeansocialsurvey.org for further information. This booklet presents findings on subjective wellbeing using data from the first six rounds of the ESS. Visit www.esswellbeingmatters.org to find out more. This booklet should be cited as follows: European Social Survey (2015) Measuring and Reporting on Europeans’ Wellbeing: Findings from the European Social Survey. London: ESS ERIC.

Contents Informing the debate about Europeans' wellbeing Gender inequalities and depression Measuring subjective wellbeing in the ESS Does parenthood bring happiness? ESS participating countries Migrating to find happiness? Wellbeing matters Satisfied with democracy, satisfied with life? Dimensions of wellbeing Subjective wellbeing and the environment Happy and flourishing? Life satisfaction, emotions and cultural values Wellbeing: A multidimensional concept Want to know more? What is a decent society? ESS: Looking beyond wellbeing Drivers of wellbeing A successful European collaboration Work-life balance across Europe

This booklet was produced with the support of the ESS ERIC Work Programme 2013-2015. The ESS ERIC is not liable for any use that is made of the information contained in this booklet.

June 2015 Designed and produced by Blackwood Creative Ltd www.weareblackwood.com