EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS MAPPING THE FIELD

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Creative Associates International, Inc. MARCH 2006 Since the time of publication, USAID has conducted research, revised policies, and developed new strategic plans to support education in crisis settings through the implementation of the framework presented in the USAID 2005 Fragile States White Paper.

Readers are encouraged to visit USAID’s web site, http://www.usaid.gov/policy/policy_framework_jan06.html for updated data on USAID’s approach to this topic.

PREPARED BY: Dana Burde, Ph.D. Saltzman Institute of War and Peace Studies & Program on Forced Migration and Health Columbia University New York, NY 10027

Creative Associates International, Inc. The Basic Education and Policy Support (BEPS) Activity Contract No. HNE-1-00-00-0038-00

PREPARED FOR: United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

PHOTO CREDIT: Photo by Ms. Francoise Beukes. Children at a temporary school in Baghlan Province Afghanistan.

2005 The author's views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS MAPPING THE FIELD

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) provided funding for this paper via the Basic Education and Policy Support (BEPS) Activity. The opinions and observations expressed in this document are those of the author. They are not necessarily the views of the United States Government or the United States Agency for International Development.

The author wishes to thank committed colleagues from international agencies who generously shared documents and/or provided their time to discuss various aspects of the issues described in this paper: Pilar Aguilar, UNICEF; Allison Anderson, INEE; Lynne Bethke, InterWorks; Peter Buckland,World Bank; Frank Dall, CAII; Mitch Kirby, USAID; Eldrid Middtun, Norwegian Refugee Council; Susan Nicolai, Save the Children/UK; Pamela Shifman, UNICEF; Margaret Sinclair, Consultant; Christopher Talbot, UNESCO/IIEP; Sohbi Tawil, UNESCO, IBE; Carl Triplehorn, Save the Children/US; and Rebecca Winthrop, International Rescue Committee.

Thanks also to Don Graybill, BEPS project Director; Margaret McLaughlin, Senior Education Advisor; and Vicky Frantz, Management Associate at Creative Associates International for their ongoing interest, support, and valuable comments on earlier versions of this document.

Additional thanks to Sherrill Stroschein and Denis Moynihan for their feedback.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -iii­

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Overview 1 Methods 3

II. STATE OF THE FIELD 5 Defining Crisis, Education, and Affected Populations 5 Overview of the Problem: Effects of Crises 7 Development of the Field 9 Actors Involved in the Field 12

III. SAMPLE APPROACHES 17 Goal #1: Promoting Transformational Development 19 Goal #2: Strengthening Fragile States 20 Goal #3: Providing Humanitarian Relief 21 Goal #4: Supporting Geostrategic Interests 22 Goal #5: Mitigating Global and Transnational Ills 23 Resources and Reference Materials 23 Minimum Standards 24

IV. DEBATES, GAPS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH 25

Relationship Between Education and Conflict 25 Relationship Between Education and Protection 25 Difference Between Education in Crisis and Education in Development 26

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -v­

Role of the State in Education in Crisis 26 Emphasis on Community Participation 26 Coordination 27 Program Implementation 27

V. RECOMMENDATIONS 31

General Recommendations 31 Recommendations to USAID 32 Recommendations to International Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) 32 Recommendations to National Governments 32

APPENDIXES 33

APPENDIX A: Selected Interviews 35 APPENDIX B: References 37 APPENDIX C: INEE Working Group on Minimum Standards on Education in Emergencies 45 APPENDIX D: Affected Populations 47 APPENDIX E: Key UN Agreements Outlining Children’s Right to Education 49

APPENDIX F: USAID Offices’ Involvement in Education in Crisis Situations 51 APPENDIX G: USAID Organizational Charts: 1) DCHA and 2) USAID Agency-wide 53 APPENDIX H: Selected Websites 55 APPENDIX I: UNESCO Involvement in Education in Crisis 57 APPENDIX J: Peace Education 59

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -vii­

I. INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW and strengthen education systems, defense and diplomacy form the and provide quality education to three pillars of the US he start of the new millennium children everywhere sits at the cen­ Government’s (USG) 2002 National Tcoincided with a renewed focus ter of this discussion. Security Strategy. The strategy calls on international development, crisis, for “including the world’s poor in an Multilateral and bilateral agencies and education. Integrated global expanding circle of development— involved in setting international communications and markets, and opportunity” by doubling the development policies have highlight­ increased awareness of violence size of the poorest economies with­ ed the role of education in develop­ from non-state actors, and the surge in a decade (USG, 2002, p. 21). It ment. At the United Nations in infection and death rates from stresses that increasing the number Millennium Summit in September HIV/AIDS have drawn attention to of children receiving a quality educa­ 2000, world leaders adopted the development in a way that has not tion is one of the most important Millennium Development Goals been seen since the end of World indicators to use to measure (MDGs) that place development at War II (Natsios, 2004). From mass- progress toward this goal. the top of the world agenda and set mobilized movements to closed- Furthermore, based on the belief forth eight key goals to “significantly door meetings, citizens and leaders that ignorance and poverty may be improve the human condition” around the world have challenged, two reasons youth are drawn to (Millennium Project, n.d.). A call to questioned, or reinvigorated devel­ pursue radical ideologies, the US ensure that by the year 2015, all opment goals and progress. Many Government argues that aid is criti­ boys and girls worldwide will be have called for enhancing develop­ cal in “fragile but friendly Muslim able to complete a full course of ment gains by addressing political, nations” such as Pakistan ($600 mil­ primary schooling, defined as the economic, and health crises more lion), Afghanistan ($297 million), and first five years of formal education, explicitly and deliberately as a com­ Jordan ($250 million) (New York ranks second on this list of MDGs. ponent of foreign assistance Times, October 12, 2003).1 (UNICEF, 2004; USAID/Conflict Significantly, in keeping with the Management and Mitigation [CMM], Although support for education has MDGs, development together with 2004). The need to protect, rebuild, been provided as part of foreign

1 Aid figures are from October 2003.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -1­ assistance since the Bretton Woods of foreign assistance (USAID, tional policy, and planning activities institutions (World Bank, January 2004).2 According to to provide technical assistance to International Monetary Fund) were USAID, foreign aid should focus on USAID. BEPS has initiated educa­ created, most bilateral donors did more than humanitarian and devel­ tion activities in countries experi­ not articulate support for education opment goals. A USAID white encing crises, including: Afghanistan, in crisis as a deliberate policy inter­ paper on foreign assistance for frag­ Burundi, Democratic Republic of vention, separate from education for ile states (January 2004) outlines five Congo, Nepal, Somalia, Sierra development, until recently, and core operational goals to reorient Leone, Uganda, and Zambia. It has some have not yet done so. Yet, the agency: contributed to large-scale education crises present enormous obstacles interventions and assisted countries promoting transformational to achieving Education for All (EFA) with transitions toward stability and development, and the MDGs (World Bank, 2005). reconstruction.3 Nearly 60 percent of the countries strengthening fragile states, When BEPS activities began,“educa­ where USAID operates are current­ tion in crisis situations” was a loosely ly experiencing conflict providing humanitarian relief, defined field with international (USAID/CMM, 2004). Prior to the supporting US geostrategic organizations providing a patchwork 1990s, however, most donor and interests, and assortment of services. Since then, multinational agencies maintained nongovernmental organizations separate operations that responded mitigating global and transna­ (NGOs), multinational agencies, and to humanitarian crises without tional ills” (p. 5), other stakeholders have started to including education activities in with education as a component of reorganize the field and, simultane­ these emergency responses. each (Atherton, February 25, 2004, ously, USAID has given greater Education services that were deliv­ p. 29). attention to education programs in ered in refugee camps maintained crisis situations. Research has by international agencies—for The April 2005 USAID Education described and highlighted the example, in Vietnam, the Occupied Strategy, Improving Lives Through impact of crises on education, and in Palestinian Territories, and Learning now leads the Agency in its turn, generated numerous debates Guatemala—were an exception to support of education in crisis set­ regarding the types of circumstances this pattern, but these interventions tings. Following this effort, the draft that warrant external intervention, were not institutionalized under a USAID Fragile States Education the quality and type of education to broad education policy to respond Strategy for Africa specifically states, be provided, when, where, for to crises. “The importance of education in whom, and by whom. The potential fragile states cannot be overestimat­ Given the changing global environ­ role of education in ameliorating (or ed: education changes behavior” ment and the emphasis placed on perpetuating) crisis, in protecting (USAID Education Strategy, April development as an element of children from exploitation, and in 2005, p. 3). national security, the United States investing in their prospects for the Agency for International Since 2000, the Basic Education and future has touched off a surge in Development (USAID) has started Policy Support (BEPS) Activity has interest among donor and aid agen­ to rethink the role and effectiveness carried out basic education, educa­ cies. Yet, concentrating on how to

2 For a complex review of these issues, see also: Foreign Aid in the National Interest: Promoting Freedom, Security, and Opportunity. USAID 2002. Available: http://www.usaid.gov/fani/. 3 See BEPS http://www.beps.net/crisis_situation/crisis_index.htm for a full list of publications relating to education in crisis situations.

-2- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT fix a problem, while critical and nec- A key recommendation is that edu- METHODS essary, must be done in concert with cation in emergencies be seen, and inquiries into how the problem is planned from day one, as part of th e The material presented here was defined, how it arose in the first development process and not solely gathered from July to December place, and what confounding socio­ as a ‘relief’ effort. Donors should 2004 using both open source political and economic factors per­ avoid compartmentalization of fund-­ research tools (i.e., internet and petuate it. ing that can have the effect of creat-­ we0bsite search engines) and aca­ ing an uneducated and bitter, demic databases. Policy documents Given this critical mass of converging revenge-oriented generation, and research studies were collected interests, the following study surveys because education in emergencies from websites of various agencies, the field, articulates current debates, was seen as the last call on inade-­ including USAID and the USAID documents the program growth of quate ‘humanitarian’ budgets (or Development Experience recent years, and offers recommen­ excluded from them). Moreover, Clearinghouse, US State dations for further study. Based on restoration of access to schooling in Department, US Department of the work of other scholar-practition­ a post conflict situation should be Labor, the Inter-Agency Network for ers and the author’s own experience seen as a funding priority (Bensalah, Education in Emergencies (INEE), (e.g., Bethke, 2004; Burde, 1999; et. al., 2000). United Nations Children’s Fund Miller & Affolter, eds., 2002; Nelles, (UNICEF), UNESCO—the Institute ed., 2004; Nicolai & Triplehorn, 2003; Support for this recommendation is of International Educational Planning Sinclair, 2001; 2002; 2004; Sommers, presented in this paper’s four sec­ (IIEP) and the International Bureau 2002; Smith & Vaux, 2003;Talbot, tions. The first section presents the of Education (IBE), the Overseas 2003;Tawil & Harley, eds., 2004; state of the field: definitions of terms, Development Institute, the World Bank, 2005), it describes an overview of the problems facing Development Gateway, the Eldis some of the practical and theoretical populations affected by crisis, and Gateway to Development dilemmas facing program managers, the actors involved. The second sec­ Information, and the World Bank policy-makers, donors, and academ­ tion describes institutions and their (WB), and from academic books and ics. In doing so, this paper is meant mandates, focusing heavily on journals in international relations and to provide USAID staff and stake­ USAID, and highlights sample pro­ comparative and international edu­ holders with an accessible overview, grams. The third section surveys cation. Select program documents analytical framework, and reference gaps in program implementation and were also included from internation­ document that explains the breadth suggestions for future research. The al nongovernmental organizations and depth of education in crisis last section summarizes the survey’s (e.g., Academy for Educational within the context of foreign assis­ findings and recommends future Development, CARE, Catholic Relief tance. research areas. To avoid duplication Services, Christian Children’s Fund, of effort, experts interviewed for Creative Associates International, The following recommendation from this paper are listed in Appendix A Inc., International Rescue the United Nations Educational, and an extensive list of references is Committee, Jesuit Refugee Service, Scientific, and Cultural Organization included in Appendix B. Norwegian Refugee Council, Save (UNESCO) highlights the survey’s the Children Alliance/UK/US, findings:

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -3­ Women’s Commission for Refugee tions have been adapted to provide lenging to gather data for a survey Women and Children) that are on more information for the reader. of this type. Often data is lost when the forefront of practical changes in The footnotes listed throughout the a short-term program grant ends. international efforts to administer paper often provide a web address In addition, organizations that identi­ education in crisis situations. This for easy access, and/or, the name of fy their education work within a written material was complemented a study. The complete citation is development framework, rather by interviews with several practi­ generally not listed in the footnote, than as part of humanitarian aid tioners and policy makers. See but all complete citations (including may not have their programs count­ Appendix A for list of interviews sources cited in footnotes) are listed ed among education in crisis or with key informants and Appendix B in the reference section (Appendix emergencies projects. for a complete list of references. A and B). In the collaborative spirit of the A note about the notes: Sources Because of the often short-term INEE, the author hopes that col­ are cited according to American nature of education in crisis pro­ leagues will comment on the ideas Psychological Association (APA) grams, and because of differing defi­ presented here, continuing the dis­ style, although some internet cita­ nitions of these programs, it is chal­ cussion on-line and in other venues.

-4- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT II. STATE OF THE FIELD

his section begins with defini­ respond appropriately and in a First, the Agency uses crisis to refer tions of crisis, education, and timely way to potential educational to a broad range of circumstances in Taffected populations, followed needs; and, conversely, the lack of a which children’s access to education by a brief overview of the problem, definition leads to the potentially is in jeopardy. These circumstances i.e., the impact of four kinds of crises damaging omission of education as fall under the following four cate­ (political, economic, environmental, part of a systematic response to gories: political, economic, health, health) on children’s access to quali­ crises. That said, existing definitions and environmental. Political crises ty education and the systems of vary in their description both of cri­ include social unrest and violent delivery. It then looks at the actors sis and of education. The following conflict; economic crises encompass involved in the field of education in section will describe USAID’s salient severe poverty that manifests in a crisis situations, and concludes with definitions for each element—crisis significant percentage of school–age a brief description of the history of and education—situating them with­ children living on the streets, or the field, highlighting three historical in the context established by other being exploited as child laborers; conceptual approaches—develop­ key international players in deliver­ health crises include epidemics such ment, humanitarian,4 and human ing humanitarian and development as HIV/AIDs; and environmental or rights—and their influence on assistance. natural disasters include hurricanes, administering education in crisis pro­ earthquakes, droughts, and volcanic WHAT IS CRISIS? grams. eruptions (Harwood & Anis, unpub­ lished, 2001). DEFINING CRISIS, The difficulty in defining “crisis” is part of a larger conceptual problem EDUCATION, AND Second, USAID refers to crisis along with maintaining a distinction AFFECTED a continuum of four different capaci­ between relief and development POPULATIONS ties of governance and correspon­ assistance. This conceptual issue will ding phases for educational activities: Outlining a clear definition of educa­ be addressed in more detail below. (1) no government and education tion in crisis situations is a necessary In brief, USAID currently uses three emergencies, (2) interim govern­ step toward developing a policy to definitions of “crisis.”

4The word "humanitarian" can be ambiguous, referring sometimes to all relief and development activities. In this study, it is used in the narrower sense, to refer explicitly to relief or emergency assistance.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -5­ ment and recovery, (3) new govern­ ural disasters on affected popula­ delivered during these times and ment and rehabilitation, and (4) tions.5 Still these agencies’ positions under these conditions are meant to established government and recon­ raise nettlesome questions about support simultaneously children’s struction. Stated more simply, this what constitutes a crisis, or emer­ cognitive and emotional develop­ continuum includes emergency, gency, and when it becomes urgent. ment, while including additional edu­ recovery, rehabilitation, and recon­ Broad humanitarian aid responses cational content relevant to the cri­ struction (Miller & Affolter, 2002, pp. attempt to address this problem of sis circumstances. It is certain 123-128). Because government usu­ priorities by relying on clearly articu­ aspects of program implementation ally remains intact during epidemics lated disaster mortality thresholds, (e.g., rapid training of paraprofes­ and natural disasters, this description but this technique has its own incon­ sional teachers, physical protection of stages during crisis refers primarily sistencies and debates. For example, for program staff, packaged material to conditions related to political the crisis in Kosovo never reached resources) and the new subjects crises when the state has failed, or is this threshold, while the crisis indica­ related to protection and security beginning to reemerge. tors in Darfur in October 2004 (e.g., land mine awareness, life skills were several times higher.6 to prevent HIV infection) that A third USAID definition limits a cri­ change or are added to the funda­ sis to a set of conditions that lead to WHAT IS EDUCATION? mental content during an emergency an inability of a population to meet Defining “education” in the phrase (Burde, Spring 2004).7 its basic needs, usually described as “education in crisis” is almost equally shelter, water, health, and nutrition. The lack of consistency in defining fraught with difficulties. The central This definition is employed by education programs in crisis con­ conceptual question is whether USAID’s Office of US Foreign tributed to the absence of program there are distinguishing characteris­ Disaster Assistance (OFDA) (OFDA, standards and was one reason for tics between education in crises and September 2004). When the defini­ the exclusion of education as a com­ education in peaceful developing tion of crisis is limited to impacting ponent among other humanitarian countries. The Save the Children basic needs, education is usually interventions that were included in Alliance says “Education for children omitted from the emergency the Sphere Project (Anderson, affected by emergencies” is “educa­ response. August 2004, Interview).8 The work tion that protects the well-being, fos­ of the InterAgency Network for Similar to the USAID continuum ters learning opportunities, and nur­ Education in Emergencies (INEE) to definition listed above, most interna­ tures the overall developments establish Minimum Standards on tional agencies use the term “emer­ (social, economic, cognitive, and Education in Emergencies is an gencies” and “chronic crises” to refer physical), of children affected by con­ effort to address this gap and is to the impact of various stages of flicts and disasters” (cited in Sinclair, hoped to ensure a minimum level of conflict, transition, recovery, and nat­ 2002, p. 23). Education services quality and access.9 See Appendix C

5This distinction is beginning to change. In UNICEF’s State of the World’s Children 2005, the report defines three threats: poverty, armed conflict, and HIV/AIDS. 6The “Crude Mortality Rate” (CMR) that is usually used to define a humanitarian crisis is one death per 10,000 people per day. For perspective, the CMR in North Darfur in September 2004 was 1.5 deaths per 10,000 people per day; in West Darfur it was 2.9 deaths per 10,000 people per day (WHO, Sept. 2004). The aver­ age crude mortality rate in peaceful Sub-Saharan Africa, including countries affected by the AIDS epidemic, is approximately .5 people per 10,000 per day. But rely­ ing on the CMR is a “trailing indicator”—some consider it the public health equivalent of assessing a community through autopsies (Martone, personal communica­ tion, 2004). 7 For definitions, see also Nicolai (2003) p. 11 and Triplehorn (2001) p. 3. 8 A group of international humanitarian organizations launched the Sphere Project in 1997 to establish a minimum standard of humanitarian assistance to which all people have a right, along with a set of indicators to help quantify and monitor the provision of services to guarantee this right. Although some Sphere Project committee members viewed favorably the idea of including education, the chapter was already closed for revision. For more information see: http://www.sphere­ project.org/. 9 See section IV Sample Programs, below, for a discussion of the INEE minimum standards. -6- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT for a discussion of the INEE mini­ fragile states are characterized by diers, street children, people living mum standards. the failure to provide public goods with HIV/AIDS, and orphans and such as education and health care, children made vulnerable by In keeping with USAID’s new, com­ and an inability to resolve conflict HIV/AIDS. These categories of tar­ prehensive approach to develop­ nonviolently (Center for Institutional geted populations are also impor­ ment assistance for fragile states and Reform and the Informal Sector tant because, in some cases (e.g. conflict affected regions, and consis­ [IRIS], n.d.).Typically, fragile states are refugees), labels connote legal status tent with the five goals outlined in also associated with high levels of with particular rights granted to its January 2005 white paper on for­ bureaucratic incompetence as well individuals who acquire this status. eign assistance for fragile states, this as increased crime and violence that paper will use a broad definition of Among conflict-affected populations, cause government institutions to crisis—political, economic, health, stayees, followed by IDPs, tend to lose their legitimacy. In fragile states and environmental—in order to be the most under-served groups the government is weak but intact. survey the education components because they are harder to reach In contrast, in failed or collapsed that may be included in each of the even if funding is available to assist states, the government is divided, or five goals. Among these goals, cur­ them. Often IDPs choose to blend dissolved, and unlikely to maintain rently education is a standard ele­ into their new region, and, depend­ control over its territory.These fea­ ment in “promoting transformation­ ing on political tensions, govern­ tures are the outcomes of failure, al development” and often in “miti­ ments may be reluctant to allow aid not the fundamental sources of the gating global and transnational ills” agencies access to groups displaced failure (IRIS, n.d.). such as HIV/AIDS. Education pro­ within their borders (e.g., IDP grams funded by USAID have WHO ARE THE AFFECTED camps in Azerbaijan).10 played less of a systematic role in POPULATIONS? For a list of these selected cate­ “strengthening fragile states” and In addition to dividing work accord­ gories used by international agen­ “supporting US geostrategic inter­ ing to definitions of crisis and edu­ cies to describe affected popula­ ests,” although as noted above, cation, international agencies often tions, see Appendix D. these efforts are increasing. In “pro­ organize their work according to viding humanitarian relief,” support “targeted” or “affected” populations. OVERVIEW OF THE to education has only been included Some of the more common terms PROBLEM: EFFECTS on an ad hoc basis and typically not used by international agencies (bilat­ OF CRISES during the first 60 days of an emer­ erals, multilaterals, and NGOs) to gency. Applying the first definition of crisis identify vulnerable people and to outlined above, this sub-section Because fragile states figure into provide assistance are refugees, gives a brief overview of the impact USAID’s goals prominently, and into internally displaced people (IDPs), of the four categories of crises on the analysis presented in the white civilians caught in a conflict (“stay­ children’s access to quality educa­ paper, it is important to discuss ees”), returnees, displaced children tion and the systems of delivery. them here briefly. Although there is and orphans, victims of sexual and For a more detailed analysis and dis­ no single definition among scholars gender based violence (SGBV), cussion of the relationship between and practitioners, most agree that youth and adolescents, child sol­ each crisis listed here and its impact

10 In Azerbaijan, for several years after the Azerbaijani population was displaced from the west and southwest area of the country, the government was reluctant to provide services to these groups. It feared that in doing so it would give tacit consent to Armenia's territorial gains and, therefore, have more difficulty later recovering land that it lost in the conflict. There are approximately 600,000 IDPs living in Azerbaijan, and although a cease fire was signed ten years ago, there is still no peace agreement between the two countries (Global IDP Database, May 1, 2003).

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -7­ on education, please consult the ref­ tion may play in creating hostility, over 30 percent of people between erences provided in Appendix B. and its potential role in reducing it the ages of 15 and 49 are infected (Brown, 1999;Tawil, 2004;World with HIV/AIDS, the loss of person­ POLITICAL CRISES Bank, 2005). nel—in addition to the loss of par­ Violent conflict disrupts children’s ents and caregivers—has decimated ECONOMIC CRISES access to quality education in multi­ education systems. ple ways. In approximately 80 A study of 43 developing countries A USAID-funded education pro­ countries around the world, children recorded that,“on average, children gram in Zambia highlights the strain live with unexploded ordnance and of families in the bottom wealth HIV/AIDS has on the education sys­ land mines (Machel, 2001). Roughly quintile of the population are more tem. Through its efforts, teachers 20 million children were displaced than twice as likely to die before are encouraged to be tested for from their homes in the 1990s; cur­ reaching the age of five than chil­ HIV. If they are found to be HIV rently, 40 million people in the dren living in families in the top positive they are assisted with the world are displaced, one-third of quintile” (Minujin & Delamonica process of securing publicly-funded them beyond the borders of their cited in UNICEF, 2004, p. 27). treatment. Of the teachers tested as countries (UNICEF, 2004). In just Desperate economic circumstances part of the program, an average of ten countries recently surveyed, push parents and children to take 25 percent have tested HIV positive over 27 million refugee and internal­ drastic measures such as employing (Graybill, personal communication, ly displaced children and youth children in economic activity or sell­ 2004). affected by armed conflict do not ing children into various forms of have access to formal education bonded labor. UNICEF notes that ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES (Bethke, 2004, p. iii).11 UNESCO’s 1.2 million children are trafficked Although natural disasters can strike Education for All Global Monitoring annually for sex and labor, many of anywhere, upwards of 90 percent of Report for 2003-2004 estimated whom are sold by parents (Shifman, people affected by natural disas­ that half of the 104 million children personal communication, 2004; ters—earthquakes, floods, hurri­ out of school globally live in coun­ UNICEF, 2004). canes, landslides, tsunamis, and volca­ tries affected by or recovering from HEALTH CRISES noes—live in countries least able to conflict. Teachers and educational cope financially and administratively administrators are often victims of The HIV infection rate in African, with these events (CIDA, n.d.). violence, and school buildings may Caribbean, and Pacific countries is Natural disasters can span borders, serve as terror targets, soldiers’ bar­ the most glaring example of a devastating already weak school sys­ racks, or sites of war crimes. In transnational pandemic that disrupts tems and housing stock throughout Mozambique, for example, approxi­ education systems, creating a crisis a region. For example, in Aceh, mately 45 percent of primary and requiring urgent attention. Indonesia, officials reported within a schools were destroyed during the More than 13.2 million children in few weeks of the 2004 tsunami that war (Machel, 2001). the world have lost one or both 1,000 teachers were missing and at parents to AIDS, and 80 percent of It is important to note that different least 50 percent of schools were these children live in Sub-Saharan types of conflict—ideological-, iden­ destroyed, leaving 140,000 elemen­ Africa (Global Information Network, tity-, or resource-based—have dif­ tary and 20,000 junior-high students May 12, 2004; Los Angeles Times, ferent implications for education sys­ with nowhere to study. The tsunami July 12, 2004). In countries where tems, both in the role that educa­ damaged or destroyed 112 schools

11 The ten countries surveyed in the report are: Sudan, Afghanistan, Occupied Palestinian Territories, Colombia, Angola, Congo, Iraq, Burma, Burundi, and Uganda. See table 2 on page 9 of the survey for more information.

-8- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT in Sri Lanka; refugees occupied posed of properly. Examples abound 2002, p. 24). And of this group, 80 another 244 schools (Basic from current literature on the Asia percent are women and children Education Coalition, cited in World Tsunami relief and reconstruction (UNICEF, 2004). Bank/Youthink, 2005). In 1998, hun­ efforts. dreds of schools in Central America DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARING THE IMPACT were damaged by Hurricane Mitch THE FIELD OF CONFLICT AND and many others were converted Despite the devastating statistics NATURAL DISASTERS into shelters. cited above and the numerous pop­ According to USAID (2002), natural ulations affected by crisis, humanitar­ Each of these crises individually pre­ disasters are “statistically less lethal” ian relief and development agencies vents children’s access to quality than conflict-related emergencies, have been slow to incorporate edu­ education, but none of the crises causing one-third the number of cation into their emergency described above should be viewed deaths. However, in the 1990s nat­ responses. From the 1960s until in isolation. Often one follows in ural disasters affected seven times the 1980s, the system of foreign the wake of another. For example, the number of people as did con­ assistance was divided between reported incidences of child traffick­ flict. In addition, natural disasters relief and development. Beginning ing rose shortly after the 2004 are on the rise, occurring three in the 1990s, international agencies tsunami struck. And, countries that times as often in the 1990s as they started relying on the “relief to have experienced conflict once are did in the 1960s (USAID, 2002, p. development continuum” concept at a greater risk of experiencing it 24). that was meant to bridge the gap again (World Bank, 2005). In addi­ between the two types of efforts. tion, children are not simply “at risk” Confusion arises regarding the Yet, agencies were still largely spe­ of exploitation during war and vio­ deadliness of armed conflict cialized, constrained by mandates, lent conflict; they are also increasing­ because, although the total number money, and different understandings ly perceived as “the risk.”12 With the of violent conflicts in the world has of priorities (Smillie, 2000).15 In the advent of light weaponry, the role of decreased since the mid-1990s, the continuum, education was consid­ child soldiers in conflicts moved number of intrastate conflicts has ered a “development activity,” and from ancillary to primary and incor­ increased dramatically, and the per­ therefore excluded from humanitar­ porating children into warfare has centage of civilians affected by ian response to crises. emerged as a new military tactic armed conflict has skyrocketed.14 To (Singer, 2001).13 Furthermore, natu­ illustrate, in the wars through most Several initiatives and documents in ral disasters are frequently paired of the 19th and 20th centuries the 1990s started to move interna­ with drastic economic decline as roughly 10 percent of casualties tional agencies toward giving more well as various health-related were civilian; in the intrastate wars systematic attention to the impact impacts, e.g., clean water is contami­ of the last decade, 90 percent of of crisis, particularly armed conflict, nated and increased levels of the casualties are civilian (USAID, on education and, vice-versa, the garbage and sewer cannot be dis­

12 For an interesting discussion of perceptions of children and childhood, see Stephens (1996) on street children in Brazil. 13 The use of child soldiers as a military tactic has been linked directly to the creation and proliferation of arms that are light enough for children to carry, i.e., the Kalashnikov and AK-47 (Singer, 2002). 14 The number of violent conflicts in the world has actually decreased since the mid-1990s (Gleditsch, et. al., 2002; Marshall & Gurr, 2003; Project Ploughshares, 2004). According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Project, armed conflict is defined as "a contested incompatibility that concerns government or territory or both where the use of armed force between two parties results in at least 25 battle-related deaths [per year]. Of these two parties, at least one is the government of a state" (cited in Tusicisny, 2004, p. 488). 15 For a compelling discussion of this paradigm, see Ian Smillie, (2000) "Relief and development: Disjuncture and dissonance," in D. Lewis & T. Wallace (eds.), New roles and relevance: Development NGOs and the challenge of change. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. pp. 17-28.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -9­ need for education to mitigate that ventions continue to shape the field ment officials, but does not impact. For example, a group of rep­ of education in crisis situations: emphasize building these rela­ resentatives from NGOs established tionships with state institutions.18 The development approach: a working group on rapid education, The humanitarian approach was advocated by most educators Graca Machel completed her study, implemented among educators and supported by international The Impact of War on Children, in order to ensure that educa­ frameworks and policies (e.g., and the Norwegian Refugee Council tion be included in the context Bensalah, et. al., 2000). This launched its campaign to include of humanitarian relief at a time approach views a crisis as imme­ education—in addition to food, when most international agen­ diately holding back develop­ shelter, and health care—in humani­ cies viewed education as an ment potential, recognizes that tarian response. Adding momen­ unnecessary component, beyond education is a long-term social tum, the Oslo/Hadeland Conference the scope of humanitarian serv­ investment, and justifies this in 1998 proposed a “Declaration on ice delivery. To overcome these intervention to prevent “back­ Principles of Education in obstacles, education was pre­ ward development,”17 to pro­ Emergencies and Difficult sented as a commodity to be mote stability, and to rebuild a Circumstances,” and the Global delivered rapidly, on a large country. Concretely, this Information Networks in Education scale, similar to any other type approach emphasizes education­ (GINIE) was created to link educa­ of assistance provided to a cri­ al content, community participa­ tors working in countries in crisis sis-affected population (Save the tion, and collaboration with gov­ and transition (Nicolai & Triplehorn, Children Alliance/US, 1996).This ernment officials immediately or 2003).16 Simultaneously, many edu­ view has been slow to change, as soon as possible, and it starts cation advisors in many international and is linked closely to the relief- program activities with an eye agencies advocated loudly for edu­ to-development-continuum par­ toward sustainability and transi­ cation services to be included in adigm. tion. humanitarian aid packages adminis­ The human rights approach: tered by international agencies, The humanitarian approach: emphasizes the importance of along with water and food, shelter, views an emergency as a tem­ education as a human right and and medical treatment (Aguilar & porary set of circumstances for employs it as a key ingredient in Retamal, 1998; Machel, 2001; Save which education services and peace building strategies. It the Children Alliance, 1996; Sinclair, structures can be employed to views crises, or underdevelop­ 2001). This culminated in 2000 with provide immediate protection to ment in any country as potential the establishment of the INEE at the children and prevent human obstacles to children’s right to Interagency Consultation on rights violations. Concretely, this receive education, and it uses Education in Situations of approach emphasizes safe education to cultivate active citi­ Emergency and Crisis. spaces, educational activities as a zenship, tolerance, and peace stop-gap measure until regular Reflecting this history and these building at any stage of relief or services can resume, and com­ international agencies’ traditional development in industrialized, munity participation as a practi­ and evolving views of foreign assis­ underdeveloped, or conflict-rid­ cal way to deliver and manage tance, the following three conceptu­ den countries alike. According to services. This approach may al approaches to education inter­ this approach, cultural (or other) include working with govern­

16 See: http://www.nrc.no/pub/protection for the full conference report from Oslo; and GINIE: http://www.ginie.org/. 17 Backward development refers to social gains lost as a result of conflict. The World Bank refers to conflict as "development in reverse," see World Bank (2003), Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy. Washington DC: Oxford University Press/World Bank. 18 In the total breakdown of a state, or in a refugee camp, these institutions are not functioning, or not available.

-10- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT contexts always influence educa­ In addition to the World Bank’s ensuring that they are physical­ tional content, but education per recognition of the need for integrat­ ly counted (Aguilar & Retamal, se is not defined by these differ­ ed approaches, several additional 1998; Nicolai & Triplehorn, ences. See Appendix E for a list sources have exerted pressure to 2003; Sinclair, 2002). of core human rights instru­ include delivery of education servic­ Networks such as INEE have ments. es in all forms of crises: raised the profile of education These three approaches—develop­ Crisis-affected populations problems and responses in cri­ ment, humanitarian, and human have continually voiced a sis situations and have begun rights—persist because each one demand for education to the to unify the field. INEE coordi­ has merit in organizing and deliver­ humanitarian aid providers nated an effort to establish ing foreign assistance. Many agencies that they meet (Bensalah, et. “Minimum Standards for have aligned their program goals al., p. 6). Education in Emergencies and objectives along the lines of Chronic Crises, and Early Many advocates have strength­ these approaches, but, unfortunately, Reconstruction,” inspired by ened their rights-based the sets of conditions they reflect the Sphere Project.19 approach, pointing out that are not mutually exclusive. For children have “a right to edu­ The US government has example, development is a long- cation even under conditions revised its view of foreign term social investment that can also of emergency” (Harwood & assistance since September 11, occur during a crisis. Anis, unpublished report; 2001. This has added to the Recognizing the need to move away Bensalah, et. al., p. 6). Included confluence of interests from the linear relief-to-develop­ in this effort, both the move­ described above and to the ment continuum, some organiza­ ment to promote Education importance with which the US tions are beginning to acknowledge for All / the Dakar Framework government views foreign aid the importance of integrated for Action (Sommers, 2002), and education in crisis situa­ approaches. The World Bank, for and the Millennium tions. example, now advocates for a mix­ Development Goals (Birdsall, Reflecting these shifts, USAID is also ture of development and relief et. al., 2004) advocate for moving away from a distinction activities to be delivered in varying holding governments account­ between relief and development proportions depending on the able for fulfilling their responsi­ and is alternatively moving toward phase of the conflict. Although bilities toward children during the five goals outlined in the white there is little consensus on the defi­ times of crisis, ensuring that paper—promoting transformational nitions of “phases” of conflict and they can exercise their right to development, strengthening fragile post-conflict,“education reconstruc­ education. states, providing humanitarian relief, tion activities should begin concur­ Many practitioners have supporting US geostrategic inter­ rently with humanitarian assistance argued that education protects ests, and mitigating global and and be scaled up as political space, children by helping them avoid transnational ills—to address the civil society support, administrative military recruitment or abduc­ political, economic, health and envi­ capacity, and resources permit” tion, by providing cognitive and ronmental crises. Including education (World Bank, 2005, p. 33). intellectual tools for them to in these efforts is likely to enhance make better decisions, and by these goals.

19 Although the Sphere Project's minimum standards are limited to emergencies, INEE's minimum standards cover a range of "phases." INEE members believe that educational responses should be planned and implemented along the continuum of emergency through to development, rather than either or.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -11­ ACTORS INVOLVED IN crises, have begun establishing poli­ Cooperation (NORAD) devotes a THE FIELD cies to provide education in crisis section to education in emergencies situations. Among prominent bilat­ in its strategy paper for delivering The most common actors involved eral organizations, e.g., the British education for all (NORAD, 2003). in providing education in crisis are Department for International USAID has long emphasized basic bilateral aid agencies, multilateral Development (DFID), Canadian education in the context of its organizations, national governments, International Development Agency development work, and has funded international NGOs, local NGOs, (CIDA), Deutche Gesellschaft fur school reconstruction as part of dis­ and sometimes peace-keeping Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), aster relief, but has yet to include forces. Overall there are hundreds Swedish International Development education explicitly as part of its of actors involved; too many to Agency (SIDA), and USAID—DFID policy in emergency response to name. Therefore, taking the various published a paper on education, crises. The USAID Assistance to approaches to education in crisis sit­ development, and conflict, exploring Internally Displaced Persons Policy uations into account as well as the ways in which conflict inhibits (October 2004) is an exception. In USAID’s five goals for foreign assis­ countries’ abilities to reach the this document, USAID articulates its tance for fragile states, this sub-sec­ MDGs (Smith & Vaux, 2003), and role as “lead agency” in coordinating tion examines policies toward edu­ has recently commissioned a policy US government comprehensive sup­ cation in crisis among various key paper on education for IDPs and port to IDPs via Disaster Assistance institutions that are responsible for refugees (Payne & Fraser, March Response Teams (DART), and administering US foreign assistance, 2004, unpublished draft). GTZ USAID Missions. Education is the or for playing a major role in influ­ emphasizes “do no harm” strategies first priority in the second phase of encing the field of education in crisis in addressing countries in crisis and humanitarian assistance for IDPs, situations. highlights “youth promotion.” In “care and maintenance” (USAID, addition, GTZ has recently published BILATERAL AID AGENCIES 2004, p. 7). Still, although USAID is a paper on education and conflict a significant funder of education in Bilateral aid agencies generally coor­ (Seitz, November 2004) and has just crisis programs around the world, dinate their aid strategies with the developed a position paper to there are few public documents regional, political, and economic address education in conflict and describing the agency’s approach to objectives of the respective donor crises.20 CIDA emphasizes child pro­ these programs. Also, because edu­ nation, emphasizing certain sectors tection in its June 2001 Action Plan, cation in crisis programs are often depending on the link between the and pledges explicitly to support not categorized as such, but rather donor nation’s interest in the sector “basic education for refugee and as community development (e.g., and its overall strategy toward the internally displaced children, as well Bosnia) or basic education projects, recipient country. Grant making as children in post-conflict situa­ or projects to support vulnerable typically prioritizes international tions,” and “education that empow­ groups (HIV infected, child soldiers, NGOs whose headquarters are ers girls and boys to prevent and orphans), it is difficult to measure based in the same country as the resolve conflicts” (p. 33). SIDA lists the impact of these initiatives.The bilateral aid agency. “emergency education” under its April 2005 launch of USAID’s “sectors for humanitarian assistance” Several bilateral donors, recognizing Education Strategy: Improving Lives (SIDA, n.d.), and the Norwegian the gap in services provided during Through Learning promises to unite Agency for Development

20 The Seitz paper is available on the INEE website. The German versions are listed in the resource section of this paper.

-12- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT humanitarian and development on preventing the recruitment of situations. At the time of the Global assistance efforts in supporting edu­ child soldiers and assisting with their Survey on Education in Emergencies cation in crisis settings. See rehabilitation.23 (Bethke, 2004), UNHCR was oper­ Appendix F for more information ating education programs for MULTILATERAL on USAID Offices’ involvement in refugees in 107 of the 113 countries ORGANIZATIONS education in crisis situations. (and territories) included in the This term typically refers to agencies study. UNICEF was operating in 26 Other departments within the US like the UN and the World Bank countries, primarily catering to inter­ government that provide support that are directed by member gov­ nally displaced, war-affected stayees, for populations affected by crisis are ernments, and generally work and returnees. Their mandates are in the US State Department, the through government counterparts described below.24 The UN Office Bureau of Population, Refugees, and rather than through local or interna­ for the Coordination of Migration (BRPM), and in the tional NGOs. Some multilateral Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) is Department of Labor (DOL) funding streams now include calls responsible for overall coordination through its International Child Labor for support to education in emer­ of humanitarian aid. Initiative.21 Within the US govern­ gencies, for example, the UNICEF ment, the BPRM holds primary UNESCO’s strategy is formulated consolidated appeals process (CAP) responsibility for creating “policies around a single unifying theme, for Chad includes a total of nearly on population, refugees, and migra­ “contribute to peace and human $1.8 million for “Education in tion, and for administering US development in an era of globaliza­ Emergency Situation” (UN Office refugee assistance and admissions tion through education, science, cul­ for the Coordination of programs” (BPRM, n.d.). It is BPRM ture, and communication” Humanitarian Affairs 2004, p. 9). that channels US government funds (UNESCO, n.d.). It strives to to the UN High Commissioner for The primary UN agencies that are achieve this objective by conducting Refugees (UNHCR), the involved in responding to children’s studies, sharing knowledge, and pro­ International Committee of the Red needs are defined by three foci: viding expertise. UNESCO’s Cross (ICRC), and various other education, emergency protection, response to populations affected by agencies that provide assistance and and children. UNESCO is mandat­ crisis is based on five principles: protection to refugees overseas.22 ed to respond to education needs; “decentralization, information, co­ UNHCR is responsible for providing operation, capacity-building, and pre­ This fall DOL provided approxi­ emergency protection and educa­ vention” (Smith & Vaux, 2003, p. 52). mately $110 million in grants to tion to displaced people outside UNESCO houses INEE and has fight exploitive child labor world­ their country of origin (i.e., conducted extensive work on edu­ wide. The aim is to “remove young refugees); and UNICEF is responsi­ cation in crisis through its workers from abusive work situa­ ble for children, broadly. A International Institute for tions and improve access to quality Memorandum of Understanding Educational Planning and basic education in areas with a high gives UNHCR the lead responsibility International Bureau of Education. incidence of exploitive child labor” in refugee situations and UNICEF See Appendix I for a summary of (DOL, September 30, 2004). In the lead responsibility in in-country UNESCO activities. addition, DOL has focused recently

21 See http://www.state.gov/g/prm/ and http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/. 22 Within BPRM, these funds come from the Migration and Refugee Assistance (MRA) Account. The Emergency Refugee and Migration Assistance (ERMA) Fund, also from BPRM, supplies funds for urgent, unforeseen crises and is replenished yearly (USCR, January/February 2003). UNHCR receives approximately 25 per­ cent of its total annual budget from BPRM (InterAction, n.d.). Data on specific aid allocations by funding level, year, month, project, and organization are listed on the BPRM website. Available: http://www.state.gov/g/prm/fund/. 23 See http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/childsoldiers/main.htm for conference program and other details. 24 See also Smith and Vaux (2003) "Education, Development, and Conflict" for descriptions of UN agencies and their mandates.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -13­ UNICEF has five related priorities: education activities in 2000 “places conflict and only beginning to re­ educating girls, protecting children, strong emphasis on ‘increased prior­ emerge. In crises with a large num­ preventing HIV/AIDS, providing early ity for primary education’ and ber of aid agencies, foreign organiza­ childhood development, and immu­ achievement” of the international tions typically pay the highest nizing children. In its most recent targets for education (Smith & Vaux, salaries in the area. The loss of State of the World’s Children 2005 2003, p.55). human resources from people flee­ report, UNICEF identifies, and ing conflict, combined with a short­ The World Bank, on the other organizes its program responses age of government funds and a hand, does not intervene during an around, three key threats to child­ damaged bureaucracy that is not yet armed conflict, but provides funds hood: poverty, armed conflict, and able to absorb and disburse large and program support immediately HIV/AIDS (UNICEF, December sums, make it difficult for govern­ upon cessation of hostilities.The 2004). In countries in crisis, ment ministries to retain talented Conflict Prevention and UNICEF provides “special protection staff. While ministries often remain Reconstruction (CPR) Unit assesses for the most disadvantaged children: severely under resourced, local causes, consequences, and charac­ victims of war, disasters, extreme NGOs may be groomed to carry teristics of conflict and examines les­ poverty, all forms of violence and on education programs after inter­ sons learned in its program experi­ exploitation, and those with disabili­ national NGOs have left. ences. The CPR also specializes in ties” (UNICEF, n.d.). UNICEF’s designing development efforts for INTERNATIONAL NGOS approach to education in emergen­ conflict-affected countries (World cies and reconstruction describes CARE, Christian Children’s Fund, Bank/CPR, n.d.). Because standard education as a “development activi­ Creative Associates International, funding streams are not available at ty” and challenges short-term Catholic Relief Services, the the World Bank for work in failing responses that view education as a International Rescue Committee, or failed states, the Post-Conflict “stop-gap” measure (Pigozzi, 1999). Jesuit Refugee Service, Norwegian Fund (PCF) provides financing for Refugee Council, Save the UNHCR is responsible for leading physical and social reconstruction Children/US and UK, as international and coordinating international action initiatives in post-war societies. NGOs, appear to be responsible for to protect and safeguard refugee Current conflict-affected countries the largest portion of internationally rights worldwide (UNHCR, Basic and regions where the World Bank managed education in crisis situa­ Facts, n.d.). The agency bases its plays a significant role include tions’ programs worldwide, if provision of education to refugees, Afghanistan, Africa's Great Lakes UNHCR is excluded from the tally.26 on its Refugee Children: Guidelines region, the Balkans, Iraq, Liberia, Although these different agencies on Protection and Care (1994), in Nepal, Sierra Leone,Timor Leste, carry out their programs with a addition to the Convention on the the West Bank and Gaza (World greater or lesser focus on each of Rights of the Child, and Action for Bank/PCF, n.d.). the three conceptual frameworks the Rights of Children—an inter­ NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS (development, humanitarian, human agency initiative sponsored by rights) listed above, all are primarily UNHCR, the Save the Children Although local government actors service delivery organizations Alliance, UNICEF, and the Office of are available during and just after a (rather than advocacy agencies). the High Commissioner for Human crisis, most government ministries International NGO advocacy agen­ Rights.25 UNHCR’s review of its are typically badly damaged after a cies such as Amnesty International,

25 For extensive information on training for UNHCR staff, see http://www.savethechildren.net/arc/. 26 This was derived from the Global Survey on Education in Emergencies (Bethke, 2004). It is important to note, however, that this list is partial and evolving.

-14- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Human Rights Watch, and Watchlist countries affected by conflict that society after a conflict. In addition, include an analysis of education sys­ are not included in the Global local partner NGOs can often tems in their reports on human Survey data, but that are included in increase the legitimacy of interna­ rights abuses, describing discrimina­ InterAction’s various country-specific tionally sponsored work by creating tion against minorities in the class­ Member Activity Reports. Although a cultural bridge between interna­ room, school closings in minority this difference in data collection is tional intentions and national pro­ areas, and attacks on schools. Both not likely to change the list of key grams. service delivery and advocacy international players in education in MULTILATERAL AND NGOs rely on UN conventions and crises, it would show organizations BILATERAL PEACEKEEPING protocols to promote their work on like Save the Children, Catholic FORCES education in crises. Relief Services, and CARE as figuring more prominently in educational If these forces are present, they are According to the Global Survey, service delivery. In addition to typically involved in repairing infra­ among education in emergencies Bethke’s categories, education pro­ structure after a conflict. Since programs operated by international grams are still often identified schools generally sustain enormous NGOs, the International Rescue according to the traditional divisions damage, and since they often need Committee (IRC) was operating the in assistance (humanitarian or devel­ to be cleared of mines and booby largest number with education pro­ opment). traps before re-opening, peace­ grams in approximately 20 coun­ keeping forces often begin rebuild­ tries. The Norwegian Refugee LOCAL NGOS ing schools. These responsibilities Council managed approximately 15, These agencies often spring up dur­ sometimes expand to include other the Jesuit Relief Service, Save the ing or just after a crisis to provide public services. Children/US and UK, CARE, better quality services directly to Christian Children’s Fund, and Although the agencies and funds communities within which they Catholic Relief Services, provided listed here do not make up an work. Many international NGOs the bulk of the remaining programs exhaustive list of support for educa­ encourage the development of small described in the survey. tion in crisis, nor does the list give civic associations or local NGOs to credit to all the key actors in the Again surveying, tracking, and analyz­ take on this role for several reasons. field of education in crisis situations, ing these programs are difficult Government may be significantly dis­ the list does provide a starting point because there are multiple ways credited after a conflict and foster­ for forming a strong policy they are categorized. As a result of ing civic associations is believed by approach, and consolidating and different data collection and report­ many aid agencies (international complementing agencies’ efforts. ing methods, there are agencies NGOs, bilateral, and multinational working on education projects in agencies alike) to help rebuild civil

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -15­

III. SAMPLE APPROACHES

his section first examines the ing programs sponsored by national mental; or specifically: e.g., links between sample governments within their countries. high/low intensity conflict, post- Tapproaches to education in Little comparative information is conflict, economic collapse, crisis, including some illustrative edu­ available about government-spon­ pandemic/epidemic, natural cation program descriptions, and sored programs. Given the impor­ disaster). USAID’s five goals for foreign assis­ tance of supporting fragile states, it Table 1 provides examples of the tance for fragile states. This discus­ is a gap in the literature. relationship these variables have to sion is followed by an overview of To link these approaches to achiev­ the USAID goals, each variable can available resources and reference ing the five USAID goals, three vari­ change and there are many addi­ materials related to implementing ables for policy-makers should be tional possible combinations. Each education in crisis activities, and of considered: one of the sample approaches listed the minimum standards for providing in the table is described in greater an education program in an emer­ Population: the status of the detail below. gency situation. population for whom the serv­ ice is provided (e.g., refugee, These approaches are offered as The programs selected to highlight internally displaced, stayee, examples of good practice.27 In the relationship between education returnee, ex-combatant, home­ keeping with the categories of the in crisis programs and USAID’s five less child, healthy/ill); five USAID goals—promoting trans­ goals are primarily those sponsored formational development, strength­ by international agencies; limited State: the status of the state in ening fragile states, providing human­ information is provided regarding the region before the crisis itarian relief, supporting geostrategic local NGOs’ independent initiatives began (functioning, fragile, interests, and mitigating global and (although most international pro­ failed) and its on-going ability transnational ills—an attempt was grams are implemented with varying to provide public services; and made to provide examples from levels of participation on the part of four different types of implementing local organizations), and this paper Crisis: the type of crisis (politi­ agencies. Therefore, examples from does not include potentially promis­ cal, economic, health, environ­

27 It is important to note that few independent assessments have been conducted on these various education in crisis programs.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -17­ TABLE 1: PROPOSED APPROACHES TO EDUCATION WITHIN USAID'S NEW POLICY GOALS: CHOOSING A PROGRAM

USAID Goal: Crisis: Economic- Extreme Sample Education Program: poverty/uneven distribution Promoting transformational of wealth "Street education" program to development educate and advocate for chil­ Population: dren living on the street in Street children Salvador, Brazil (Projecto Axe, State: Stable (Brazil) Brazil) USAID Goal: Crisis: Political- Sample Education Program: Low intensity conflict/ Strengthening fragile states post-conflict 1. Teacher training (IRC) Population: Returnees, 2. Accelerated learning (Catholic stayees Relief Services) State: Fragile (e.g., Afghanistan) 3. Youth centers (SC/IRC/CCF) USAID Goal: Crisis: Political Sample Education Program: Population: Refugees, IDPs, Providing humanitarian relief Education (early childhood and "Stayees" development) in emergencies for people affected by conflict (Save State: Failed the Children/US) (e.g., 1993-1995 Bosnia) UNICEF Child-Friendly Spaces USAID Goal: Crisis: Economic/Political- Sample Education Program: Conflict prevention Supporting geostrategic Population: Teachers Peace education (UNHCR) interests State: Failed (e.g., refugee camps in Kenya housing refugees from a failed state) USAID Goal: Crisis: Health - HIV/AIDS Sample Education Program:

Mitigating global and Population: Youth HIV/AIDS awareness/life skills transnational ills State: Stable training (Government of South (e.g., South Africa) Africa)

-18- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT local NGOs, local government, inter­ relationships with the children and Angola and El Salvador. She identi­ national NGOs, and multinational introduce them to human rights fies the following: advocacy, legal (UN) agencies are included.28 It is concepts;“educational units” to pro­ frameworks, monitoring, planning beyond the scope of this study to vide creative and cultural activities; and coordination, social networks, provide an exhaustive list of pro­ and advocacy efforts with municipal and education and economic grams. Where possible, the author and state governments to train pro­ opportunities as important ele­ has listed additional references. fessionals and influence public ments in the three phases—preven­ policy.29 tion, demobilization, and reintegra­ GOAL #1: tion. She further reports that According to data collected regard­ PROMOTING apprenticeships and micro enter­ ing the organization and its pro­ TRANSFORMATIONAL prise approaches are more effective grams, the quality and contextual DEVELOPMENT for assisting child soldiers than voca­ relevance of Axé’s educational inter­ As with most development efforts, tional training, and that government ventions have notably improved the it is difficult to identify which salient should include reintegration of child quality of life for street children in interventions lead to transforma­ soldiers in its broader economic Salvador. In addition, the program tional development, but the two policies. She notes that in the pro­ succeeded in lobbying the state to sample programs listed below show grams she studied, the specific create a school that integrated chil­ significant promise. needs of girls and disabled were dren from the surrounding area (50 neglected across phases.30 COMBATING POVERTY: percent) with street children (50 ASSISTING STREET percent) (Angotti, 2003). New data from a longitudinal study CHILDREN IN BRAZIL on child soldiers in Mozambique REINTEGRATING CHILD provide very encouraging informa­ SOLDIERS Project Axé is a Brazilian NGO tion. From 1988 until 2004, infor­ founded in 1990 with a mission to Programs to disarm, demobilize, and mation was gathered from 39 male ensure basic human rights, particu­ reintegrate child soldiers have prolif­ former child soldiers who partici­ larly those of children and adoles­ erated in recent years, particularly pated in Save the Children/US’s cents. Axé began with the intent to since the issue has been brought to Children and War program in provide education for children who the attention of western peace­ Mozambique. The study examined were making a living in the streets keeping forces confronting a child as how these former child soldiers fare of Salvador, Brazil as part of an a military opponent (Singer, 2002). as adults. Findings show that effort to support these children’s In addition to numerous programs although these adults continue to rights. Since its founding, Axé’s to assist child soldiers, significant and struggle with their past, the vast activities have expanded to include interesting data are available to majority of this group have become programs to assist the families of reflect on program progress in help­ “productive, capable, and caring these children to enhance reintegra­ ing former child soldiers rejoin and adults” (Boothby et. al., 2005, p. 2). tion, to promote prevention by sup­ become productive members of In addition, the research identifies porting children who are at risk, but society. These will be noted below. specific interventions that helped not yet living on the streets, and to these children make their transitions collaborate with colleague organiza­ First,Verhey (2001) provides an in- from soldiers to civilians by partici­ tions with whom to share experi­ depth assessment of two initiatives pating in activities that did the fol­ ences. To do so, Axé’s efforts focus to prevent recruitment, demobilize, lowing: on:“street education” to establish and reintegrate child soldiers in

28 Note that some programs can serve more than the goal they are listed as supporting. 29 For more information, see: http://www.comminit.com/experiences/pds11-15-99/experiences-306.html. 30 Creative Associates International carried out a research study to assist the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in formulating national policy to demobilize and reintegrate child soldiers, to assess the educational needs of demobilized child soldiers, and to provide recommendations to address them. The study was intended to assist the government in issuing a decree for a national policy that prohibits recruitment of child soldiers (Agborsangaya , August 2000).

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -19­ supported and strengthened or the exclusion of minorities, or been linked to educational quality individuals’ coping skills for other groups, leading up to or con­ (Bethke, 2004; UNESCO, 2005; anticipated trauma and grief, as tributing to conflict.31 In Education, Winthrop & Kirk, 2005), to children’s well as those that supported Conflict, and Social Cohesion,Tawil psychosocial well-being, and, poten­ normative life cycle milestones; and Harley (eds.) (2004) gathered tially, to strengthening the state. 33 researchers from across conflict- instilled a sense of social Teacher training supported by edu­ affected countries and regions to responsibility, and promoted cation in crisis programs is often “gain a better understanding of the safe codes of conduct, self-reg­ supplemental to past pedagogical role of education policy in shaping ulation and security-seeking training that teachers have had, or it social and civic identities and in behavior; and may be re-training for paraprofes­ redefining or reconstructing national sional teachers. Key elements apprenticeships, community- citizenship within the context of included in training are: pedagogy sensitization campaigns, com­ identity-based conflict” (p. 6). Given (usually a focus on creating support­ munity works projects, and that a lack of public services (educa­ ive classroom and promoting child- outward support of communi­ tion and health) is one of the indica­ centered learning), supplemental ty rites. (Boothby et. al., 2005, tors for failed and fragile states, pro­ content (life skills-HIV/AIDS educa­ p. 3). viding support to education (equi­ tion, peace or civics education), and tably) should hold promise for often resources development. Most Helping former child soldiers inte­ strengthening fragile states.32 international agencies provide rapid grate into a post-conflict, peaceful Because post-conflict states are training seminars, usually 3-5 days society is a step toward transforma­ almost always fragile, these are that are followed later by in-service tional development both for individ­ important observations. However, training in conflict or disaster-affect­ uals and for society. less has been observed regarding ed environments. Although there is the impact of relatively discrete for­ GOAL #2: not much evidence to demonstrate eign assistance in education in crisis STRENGTHENING “a measurable impact on teaching on fragile states. The following para­ FRAGILE STATES practice,” these training sessions help graphs provide preliminary observa­ to build professional ties across Unlike new data available on child tions on teacher training programs groups (e.g., Bosnia example cited soldiers and supporting transforma­ and a youth reintegration program. tional development, there are limit­ below) and also build teacher ed data on fragile states and even TEACHER TRAINING morale. Some evidence indicates that training linked to developing less on the potential relationship “Teachers are the most critical materials will have a better impact between education in crisis pro­ resource in education reconstruc­ on teaching practice (World Bank, grams and fragile states. As noted tion” (World Bank, 2005, p. xviii). 2005, p. 49). above, there has been some explo­ The importance of teachers is ration of the general relationship echoed throughout the literature between education and conflict, relating to varied education crises. describing the impact of conflict on Teacher training and retention have education (e.g.,World Bank, 2005),

31 See Anna Obura (2003), Never Again: Educational Reconstruction in Rwanda, and Human Rights Watch, Children's Rights 2002-both provide excellent descrip­ tions of minority and other groups exclusions from education; see also World Bank (2005), Chapter 2, "The Impact of Conflict on Education"-describes effects on children and systems, and notes that systems are surprisingly resilient. 32 It is important to note that high levels of literacy and education provision do not preclude countries from experiencing conflict (e.g., Bosnia, Northern Ireland), but this also indicates that it is topic about which much remains unknown. 33 See INEE Teacher Training Task Team.

-20- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY-BASED, RAPID agencies can implement effectively EDUCATION AND RESPONSE to provide humanitarian relief. PROTECTION DEMOBILIZATION Several are listed below. The Save the Children/US program The Youth Reintegration Training QUICK-RESPONSE listed here was launched as an and Education for Peace (YRTEP) EDUCATION ACTIVITIES emergency intervention during the Program that OTI developed in AFTER A NATURAL war in the Balkans. It provided edu­ war-torn Sierra Leone with its part­ DISASTER cation and safe places to young chil­ ners, Management Systems dren and families during shelling, Typically “rapid” education for com­ International and World Vision, is a sieges, and in refugee centers from munities affected by natural disas­ community-based, rapid response to 1993 to 1995 in Croatia and Bosnia, ters consists of the following ele­ demobilize and reintegrate ex-com­ and continued to operate for sever­ ments: assessment of needs, recon­ batants at a low cost. YRTEP fea­ al years during reconstruction after struction of schools, training for tures a six to twelve month pro­ the peace agreement was signed. teachers, and organizing classes gram providing “psychosocial and At the time of its inception in the quickly for students. For example, vocational counseling, literacy, life- refugee centers, there were no when Mozambique experienced skills and agricultural skills training, other social programs offered by massive floods in 2001, 100,000 and peace education” (OTI, 2004). either the host government, or by people were affected and 100 peo­ A BEPS evaluation of OTI’s program other international NGOs. Also for ple were killed. In one district reported that YRTEP supported families living in besieged cities where Save the Children/UK peace-building efforts and praised (Mostar, Sarajevo), this particular worked, approximately 25,000 peo­ the program’s rapid and broad education program was one of the ple were displaced and in some administration of services, and inclu­ few available services—most gov­ areas could only be reached by sion of women, but expressed con­ ernment institutions had stopped boat. Immediately following the ini­ cerns about unmet expectations of their regular functions. At that time tial response to deliver food, med­ participants when trainings ended there were frequent disappearances, ical supplies, plastic sheeting and (Hansen, et. al., 2002). and people who took part in the non-food items, Save the Children program felt there was some meas­ To avoid unmet expectations when assessed the number of stranded ure of security provided by affiliation programs end, and to avoid leaving children (by sex, age, disability), with an international agency. This a power vacuum behind, it is impor­ searched for classroom sites, and proximity offered at least sporadic tant to plan for transitions and available teachers. Save the protection, they said, or the percep­ include government officials/Ministry Children built temporary class­ tion of protection, from targeted of Education in these activities.34 rooms, bought educational supplies, violence and human rights abuses trained teachers in the areas of (Burde, 1999).35 GOAL #3: PROVIDING hygiene, HIV/AIDS, and disability, and HUMANITARIAN organized recreational activities for The education services were deliv­ RELIEF children. Save the Children and ered across the region to refugees, Currently, there are numerous UNICEF provided “school and IDPs, and stayees. The international forms of emergency education that learner kits” to the district office of NGO helped community members education (Nicolai, 2003, p. 41). organize committees to hire teach­

34 The chief investigator for the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Sierra Leone proposed requiring that all political parties post 10 percent of their candidates from the youth category, described as 18-35 year olds. See www.witness.org. These types of initiatives could be linked to youth education programs. 35 From March 1999-November 2000 the author conducted independent research on this program, interviewing over 50 teachers and parents (many selected ran­ domly) who had participated in the program either during or after the conflict, staying with them in their towns and villages, and observing the children in the preschool; those who had enrolled their children during the conflict expressed gratitude for the emotional relief the program had given them.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -21­ ers, pay salaries, and manage the erance, and reconciliation. UNESCO been described as a “skills for con­ preschools. The program sent an developed the “Teacher Emergency structive living” course to enable important message: it advocated for Package” in Somalia in 1992 so that discussion of issues about tolerance, education as a necessary service to communities would be able to start diversity, bias, stereotyping, and be delivered as part of a humanitar­ their own schools, without govern­ cooperation. It has been extended ian aid package, just as aid agencies ment structures. The program beyond school children to commu­ delivered other, more quantifiable expanded to the rest of Somalia, nity groups, which has so far been necessities (food and water, shelter, Northwest Somalia (Somaliland), successful (e.g. in Sri Lanka). PEP and medical supplies). and to the refugee camps in Kenya, has also developed a youth manual Djibouti,Yemen, and Ethiopia, as well for out-of-school youth, yet a lack of CHILD-FRIENDLY PLACES as to the Rwandan refugee camps in resources and an insufficient number In Liberia in 2002, UNICEF estab­ Tanzania and Zaire. The work in of facilitators have prevented full lished Child Friendly Spaces (CFS) in Somalia resulted in Environmental implementation. Although the pro­ each of the new IDP camps.These Education kits and fostered a gram was originally designed for are meant to provide safe places for regional awareness-raising program refugees, in Liberia and Guinea it children to play and learn together, of environmental issues among has been extended to include host acquire life skills, and have access to refugees (Payne & Fraser, March populations. UNHCR provides clean water and health facilities 2004). technical support and advice on the (UNICEF, February 2002). In its peace program from the central GOAL #4: Education Unit in Geneva (Obura original design, it included spaces for SUPPORTING pre-primary and lower primary cited in Payne & Fraser, March GEOSTRATEGIC 2004). See Appendix J for a sum­ classes, three spaces for upper pri­ INTERESTS mary classes, a play area, a baby mary of PEP and a list of peace area, and a women and children’s International NGOs that typically education programs. adult area (Nicolai, 2003). They are administer USAID programs main­ ACCELERATED LEARNING meant to provide mothers with a tain an uneasy relationship with place to care for their infants, and a overtly political mandates. That said, In Afghanistan Catholic Relief space for children to experience a this does not decrease their activi­ Services (CRS) operates an acceler­ degree of normalcy amid the chaos ties in politically charged environ­ ated learning program in two around them. ments. A variety of education in cri­ provinces north of Kabul: Kapisa sis programs have potential to be and Parwan. The goal of the TEACHER TRAINING applied toward this goal. Accelerated Basic Education project PACKAGES is to help students make up the PEACE EDUCATION36 UNESCO’s Programme for education they lost during the Education in Emergencies and UNHCR’s peace education program recent conflict and to reintegrate Reconstruction (PEER) is based in (PEP) is run in nine countries in them into regular primary schools Nairobi. PEER produced Teacher Africa, and also in Pakistan (through quickly. To do so, the accelerated Emergency Packages and carried Save the Children/UK) and Kosovo curriculum compresses one year out teacher training to address re­ (through World Vision). Partners into six months. In 2004, there professionalization (of teachers, adapt the materials to the local were approximately 1400 students inspectors, and educational adminis­ environment. The program is run enrolled, and although approximate­ trators), and the need for peace, tol­ through refugee schools, and has ly 50 percent are male and 50 per­

36 See Margaret Sinclair (2004), Learning to Live Together: Values and Attitudes for the 21st Century for a comprehensive review of peace education programs.

-22- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT cent are female, the program places venting and treating many illnesses skills-based health education (linking particular emphasis on girls’ educa­ and diseases. information about HIV to the devel­ tion and teacher training.This pro­ opment of interpersonal skills and HIV/AIDS gram demonstrates typical charac­ critical thinking), peer education and teristics of education sponsored by Extensive work has been carried focus on youth (education by youth, international NGOs in war-torn and out to address this devastating pan­ for youth), support for orphans and early reconstruction settings, both demic. The World AIDS Campaign out-of-school youth (with research because the learning is accelerated advocates for integrating life skills, and cross-sectoral efforts), and mul­ and because of the emphasis placed sexual health, and HIV/AIDS educa­ timedia campaigns (raise public on girls’ education to enhance their tion into school curricula starting understanding regarding the issues) protection. with primary school and continuing (World Bank, 2002, p. xix). throughout the students’ education. DISTANCE LEARNING These sample programs suggest the The programs should be developed abundance of approaches to educa­ In Hebron, in the Occupied by national ministries of education in tion in crisis settings. Following is a Palestinian Territories, 30 schools collaboration with parent teachers summary of several initiatives and were involved in UNICEF’s associations and participation from resources that inform the field. Community-Based Education young people (UNAIDS, cited in Program/Reducing the Impact of Kelly, 2000). RESOURCES AND Conflict in Learning, including 600 REFERENCE The Department of Education in teachers, parents, local TV networks, MATERIALS South Africa, with financial support and the district directorate. Two from USAID undertook an exten­ Recently, INEE consolidated and hundred thirty “self-learning sheets” sive evaluation of its HIV/Life Skills packaged a vast volume of program were developed, and 20 lessons program across the country. experiences, advocacy tools, training were broadcast on local television Among its salient findings it deter­ instruments, and other useful docu­ stations. This resulted in 40 hours mined that only 29 percent of ments on a CD Rom,“The INEE of remedial education for children in schools were actually implementing Technical Resource Kit on Education grades 1-4 (UNICEF, 2002). the program due to lack of support, in Emergencies and Early GOAL #5: MITIGATING insufficient teacher training atten­ Recovery—A Digital Library” GLOBAL AND dance, and little contact between (2004). This collection of materials TRANSNATIONAL ILLS districts and schools (Khulisa is well-organized and easy to use, Management Services, August 8, and is a likely place to find program The impact illness and disease has 2000). information relating to any of the on a community can most easily be following topics: core reference seen in countries with high In an extensive study compiling materials, advocacy and policy state­ HIV/AIDS infection rates. Yet, other diverse literature and experiences ments, Education for All documents, diseases and illnesses, such as polio, on addressing HIV/AIDS, the World human rights instruments, evalua­ cholera, dysentery, and malaria, are Bank advocates for key interven­ tions and case studies, and models also increasingly recognized for the tions such as: school-based preven­ and frameworks. In addition, several effect they have on individuals and tion programs (Focusing Resources international organizations have the community at large. Therefore, on Effective School Health—a pro­ designed a number of education more and more programs are being gram created in partnership with “tool kits” and other materials to designed with the intention of pre­ UNESCO,WHO, and UNICEF),

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -23­ assist humanitarian workers, educa­ Promote education as a core (INEE, 2004). See Appendix C for tors, teachers, parents, and commu­ element of humanitarian assis­ an overview of the minimum stan­ nity members in providing education tance; dards. services during a complex emer­ Enhance accountability among In addition to the enormous effort gency—typically a natural disaster or humanitarian actors; undertaken to launch the minimum armed conflict (Nicolai, 2003; standards, many promising programs Pigozzi, 1999;Triplehorn, 2001). Improve coordination among such as those listed in the table on Nicolai’s toolkit contains extensive partners, including education page 18 exist to help provide edu­ descriptions and examples of case authorities; cational resources and support to studies from Save the Children’s populations affected by crises. experiences in providing education Serve as a capacity-building Bethke (2004) names, and includes support to children affected by con­ and training tool to enhance brief descriptions where information flict, disaster, and other crises. education management and is available, approximately 500 proj­ Specifically related to USAID sup­ effectiveness; ects in 113 countries managed by ported programs and several case Provide a strong advocacy tool approximately 25 international studies, see Helping Children promoting education to NGOs, 50 national NGOs or inter­ Outgrow War (Miller & Affolter, humanitarian organizations, national organizations with a single 2003).These references are all avail­ governments, donors, and pop­ regional focus, 12 governments, six able in the digital library.37 ulations affected by crisis; and bilateral government aid agencies, MINIMUM STANDARDS Serve as a tool for planning, and four multi-governmental (UN) agencies. Although there is consid­ The Minimum Standards on implementing, and evaluating erable overlap between education in Education in Emergencies (MSEE) education projects (INEE, crises programs and more standard facilitated by INEE, were reached 2004). education programs, the survey lists through an extensive consultative Although in explicitly targeting “edu­ the following nine types of educa­ process that spanned all continents, cation in emergencies, chronic crises, tional activities as typical examples more than 2200 participants, and and early reconstruction” the of education in emergencies pro­ one and a half years.38 The results Minimum Standards have an implicit grams: structured recreational activi­ of these consultations and discus­ focus on armed conflict and natural ties (usually for young children), sions culminated in the publication disasters, they also address issues youth centers, formal education, and dissemination of the MSEE in specific to girls, people affected by vocational or skills training for youth, December 2004. The standards are HIV/AIDS, and other vulnerable accelerated learning programs, intended to serve as a common groups.The MSEE Working Group bridging programs, life skills educa­ starting point for international aid envisions that establishing standards tion, teacher training, and distance workers and others in “providing will help move the world closer to education programs (pp. 6-7).39 guidance and tools on how to reach reaching the Education for All and a minimum level of educational qual­ UN Millennium Development Goals ity.” Specifically they are meant to:

37 Also many are available on the INNE or GINIE websites. For comprehensive set of practical guides and resources for organizations implementing education in crisis programs on the INEE website, see: http://www.ineesite.org/core/default.asp. Several excellent, generic, and comprehensive resource guides to approaching education in various types of crisis situations are available. 38 "…delegates and INEE members in the regions coordinated local, national, and sub-regional consultations in 47 countries to gather input and information from over 1,900 representatives of affected communities, including students, teachers and other education personnel; NGO, government and UN representatives with experience in education; donors and academics," additional members participated on-line. See: http://www.ineesite.org/standards/default.asp. 39 See the Global Survey on Education in Emergencies (Bethke, 2004), available: http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/Ed_Emerg.pdf. For individual country sum­ maries, see InterAction membership activity country reports.

-24- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IV. DEBATES, GAPS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH40

iven that the field of educa­ ing a more complicated reaction RELATIONSHIP tion in crisis situations is still (Bush & Saltarelli, 2000; Krech & BETWEEN Gbeing defined and a wide Maclure, 2004;Tawil, 2004;World EDUCATION AND variety of actors are involved, Bank, 2005). In Sierra Leone, for PROTECTION debates about the field and gaps example, the public education sys­ within the field remain widespread. tem was regarded as contributing to The Role of Education in Protecting This section is not intended to go social decline and directly influencing Children in Conflict (Nicolai & into great depth about any one children’s participation in the war. Triplehorn, 2003) argues for educa­ debate or gap; nor is it intended to The kleptocratic government pil­ tion to play a more prominent role discuss each one. It simply acknowl­ fered state resources for many years in humanitarian assistance programs edges the wide variety of issues and unchecked, while the education sys­ based on its ability to provide pro­ offers some potential research to be tem continued to create “wide­ tection for children and youth. considered in hopes of promoting spread school leaver disillusion and Advocacy literature points out that greater understanding of the needs frustration” (Krech & Maclure, 2004, “certain aspects of education can and issues involved and inspiring p. 142). inherently protect children: the new activities to resolve them. sense of self-worth that comes from Although education may create con­ being identified as a student and a RELATIONSHIP flict, it is also credited with resolving learner; the growth and develop­ BETWEEN it, and is often considered a key ment of social networks; the provi­ EDUCATION AND instrument for reconstruction. In sion of adult supervision and access CONFLICT the interest of responding effectively to a structured, ordered schedule” to the needs of fragile states, the (Nicolai & Triplehorn, 2003, p. 9). The relationship between education relationship between education and Beyond this, education provides “life­ and conflict is not clear. Education conflict should be better under­ saving messages” such as nutritional may have potential for strengthening stood. information and information regard­ social cohesion, rending it, or creat­ ing HIV transmission.

40 See also, Sommers "Education in Emergencies: Critical Questions and Challenges." BEPS: http://www.beps.net/publications/Challenges8.5x11ChangesFINAL.pdf.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -25­ To educators and aid workers these mote their cognitive, emotional, and p. 2). Rebuilding an education sys­ conclusions make sense intuitively. social development.The two goals tem is one of the essential tools Yet researchers know little about are not incompatible, but one may that governments use to cultivate whether education in emergencies exist without the other. “Teaching and maintain legitimate authority. works to protect children or not. In an irrelevant curriculum may be Yet education programs for devel­ fact, others point out that schools counter developmental, although it oping stable countries, and pro­ can be dangerous places for chil­ may keep children safe” (Buckland, grams for post-conflict countries, for dren—particularly for girls. The inci­ Interview, August 2004). In this a variety of reasons, may circumvent dence of Sexual and Gender Based view, the content of good quality the state. If the state is already frag­ Violence (SBGV) in refugee camps education will vary according to any ile, or fledgling, this will not increase is relatively high, and aid workers context; different crises, like different stability, and may, in fact, add a desta­ themselves have participated in the cultures, provide additional varia­ bilizing influence. violations (Shifman, personal com­ tions in context. The extra content munication, 2004). included in education in crisis that is EMPHASIS ON particular to these contexts can COMMUNITY There are important questions to include practical “life skills” messages PARTICIPATION answer: if education protects chil­ such as landmine awareness and Parent, teacher, and community dren, how does it work? Does it health education that is particular to involvement in management and work because children are counted specific health threats in refugee or school governance in a conflict or and their activities are monitored, or IDP camps. In education for chil­ post-conflict environment are because they acquire particular cog­ dren affected by armed conflict, emerging as critical principles of nitive skills that afford them greater content also typically includes education in crises. When govern­ decision-making capacity and an greater than average emphasis on ment has collapsed or withdrawn, increased ability to avoid exploita­ some form of peace, human rights, there is often no other way to pro­ tion? The answer is likely to be a or tolerance education. As noted vide education services. In addition, combination of the two, but without above, teaching methodologies and creating local parent teacher associ­ studies that have measured these curriculum designs also change to ations, or parent support groups, is outcomes, it is difficult to hone poli­ adapt to the circumstances. For meant to increase the social glue cy recommendations. example, a dense curriculum may be that bonds neighbors and thus DIFFERENCE used to provide accelerated learning builds community. But these types BETWEEN for children who have significant of community bonds, particularly EDUCATION IN CRISIS gaps in their education. after a conflict, can be exclusive— AND EDUCATION IN ROLE OF THE STATE insulating a neighborhood group DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION IN against perceived intrusions from the outside or from “others” (Burde, According to Buckland (Interview, CRISIS 2004). Also, in the context of a August 2004), education, properly Education is believed to be a key to fragile state, or a re-emerging state, defined, is inherently a development state building. “Sustainable civil it is critical to strengthen the state. activity. Education is not simply car­ peace relies on the successful Too much emphasis on civil society, ried out to provide safe spaces for reconstruction of legitimate state particularly in providing services that children, but it is also meant to pro­ authority” (Doyle & Sambanis, 2000, are in the purview of the state, may

-26- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT hinder national development rather crisis-affected environments, it is dif­ to their original line of work or to a than help it. ficult to track projects when the better position elsewhere.They do central accounting system is limited this because they are concerned COORDINATION or does not exist. With multiple that the job is short term and will Many observers, critics, and aid donors representing multiple coun­ end when the NGO finishes its workers note the lack of coordina­ tries providing grants to multiple work in the country or because the tion among international aid agen­ NGOs, the sheer numbers of proj­ pay is low. cies providing services during crises ects are difficult to track even when Although pay is typically minimal, and post-conflict reconstruction and an accounting system is in place. there has been significant debate the problems associated with it During a conflict, looting and vio­ regarding whether or not to pay (Minear, 2004; Sommers, 2004a; lence destroy old records of all teachers at all in education pro­ Rupp, 2004). Numerous reports cite kinds, and keeping new records grams launched during crises. Many “increased coordination among hardly seems like a priority. international agencies argue that international agencies” as one of the Second, during and after a conflict because paying teachers is a recur­ primary recommendations for has ended, UNICEF, in conjunction ring expense, it is an unsustainable improving the efficiency and efficacy with the ministry of education, usu­ activity for an NGO, and it is the of the delivery of educational servic­ ally becomes the “lead agency” for responsibility of the government. es in these circumstances (Bethke, coordinating projects related to the However, international organizations 2004; Nicolai, 2004; Sommers, education system. International are funded to provide educational 2004a, 2004b;World Bank, 2005). NGOs and bilateral agencies, how­ services during a crisis often Recommendations from a confer­ ever, are not required to coordinate because government has collapsed, ence, “Workshop on Refugee with UNICEF and the ministry; they or is divided, or is too fragile to Education in Complex Emergencies, are simply expected to do so. assume full responsibility for manag­ Forced Migration, and Post-Conflict Logistical difficulties and internal ing the education system. Many Transitions,” held in 1999 on educa­ agendas can easily overshadow a argue that serving in this capacity tion in emergencies, stressed the task that is viewed as a professional includes paying teachers’ salaries importance of increasing collabora­ courtesy, and the outcome is a con­ (Midttun, 2004, personal communi­ tion among international agencies to tinued lack of coordination. cation). Not to do so may under­ provide education services during mine the credibility of the interna­ crises.41 To support global collabo­ PROGRAM tional agency, and typically hampers ration and data collection, the INEE IMPLEMENTATION the success of the education pro­ was founded shortly after this work­ PAYING TEACHERS gram. Paying teachers’ salaries is shop. With the level and intensity of correlated with better quality edu­ attention that has been given to the Recruiting and retaining teachers cation programs (Bethke, 2004). problem of coordination in multiple can be a challenge for international contexts, the question now is less agencies working in crisis areas. EDUCATING ADOLESCENTS about what the problem is, but Qualified paraprofessional teachers International norms and standards rather why the problem persists. often leave international NGOs emphasize primary education. after having received training and, Reasons offered range from the Education for adolescents, both sec­ once conditions have stabilized, practical to the structural. First, in ondary and primary (for older chil­ moving either to a job that is closer

41 This workshop was co-sponsored by the Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, InterWorks, Norwegian Refugee Council, and the Congressional Hunger Center, supported by the Bayan Tree Foundation, and hosted by the World Bank.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -27­ dren who have missed school), has dents return to their country of ori­ and standards, but some questioned traditionally been neglected. gin, or the system resumes around the tension between reaching aspi­ Adolescents, however, make up them, a new government will rarely rations in education and establishing large numbers of people affected by recognize these certificates. a low threshold for achievement. To conflict. They are vulnerable to test this, INEE plans to pilot, moni­ PROVIDING PEACE exploitation, as mentioned above, tor, collect baseline data, and evalu­ EDUCATION and they hold the potential to have ate the standards to assess their a large impact on society, both now Nearly every educator agrees that impact, and to refine and improve and in the future and in both posi­ peace education is a good idea. the standards in the future. tive and negative ways. Many edu­ Generally two ways are suggested CURRICULUM cators argue that it is important to for including peace education, or recognize this potential and help one of its many derivatives—human Curriculum issues are complex in adolescents develop in positive and rights education, tolerance educa­ part because of the many purposes productive ways (Bush & Saltarelli, tion, education for reconciliation—in and agendas that a national curricu­ 2002). But because secondary edu­ the school curriculum. Either it is lum is meant to serve.42 For refugee cation is not mandated in interna­ “mainstreamed,” in other words, education, most agencies try to rely tional rights documents, as primary included as a theme in every course on the country of origin for curricu­ education is, many donors and host taught, or it is taught as an inde­ lum materials. These are not always governments do not support it. pendent class. Some argue that, as available and may be a source of with mainstreaming gender, issues social tension. CERTIFYING TEACHERS AND that are treated in this way are STUDENTS MONITORING AND often overshadowed by other prior­ EVALUATION Finding certifications that will be ities. The best way to produce recognized after a crisis is resolved results, they say, is to combine the In programs that offer urgently is a dilemma both for teachers and two—include a separate class that needed services, tension often exists for students. Students enrolled in promotes behavior relevant to the between delivering those services education in emergencies programs conflict at hand (Sinclair, 2004). and assessing their outcomes. Data are often taught by paraprofessional Sometimes this may mean teaching collection takes time and resources teachers with a curriculum that may peace education, or it may mean a that many field workers do not be one from the host country, may greater emphasis on citizenship edu­ have. On the other hand, poor be a version of the pre-conflict cur­ cation to counteract ethno-national­ monitoring leads to incomplete and riculum from the country of origin, ist divisive tendencies. See Appendix inaccurate data. Many argue for or may be a mixture of NGO cur­ J on Peace Education Programs. monitoring and evaluation to riculum innovations and a local become standardized and to sys­ MINIMUM STANDARDS model. When children graduate tematically collect data relating to from these courses, whether they Although establishing minimum stan­ enrollment, persistence, retention are formal or nonformal programs, dards was an exceptionally well- figures, and tracking out-of-school and when teachers graduate from organized process, it was not with­ youth. basic training courses, even if the out its debates. Most members of sponsoring agencies issue certifi­ the consultation meetings support­ cates, once the teachers and stu­ ed the idea of establishing guidelines

42 See Obura (2003) for insights into post-conflict curriculum building in Rwanda, and Tawil and Harley (2004) for cross national post-conflict curriculum issues.

-28- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CONDUCTING AND record the numbers of children who duct academic research for several COLLECTING RESEARCH attend classes or activities full-time, reasons. First, education programs AND DATA or the total number of un-enrolled designed to provide services during school-age children in the communi­ crises are often short term and flex­ There are three sources of informa­ ty (Bethke, personal communica­ ible. Research requires planning and tion on education in crisis situations: tion). often extra funding. By the time (1) program documents produced plans are made and funds are raised, by international and national non­ Many NGO program reports an education program in a conflict governmental organizations involved remain hidden from the public. region may be over. Or the study in service provision in the field; (2) They are often written as internal variables may have changed signifi­ policy case studies and series papers documents to be circulated within cantly. Second, program logistics are produced by development institutes; the agency and to potential donors, difficult to manage during crises. and (3) academic articles and book but not necessarily to be shared Any research efforts will have to chapters usually focusing on educa­ with a broader audience.The recent address the same logistical difficul­ tional issues in specific conflict areas, collaborative efforts of INEE have ties, but given the level of precision not necessarily tied to programs been helpful in making such infor­ and accuracy required for empirical carried out by international organi­ mation available more broadly, but studies to be reliable and robust, the zations. some have advocated for gray litera­ obstacles to collecting data increase. ture to be made available through a Although typically large amounts of For example, it is challenging to find public database. data are collected, there is little a control group of out-of-school standardization and critical informa­ Academic studies of education in children to compare to in-school tion may be missing. For example, emergencies that employ a theoreti­ children in order to test the impact although it is by now standard for cal framework, rely on established of the education program. Finally, most education programs to record research methods, and systematically changing security compromises pro­ the numbers of children enrolled in collect empirical data are scarce. It gram delivery and data collection. education programs, many do not is difficult to collect data and con­

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -29­

V. RECOMMENDATIONS

key recommendation is that ed—as an “add-on” initiative or a Support and strengthen the Aeducation in emergencies be priority? INEE, providing on-going fund­ seen, and planned from Day One, as ing sufficient for the secretariat The following recommendations are part of the development process and resources to engage active offered with these questions in and not solely as a ‘relief’ effort. member participation. mind. Donors should avoid compartmen-­ Support implementation of talization of funding that can have GENERAL minimum standards for educa­ the effect of creating an uneducated RECOMMENDATIONS tion in emergencies. and bitter, revenge-oriented genera-­ Continue to support education tion, because education in emergen-­ Support monitoring and evalu­ for girls and youth as well as cies was seen as the last call on ation. Establish standard indica­ specific programs that target inadequate ‘humanitarian’ budgets tors across programs. (or excluded from them). Moreover, them. Support research and improve restoration of access to schooling in Approach education from the data collection. Examine: 1) a postconflict situation should be perspective of quality and education and protection; 2) seen as a funding priority (Bensalah, access (human rights) across relationship between education et. al., 2000, p. 38). the spectrum of relief to devel­ systems and fragile states; 3) opment (rather than develop­ This quote summarizes the issues impact of teacher training on ment or relief). facing the field of education in crises teacher practice. elaborated in this paper: What role Continue to advocate for life Pool “gray” literature on educa­ does education play in humanitarian skills education that also focus­ tion in crisis (program evalua­ action: does it require a humanitari­ es on interpersonal relations tions, reports) and make it an, human rights, or development and critical thinking skills, to available in a managed public approach? How should agencies plan respond to HIV/AIDS. for it—in segments or as an integrat­ database. ed approach? When should they Ensure that HIV/AIDS aware­ plan it—during or after the start of ness is addressed in all popula­ the crisis? How should it be fund­ tions affected by crisis.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -31­ RECOMMENDATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS other education personnel fol­ TO USAID TO INTERNATIONAL low a code of conduct. NONGOVERNMENTAL Articulate policy on education In a short period of time, provision ORGANIZATIONS of education for children affected by in crisis across the agency. (NGOS) Clarify terminology and include crises has increased substantially. education in Office of Foreign Support national governments, Many transnational actors—national Disaster Assistance (OFDA) particularly in fragile states. and international, bilateral and multi­ policy. Add an education spe­ national, governmental and NGO— Provide greater number of cialist to the Disaster have worked hard to illuminate the program possibilities for ado­ Assistance Response Team dilemmas facing crisis-affected popu­ lescents and youth: education (DART). lations, and have effectively realigned for different ages. policies to focus attention on these Prioritize collaboration with Focus on girls and gender-spe­ pressing issues. Now, in the light of national governments/ cific issues in the classroom. international attention, humanitarian Ministries of Education and actors (donors, practitioners, encourage them to establish a Include peace education princi­ activists, researchers) can increase transparent coordination ples throughout teaching educational access and quality mechanism for all education materials but also as a sepa­ everywhere, thus guaranteeing every activities, including effective rate class, such as a civics/citi­ child’s right to education, even the information sharing among zenship class. ones most deeply affected by crises. stakeholders. Increase incen­ Supporting education programs Standardize monitoring and tives and requirements for across humanitarian and develop­ evaluation tools for collecting international agencies who ment assistance efforts, and commit­ project data; posted on and receive grants from USAID to ting to policies that incorporate the maintained on INEE website, coordinate with each other assets of those whose lives are most or other suitable database. and with national governments. impacted by the crises will enrich Serve as a buffer between mili­ RECOMMENDATIONS the field…and eventually ensure the tary operations and humanitar­ TO NATIONAL effectiveness and timeliness of its ian aid delivery, particularly in GOVERNMENTS accomplishments. geostrategic areas. Ensure that school buildings Whether education plays the role of Examine USAID’s experience are up to scale to withstand transforming development, strength­ in youth programming and natural disasters, and that ening fragile states, providing safe expand programs to provide school administrators are spaces, supporting peace and out-of school activities and trained in emergency pre­ democracy, or mitigating the support to secondary educa­ paredness. HIV/AIDS pandemic, it is critical within any crisis setting. Education tion. Include peace education and “fuels new hopes” (USAID civics principles throughout Assist fragile states and other Education Strategy, April 2005, p. v) teaching materials. national governments in disas­ and USAID is well-positioned to ter preparedness. Educate school administrators help transform this hope into action. about SGBV and ensure that administrators, teachers and

-32- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPENDIXES

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -33­

APPENDIX A: SELECTED INTERVIEWS

Pilar Aguilar, Senior Education and Protection Officer, UNICEF Allison Anderson, Focal Point, Inter-Agency Network on Education in Emergencies, Minimum Standards, International Rescue Committee Lynne Bethke, InterWorks Peter Buckland, Senior Education Advisor,World Bank Mitch Kirby, Senior Education Advisor, East and Southern Africa, USAID Eldrid Middtun, Norwegian Refugee Council Margaret Sinclair, Consultant Christopher Talbot, UNESCO, IIEP Sohbi Tawil, UNESCO, IBE

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -35­

APPENDIX B: REFERENCES

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EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -39­ Natsios, A. (January 2004). In U.S. foreign aid: Meeting Pigozzi, M. J. (1999). Education in emergencies and the challenges of the 21st century. Available: reconstruction: A developmental approach. New York: http://www.usaid.gov/policy/pdabz3221.pdf. UNICEF. Nelles,W. (Ed.) (2004). Comparative education, terror­ Preston, R. (1991). The provision of education to ism and human security: From critical pedagogy to refugees in places of temporary asylum: Some implica­ peacebuilding? New York: Palgrave Macmillan. tions for development. Comparative Education. 27(1) 61-81. Perlez, J. (October 12, 2003). Enlisting Aid to Education in the War on Terror. New York Times. Project Ploughshares. (2004). Armed conflict report 2004. Available: Nicolai, S. (2004). Learning independence: Education in http://www.ploughshares.ca/content/ACR/ACR00/ACR0 emergency and transition in Timor-Leste since 1999. 0.html. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Planning. Rupp, G. (November 2004). Lecture. Columbia University, New York, NY. Nicolai, S. (2003). Education in emergencies toolkit. London: Save the Children UK. Save the Children Alliance. (November 1996). Promoting psychosocial well-being among children Nicolai, S. & Triplehorn C. (March 2003). The Role of affected by armed conflict: Principles and approaches. Education in Protecting Children in Conflict. London: Westport, CT: International Save the Children Alliance. Overseas Development Institute. Seitz, K. (December 2004). Education and conflict: NORAD. (2003). Education - job number 1 : The role of education in the creation, prevention and Norwegian strategy for delivering Education for All by resolution of societal crises—Consequences for devel­ 2015. NORAD. opment cooperation. Rossdorf, Germany: Deutsche Obura, A. (2003). Never again: Educational reconstruc­ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) tion in Rwanda. Paris: UNESCO, IIEP. GmbH—German Technical Cooperation. Oliker, O. et. al. (2004). Aid during conflict: Interaction Sinclair, M. (2004). Learning to live together:Values and between military and civilian assistance providers in Attitudes for the 21st century. Geneva: UNESCO, IBE, Afghanistan, September 2001–June 2002. Santa Monica, Studies in Comparative Education. CA: Rand Corporation. Sinclair, M. (2002). Planning education in and after Payne, L. & Fraser, E. (March 16, 2004). Quality and emergencies. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute for access to education for refugee and internally displaced Educational Planning. children (including young adults): What can we do to assure them of a more secure future? London: DFID, Sinclair, M. (2001). Education in emergencies. UNHCR. Social Development Direct. Available: http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home.

-40- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Singer, P.W. (2001). Caution: Children at war. Parameters. for all: Gender parity, emergencies. International 2001. Working Group on Education, Conference proceedings. Finland: UNESCO, International Institute for Educational Smillie, I. (2000). Relief and development: Disjuncture Planning. Available: and dissonance. In D. Lewis & T.Wallace (eds.), New http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001336/133647 roles and relevance: Development NGOs and the chal­ e.pdf#xml=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ulis/cgi­ lenge of change. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. bin/ulis.pl?database=ged&set=4314D8B3_0_59&hits_rec Smith, A. & Vaux, (2003). Education, conflict and inter­ =3&hits_lng=eng. national development. London: Department of Tamukong, J. (July 2004). The Impact of HIV/AIDS on International Development. teachers and other education personnel in West and Sommers, M. (2004a). Co-ordinating education during Central Africa: A synthesis of the literature from 2000 emergencies and reconstruction: Challenges and to 2004. Yaounde, Cameroon: ROCARE/Educational responsibilities. Paris: UNESCO, International Institute Research Network for West and Central Africa. for Educational Planning. Tawil, S. & Harley, A. eds. (2004). Education, conflict and Sommers, M. (2004b). Education in emergencies: critical social cohesion. Geneva: UNESCO Bureau of questions and challenges.Washington DC: BEPS. International Education. Sommers, M. (2002a). Children Education and war: Terry, F. (2002). Humanitarian action and responsibility. Reaching EFA objectives in countries affected by armed In Condemned to repeat? The paradox of humanitarian conflict: A discussion paper. Washington DC:World action. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. pp. 17-54. Bank, Social Development Department. Triplehorn, C. (2001). Education: Care and protection Sommer, M. (2002b). Crossing lines:“Magnets” and of children in emergencies: A field guide. Westport, CT: mobility among Southern Sudanese. Washington DC: Save the Children. BEPS. Tusicisny, A. (2004) Civilizational conflicts: More fre­ Stephens, S. (1996). Children and the Politics of quent, longer, and bloodier? Journal of Peace Research. Culture. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University 41(4) 485-498. Press. UNAIDS, UNICEF & USAID. (July 2004). Children on Swedish Agency for International Development. (2004). the brink 2004: A joint report of new orphans esti­ Swedish humanitarian assistance. Available: mates and a framework for action. http://www.sida.se/Sida/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=3130. UNESCO. (n.d.). Available: Talbot, C. (2003). Rebuilding and developing education http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php- in situations of emergency. In Critical issues in education URL_ID=6331&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SEC­ TION=201.html.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -41­ UNESCO. (2005). EFA global monitoring report: US/DOS/BPRM. (January 13, 2004). Bureau of Education for all, the quality imperative. Paris: Population, Refugees, and Migration Guidelines for Non- UNESCO. Governmental Organizations: FY 2004. Washington, DC. Available: UNHCR. (Accessed: December 2004). Basic facts. http://www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/fs/2004/28158.htm Available: http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/basics. US/DOS/BPRM. (n.d.). Available: UNHCR. (1994). Refugee children: Guidelines on pro­ http://www.state.gov/g/prm/. tection and care. Geneva: UNHCR. USAID, Africa Bureau. (May 2005). Draft USAID Fragile UNICEF. (n.d.). Available: States Education Strategy for Africa. http://www.unicef.org/emerg/index_3739.html. USAID. (April 2005). Education strategy: Improving UNICEF. (2004). State of the world’s children 2005. lives through learning. PD-ACD-232. New York, NY: UNICEF. USAID. (October 2004). USAID Assistance to internally UNICEF. (2004). Liberia: Selected UN activities. displaced persons policy. USAID. Available: Global IDP Database. Available: http://www.db.idppro­ http://www.usaid.gov/policy/ads/200/200mbc.pdf. ject.org/Sites/IdpProjectDb/idpSurvey.nsf/wViewCountri es/731119E26CCCD929C1256E9700334C68. USAID, Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination. (January 2004). U.S. foreign aid: Meeting the challenges UNICEF (2002). News Note: UNICEF to set up Child of the 21st century. Available: Friendly Spaces for displaced children in war-torn http://www.usaid.gov/policy/pdabz3221.pdf. Liberia. Available: http://www.unicef.org/media/news­ notes/02nn05liberia.htm. USAID/Conflict Management and Mitigation Office. (Accessed: December 2004). Available: UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_pro­ Affairs. (2004). Chad 2004 revision, Consolidated grams/conflict/. Appeals Process. Geneva, Switzerland: UN. USAID/Displaced Children and Orphans Fund. US/DOL. (September 30, 2004). International Child (Accessed: December 2004). Available: Labor Program. Available: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/pro­ http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/humanitarian_assis­ grams/iclp/. tance/the_funds/dcof/. US/DOL. (May 7-8, 2003). Children in the crossfire: USAID Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance. Prevention and rehabilitation of child soldiers. Available: (September 2004). USAID/DCHA Office of U.S. http://www.dol.gov/ilab/programs/iclp/childsoldiers/main. Foreign Disaster Assistance's guidance for disaster plan­ htm. ning and response -- FY 2005. Available: http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PDACA638.pdf.

-42- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT USAID Office of Transition Initiatives. (October 2004). Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and A decade of transition: 1994-2004. Washington, DC: Children. (2004). Global survey on education in emer­ USAID. gencies. New York, NY:Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children. USAID/Office of Transition Initiatives. (September 2001). Guide to program options in conflict-prone set­ World Bank. (2005). Reshaping the future: Education tings. Available: and post conflict reconstruction. Washington, DC: http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACM211.pdf. World Bank Group. USAID/DCHA/Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance. World Bank. (Accessed: December 2004). Conflict (September 24, 2004). USAID/DCHA Office of US Prevention and Reconstruction. Available: Foreign Disaster Assistance's guidance for disaster plan­ http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/67ByDoc ning and response - FY 2005. Cable from US State Name/ConflictPreventionandReconstruction. Department,Washington DC to US consular posts and World Bank. (Accessed: December 2004). The Post- embassies. Conflict Fund. Available: USAID. (2002). Foreign aid in the national interest: http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/67ByDoc Promoting freedom, security, and opportunity. Name/ThePostConflictFund. Washington DC: USAID. Available: World Bank. (Accessed: December 2004). Conflict http://www.usaid.gov/fani/. Prevention and Reconstruction. Children and Conflict, US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. WB studies. Available: http://www.refugees.org/index.cfm. http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/67ByDoc Name/PublicationsRelatedPublicationsChildrenandConfli US Government. (2002). United States Government ct. National Security Strategy 2002. Available: http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html. World Bank. (2002). HIV/AIDS and education: A win­ dow of hope. Washington, DC:The International Bank Verhey, B. (November 2001). Child soldiers: Preventing, for Reconstruction and Development,World Bank. demobilizing and reintegrating. Washington DC:The World Bank, Africa Region Working Paper Series. World Bank/Youthink. (2005). Schools struggle to get classes up and running. Available: http://youthink.world­ Watkins, K. (2002). Universal education in crisis: Break bank.org/issues/environment/tsunami-schools.php. the cycle of poverty. Winthrop, R. & Kirk, J. (January 2005).Teacher develop­ ment and student well-being. Forced Migration Review.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -43­

APPENDIX C: INEE WORKING GROUP ON MINIMUM STANDARDS ON EDUCATION IN EMERGENCIES

EXCERPTED FROM: EXPECTED OUTCOMES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF HTTP://WWW.INEESITE.ORG/STANDARDS/ MINIMUM STANDARDS OVERVIEW.ASP Education is primarily the responsibility of governments; MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR EDUCATION IN however, governments are often unable to fulfill their EMERGENCIES, CHRONIC CRISES AND roles during wars and disasters.The standards will EARLY RECONSTRUCTION: A therefore be a common starting point for the interna­ COMMITMENT TO ACCESS, QUALITY AND tional community and others in providing guidance and ACCOUNTABILITY tools on how to reach a minimum level of educational quality.They will also contribute to strengthening the DEVELOPING GLOBAL STANDARDS resiliency of education ministries and equip them to Facilitated by the Inter-Agency Network on Education ensure that the minimum standards are implemented. In in Emergencies’ (INEE) Working Group on Minimum addition, the establishment of standards that articulate Standards for Education in Emergencies (WGMSEE), a the minimum level of educational service to be attained, broad base of stakeholders developed standards that along with indicators and guidance notes on how to articulate the minimum level of educational service to reach the standards, will give government and humani­ be attained in emergencies through to early reconstruc­ tarian workers the tools that they need to address the tion. INEE held regional, sub-regional and national con­ Education For All and UN Millennium Development sultations, INEE list-serve consultations and peer Goals. reviews.This process reflects lessons learned from the In addition, minimum standards will: Sphere Project and emphasizes transparent, cost-effec­ tive and consultative decision-making.The participatory Promote education as a core element of humani­ process was intended to enhance the applicability of tarian assistance standards to varying educational contexts, while at the Enhance accountability among humanitarian actors same time ensuring relevance to and ownership of the standards across a wider group of stakeholders. Improve coordination among partners, including education authorities Participants included representatives from affected pop­ ulations, including students, teachers and other educa­ Serve as a capacity-building and training tool to tion personnel; NGO, government and UN representa­ enhance education management and effectiveness tives with experience in education; donors and academ­ ics.They will develop standards, indicators and guidance Provide a strong advocacy tool promoting educa­ notes that reflect their own experiences and good prac­ tion to humanitarian organizations, governments, tice.The standards will apply to a variety of affected donors and populations affected by crisis populations, from refugees to internally displaced and Serve as a tool for planning, implementing and host country populations. evaluating education projects

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -45­ Furthermore, the consultative process of developing funding from the Swedish International Development standards will strengthen the education and humanitari­ Agency and the International Rescue Committee, and is an community by linking beneficiaries, practitioners, poli­ seeking additional support for the consultative process cy-makers and academics through discussions on best and the publication of standards. practice. INEE is an open network of UN agencies, non-govern­ INEE’S WORKING GROUP ON MINIMUM STANDARDS mental organizations, donors, practitioners, researchers and individuals from affected populations working INEE’s Working Group on Minimum Standards for together to ensure the right to education in emergen­ Education in Emergencies consists of 13 organizations cies and post-crisis reconstruction.The network is with expertise in education in crisis and early recon­ responsible for gathering and disseminating best prac­ struction situations: CARE Canada, CARE USA, Catholic tices in education in emergencies and ensuring a regular Relief Services, the International Rescue Committee, exchange of information among its members and part­ Norwegian Church Aid, Norwegian Refugee Council ners. INEE is led by a Steering Group composed of rep­ and the Norway United Nations Association, Save the resentatives from CARE International, International Save Children UK, Save the Children USA, Refugee Education the Children Alliance, the International Rescue Trust, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNICEF and World Committee, Norwegian Refugee Council, UNESCO, Education.The Focal Point for the standards process is UNHCR, UNICEF and the World Bank. based at the International Rescue Committee in New York City.The standards process has received core

-46- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPENDIX D: AFFECTED POPULATIONS

Refugees. The 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Returnees. People returning to their region or country Protocol state that refugees are those who have a well- of origin after conflict are referred to as “returnees.” founded fear of persecution and are forcibly displaced The resettlement of returning refugees and IDPs is an beyond the state boundaries of their countries of origin. important component of reconstruction activities. Based on these criteria, they are granted legal refugee Displaced children and orphans. The USAID Displaced status. According to the United Nations High Children and Orphans Fund defines this target group as Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), refugee children vulnerable children who are: (1) affected by armed con­ are accorded the same rights and standards as refugee flict, (2) living on or in danger of living on the street, (3) adults. A child with refugee status cannot be forced to living with disabilities, (4) otherwise separated from return to her/his country of origin (the principle of caregivers” (USAID/DCOF, n.d.). non-refoulement), and refugee children must be given access to the same level of primary education to which Victims of Sexual and Gender Based Violence (SGBV). their host country counterparts have access. In the past several years, awareness has grown regard­ Secondary education must be provided at the same ing specific dangers affecting girls and women, particu­ level that it is afforded to non-refugee aliens in the host larly in the midst of social chaos and crisis. country (UNHCR, 1994, p. 18). Youth and adolescents. There are different definitions Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). People who are of this phase of a child’s life. Some agencies and gov­ forced to migrate within their home country’s borders ernments take a broad view, for example, in a national due to war or natural disasters are considered IDPs. policy document developed by Beirzeit University in Given the fact that most conflicts today are civil rather partnership with UNICEF, describe youth and adoles­ than interstate, most war-affected forced migrants are cents as encompassing an age range from 15-35. The IDPs (Harwood & Anis, unpublished report 2001; INEE Task Team on Adolescents and Youth in Machel, 2001; USAID, 2002). IDPs are particularly vul­ Emergencies defines youth as young people between nerable to suffering and exploitation because they fall the ages of 12 and 24 (INEE, n.d.). outside of the UNHCR’s mandate and they are often difficult for aid organizations to reach for political rea­ Child soldiers. or children associated with fighting forces sons. (UNICEF, 2004) are boys and girls who have been con­ scripted by government or rebel forces to fight with or Civilians caught in conflict or “stayees.” The numbers of support an army. Children as young as five or six have people who attempt to weather low intensity conflicts been conscripted, but the average age is estimated to by remaining where they are, or who are unable to be 12 or 13, depending on the region (Singer, 2002). leave because of sieges (e.g., Sarajevo) or severe travel restrictions (e.g., Palestinians living in the Occupied Street children. According to Human Rights Watch Palestinian Territories) have increased with the increased (HRW),“the term street children refers to children for number of civil conflicts. whom the street more than their family has become their real home. It includes children who might not nec-

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -47­ essarily be homeless or without families, but who live in Orphan Due to AIDS. A child who has at least one situations where there is no protection, supervision, or parent dead from AIDS. direction from responsible adults” (HRW, n.d.). Double Orphan Due to AIDS. A child whose mother People living with HIV/AIDS. This term encompasses and father have both died, at least one due to AIDS. people who have been diagnosed with HIV but may (UNAIDS, UNICEF & USAID, July 2004) not yet developed AIDS, as well as those who have.

-48- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPENDIX E: KEY UN AGREEMENTS OUTLINING CHILDREN'S RIGHT TO EDUCATION

KEY UN AGREEMENTS OUTLINING of accessible secondary, and other forms of, education. CHILDREN'S RIGHT TO EDUCATION Quality and relevance is detailed in Article 29, which mandates an education that builds on a child’s potential SOURCE: NICOLAI. (2003). EDUCATION IN and supports their cultural identity. Psychosocial sup­ EMERGENCIES TOOLKIT. LONDON: SAVE port and enriched curriculum for conflict-affected chil­ THE CHILDREN/UK PP.7-8. dren are both emphasized in this article. Article 2 out­ The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights: lines the principle of non-discrimination, including access Article 26 outlines the right to free and compulsory for children with disabilities, gender equity, and the pro­ education at the elementary level and urges that pro­ tection of linguistic and cultural rights of ethnic minority fessional and technical education be made available.The communities. Article 31 protects a child’s right to recre­ declaration states that education should work to ation and culture. strengthen respect for human rights and promote The 1990 World Declaration on Education for All: In peace. Parents have the right to choose the kind of 1990, at a global meeting in Jomtiem,Thailand, the gov­ education provided to their child. ernments of the world committed to ensuring basic The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of education for all.Ten years later at the Dakar World Refugees: Refugee children are guaranteed the right to Education Forum, governments and agencies identified elementary education in Article 22, which states they humanitarian emergencies as a major obstacle toward should be accorded the same opportunities as nationals achieving the goals of Education for All (EFA).Within from the host country. Beyond primary school, refugee the Dakar Framework of Action, a call was made for children are treated as other aliens, allowing for the active commitment to remove disparities in access for recognition of foreign school certificates and awarding under-served groups, notably girls, working children, of scholarships. refugees, those displaced by war and disaster, and chil­ dren with disabilities. The 1966 Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights:The right to free and compulsory education at The Geneva Conventions: For situations of armed con­ the primary level and accessible secondary-level educa­ flict, the Geneva Conventions lay out particular humani­ tion is laid out in Article 13.The covenant goes on to tarian protections for people – including children – who call for basic education to be made available to those are not taking part in hostilities. In times of hostility, who have not received or completed primary educa­ states are responsible for ensuring the provision of edu­ tion. Emphasis is placed on improving conditions and cation for orphaned or unaccompanied children. In situ­ teaching standards. ations of military occupation, the occupying power must facilitate institutions “devoted to the care and education The 1989 Convention of the Rights of the Child: Article of children”. Schools and other buildings used for civil 28 calls for states to make primary education compul­ purposes are guaranteed protection from military sory and free to all, and to encourage the development attacks.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -49­ Regional Agreements: A number of regional agree- American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man, ments also address issues of education. References to Article XII; and the Protocol to the European the right to education are found in the African Charter Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, Article XI; the Fundamental Freedoms of 1952, Article 2.

-50- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPENDIX F: USAID OFFICES' INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS

As mentioned in Section II, State of the Field, intervention at appropriate moments. Thus OTI USAID disaster relief mechanisms do not always defines “four key criteria for engagement: the coun­ incorporate education in initial response stages. For try’s importance to US foreign policy, the existence example, the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict, and of a ‘window of opportunity’ for democratic devel­ Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA) houses four opment, the likelihood that OTI’s efforts would have offices that address violent conflict and disaster a significant impact, and assurance of an acceptable relief: Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA), level of risk” (OTI, 2004, p. 6). The traditional Office of Transition Initiatives, the Office of Conflict USAID gaps that OTI strives to overcome consist Management and Mitigation, and the Displaced of (1) delays in USAID responses to crisis caused Children and Orphans Fund (DCOF). Although the by lack of contingency funds and a slow budgeting other agencies may be involved in supporting edu­ process; (2) lack of flexibility in hiring staff, procuring cation in crisis programs, only DCOF makes signifi­ materials and making grants to small NGOs ill- cant mention of education in describing its work.43 equipped to deal with US government accounting See Appendix G for organizational charts of USAID procedures (OTI, 2004, p. 9). and DCHA. The Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation For example, the most recent version of OFDA’s (CMM) was created in 2002 to assess widespread Guidance for Disaster Planning and Response strict­ violent conflict and its relationship to, and impact ly prioritizes shelter, water, sanitation, health, nutri­ on, development. CMM does not manage pro­ tion, food, agriculture and livestock, and most vul­ grams of its own, but is intended to change the way nerable populations. An OFDA Disaster Assistance in which aid is planned implemented by providing Response Team typically consists of sector specialists technical expertise and support for USAID field to support an assessment of the priority sectors offices operating in countries at risk of conflict, listed. Therefore it may include an expert on pro­ (USAID, July 29, 04), e.g., conducting conflict assess­ tection, but is not likely to include an educator ments, developing “toolkits,” supporting conflict (OFDA, September 24, 2004). OFDA maintains an management programs, developing a conflict early internal commitment to limit aid grants to 12 warning system, outreach and training.44 month periods, thereby avoiding the congressional The Displaced Children and Orphans Fund criticism that the office may be subjected to if it (DCOF) was established in 1989 and has evolved seems to be carrying out activities that have been since then to focus primarily on issues of loss and considered part of traditional development work displacement among three groups of children: chil­ and therefore outside of its mandate (McClelland, dren affected by armed conflict, street children, and December 2000). children orphaned and otherwise made vulnerable Ten years ago USAID established the Office of by HIV/AIDS (Cripe & Williamson, 2002, p. xii). It Transition Initiatives (OTI) to bridge the gap provides support to programs that emphasize pro­ between its disaster assistance and development tection, demobilization of child soldiers, and reunifi­ work. OTI is meant to provide quick, high-impact cation programs, among others.45

43 OTI manages a child soldier demobilization and reintegration program in Sierra Leone that has been well-received and evaluated, for final report, see BEPS (August 2002). 44 Final Evaluation of the Office of Transition Initiatives' Program in Sierra Leone: http://www.beps.net/publications/FINAL%20EVALUATION%20OF%20OTI%20PRO­ GRAM%20IN%20SIERRA%20LEONE.PDF for final. 45 For more information see: http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_programs/conflict/.

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -51­ Office of the Office of the Inspector General Administrator CFO

Office of Equal Opportunity Programs GDA Secretariat

Office of Small Office of Disadvantaged Security Business/Minority Bureau for Bureau for Policy & Managment/CIO Program Coordination Bureau for Legislative Office of the General and Public Affairs Counsel

Bureau for Burea for Bureau for Bureau for Bureau for Democracy Economic Bureau for Bureau for Latin America Asia & the Europe & Conflict & Growth, Global Health Africa & the Near East Eurasia Humanitarian Agriculture Caribbean Assistance & Trade

AFR ANE LAC E&E DCHA Field Field Field Field Field Offices Offices Offices Offices Offices

THE CMM OFFICE WITHIN THE BUREAU FOR DEMOCRACY, CONFLICT,AND HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE (DCHA)

Office of the Assistant Administrator (AA/DCHA)

DAA Senior DAA DAA

Office of Conflict OFDA PPM Management and OTI DG PVC-ASHA FFP VIP Mitigation (CMIM)

DAA Deputy Assistant Administrator OFDA Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance PPM Office of Program, Policy, and Management OTI Office of Transition Initiatives DG Office of Democracy and Governance FFP Office of Food for Peace VIP Volunteers for Prosperity PVC-ASHA Office of Private and Voluntary Cooperation ­ American Schools and Hospitals Abroad

-52- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT APPENDIX G: USAID ORGANIZATIONAL CHARTS: 1) DCHA AND 2) USAID AGENCY-WIDE

Office of the Assistant Administrator (AA/DCHA)

Senior Deputy Assistant Administrator (DAA). (#1)

Office of U.S Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA)

Office of Program, Policy, and Management (PPC) Deputy Assistant Administrator (DAA). (#2)

Office of Conflict Management and Mitigation (CMM)

Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI)

Office of Democracy and Governance (DG) Deputy Assistant Administrator (DAA). (#3)

Office of Food for Peace (FFP)

Volunteers for Prosperity (VfP)

Office of Private and Voluntary Cooperation - American Schools and Hospitals Abroad (PVC-ASHA)

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -53­

APPENDIX H: SELECTED WEBSITES

Global Information Networks in Education (GINIE) www.ginie.com Global IDP Project www.idpproject.org Global Humanitarian Assistance www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org Humanitarian Practice Network www.odihpn.org/ International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) www.unesco.org/iiep International Labour Organisation (ILO) www.ilo.org Interagency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) www.innesite.org International Organisation for Migration (IOM) www.iom.int Overseas Development Institute www.odi.org.uk/index.html Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) www.nrc.no UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) www.reliefweb.int UNHCR www.unhcr.ch UNICEF www.unicef.org UNESCO www.unesco.org USAID Development Experience Clearing House www.dec.org/default.cfm Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children www.womenscommission.org

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -55­

APPENDIX I: UNESCO INVOLVEMENT IN EDUCATION IN CRISIS

Adapted from: Payne & Fraser, (March 2004). Quality Policy-related studies, including: responsibility and and Access to Education for Refugee and Internally co-ordination of education (role of government Displaced Children (including young adults), DFID. vis-à-vis other actors); validation of pupil qualifica­ tions for refugees, returnees and internally dis­ UNESCO is increasingly engaged in emergency educa­ placed persons; teacher management in emergen­ tion, including the Education in Crisis and cies. Reconstruction Unit, the Educational Policy Research and Studies Unit and the International Institute for A Handbook on planning and managing education Education Planning. in emergencies and reconstruction, to be pub­ lished in 2003. International Institute for Education Planning (IIEP) Training and policy forums.The IIEP Summer School, which in July 2003 looked at post-conflict IIEP provides collaborative research, training and policy reconstruction in the education sector (hosted development work. UNESCO and the IIEP are con­ jointly with the World Bank.The IIEP Summer ducting a joint program, aiming to: School was based around four main modules: contribute to building up the field of education in Access to Education,Teacher Management, emergencies and reconstruction. Curriculum and Education System Development.

build capacity in planning and managing education The review of the Summer School, available on the IIEP in this context. website, covers a series of generic questions, focused on educational planning and management functions of min­ support the efforts to disseminate and exchange istries of education in emergencies and reconstruction. information and to network. These include providing access; ensuring quality and rel­ IIEP partners include the US Social Science Research evance; building planning and management capacity; and Council, UNESCO's International Bureau of Education securing funding and developing external relations. in Geneva and The World Bank. IIEP is also conducting several studies of thematic policy IIEP Seventh Medium-Term Plan for 2002-2007 include issues in association with UNESCO Headquarters’ the following activities for 2002-2003: Section for Support to Countries in Crisis and Reconstruction (ED/EPS/CCR).The first four of these A state-of-the-art review (booklet), with a practi­ policy studies will cover: cal approach. responsibility and coordination of education in Case studies (Burundi, East Timor, Honduras, emergencies and reconstruction: the roles of gov­ Kosovo, Palestine, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and ernment vis-à-vis other actors. Sudan). accreditation, certification and validation of pupil

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -57­ and teacher qualifications for refugees, returnees Iraq and internally. Action plan (Oil for Food, res. 986) comprising the reconstruction of 150 schools mostly in the northern displaced persons; education for reintegration of part of Iraq, production of school stationary. youth at risk in post-conflict situations, with some emphasis on vocational education; education for Lebanon prevention of and educational response to natural Rehabilitation of Beirut and Tyre city centres, long-scale disasters. project of archeological excavations. Technical support in the development of basic education. In 2002-3, the UNESCO IIEP and Section for Support to Countries in Crisis and Reconstruction developed a Haiti joint program to build government’s capacity to plan Improvement of education quality in Haiti. Support for and manage education in emergencies, beginning with the expansion of the national radio network by documentation of case studies. installing new transmitters. IIEP is also involved in more direct program work. For Afghanistan example, within UNESCO’s education program for Reconstruction – facilitating workshops for Ministry offi­ Afghanistan, IIEP will be embarking on activities in edu­ cials to discuss priority education concerns. cational planning and management capacity building, thereby contributing to reconstruction and peace in the country and to security in the region and in the world at large. The operational unit has programs in the following regions: AFRICA Program Reconstruction and education in emergencies, particu­ larly special classroom kits for refugee children.Technical training or intellectual assistance to the independent media. Former Yugoslavia Reconstruction and development of school curricula. Restoration of historical city centers as UNESCO has been entrusted by the Dayton Peace Agreement.

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Source: Smith, A. & Vaux, (2003). Education, conflict integrated within the curriculum and other school activi­ and international development. London: Department of ties. One issue is the absence of a human rights dimen­ International Development p. 35. sion in initial teacher education. Other difficulties include lack of commitment at political level because of the FORMS OF PEACE EDUCATION challenges that human rights education might raise. Skills-based programmes involve workshops in com­ Civic education, citizenship and education for munication skills and interpersonal relations as well as democracy. Modern civics programmes go beyond conflict resolution techniques. It is important to consid­ simple ‘patriotic’ models of citizenship that require er how the development of interpersonal skills in con­ uncritical loyalty to the nation state. By defining ‘citizen­ flict resolution might have an impact on the dynamics of ship’ in terms of human rights and civic responsibilities, inter-group conflict within wider society. such programmes attempt to uncouple the concept of Peace programmes that are explicitly labeled ‘peace ‘citizenship’ from ‘nationality’ in a way that may make it education’ often share many of the characteristics of more difficult to mobilize political conflict around identi­ skills-based programmes but a defining characteristic ty issues. may be that a particular orientation is taken towards Education for international development. The rele­ ‘violence’. In some cases the defining characteristic may vance of such programmes for the prevention of con­ be that the programme material is heavily contextual­ flict has been heightened by the impact of globalization ized within a specific local or regional conflict.The and the events of 11 September 2001.The relationship rationale as to why peace education programmes are between global security, the role of international devel­ directed towards certain groups (children, adolescents, opment aid and social justice issues in an unequal world adults, politicians, combatants, bereaved) is also an is an important question. important question to ask. Summary of the Inter-Agency Peace Education Multicultural and intercultural education emphasizes Programme (PEP) learning about diversity and concepts such as mutual understanding and interdependence. It may be simplistic Sources: to think that conflict arises simply because of lack of Payne & Fraser, (March 2004). Quality and Access to understanding of other cultures. McCarthy (1991) sug­ Education for Refugee and Internally Displaced Children gests that such approaches lack impact if they ‘abandon (including young adults), DFID. the crucial issues of structural inequality and differential power relations in society’. Obura, A. (March 2002). “Peace Education Programme in Dadaab and Kakuma, Kenya Evaluation Summary” In Human rights education. Here the emphasis is on uni­ association with David W. Khatete and Zipporah Rimbui. versal values, concepts of equality and justice, and the UNHCR. responsibilities of individuals and states.There are signifi­ cant difficulties in achieving approaches that are well

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -59­ Central tenet: Peace can be fostered through the In addition there is a public awareness program using adopting “peace promoting behavior” and by the prac­ posters and drama, akin to a communication compo­ tice of “specific peace related skills, which can be nent, and a fourth component of various planned and taught” (Payne & Fraser, March 2004, p. 56). spontaneous PEP activities, which are characterized by their multiplicity and inventiveness and by the diversity The objectives of PEP are: of their initiators. Refugees are active participants in the promotion of ‘positive peace’, enhancing the quali­ program. ty of life for all individuals, and for the community PEP has adopted a skills–oriented approach aimed at and nation; and they aim to prevent violent con­ behavior development and/or behavior change. It uses flict. a variety of activities for teaching and learning effective­ teaching peace building skills to pre-empt conflict, ness in the program, focusing on the learning of specific including an initiation into mediation techniques skills and on skill practice during each workshop and for conflict resolution and dispute containment. each lesson of the year.The same skill is then practiced in the wider context of school life, in the home, and in in order to strengthen skill acquisition, provide the street.The program is characterized by experiential opportunities for individuals to acquire new learning. PEP aims at improving the quality of life for all understandings, values and attitudes related to refugees, now and in the long term. It focuses on con­ peace. (Payne & Fraser, March 2004, p. 55) flict prevention, and includes elements of conflict resolu­ PEP has two main thrusts to encompass all potential tion, opting for mediation techniques which produce school and out-of-school learners, from camp leaders more satisfying long term positive outcomes for every­ and secondary school graduates in the camp, to illiter­ one, in preference to intrusive methods with less ate adults, housewives, goatherds, and youth who have durable outcomes. missed out on schooling: PEP describes itself as an education program rather A. The schools program, with one peace lesson a than a communication or conflict resolution program. It week for all children at primary and secondary emphasizes skill acquisition, and is activity-centered. It schools, with corresponding teacher guides for promotes peace building and conflict prevention. 28 lessons per year for eight primary grades. As an education program, PEP aims at individual learn­ B. The community workshop program, for adults ing over time, through long-term programs: a twelve and out-of-school youth, comprising an exten­ year program in schools and an initial 12-unit communi­ sive program - a weekly workshop over ten or ty workshop reinforced by follow-up activities over the twelve weeks; or a more intensive option run­ years. PEP is first and foremost a skills acquisition pro­ ning over ten/twelve consecutive half days. gram targeting various peace building skills such as: the skills of cooperation; communication skills - including enhanced listening, speaking skills and the skill of

-60- UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT remaining silent; skills of trusting, of practicing empathy; techniques, which promote the active participation of skills of assertiveness deriving from enhanced self- the parties, concerned in finding a win-win, durable esteem and self-image; the skill of taking increased indi­ solution facilitated by a mediator. vidual and social responsibility - for one’s life and deci­ Teacher / facilitator training follows a pattern of an initial sions, and for other people; the skill of controlling emo­ ten-day training of facilitators and teachers, followed by tions; mediation skills (a conflict resolution skill, together inservicing over two further ten-day sessions during the with problem solving, negotiation, and reconciliation year. It is supplemented by regular visits of PEP advisors skills) derived from an increased attitude of tolerance to schools/workshops and monitoring; professional and open-mindedness. development meetings, which are fortnightly or monthly PEP is not a communication program despite the fact when regular, organized by PEP advisors for mixed that is has a minor communication component, which it groups of teachers and facilitators; and follow-up train­ calls ‘public awareness’. It is also not a conflict resolu­ ing at a later date. tion program, although it includes a small component on conflict resolution skills. It teaches conflict mediation

EDUCATION IN CRISIS SITUATIONS -61­

PHOTO CREDITS: Page 1 Photo by Ms. Francoise Beukes. An accelerated learning class in Baghlan province.

Page 5 Photo by Creative Associates Interternational, Inc. Girls from Al Eman School in Iraq display the student kits they received from the USAID Revitalization of Iraqi Schools and Stabilization of Education (RISE) project.

Page 17 Photo by Lawrence Ndagije. Students gather for a Presidential Initiative on AIDS Strategy for Communication to Youth (PIASCY) assembly at Angole Were Primary School in Uganda where drama, song and poetry are used to relay messages about HIV/AIDS prevention and life skills. This skit is of a person sick with AIDS visiting a counselor to get advice on how to live with the disease.

Page 25 Photo by Sarida Matug. Children huddle together in a makeshift classrooms in Sitangkai,Tawi-tawi Province, in Southern Philippines trying to seek elementary education through CAII-assisted Alternative Learning Systems (ALS) program in the area.

Page 31 Photo by Janet Robb. School in the Machinga District of Malawi.

DESIGN & LAYOUT: graphics/Creative Associates International, Inc. U.S.Agency for International Development 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20523 Tel: (202) 712-0000 Fax: (202) 216-3524 www.usaid.gov