Yakutia) Rural Communities

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Article Inﬂuence of Permafrost Landscapes Degradation on Livelihoods of Sakha Republic (Yakutia) Rural Communities

Vasylii Lytkin 1,2,*, Alexander Suleymanov 1 , Lilia Vinokurova 1, Stepan Grigorev 1, Victoriya Golomareva 1,3, Svyatoslav Fedorov 1,3, Aitalina Kuzmina 1 and Igor Syromyatnikov 2

1 Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, The Institute for Humanities Research and Indigenous Studies of the North, 677027 Yakutsk, Russia; [email protected] (A.S.); [email protected] (L.V.); [email protected] (S.G.); [email protected] (V.G.); [email protected] (S.F.); [email protected] (A.K.) 2 Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Melnikov Permafrost Institute, 677010 Yakutsk, Russia; [email protected] 3 M.K. Ammosov North-Eastern Federal University, 677000 Yakutsk, Russia * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Climate change and the degradation of permafrost prove to be severe challenges for hu- manity. At present, the northern communities and those living in rural areas are already facing the consequences. This article is based on ﬁeld research conducted in the Yunkyur, Olyokminsky, and Amginsky Districts of Sakha Republic (Yakutia) during 2018–2020. These settlements have one of the richest agricultural traditions in the region; however, the inhabitants of these villages now face serious consequences of permafrost degradation. The authors rely on a mixed set of methods and approaches, including sociological surveys, expert and in-depth interviewing, and appropriate archival and museum materials. Methodology of remote sensing and landscape–geocryological research was integrated. The resulting studies made it possible to demonstrate increasingly widespread Citation: Lytkin, V.; Suleymanov, A.; thermokarst processes in the key areas studied. The authors determined that the degradation of Vinokurova, L.; Grigorev, S.; permafrost has led to problems with the safety and development of the housing stock, especially Golomareva, V.; Fedorov, S.; deformation of houses and outbuildings, and reduction of areas suitable for construction. Territo- Kuzmina, A.; Syromyatnikov, I. Inﬂuence of Permafrost Landscapes ries affected by thermokarst also drop out of agricultural use. Finally, the authors identify some Degradation on Livelihoods of Sakha adaptation mechanisms to mitigate the effects of changes in permafrost landscapes. Republic (Yakutia) Rural Communities. Land 2021, 10, 101. Keywords: Yakutia; permafrost; climate change; thermokarst; rural communities; life-sustaining sys- https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020101 tem

Received: 28 November 2020 Accepted: 20 January 2021 Published: 22 January 2021 1. Introduction In the permafrost zone, ice-rich sediments occupy a significant territory, the main Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral part of which is confined to the polar and subpolar regions of Eastern Siberia [1]. In the with regard to jurisdictional claims in Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) (hereinafter–Yakutia), such regions occupy 31% of the total area published maps and institutional affil- of the region [2]. In the context of modern climate change, they are the most vulnerable to iations. transformation. The most susceptible permafrost is located under open landscapes (mainly meadows) of the ice complex or yedoma. The thickness of the active layer almost every summer reaches the surface of wedge ice, which leads to the melting and degradation of permafrost with widespread development of thermokarst. In recent studies in Cen- Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. tral Yakutia, we observe high intensity in thermokarst development, with rates reaching Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 10–15 cm/year [3,4]. This article is an open access article Thermokarst refers to cryogenic processes resulting when characteristic landforms are distributed under the terms and changed due to the melting of ice-rich frozen sediments or ice complexes [5]. The study of conditions of the Creative Commons the dynamics and distribution of modern thermokarst forms is essential due to their use as Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// one of the main permafrost degradation indicators. The formation of such structures is asso- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ ciated with landscape transformations under climate change [3,6]. Currently, thermokarst 4.0/).

Land 2021, 10, 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020101 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/land Land 2021, 10, 101 2 of 21

is most active in open natural and anthropogenic landscapes [7,8], which are characterized by a thin protective layer (≈0.2 m). This transient layer occurs between the active layer and the top of the ice complex [9], and in areas covered with boreal forest, its thickness reaches 0.7–1.0 m [8]. This layer features a very high ice content of the enclosing soils (up to 60−70%), which is represented by massive-agglomerate and reticulate cryostructures. The lithological composition of the layer consists of silts [1]. This layer prevents the thawing of permafrost [10]. As a result of current climate warming, destruction of the protective layer occurs, leading to the rapid development of thermokarst processes [11]. The degradation of permafrost, including the development of thermokarst, is expected to affect 33.6% of the infrastructure in Yakutia by the middle of the 21st century. This entails high social and economic costs for the region [12]. As a result, numerous settlements, industrial facilities, and agricultural lands, located within the distribution of icy frozen rocks and the ice complex, fall into the risk zone [13]. In this regard, the study of the activation of thermokarst in such areas and its inﬂuence on various aspects of rural communities that are most dependent on the state of the environment is an urgent task of contemporary science. Its solution will allow developing timely measures to prevent or help mitigate hazardous cryogenic process impacts on the population and on business entities. We must consider the experience gained by representatives of local communities affected by thermokarst—experience in responding and adapting to adverse changes in the state of the environment. This enables us to develop practical recommendations based on the complex materials for the authorities at various levels. It should be noted that the research on the problem of permafrost degradation and its effect has received a lot of attention in recent years. Focus has been not only rural communities but also urban ones. One of the key works in this ﬁeld is the research of the Russian-American researcher N.I. Shiklomanov. Academic Shiklomanov has studied potential changes in Russia’s urban permafrost infrastructure, its stability under predicted climatic changes, and the adverse effects manifested by climate change in the Arctic in local urban settlements [14,15]. Covering both industrial and agricultural zones of the Arctic is the Permafrost and Culture (PaC) project, within which the researchers have published a series of essential publications. It is symbolic that this Yakutia project was launched in 2014 by studying the unique system of alas, which is traditionally of great importance in the life support of the most numerous ethnic groups in the region: the Sakha (Yakuts). Project leaders Habek I.O. and Ulrich M. explain the importance of consolidating natural and social science efforts to assess the dynamics of changes in permafrost soils in terms of their impact on land use [16]. We fully endorse their multi-disciplinary appeal to combine the methods of natural and social sciences in research on the relationship between permafrost and culture. An excellent example of such a partnership is the collective article “Permafrost Liveli- hoods: A Transdisciplinary Review and Analysis of Thermokarst-Based Systems of In- digenous Land Use”. The International Permafrost Association (IPA) has supported this research as part of activities of the IPA Action Group “Permafrost and Culture (Pac): In- tegrating Environmental, Geo-, and Social Sciences to Assess Permafrost Dynamics and Indigenous Land Use” [17]. This extensive article contains the results of the authors’ long-term work, among whom the well-known scientists of Yakutia, the geocryologist A. Fedorov, and R. Desyatkin, an expert on alas landscapes, analyzed changes in the state of the thermokarst using alas historical materials. A comprehensive analysis of Sakha traditional alas-based economy is enriched by the long-term research of H. Takakura on the adaptation of pastoralist communities to climatic conditions [18,19]. Anthropological measurement of alas systems was carried out by S. Crate, who has researched the Viliui region, identifying the perceptions, understandings, and responses of residents to unprecedented climate change [20]. S. Crate should be recognized for accentuating perceptions of climate change by the Indigenous people themselves at the local community level and mobilizing local Indigenous knowledge in understanding the current natural processes. A previous article by Crate and Fedorov [21] documents the Land 2021, 10, 101 3 of 21

vital dialogue and the “knowledge exchange” approach that the authors use between the scientists—an anthropologist and a permafrost researcher—and the indigenous populations. To date, interdisciplinary collaboration has developed in the study of permafrost processes in Sakha Republic, which has brought together scientists from different coun- tries. They have comprehensively studied various aspects of permafrost change impact on human life support systems. In particular, recent scientific achievements in study of the perception of the current climate and permafrost changes include the work of our colleagues Takakura et al. “Differences in Local Perceptions about Climate and Environmental Changes among Residents in a Small Community in Eastern Siberia” [22]. The high interest of researchers on the topic of “melting permafrost” is evidenced, in particular, by an article by French scientists Doloisio and Vanderlinden based on interview materials in Yakutsk “The perception of Permafrost Thaw in the Sakha Republic (Russia): Narratives, Culture and Risk in the Face of Climate Change” [23]. There are also exciting works of Russian researchers. Here, geographically, the research by A. N. Svinoboev and A. B. Neustroeva A.B. is closest to us. These researchers paid attention to the perception by rural residents of climatic changes that have occurred in the last decade, including the transformation of the state of permafrost. They note changes in the form of residential buildings, courtyard plots, and the landscapes of the villages of Megino-Kangalassky, Tattinsky, Ust-Aldansky, and Churapchinsky regions of Yakutia [24]. Their tasks and results resonate with the tasks and conclusions of anthropological and sociological research conducted earlier in the same regions by one of the authors of this article [25,26]. In general, similar to ourselves, the researchers recorded the recognition by rural residents of the realities of climatic and temperature changes, which create challenges at various levels for everyday life and individual households. A review of existing works on climate change and permafrost degradation effects in Yakutia shows that the focus of most investigations is on the Sakha people (Yakuts) and the areas where their traditional culture has best preserved. In this case, scientists dealing with the problems of sustainable rural livelihoods leave out an interesting part of the local community life. We are talking about territories located at the junction of agriculture and livestock raising: in these areas, not only economical but also ethnic traditions intersect. Historically, in Yakutia, agriculture was introduced by the Russian population, who began to migrate to these territories in the 17th century. They lived near the aboriginal communities of the Sakha (Yakuts), with each group maintaining animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing. This neighborhood gave rise to a select group of districts where two closely related ethnic groups coexisted—Russians and Yakuts. They adopted many economic and cultural traditions from each other. In our opinion, this economic and cultural symbiosis is a valuable civilizational experience. We were inspired by the conclusion of colleagues studying life in permafrost conditions that “there is a need for more detailed information of settlement and land-use history” [17]. This article combines interdisciplinary observations of permafrost processes and covers geographical regions beyond the western or the central settlements of the republic. For the first time, it covers the life activity on permafrost soils of the Yakut cattle-breeder’s communities and the agricultural communities of Yakutia with a mixed ethnic population, which are in many ways unique in economic and cultural aspects. The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of thermokarst processes on livelihoods in the villages of Amga in Amginsky district and Yunkyur in Olyokminsky district of Yakutia. The term “livelihood” is used here as defined by R. Chambers and G. Conway in 1992: A livelihood comprises people, their capabilities, and their means of living, including resources, stores, claims, and access. A livelihood is sustainable if it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and when it maintains or enhances the capabilities and assets, provides for future generations, and has net beneficial effects on other livelihoods locally and globally in the short and long term [27]. This study is part of a project supported by the Russian Science Foundation aimed at identifying the evolution of the role of cold in the life of the rural population of Yaku- Land 2021, 10, 101 4 of 21

tia: “Cryoanthropology: Natural Low Temperatures in the Life Support System of Rural Communities of Yakutia (Traditional Practices, Modern Challenges, and Adaptation Strate- gies)”. Considering the context of Cryoanthropology, we could not ignore the problem of the contemporary “cold deficit” (a consequence of climate change and an increase in the average annual temperature), its impact on the state of permafrost, and the life of local communities. Several factors determined the choice of Amga and Yunkyur for the research of this project. Dynamic processes of degradation of permafrost characterize both settlements. These processes and their impact on local communities had previously been neglected. History unites both villages. It was on their territory where in the 1630s, Russian settlers had made the first attempts to introduce agriculture into the region. On the one hand, agriculture has had a severe impact on the preservation of permafrost, far more than the traditional economic practices of the Indigenous peoples of the area—the Sakha (Yakuts), Evenkis, Evens, Yukaghirs, and Chukchi: cattle breeding, horse breeding, reindeer breeding, hunting, and fishing. On the other hand, of all rural practices, thermokarst primarily limits the possibilities for agricultural development. In addition, significant, direct descendants of the first settlers have survived in Amga and Yunkyur. It seems essential to us to find out how the problems that have arisen with implementing the primordial occupation of many generations of their ancestors affect the residents. These concerns are one reason why we chose to do our research on the territories of the most extended agricultural development in Yakutia. There are also significant differences between Amga and Yunkyur, which are of comparative interest. First of all, they are located in different geographical regions of Yakutia. Amga is located in Central Yakutia. Yunkyur is in the Southwest. Winters are less cold here, and ice complexes are less powerful. Both settlements differ in their levels of access to water. In the case of the Amga, its location is on the bank of the eponymous rather large Amga River, which is one of the most ecologically untouched rivers of the republic. Near Yunkyur, there are only small lakes. Finally, ethnic composition differs. Amga is a mono-national village—the overwhelming majority of the population is Sakha (Yakuts). In Yunkyur, there are approximately equal numbers of Russians and Sakha (Yakuts). Of course, not all of these factors are directly related to the issues discussed in this article, but they are essential in the broader context.

2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Research Area 2.1.1. Amga Village The study area is located in the southeastern part of Central Yakutia, on the left bank of the Amga River (Figure1). Geomorphologically, the study area is situated in the Prilenskoye Plateau on the above ﬂoodplain terrace of the left bank with a height of 149–213 m. It is composed of a loamy-sandy loam stratum with a large ice-wedge ice up to 15–20 m thick. The climate of the study area is sharply continental. The average annual air temperature for the “Amga” Meteorological Station is 8.3 ◦C. Average January values reach −40.8 ◦C, and in July, they reach +17.6 ◦C. The annual precipitation in the region averages 270 mm [28]. According to the Permafrost Landscape Map of the YASSR (Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) [29,30], the territory is located within the Amga-Aldan gently sloping central taiga, with a continuous distribution of permafrost. The thickness of permafrost here is 200–300 m [29]. The ground temperature at the depth of zero annual amplitude ranges from −2 to −3 ◦C. The active layer thickness varies from 1.0 to 1.5 m, depending on the landscape setting [29,30]. Cryogenic processes such as thermokarst, thermal erosion, soliﬂuction, and frost heaving are widely developed in the study area. Land 2021, 10, 101 5 of 21 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 22

Figure 1. Key research area of Amga Village (b)/(aa).). Orthomosaic Orthomosaic of of the the key key research research area area ( (aa).).

AccordingBefore the arrivalto the Permafrost of Russian settlersLandscape in Yakutia Map of in the the YASSR 17th century, (Yakut Yakuts Autonomous and Evenkis So- vietlived Socialist in the Republic) Amga basin. [29,30], The the type territory of settlement is located of within both ethnicthe Amga-Aldan groups did gently not imply slop- ingthe central creation taiga, of any with large a continuous stationary settlements.distribution of Thus, permafrost. the territories The thickness of the Yakuts of perma- were scattered mainly over the innumerable alas. Moreover, one or several families lived in frost here is 200–300 m [29]. The ground temperature at the depth of zero annual ampli- them. The main economic occupation of the Yakuts was cattle breeding and horse breeding. tude ranges from −2 to −3 °C. The active layer thickness varies from 1.0 to 1.5 m, depending The Evenkis led a nomadic lifestyle. Reindeer husbandry and hunting were at the heart of on the landscape setting [29,30]. Cryogenic processes such as thermokarst, thermal ero- their occupations. sion, solifluction, and frost heaving are widely developed in the study area. As noted, the Amga Village became one of the first places where Russians tried Before the arrival of Russian settlers in Yakutia in the 17th century, Yakuts and Ev- to adapt their agricultural practices. According to the leading expert on the history of enkis lived in the Amga basin. The type of settlement of both ethnic groups did not imply Russian colonization of Yakutia, Safronov F.G., the first attempt to settle them in the middle the creation of any large stationary settlements. Thus, the territories of the Yakuts were reaches of the Amga dates back to 1652. In 1685, 17 families had already lived in the Amga scattered mainly over the innumerable alas. Moreover, one or several families lived in Village, whose members were cultivating 164 hectares of land. By the middle of the 18th them. The main economic occupation of the Yakuts was cattle breeding and horse breed- century, due to the natural increase and resettlement of peasants from other regions of ing. The Evenkis led a nomadic lifestyle. Reindeer husbandry and hunting were at the Russia, the population of Amga reached several hundred people [31] (pp. 14–15). In 1862, heartapproximately of their occupations. 798 people lived in the Amga Village. Agriculture and cattle breeding remainedAs noted, the leading the Amga sectors Village of the became economy one at of the the time. first places where Russians tried to adaptAfter their the agricultural revolution practices. of 1917, the According new government to the leading undertook expert significant on the history administrative of Rus- sianand colonization territorial transformations of Yakutia, Safronov and radical F.G., the reform first ofattempt the foundations to settle them of agriculture. in the middle In reaches1930, Amga of the became Amga thedates administrative back to 1652. centerIn 1685, of 17 the families created had Amginsky already Districtlived in ofthe Yakutia. Amga Village,In parallel, whose leadership members carried were cultivating out a collectivization 164 hectares policy of land. in agriculture. By the middle The of collective the 18th century,farm “Pobeda” due to appearedthe natural in Amga,increase which and rese laterttlement became of part peasants of the state from farm other “Amginsky”, regions of Russia,which existedthe population until the of USSR Amga collapsed. reached several hundred people [31] (pp. 14–15). In 1862, approximatelyThe Soviet 798 period people was lived marked in the by Amga extensive Village. development Agriculture characteristic and cattle breeding of the Soviet re- mainedUnion economythe leading in sectors general of and the theeconomy country’s at the agricultural time. sector in particular, which re- quiredAfter the the introduction revolution of of ever-larger 1917, the new areas government into agricultural undertook circulation. significant Indicative administra- was the tiveincrease and territorial in the area transformations cultivated by the and Amga radica Statel reform Farm. of In the periodfoundations from 1957of agriculture. to 1992, in Inthe 1930, Amga Amga state became farm, 1702 the hectaresadministrative of stubble cent ander of about the created 4200 hectares Amginsky of virgin District and of fallow Ya- kutia.lands In fell parallel, under plowing leadership [32 ]carried (pp. 18–25). out a collectivization policy in agriculture. The col- lectiveAfter farm the “Pobeda” collapse ofappeared the Soviet in UnionAmga, and wh theich socio-economiclater became part crisis of inthe Russia, state largefarm “Amginsky”,state collective which farms existed were until liquidated, the USSR and collapsed. they were replaced by significantly smaller enterprises,The Soviet representing period was both marked state by and extensive private development forms of ownership characteristic [33]. of At the the Soviet same Uniontime, thereeconomy was significantin general sequestrationand the country’s of the agricultural area of cultivated sector in land. particular, The graph which below re- quired(Figure the2) refersintroduction to the entire of ever-larger Amga District; areas in however,to agricultural it can circulation. also represent Indicative the district was thecenter increase itself. in The the territories area cultivated of the by formerly the Am arablega State lands Farm. either In remainedthe period abandonedfrom 1957 to or 1992,used in for the construction. Amga state farm, 1702 hectares of stubble and about 4200 hectares of virgin and fallow lands fell under plowing [32] (pp. 18–25). Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22

After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the socio-economic crisis in Russia, large stateAfter collective the collapse farms wereof the li Sovietquidated, Union and and they the were socio-economic replaced by crisis significantly in Russia, smaller large stateenterprises, collective representing farms were both liquidated, state and andprivat theye forms were of repl ownershipaced by [33]. significantly At the same smaller time, enterprises,there was significant representing sequestration both state andof the privat areae of forms cultivated of ownership land. The [33]. graph At the below same (Figure time, Land 2021, 10, 101 there2) refers was to significant the entire sequestrationAmga District; of however, the area ofit cancultivated also represent land. The the graph district below center (Figure 6itself. of 21 2)The refers territories to the entire of the Amga formerly District; arable however, lands either it can remained also represent abandoned the district or used center for itself. con- Thestruction. territories of the formerly arable lands either remained abandoned or used for construction.

Figure 2.2. The sown area ofof cropscrops inin thethe AmgaAmga RegionRegion (Ulus)(Ulus) 1990–20171990–2017 (in(in hectares)hectares) [[34].34]. Figure 2. The sown area of crops in the Amga Region (Ulus) 1990–2017 (in hectares) [34]. Another indicatorindicator thatthat needs needs to to be be addressed addressed is is the the dynamics dynamics of theof the Amga Amga population. popula- Intion. theAnother In Soviet the Soviet indicator period, period, in that this in needsthis respect, respect, to be it wasaddreit was alsossed also characterized characterizedis the dynamics by by a ofa signiﬁcantsignificant the Amga increase.population.In Amga, In the in inSoviet 1939, 1939, period, there there were in were this 1230 1230respect, people, people, it was and and also in 1989, incharacterized 1989, there there were by were 5191 a significant 5191 people. people. Theincrease. pop- The Inpopulationulation Amga, of in Amga, of 1939, Amga, therewith with wererare rare exceptions, 1230 exceptions, people, increased increasedand in 1989, annually annually there inwere in the the 5191 post-Soviet post-Soviet people. periodThe pop- asas ulationwellwell ((FigureFigure of Amga,3 3)) becausebecause with rare thethe village,village, exceptions, as noted, increased isis thethe annually regionalregional centerin the ofpost-Soviet the Amginsky period Ulus. as wellThe populationpopulation(Figure 3) because of Amga the in village, 20182018 waswas as noted, 66266626 people,people, is the regional ofof whichwhich center moremore of thanthan the 90%Amginsky90% werewere Sakha SakhaUlus. The(Yakuts).(Yakuts). population TheThe toptop of placeplace Amga in in thein the 2018 economy economy was 6626 is is agriculture: agriculture: people, of meat meatwhich and and more dairy dairy than cattle cattle 90% breeding, breeding, were Sakha cattle cat- (Yakuts).andtle and horse horse The breeding, breeding,top place growing ingrowing the crops—vegetables,economy crops—vegetables, is agriculture: grain, grain, meat and andand fodder. fodder.dairy cattle breeding, cattle and horse breeding, growing crops—vegetables, grain, and fodder.

Figure 3. The population of Amga Village 1939–2018 [35,36]. Figure 3. The population of Amga Village 1939–2018 [35,36]. Figure 3. The population of Amga Village 1939–2018 [35,36]. 2.1.2. Yunkyur Village 2.1.2. Yunkyur Village The study area is located in the southwestern part of Yakutia, on the Lena River left 2.1.2. Yunkyur Village bank,The at astudy distance area of is 6 located km northwest in the southwestern of the Olyokminsky part of District’sYakutia, onregional the Lena center River city left of bank,OlyokminskThe at a studydistance (Figure area of is4).6 km locatedGeomorphologically, northwest in the of southwestern the Olyokminsky it is located part District’s ofon Yakutia,an alluvial regional on terrace the center Lena (187–234 city River of Olyokminskleftm a.s.l.) bank, in atthe a(Figure distancetransition 4). ofGeomorphologically, zone 6 km between northwest the Lena-Aldan of theit is Olyokminskylocated flat on plateau an District’salluvial and the terrace regional Pre-Vilyui (187–234 center flat mcitytrap a.s.l.) ofplateau. Olyokminsk in the Its transition hypsometry (Figure zone4 ). correlatesbetween Geomorphologically, the with Lena-Aldan the Magan it flat isterrace locatedplateau of ontheand an middle the alluvial Pre-Vilyui Lena terrace River flat trap([37].187–234 plateau.It is mseparated a.s.l. Its )hypsometry in from the transition younger correlates zoneterraces with between by the a steep Magan the Lena-Aldan scarp terrace with of Cambrian ﬂat the plateau middle limestone and Lena the River Pre-and [37].Vilyuidolomite It ﬂatis separated exposed trap plateau. at from the Itsfoot.younger hypsometry The terracesterrace correlates materi by a steepal consists with scarp the ofwith Magan silts Cambrian that terrace contain limestone of theice wedges middle and dolomiteLenaup to River10 m exposed thick. [37]. The It at is the surface separated foot. isThe characterized from terrace younger materi by terracesal the consists presence by of a silts steepof shallow that scarp contain depressions with ice Cambrian wedges with uplimestoneno todistinct 10 m andthick. margins, dolomite The surfaceas well exposed isas characterized the at widespre the foot. byad The theoccurrence terracepresence materialof of mid-Holocene shallow consists depressions ofalas silts basins, with that nocontainup distinctto 15 ice m margins, wedgesin depth. upas The well to 10climate as m the thick. ofwidespre the The stud surfaceady occurrencearea isis characterizedsharply of mid-Holocene continental. by the The presencealas averagebasins, of upshallowannual to 15 air depressionsm temperaturein depth. withThe for climate no the distinct nearby of the margins, Olyokminsk study asarea well Weatheris sharply as the Station widespread continental. is −6.7 occurrence The°С. Averageaverage of annualmid-Holocene air temperature alas basins, for upthe tonearby 15 m inOlyokminsk depth. The Weather climate ofStation the study is −6.7 area °С is. Average sharply continental. The average annual air temperature for the nearby Olyokminsk Weather Station is −6.7 ◦C. Average January values reach −32.2 ◦C, and July, they reach +18.0 ◦C. Annual precipitation in the region averages 315 mm [28]. Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 22

Land 2021, 10, 101 7 of 21 January values reach −32.2 °С, and July, they reach +18.0 °С. Annual precipitation in the region averages 315 mm [28].

Figure 4. Key research area ofof YunkyurYunkyur VillageVillage ((aa).). OrthomosaicOrthomosaic ofof thethe keykey researchresearch area area ( b(b).).

KnowledgeKnowledge ofof permafrostpermafrost conditionsconditions inin thethe areaarea isis limitedlimited andand isis mostlymostly containedcontained inin internalinternal researchresearch reports reports of of the the Melnikov Melnikov Permafrost Permafrost Institute Institute and an geotechnicald geotechnical exploration explora- records.tion records. According According to the to the permafrost-landscape permafrost-landscape zoning, zoning, this this area area is is located located within within thethe OlyokmaOlyokma Province of discontinuous permafrost [2] [2] with a thickness of 100–150 m [[28].28]. ◦ PermafrostPermafrost temperaturestemperatures at at the the depth depth of of zero zero annual annual amplitude amplitude vary vary from from− −0.20.2 to to− −1.01.0 °C,C, andand active-layeractive-layer thicknessesthicknesses vary vary from from 1.6 1.6 m m in in wet wet boreal boreal forests forests to 3.0to 3.0 m inm openin open areas areas [2]. [2]. The agricultural development of the contemporary territory of Yunkyur began approx- imatelyThe simultaneously agricultural development with the development of the contemporary of the Amga territory village. of BeforeYunkyur the began Russians’ ap- arrival,proximately the Sakha simultaneously (Yakuts) and with Evenkis the developm living onent the of territory the Amga of the village. Olyokminsky Before the region Rus- andsians’ Amga arrival, did the not Sakha know (Yakuts) agriculture. and Evenkis living on the territory of the Olyokminsky regionIn and the 17thAmga century, did not on know the right agriculture. bank of the Malaya Cherepanikha river near its mouth (whichIn isthe now 17th Yunkyur), century, the on peasants the right founded bank of the the village Malaya of OlyokminskayaCherepanikha river [38] (p.near 113). its Atmouth the end(which of the is now 18th Yunkyur), century, by the decree peasants of Catherine founded II,the the village Vilyui of andOlyokminskaya Amga peasants [38] resettled(p. 113). dueAt the to poorend of harvests. the 18th They century, founded by decree a new village,of Catherine which II, the the latter Vilyui group and named Amga “Amginskaya”peasants resettled in memorydue to poor of their harvests. original They home. founded By the a 1770s,new village, about 400which people the livedlatter in both settlements; in 1864, there were 789 people [31] (p. 122). Their main occupation group named “Amginskaya” in memory of their original home. By the 1770s, about 400 was agriculture and cattle breeding. According to the data for 1917, the inhabitants of people lived in both settlements; in 1864, there were 789 people [31] (p. 122). Their main the Amginskaya and Olyokminskaya villages sowed 655 hectares of land with rye, wheat, occupation was agriculture and cattle breeding. According to the data for 1917, the inhab- barley, and oats, as well as vegetables (Figure5)[39] (pp. 5–6). itants of the Amginskaya and Olyokminskaya villages sowed 655 hectares of land with One important consequence of the Soviet transformations mentioned above was rye, wheat, barley, and oats, as well as vegetables (Figure 5) [39] (pp. 5–6). changing Amginskaya and Olyokminskaya villages into Yunkyur, Kuranda, and Olyok- minskoye. In the course of collectivization, Yunkyur, since 1927, has been the center of various collective farms; since 1951, the center has been the united collective farm “Pravda,” and since 1971, it has been the state farm “Olyokminsky” [38]. During the USSR years, the essential branches of the Yunkyur economy were animal husbandry and grain growing, as well as vegetable growing, which had a signiﬁcant development here. Similar to the Amga State Farm, the Yunkyur branch was characterized by a substantial increase in cultivated areas—up to 4697 hectares by 1977 [40]. By 2019, these indicators decreased to 2260 ha, i.e., more than a 200% decrease [41]. Land 2021, 10, 101 8 of 21 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22

Figure 5.5. OutskirtsOutskirts ofof the the modern modern village village of Yunkyur.of Yunkyur. Late Late 19th 19th to early to early 20th century.20th century. Photo byPhoto Eresko by E.P.Eresko from E.P. the from Museum the Museum of the History of Agriculture of Yakutia, Olyokminsk. of the History of Agriculture of Yakutia, Olyokminsk.

OneThe populationimportant ofconsequence Yunkyur in of the the Soviet Soviet period transformations increased consistently: mentioned in above 1938, therewas changingwere 335 peopleAmginskaya in the villageand Olyokminskaya [42]; in 1984, there villages were into 1058 Yunkyur, people [Kuranda,43]. and Olyok- minskoye.After theIn the collapse course of theof collectivization, USSR, the number Yunkyur, of residents since in 1927, Yunkyur has remainedbeen the relativelycenter of variousstable for collective a long time, farms; and since in 2012, 1951, it was the 1139 center people has [44been]. However, the united in recentcollective years, farm the “Pravda,”population and outflow since 1971, has significantly it has been the accelerated, state farm and “Olyokminsky” now, a little less[38]. than a thousand peopleDuring live in the the USSR village. years, As the of 2018, essential 979 peoplebranches lived of the inYunkyur Yunkyur (approximately economy were equallyanimal husbandrydivided between and grain Russians growing, and Sakha).as well as Simultaneously, vegetable growing, by the which standards had ofa significant contemporary de- velopmentYakutia, these here. indicators Similar areto the relatively Amga highState forFarm, a rural the settlementYunkyur branch that is notwas the characterized administra- bytive a centersubstantial of a republic increaseulus in cultivated(district). Firstareas— of all,up thisto 4697 fact ishectares connected by 1977 with [40]. the proximity By 2019, theseof the indicators regional center—thedecreased to city 2260 of ha, Olyokminsk, i.e., more than where, a 200% according decrease to the[41]. information we receivedThe population during an interviewof Yunkyur with in the the Soviet head ofperiod the village, increased about consistently: 3/4 of the in able-bodied 1938, there werepopulation 335 people of the in village the village go to [42]; work in from 1984, Yunkyur. there were 1058 people [43]. AfterThe basisthe collapse of the economyof the USSR, of Yunkyur, the number which of residents is the administrative in Yunkyur remained center of rela- the tivelyMalzhagarsky stable fornasleg a longof time, the Olyokminsky and in 2012, it district was 1139 of Yakutia, people [44]. is currently However, still in based recent on years, meat theand population dairy cattle outflow breeding, hasherd significantly horse breeding accelera forted, meat, and now, dairy a horse little less breeding, than a andthousand grain peoplecrops cultivation. live in the village. As of 2018, 979 people lived in Yunkyur (approximately equally dividedThus, between summarizing Russians the and history Sakha). of Simultaneously, Amga and Yunkyur, by the we standards should note of contemporary three critical Yakutia,characteristics these indicators for the issues are relatively discussed high in the for article. a rural Insettlement both cases, that for is not more the than adminis- three trativecenturies, center there of wasa republic an increase ulus (district). in the area First of land of all, introduced this fact is into connected agricultural with circulation, the prox- imitywhich of accelerated the regional significantly center—the in city the of Soviet Olyokminsk, period. With where, the according collapse of to the the Soviet information Union weand received the economic during crisis,an interview there has with been the ahead significant of the village, sequestration about 3/4 of of arable the able-bodied land. The populationsecond point of isthe the village growth go in to the work population from Yunkyur. of Amga and Yunkyur. Although in Yunkyur, populationThe basis growth of the stalled economy yet remains of Yunkyur, significant, whic inh Amga,is the growthadministrative continues. center Finally, of the Malzhagarskyeconomy of both nasleg settlements of the Olyokminsky has come to be district increasingly of Yakutia, based is on currently agriculture. still based on meat and dairy cattle breeding, herd horse breeding for meat, dairy horse breeding, and grain crops cultivation. Land 2021, 10, 101 9 of 21

2.2. Research Methods Field studies in Amga and Yunkyur were carried out in March 2018, September 2019, and 2020. The authors of this article have done sociological research involving 225 people. In the course of these studies, we have given out questionnaires and held interviews. The purpose of the survey was to learn the main problems in local community members’ lives, and it was focused on issues respondents associate with the consequences of climate change, including the degradation of permafrost. We identified expectations, experiences, and concerns in this regard. During the survey, the method of random sampling was used. The sample population in each settlement was 100 people. Representatives of various age groups were involved in the study, from 14 years old and older. Since we did not set ourselves the task of identifying the gender characteristics of the perception of the consequences of climate change at this stage, the ratio of women to men was not fundamental. Of the 200 respondents who took part in the survey, 116 (58%) were women, and 84 (42%) were men. Simultaneously, we tried to cover all the districts of Amga and Yunkyur as widely and relatively evenly as possible, since development of thermokarst processes, as will be shown below, occurs unevenly in them, and this may affect the assessment of climatic changes. There were 22 questions in the questionnaire we developed. For most of them, respondents had to choose one of two or more answers. Two questions (given below) provided for the possibility of choosing several of the proposed solutions, as well as supplementing them with your own. The processing of the materials obtained during the questionnaire and the formation of the final datasets were done using the specialized statistical program IBM SPSS Statistics v. 25. Nine people took part in our expert interviewing. We interviewed leading specialists of the administration of villages and enterprises, including heads of small- and large-scale farms. Their primary purpose was to clarify the most critical problems faced by local authorities and key actors in agricultural activities due to the emerging “cold deficit” and the active course of thermokarst processes. It was also to determine the current practices of responding and adapting to emerging challenges. Sixteen people participated in in-depth interviews based on a single questionnaire prepared by us. The in-depth interviews were for the elders of Amga and Yunkyur—those living there for the past 50 years. The questionnaire consisted of 14 items, among which an important place was given to the elucidation of the historical dynamics of the state of the environment, as witnessed by the respondents, and (if possible) recorded in the memories of their ancestors. We were also interested in the presence of any traditional knowledge about permafrost, the course of basic cryogenic processes. The “snowball” method was used to determine the respondents suitable for us. In local rural communities, neighborhood ties are strong, and the respondents could accurately indicate persons of interest in the study. In our fieldwork, we examined rural buildings (residential and economic), infrastructure facilities, and the territory adjacent to villages affected by the degradation of permafrost. To create a more complete picture of the history of land use in the villages of interest, archival and museum materials were used. In particular, we used materials from the Amginsky District Museum of the History of the Civil War (Amga village), the Museum of the History of Agriculture of Yakutia, and the Municipal Archives of the Olyokminsky District (Olyokminsk). In September 2019, we carried out landscape–geomorphological observations and created an orthomosaic of the village of Yunkyur. We obtained aerial photographs of the area using the DJMavic 2 Pro UAV, which has a 20-megapixel digital camera and captures coordinates. Unmanned aerial vehicle flights took place in an autonomous mode using special software. We made these observations at an altitude of 200 m above the earth’s surface, making it possible to achieve a 70% overlap of the images. We have taken a total of 1325 images. For more accurate georeferencing of orthomosaics, we created a network of control points made for each site, the coordinates of which were measured using a geodetic GNSS receiver (Trimble 5700) static mode. In total, we laid ten reference marks for each Land 2021, 10, 101 10 of 21

site with a reference accuracy of less than 3 cm. The obtained aerial photographs were processed using the AgisoftPhotoScan software based on the reference network. As a result, we received an orthomosaic with a planned resolution of 1.5 cm/pixel, which covered an area of 1.2 km2. We carried out further processing of the created orthomosaic in the ArcMap 10.1 software environment. To map the Amga Village, we used the ArcGis Online service (ESRI). High-resolution satellite images from the Spot image company and some Digital Globe Company products are available [45]. The resolution of space images was 50 cm/pixel. Interpretation was performed in manual mode, and statistical indicators were calculated automatically using internal software modules.

3. Results and Discussions 3.1. What Happens to the Permafrost in Amga and Yunkyur? Based on the landscape–geomorphological study of the area and interpretation, the created orthophotomap, and high-resolution satellite images, a schematic map of the development of thermokarst processes in the village was drawn up—Amga on a scale of 1:20,000 and Yunkyur at a scale of 1:10,000 (Figure6). The total land area covered by thermokarst reaches 0.66 km2 in Yunkyur and 6.5 km2 in Amga (Table1). Within the study areas, according to the classification of P.A. Solovev [37], two types of thermokarst relief were identified: bylars (a flat area of the inter-lane, deformed by closed subsidence funnels and hollows) and alases (shallow depressions).

Table 1. Development of thermokarst within settlements.

Number of Buildings and Number of Courtyards Structures within the Locality Bylar Area, km2 Alas Area, km2 Affected by Modern Distribution of Modern Thermokarst Processes, % Thermokarst Processes, Unit Amga 6.5 0.3 540 18 Yunkyur 0.66 0.26 11 8

The largest area is covered by bylars, which are the initial stage of the formation of alases and belong to the modern forms of relief, which began to develop from the beginning of the 1990s [4]. They are formed as a result of the thawing of the upper part of wedge ice and represent a subsidence–polygonal microrelief. On the territory of Yunkyur, such landforms occupy an area of 0.4 km2, while in Amga, they occupy 6 km2. As a result of the analysis of the created schematic maps, it was revealed that the formation of the bylars was conﬁned to local areas throughout the entire area of settlements. Their highest concentration in Yunkyur is concentrated in the north-western part of the village, in Amga, such territories are mainly concentrated in the north-eastern and north-western parts. In the village of Yunkyur, they form in the interlake spaces and on the sides of the lakes of thermokarst lakes, and outside it includes the territories of abandoned agricultural lands. In the village of Amga, these occur in the formerly arable lands, which were formed by uprooting the larch forest. There is an active form of subsidence troughs in interpolygonal spaces. Their depth in the studied areas varies from a few tens of centimeters to 3.87 m. According to literary sources, the subsidence rates of depressions can reach 12 cm/year [4]. According to residents, the process of subsidence began in the early 1990s. This process was facilitated by an increase in average annual air temperatures [46] and soil temperatures at a depth of 3.2 m by 0.4 ◦C[47]. This process led to an increase in the center of the seasonal thawing layer and activation of thermokarst processes. Land 2021, 10, 101 11 of 21 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.6. SchematicSchematic map map of of the the development development of thermokarstof thermokarst processes processes on the on territory the territory of the village.of the village. Amga ( aAmga) and Yunkyur (a) and Yunkyur (b). Legend: 1—outlines of residential quarters, 2—buildings and structures, 3—dirt roads, 4—ravines, 5—terri- (b). Legend: 1—outlines of residential quarters, 2—buildings and structures, 3—dirt roads, 4—ravines, 5—territories with tories with the development of bylars, 6—Holocene alas basins, 7—thermokarst lakes, 8—larch forest, 9—old lakes. the development of bylars, 6—Holocene alas basins, 7—thermokarst lakes, 8—larch forest, 9—old lakes. Land 2021, 10, 101 12 of 21

Along with modern thermokarst landforms, mature thermokarst basins—alases—are found in the study areas. Their total area is 0.56 km2. The largest of them is located in the north-eastern part of the Yunkyur Village. It has a rounded shape with a diameter of 380 m. Its depth is 10 m. A lake with a water surface area of 0.05 km2 was formed in the depression of the alas. By morphological characteristics, the age of thermokarst basins can be estimated as Holocene. According to some ideas, the formation of alas basins in Eastern Siberia began at the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary [48,49] and reached its peak during the Holocene optimum, the climatic parameters of which are compared with modern climate changes [50]. Warm conditions of this time contributed to the rapid development of thermokarst basins. According to some researchers, forming such forms with a diameter of 120–600 m and a depth of 7.5–15.0 m could take only ≈150 years [50]. Thus, in the studied villages, the formation of primary forms of alas relief—bylars— is observed. They are formed in the areas of ice-rich permafrost and, therefore, cover a signiﬁcant area in Amga. In addition, Holocene alas basins are widespread in the study areas, which may indicate possible consequences if the climate development and degradation of permafrost are not reversible [37].

3.2. How Do These Processes Affect Local Residents? The degradation of permafrost and active thermokarst processes in Amga, Yunkur, and adjacent areas directly impact the local livelihoods. In Yunkyur, houses and buildings in the thermokarst zone are deformed (Figure7a–c). Among the affected is the “Orphan House”, which is intended for socially vulnerable Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW groups of the population (Figure7d). In total, 11 buildings fall into the area of development13 of 22 of current thermokarst forms (bylars) in Yunkyur.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 7. 7. DeformationDeformation of of houses houses (a, (ba,,db), dand) and industrial industrial premises premises (c) in (c )the in village the village of Yunkyur of Yunkyur under under the influence the inﬂuence of ther- of mokarstthermokarst processes. processes. Photo Photo by the by authors. the authors.

A similar situation arose in Amga. The most affected by the degradation of permafrost is the new Molodezhny Microdistrict, which is located on the territory of the formerly arable lands of the Amginsky State Farm. Simultaneously, the primary recipients of land should be young specialists (this is evidenced by the micro-district’s very name: Mo- lodezhny—Youth-Oriented), who, as a rule, do not yet have a reliable economic basis for comfortable living. As shown in Figure 8, the construction of a house is being carried out on a site that is already fully covered by thermokarst processes. The main reason is the lack of territory in Amga, which is superimposed on the aforementioned continuous growth in the village population. As a result, we observed a significant building density in Amga. There was also a somewhat atypical situation for standard households in rural Yakutia, when a second house was being built on one site that already had a dwelling house and several outbuildings for another family’s residence, the owner’s relatives. Land 2021, 10, 101 13 of 21

A similar situation arose in Amga. The most affected by the degradation of permafrost is the new Molodezhny Microdistrict, which is located on the territory of the formerly arable lands of the Amginsky State Farm. Simultaneously, the primary recipients of land should be young specialists (this is evidenced by the micro-district’s very name: Molodezhny— Youth-Oriented), who, as a rule, do not yet have a reliable economic basis for comfortable living. As shown in Figure8, the construction of a house is being carried out on a site that is already fully covered by thermokarst processes. The main reason is the lack of territory in Amga, which is superimposed on the aforementioned continuous growth in the village population. As a result, we observed a signiﬁcant building density in Amga. There was also a somewhat atypical situation for standard households in rural Yakutia, Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22 when a second house was being built on one site that already had a dwelling house and several outbuildings for another family’s residence, the owner’s relatives.

Figure 8. House under construction in the Molodezhny Microdistrict, Amga Village, September 2019; Photo by the au- Figure 8. House under construction in the Molodezhny Microdistrict, Amga Village, September 2019; Photo by the authors. thors. The reduction of areas suitable for construction due to the formation of bylars and surfaceThe ponding reduction due of to areas the degradation suitable for ofconstruction permafrost posedue to severe the formation problems forof bylars the spatial and surfacedevelopment ponding of Yunkyur,due to the whichdegradation continues, of permafrost despite the pose observed severe problems population for decline. the spatial On developmentthe northern, of eastern, Yunkyur, and which western continues, sides, it despite is limited the byobserved active population thermokarst decline. processes On theoccurring, northern, as noted,eastern, mainly and western on the territory sides, it ofis abandonedlimited by active arable thermokarst lands, and from processes the south occurring,by deep as ravines noted, (Figure mainly9). on the territory of abandoned arable lands, and from the south by deep ravines (Figure 9).

Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

Figure 8. House under construction in the Molodezhny Microdistrict, Amga Village, September 2019; Photo by the authors.

The reduction of areas suitable for construction due to the formation of bylars and surface ponding due to the degradation of permafrost pose severe problems for the spatial development of Yunkyur, which continues, despite the observed population decline. On Land 2021, 10, 101 the northern, eastern, and western sides, it is limited by active thermokarst processes14 of21 occurring, as noted, mainly on the territory of abandoned arable lands, and from the south by deep ravines (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Northern outskirts of the village of Yunkyur, September 2020; photo by the authors.

Territories affected by thermokarst also fall out of the possible agricultural turnover. In addition to the impossibility of re-commissioning previously abandoned arable land, as noted, almost entirely now turned into bylars, the existing fields also suffer. We were able to identify one of the illustrative cases in the course of an interview with the head of an essential subject of Yunkyur’s economic activity—the Poisk agricultural production cooperative. The day before, there had been sudden subsidence of soil under one of his tractors during the harvest. Given the traditional agrarian orientation of the Amginsky and Olyokminsky districts, the current situation limits local enterprise development potential. As a result of the degradation of permafrost, prerequisites are created for the deformation of communication lines, both within the investigated settlements and associated with residents’ agricultural and hunting grounds. This problem is most acute in Amga. Here, in late July 2013, after heavy rains, there was a large landslide, which damaged the road connecting the village with the capital of the republic—Yakutsk. For about two weeks, residents of Amga were left with no traffic connection with the “outside world” and sufficient grocery supply. According to S. P. Gotovtsev, the landslide was primarily caused by permafrost thaw [51]. In this regard, it is evident why, according to the data of our survey, the inhabitants of Amga see the main threats from climate change impacts, first of all, affecting transport accessibility of their settlement (Figure 10). The deformation of communication lines, albeit to a lesser extent, worries the inhabitants of Yunkyur. However, this primarily applies to traditional hunting grounds. According to the testimony of informants, in recent years, problems with habitual hunting trails, which are deformed due to the formation of a polygonal microrelief (based on the description—bylars) and underflooding of the territory, have become significantly more frequent. Processes that directly affect their economic activities, including the state of the environment, are of much greater concern to the population of Yunkyur (Figure 11). Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

Figure 9. Northern outskirts of the village of Yunkyur, September 2020; photo by the authors.

Territories affected by thermokarst also fall out of the possible agricultural turnover. In addition to the impossibility of re-commissioning previously abandoned arable land, as noted, almost entirely now turned into bylars, the existing fields also suffer. We were able to identify one of the illustrative cases in the course of an interview with the head of an essential subject of Yunkyur’s economic activity—the Poisk agricultural production cooperative. The day before, there had been sudden subsidence of soil under one of his tractors during the harvest. Given the traditional agrarian orientation of the Amginsky and Olyokminsky districts, the current situation limits local enterprise development potential. As a result of the degradation of permafrost, prerequisites are created for the deformation of communication lines, both within the investigated settlements and associated with residents’ agricultural and hunting grounds. This problem is most acute in Amga. Here, in late July 2013, after heavy rains, there was a large landslide, which damaged the road connecting the village with the capital of the republic—Yakutsk. For about two weeks, residents of Amga were left with no traffic connection with the “outside world” and sufficient grocery supply. According to S. P. Gotovtsev, the landslide was primarily caused by permafrost thaw [51]. In this regard, it Land 2021, 10, 101 is evident why, according to the data of our survey, the inhabitants of Amga see the 15main of 21 threats from climate change impacts, first of all, affecting transport accessibility of their settlement (Figure 10).

Land 2021, 10, x FORFigure PEER REVIEW 10. Most urgent threat of climate change in the opinion of residents of the Amga Village. 16 of 22 Figure 10. Most urgent threat of climate change in the opinion of residents of the Amga Village. The deformation of communication lines, albeit to a lesser extent, worries the inhabitants of Yunkyur. However, this primarily applies to traditional hunting grounds. Ac- cording to the testimony of informants, in recent years, problems with habitual hunting trails, which are deformed due to the formation of a polygonal microrelief (based on the description—bylars) and underflooding of the territory, have become significantly more frequent. Processes that directly affect their economic activities, including the state of the environment, are of much greater concern to the population of Yunkyur (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Most urgent threats of climate change in the opinion of residents of the Yunkyur Village. Figure 11. Most urgent threats of climate change in the opinion of residents of the Yunkyur Village.

SpecificSpecific differences differences between between the the answers answers to the to the questions questions asked asked by us by during us during the sur- the veysurvey in Amga in Amga and andYunkyur Yunkyur are also are alsoobserved observed in relation in relation to the to impact the impact of permafrost of permafrost deg- radationdegradation directly directly on the on territory the territory where where the respondents the respondents live.live. AccordingAccording to to our our data data in in Amga, Amga, 57% 57% of of re respondentsspondents faced faced problems problems caused caused (in (in their their opinion)opinion) by by permafrost permafrost degradation degradation (Figure (Figure 12). 12). Meanwhile, Meanwhile, in in Yunkyur, Yunkyur, this this figure figure was was 84%84% (Figure (Figure 13). 13). In In Amga, Amga, 30% 30% were were forced forced to to repair repair and/or and/or strengthen strengthen the the foundations foundations of of thethe damaged damaged structures. structures. In In Yunkyur, Yunkyur, the the figur figuree was was 36%. 36%. In In addition, addition, the the Amga Amga residents residents wewe interviewed interviewed were were less less like likelyly to to transfer transfer vegetable vegetable gardens gardens and and buildings buildings within within their their area.area. In In the the course course of of the the survey, survey, we we did did not not record record any any cases cases of of this this kind kind of of change change for for reasonsreasons related related to to cryogenic cryogenic processes processes in in Amga Amga at at all. all. In In Yunkyur, Yunkyur, 11% 11% of of the the respondents respondents werewere forced forced to to resort resort to to this this measure. measure. Reduction or complete impossibility of using of ice cellars (or “lednik” in Russian, “buluus” in the Yakut language—underground storage facilities of various sizes) in private households is also becoming an issue. Here, due to proximity to permafrost, foodstuffs can be stored year-round. However, their shrinking availability is another of the problems faced not only by residents of Yunkyur but also of Amga.

Figure 12. Residents of the village take forced measures. Amga to eliminate the consequences of the degradation of permafrost rocks within their estates. Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 22

Figure 11. Most urgent threats of climate change in the opinion of residents of the Yunkyur Village.

Specific differences between the answers to the questions asked by us during the survey in Amga and Yunkyur are also observed in relation to the impact of permafrost degradation directly on the territory where the respondents live. According to our data in Amga, 57% of respondents faced problems caused (in their opinion) by permafrost degradation (Figure 12). Meanwhile, in Yunkyur, this figure was 84% (Figure 13). In Amga, 30% were forced to repair and/or strengthen the foundations of the damaged structures. In Yunkyur, the figure was 36%. In addition, the Amga residents we interviewed were less likely to transfer vegetable gardens and buildings within their Land 2021, 10, 101 area. In the course of the survey, we did not record any cases of this kind of change for16 of 21 reasons related to cryogenic processes in Amga at all. In Yunkyur, 11% of the respondents were forced to resort to this measure.

Figure 12. Residents of the village take forced measures. Amga to eliminate the consequences of the degradation of per- Figure 12. Residents of the village take forced measures. Amga to eliminate the consequences of the degradation of Land 2021mafrost, 10, x rocksFOR PEER within REVIEW their estates. 17 of 22 permafrost rocks within their estates.

Figure 13. Residents of the village take forced measures. Yunkyur to eliminate the consequences of the degradation of Figure 13. Residents of the village take forced measures. Yunkyur to eliminate the consequences of the degradation of permafrost within their private estates. permafrost within their private estates.

ReductionRelocating or complete a vegetable impossibility garden or buildings,of using of repair ice cellars work, strengthening(or “lednik” in the Russian, foundation, “buluus”and jackingin the Yakut of the affectedlanguage—underground structures have to st beorage done facilities annually. of Ofvarious course, sizes) all this in pri- requires vate individualhouseholds financial is also becoming and physical an issue. costs Here, from thedue local to proximity residents. to The permafrost, emerging food- need for stuffspreliminary can be stored filling year-round. of the territory However, to create their an shrinking insulating availability “cushion”, is the another forced of placement the problemsof goods faced in not places only that by residents are difficult of Yunkyur to access frombut also a logistic of Amga. point of view, also lead to an increaseRelocating in thea vegetable cost of construction garden or building work ands, repair place awork, burden strengthening on people and the enterprises. foundation, and Duringjacking ourof the interviews, affected structures the data wehave received to be done indicate annually a significant. Of course, increase all this in the requireseconomic individual burden financial on local and administrations, physical costs whichfrom the are local forced residents. to carry The out emerging additional fill needplacement for preliminary on public filling areas, of the dirt territory roads, and to create their restoration. an insulating “cushion”, the forced placementThe of goods ongoing in transformationsplaces that are difficult of the normal to access state from of thea logistic environment point of negatively view, also affect lead theto an local increase people’s in the social cost well-being of construction and confidence work and in place the future. a burden In a on reasonably people and rapidly enterprises.changing environment, it is naturally challenging to build any long-term life strategies. DuringSumming our interviews, up some the results, data we we note received that even indicate though a significant the cryogenic increase processes in the occurring eco- nomicin burden the Amga on andlocal Yunkyur, administrations, as we have which established, are forced are to generallycarry out additional very similar, fill the place- data we mentobtained on public indicate areas, dirt individual roads, and differences their restoration. in their perception. How can this be explained? ItThe seems ongoing to us, transformations among other issues,of the normal that the state natural of the and environment geographical negatively conditions affect of the the localsouthwest, people’s where social the well-being climate is and relatively confidence warmer in the and future. the thickness In a reasonably of the ice rapidly complexes changingis weaker, environment, reveal changes it is naturally proceeding challenging faster into particularlybuild any long-term illustrative life ways. strategies. This is our assumption,Summing up based some onresults, the first we results; note that it willeven be though confirmed the cryogenic or refuted processes after processing occur- data ring in the Amga and Yunkyur, as we have established, are generally very similar, the data we obtained indicate individual differences in their perception. How can this be explained? It seems to us, among other issues, that the natural and geographical conditions of the southwest, where the climate is relatively warmer and the thickness of the ice complexes is weaker, reveal changes proceeding faster in particularly illustrative ways. This is our assumption, based on the first results; it will be confirmed or refuted after processing data received by us during 2020–2022 from equipped data sites. There is a greater emphasis in Amga on transport accessibility problems (authors of “Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century”). In this regard, it is also necessary to consider that, despite the noted employment of 3/4 of the working-age population of Yunkyur in the city of Olyokminsk, the vast majority of them have household plots with vegetable gardens. Amga is a more urbanized settlement. Many residents of this village have already given up their fields and live on others’ products, including imported ones. The question of the “contribution” of the observed cryogenic processes to the dynamics of the population of Yunkyur remains controversial. As we have shown, it was in the last decade that it began to bear a negative character, which, as it seemed, could have a direct connection with the acceleration of thermokarst. However, to date, we have not identified any confirmed cases of migration from the village for reasons related to permafrost degradation. Moreover, the survey results show that only 11% of the respondents Land 2021, 10, 101 17 of 21

received by us during 2020–2022 from equipped data sites. There is a greater emphasis in Amga on transport accessibility problems (authors of “Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century”). In this regard, it is also necessary to consider that, despite the noted employment of 3/4 of the working-age population of Yunkyur in the city of Olyokminsk, the vast majority of them have household plots with vegetable gardens. Amga is a more urbanized settlement. Many residents of this village have already given up their fields and live on others’ products, including imported ones. The question of the “contribution” of the observed cryogenic processes to the dynamics of the population of Yunkyur remains controversial. As we have shown, it was in the Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22 last decade that it began to bear a negative character, which, as it seemed, could have a direct connection with the acceleration of thermokarst. However, to date, we have not identified any confirmed cases of migration from the village for reasons related to permafrost degradation.admit the possibility Moreover, of moving the survey from results their shownative that village only to 11% another of the settlement respondents in the admit event theof further possibility deterioration of moving of from the environment. their native village to another settlement in the event of furtherIt deteriorationseems to us that of theone environment. of the main reasons for the absence of such an “acute” reaction is theIt seemsmechanisms to us that developed one of the or maincontinuing reasons to for form the for absence the adaptation of such an of “acute” local communi- reaction isties the to mechanisms emerging challenges. developed or continuing to form for the adaptation of local communities to emergingIn the challenges.work “Permafrost and Culture. Global Warming and the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)”,In the work the “Permafrostabove-mentioned and Culture. group Global of Japanese Warming and and Russian the Republic authors of Sakha cites (Yaku- three tia)”,measures the above-mentioned that the local communities group of Japanese in the Churapchinsky and Russian authors and Gorny cites three regions measures are taking that theto mitigate local communities the consequences in the Churapchinsky of permafrost anddegradation. Gorny regions These areare takingleveling to the mitigate earth thesur- consequencesface in places of where permafrost thermokarst degradation. develops: These constructing are leveling theembankments earth surface under in places houses, where as thermokarstwell as making develops: “the constructingchoice of cultivated embankments crops underand varieties houses, ascorrespond… well as making to the “the ongoing choice ofclimatic cultivated changes” crops and [13, varieties p. 40]. In correspond our research,... to as the noted, ongoing there climatic was also changes” the preliminary [13], p. 40. Infilling our research, of plots asfor noted, the construction there was also of thehouses, preliminary which fillingwas previously of plots for uncharacteristic the construction offor houses,Amga whichand Yunkyur. was previously We did uncharacteristic not record the us fore Amgaof two and other Yunkyur. means Weidentified did not by record the Rus- the usesian-Japanese of two other team. means identified by the Russian-Japanese team. TheThe preliminary preliminary dumping dumping of of the the territory territory before before the the construction construction of of any any buildings buildings shouldshould be be considered considered more more broadly—in broadly—in general, general, as aas change a change in thein the construction construction technology technol- customary for rural communities in the republic due to the activation of thermokarst ogy customary for rural communities in the republic due to the activation of thermokarst processes. This is also evidenced by the construction of wooden houses on a pile foundation processes. This is also evidenced by the construction of wooden houses on a pile founda- (Figure 14) tion (Figure 14)

FigureFigure 14. 14.A A house house under under construction construction on on a a pile pile foundation foundation in in Amga, Amga, September September 2020; 2020; the the location location chosen for its deployment also confirms a serious lack of territory for the spatial development of chosen for its deployment also conﬁrms a serious lack of territory for the spatial development of the the village. Photo by the authors. village. Photo by the authors.

InIn the the same same series, series, one one can can consider consider another another adaptation adaptation mechanism mechanism that we that have we noted. have Innoted. the research, In the research, the authors the ofauthors this article of this recorded article recorded new production new production facility locations facility locations in areas in areas where the permafrost has low ice contents. It was essential for us to understand the main driving force in choosing such a site—some traditional knowledge of local communities, including those that work at the level of intuition, or an accurate calculation based on rational information. In this regard, the most representative example of the largest enterprise Yunkyur “Kladovaya Olyokmy” LLC was a new farm building constructed by this enterprise in 2017 (Figure 15). According to the information we received from one of the leaders of “Kladovaya Olyokmy” during an interview, site selection included taking into account the active course of thermokarst processes. It was decided for the first time to involve specialists from Yakutsk to consult on construction in permafrost conditions. Our studies have shown that the territory for the construction of the farm was indeed chosen very well. In this regard, we believe that the significant interest of representatives Land 2021, 10, 101 18 of 21

where the permafrost has low ice contents. It was essential for us to understand the main driving force in choosing such a site—some traditional knowledge of local communities, including those that work at the level of intuition, or an accurate calculation based on rational information. In this regard, the most representative example of the largest enterprise Yunkyur “Kladovaya Olyokmy” LLC was a new farm building constructed by this enterprise in 2017 (Figure 15). According to the information we received from one of the leaders of “Kladovaya Olyokmy” during an interview, site selection included taking into account the Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 22 active course of thermokarst processes. It was decided for the first time to involve specialists from Yakutsk to consult on construction in permafrost conditions. Our studies have shown that the territory for the construction of the farm was indeed chosen very well. In this ofregard, rural wecommunities believe that in the the significant republic interestin scientifically of representatives substantiated of rural data communities on the “interac- in the tion”republic with in permafrost scientifically is now substantiated a fundamental data on mechanism the “interaction” for adapting with permafrostto the emerging is now cli- a maticfundamental challenges. mechanism for adapting to the emerging climatic challenges.

Figure 15. Built in 2017 on a sitesite withwith slightlyslightly icyicy permafrostpermafrost rocks, rocks, the the new new farm farm premises premises of of the the largest largest economic economic entity entity in inYunkyur, Yunkyur, Kladovaya Kladovaya Olyokmy Olyokmy LLC, LLC is,a is successful a successful example example of adaptationof adaptation to climateto climate challenges. challenges.

Simultaneously,Simultaneously, it it should should be be noted noted that that so so far, far, accounting accounting for for these these data data remains remains insufficient.insufficient. In particular, In particular, the aforementioned the aforementioned “Orphan “Orphan House” House” in Yunkyur in Yunkyur was built was with- built outwithout a ventilated a ventilated underground. underground. Inadequate Inadequate ventilation ventilation of the underground of the underground is also charac- is also teristiccharacteristic of the school of the schoolbuilding building put into put operation into operation in 2012 inin 2012this village. in this village.The fate The of the fate 16- of apartmentthe 16-apartment “Experimental “Experimental House” House” built in builtAmga in in Amga 2009 inwithout 2009 without a pile foundation a pile foundation turned outturned to be out sad. to In be 2016, sad. due In 2016, to critical due to deform criticalations, deformations, it was decided it was to decided resettle toits resettleresidents. its Byresidents. now, this By house now, thishas housebeen demolished. has been demolished. AmongAmong other other adaptive adaptive capacities capacities identified identified by us, we we can can name name the the intensification intensification of landland use use as as land land suitable suitable for for construction construction shrinks. shrinks. Denser Denser building building distances distances qualitatively qualitatively changeschanges the the appearance appearance and and structure structure of of a settlement. We We encountered a quite atypical situationsituation for for standard standard households households in in rural rural areas, areas, when a second house was being built on oneone site site that that already already had had a a residential residential buildi buildingng and and several several outbuildings outbuildings for the residence ofof another another family: family: th thee owner’s owner’s relatives. relatives. InIn many many respects, socialsocial relationsrelations and and the the traditional traditional collectivism collectivism inherent inherent in in represen- repre- sentativestatives of ruralof rural communities communities in Sakha in Sakha Republic Republic play play an essentialan essential and and perhaps perhaps decisive decisive role rolein adapting in adapting to emerging to emerging challenges. challenges. Mutual Mutual support support and strongand strong family family ties allow ties allow residents res- identsto endure to endure various various stressful stressful situations situations more efficiently, more efficiently, reduce the reduce threat the of threat desocialization of deso- cializationin the event in of the force event majeure, of force and majeure, make the and life make support the life system support of the system population of the ofpopula- Amga tionand of Yunkyur Amga and more Yunkyur resilient more to various resilient shocks. to various shocks. WhatWhat else else can representatives of local communitiescommunities and self-government bodies do toto mitigate mitigate the the problems problems arising arising from from thermo thermokarst?karst? As As an an immediat immediatee measure, measure, we would suggestsuggest snow snow removal removal in in winter winter and and surface surface shading shading by planting by planting trees treesand shrubs and shrubs in prob- in lemproblem areas. areas. This measure This measure might mightbe effective be effective in lowering in lowering the ground the groundtemperatures temperatures and reducing permafrost thawing. Additional recommendations will be devised after further research. The assumption that the local rural residents in Yakutia have traditional ecological knowledge on permafrost processes stems from a legend recorded by ethnographer S.I. Nikolaev in the mid-20th century. According to this legend, the Sakha used controlled forest fires in areas of shallow permafrost so that alases would eventually develop for future generations to settle in [52]. Interestingly, the older parts of both Amga and Yunkyur are not affected by thermokarst, and this may provide an indirect evidence of the traditional knowledge. However, our study has not revealed the presence of such knowledge among contemporary representatives of rural communities in Yakutia. Land 2021, 10, 101 19 of 21

and reducing permafrost thawing. Additional recommendations will be devised after further research. The assumption that the local rural residents in Yakutia have traditional ecological knowledge on permafrost processes stems from a legend recorded by ethnographer S.I. Nikolaev in the mid-20th century. According to this legend, the Sakha used controlled forest fires in areas of shallow permafrost so that alases would eventually develop for future generations to settle in [52]. Interestingly, the older parts of both Amga and Yunkyur are not affected by thermokarst, and this may provide an indirect evidence of the traditional knowledge. However, our study has not revealed the presence of such knowledge among contemporary representatives of rural communities in Yakutia. Whether it did not survive and whether it existed are good questions for discussion and further research. The study of the perception of the problems that have arisen with land plots in agricultural circulation by residents, some of whom, as noted, are direct descendants of the first Russian settlers of the 17th century, requires further development, and we have begun. Most of the original settlers now self-identify as Yakuts (Sakha) in terms of their anthropological type and self-awareness. On the whole, to date, we have not identified any fundamental ethnic differences in perception, ways of responding to emerging climatic challenges, and mechanisms of adaptation to them on the part of Russians and Sakha (Yakuts). Considering the centuries-old fruitful interaction of the two ethnic groups in the studied areas, this seems understandable and well explained for the authors.

4. Conclusions This study has shown widespread thermokarst development in the villages of Yunkyur and Amga. Permafrost degradation is affecting the local communities in many ways. The structural integrity of houses and farm buildings is threatened, and the land area suitable for new construction is reduced. Croplands and pastures heavily disturbed by thermokarst processes have to be abandoned. The accessibility of communities, farms, and hunting areas is deteriorated. Furthermore, permafrost degradation affects the social well-being of residents. Continuous efforts to cope with thermokarst consequences increase the ﬁnancial burden on people, businesses, and local administrations. The study has identiﬁed a number of adaptation responses to the ongoing changes, including the adoption of construction technologies generally not common for rural housing in Yakutia with an increasing interest in research-supported decisions, as well as intensive use of suitable land for new construction. Social relations and traditional collectivism of the Yakutia’s rural communities are important adaptation resources.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, V.L. and A.S.; software, V.L.; formal analysis, V.L. and A.S.; data curation, V.L., A.S., L.V., S.G., V.G., S.F., A.K. and I.S.; writing—original draft preparation, V.L., A.S., L.V. and S.G.; writing—review and editing, V.L. and A.S.; visualization, V.L.; project administration, A.S.; funding acquisition, A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: The reported study was funded by the Russian Science Foundation, project number 19-78-10088. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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