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2010 The land has changed: history, society and gender in colonial Eastern

Korieh, Chima J.

University of Calgary Press

Chima J. Korieh. "The land has changed: history, society and gender in colonial Eastern Nigeria". Series: Africa, missing voices series 6, University of Calgary Press, Calgary, Alberta, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/48254 book http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 3.0 Unported Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca University of Calgary Press www.uofcpress.com

THE LAND HAS CHANGED History, Society and Gender in Colonial Eastern Nigeria Chima J. Korieh ISBN 978-1-55238-545-6

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Acknowledgement: We acknowledge the wording around open access used by Australian publisher, re.press, and thank them for giving us permission to adapt their wording to our policy http://www.re-press.org/content/view/17/33/ index a Aba, x, 1, 2, 37, 42, 68, 74, 84, 123, 126, 127, Amaeke Abam Rubber Estate, 203 � 138, 147, 163, 179, 182, 183, 184, Amata, 127 � 186–89, 235, 252, 254, 257, 275–77 � Ambroses Rivers, 51 � Commission of Inquiry, 1, 123, 134, 141, Ameke Abam, 240 � 142, 275 � American crops, 30 � � Community League in, 185, 186, 277 American Jewish Committee, 222 � District of, 90, 91,130 � Anang, 5 � Division of, 42, 86, 88, 113, 170, 179 � Anderson, David, 170 � Gari Traders Association at, 185 � � Riot of 1929, 125 � Andoni, 127 � River in, 254 � Anglican Diocese of the Niger, 107 Abaja, 166 � Anglo-Spanish Employment Agency, 261 � Abak, 114, 198 � Aro, 48, 53, 116 � Abakaliki, 215, 224 � District of, 111 � � District of, 138 � Expedition of 1901–1902, 63 � Division of, x, 138, 176, 183 � Arochukwu Cocoa Estate, 203, 203 Abeokuta, 66, 136 � Asa, 283n7 � Abia State, 4, 256, 283n7 � Asaba, 78, 107, 283n7 � Abia/Bendeghe Cocoa Estate, 203 � Division, 136 � � Accelerated Development Agricultural Asia, 124 Programs, 245 � Asian crops, 30 � Achara, 63 � Atlantic Slave Trade, 17, 20, 31, 34, 35, 49, � Achebe, Chinua, 43, 44 � 51, 55, 87, 296n134 � Achebe, Nwando, 16 � Atta, 129 � Achi, 100 � Attwood, R. L., 147 � Afigbo, Adiele, 128, 140 � Awgu Division, 176

Afikpo, 4, 138, 176, 251 � Awka, 14, 48, 93, 137, 138, 139, 183, 194, � African Association Limited, 298n14 � 254, 255 � Aftenpos, 221 � Native Court of, 137 Azumini, 113 � Agbaja, 114 � Aguata, 283n7 � Agwu Division, 169 � b Ahaoda, 255 � bamboo, 171 � , 63,116, 135 � Bamenda, 40, 109 � Expedition of, 298n15 � Barbot, James, 50 � , 154 � Barbot, John, 50, 51 � Akwete, 32, 153 � Basden, G. T., 41, 45, 133 � Alagoa, E. J., 62 � Bauer, P. T., 192 � Allen, J.G.C., 70, 72, 74 � beeswax,171 � Alliance for Health, 233 � Belgian Congo, 167 � Allpress, P. L., 170 � Belgian Geographical Society, 57 �

363 Bende, 48, 126, 147 Carr, F. D., 86, 87, 157, 164, 166, 167, 300n Division of, 179 52, 302n11 Benin, 29, 39, 136 cassava, 114, 177, 214, 215, 245, 250, 252, Benue, 257 254, 267 Berry Sara, 7, 9,115, 232 cattle, 30 Biafra, 38, 220, 221, 224 Ceylon, 207 Biafra Development Corporation (BDC), Chambers, Douglas, 49 225 charcoal fuel, 171 Biakpan Rubber Estate, 203 Chubb, L. T., 166, 191 Bight Negroes, 50 Chuku, Gloria, 16 Bight of Biafra, 30, 41, 49, 50, 52, 89 Chukuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, 217, 225 Hinterland of, 77, 292n40 Church Missionary Society, 101 biscuits, 173 Church of Biafra, 107 Boje Cocoa Estate, 203 Clifford, Hugh, 79, 81, 93 Boki, 208 Clough, Raymond Gore, 57, 84, 132, 134 Bonny, 31, 79, 89 Clute, Robert, 8 Coconut Estate in, 203 cocoyams, 28, 30 Boserup, Ester, 8 Colonial Development and Welfare Act, Braham, Alex J., 67 190, 196 bread, 173 Committee for Peace in Nigeria, 221 Bridges, A.F.B., 70, 113, 187 confectionery, 173 Britain, 168 Conference of Christian Rural Workers, Empire of, 59 102 British and Continental African Company Congo, 81 Limited, 298n14 Cooks, A. E., 74, 84, 85, 126, 139, 147, 182 British, 170, 172, 182, 259 Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, 39 Brockway, Lord Fenner, 221 Couper Johnstone and Company, 298n14 Brown, J. B., 109 Coursey, D. G., 41 Butcher, H.L.M., 187 Cross River, 4, 29, 48, 127, 254 butter, 173 d C Dance Movement, 130 Calabar, 31, 61, 62, 75, 78, 89, 125, 147, 188, Davidson, Basil, 170 202, 261 Davies, J. B., 258, 262 Catering Rest House in, 259 de Carli, Denis, 39 District of, 259 Delta Igbo, 283n7 Province of, 137, 252, 259 Denman, Captain, Joseph, 52 Calaro Oil Palm Estate, 203 Dependency theory, 288n50 Cameroon, 40, 109, 259, 263 Diamond, Stanley, 255 River, 51 Dibia, Felix, x Southern, 263

Campbell, Benjamin, 52 Dike, Kenneth O., 42, 55, 253

Cape of Good Hope, 29 Dikwa, 66

Carew, W. E., 32 Dobinson, H. H., 41 Caritas, 219 Douglas Expedition, 298n15

364 The l and has Changed Faulkner, O. T., 91, 98, 99 e Feierman, Steven, 125 Eastern Nigeria, xi, 1, 10, 4, 81, 104, 108, Fernando Po, 260, 261, 263 111, 115, 131, 168, 182, 183, 194, 200 First World War, 91, 259 Development Corporation of, x, 198, fish, 30, 31, 47, 92,173, 224, 229 202, 259 FitzGerald, J.E.A., 163 Regional Produce Development Board Flint, J. E., 29 of, 113, 198 flour, 173, 175 Provinces of, 191 Floyd, Barry, 14, 209, 210 Region of, 175, 207, 213 Food and Agricultural Organization of the Eboe, 50 United Nations (FAO), 6, 285n15 Echeruo, Michael J.C., 41, 42, 53, 84 Forest Department, 78 Efik, 55, 261 Fortes, M., 27 Egbema, 245 Fourth National Development Plan, 1981– Egejuru, Phanuel, 44, 266 85, 240 Egerton, Walter, 76, 79 French, 39 Egypt, 29 Freund, Bill, 94 Ekechi, Felix, 79 Ekecjiuba, Felicia, 42, 55 g Eket Oil Palm Estate, 203 Gailey, Harry, 128 Ekoi, 55 Gallagher, J., 298n5 Ekwerazu, 116, 135 Gallwey, Captain H. L., 53 Elele, 255 Germany, 53, 168 Oil Palm Estate in, 203 Ghana, 9

Rubber Estate in, 203 Globe and Mail, 219 Eltis, David, 49 Gold Coast, 51, 81 Eluama, 159 Grazilhier, John, 31, 51 Emeabiam, 240, 267 Great Britain, 53 Rubber Estate in, 203 Great Depression, 12, 19, 24, 257 , x, 121, 215, 235, 256 Green Revolution, 240 Enugu-Ezike, 156 Green, Margaret M., 93, 114 Equiano, Olaudah, 31, 32, 40, 291n23 gum copal, 171 Erei, 208 Etche Rubber Estate, 203 Etiti, 255 h Etua, 63 Hahn, Richard, 223 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., 27 Haig, E.F.G., 101 Ezionum, 63 Harcourt, A. B., 32 Ezza, 32, 35, 63, 255 Harris, J. S., 40, 93 Ezzi, 138 Hatton and Cookson, 298n14 Havinden, Michael, 7 Henderson, A. B., 147 f Henderson, Richard, 57 Falconbridge, Alexander, 41, 50 Herington, Norman, 100, 102 Falk, Edward Morris, 1, 42, 68, 84, 90, 147 Hives, F., 57 farm settlements, x, 10, 101, 192, 200, 207– honey, 171 12, 228, 238, 319n62

index 365 Hopkins, Anthony, G. xii, 40 Hutchinson, Richard, 52 Hyden, Goran, 124 k Kaduna, 259 Kalabari, 31 i Kalu, Ogbu U., xviii, 283n7 Ibadan, 98, 100, 102 Kano, 66, 183, 189, 259 Ibiae Oil Palm Estate, 203 Kenya, 217 Ibibio, 50, 261 Klein, Martin, 118 Ibrahim Babangida, 244 Koler, Hermann, 31 Idemili, 283n7 Kopytoff, Igor, 98 Idoma, 55 Korieh, Chima, J., 286n22 Idu, 62 Kumba, 260 Ife, 79, 117 Kwa Falls Oil Palm Estate, 203 Igala, 55 Kwa Ibo River, 127 Igbariam, 208 Igbo Diaspora, 221 Ijo, 55 l Lagemann, J., 9 Ikom, 138 Lagos, 78, 168, 175, 235 cocoa estate in, 203 Illife, John, 92, 170 Land and Native Rights Ordinances, 81 Imo River, 49, 90, 127, 254 Land Use Decree, 239 , 4, 256 Latin America, 124 India, 207 Law, Bonar, 111 indirect rule, 64, 65–67, 71, 124, 128, 142, Leith-Ross, Sylvia, 75, 128, 253 174, 299n20, 299n29 Leonard, Major A. G., 62 International Committee of the Red Cross Leslie, S.A.S., 175 (ICRC), 221, 223 Leverhulme, Lord, 79 International Monetary Fund, 6, 7 Levi, John, 7 Iranian Revolution, 230 Liberia, 124 Isichei, Elizabeth, 47, 255 Lindsay, Kenneth, 219, 226 Israel, 207, 209 Liverpool African Company, 298n14 Isu, 255 Liverpool, 52, 79 Isuikwato, 159 London, 13, 62 Itu, 49, 127, 185 Lugard,Sir Frederick, 63, 66, 136 Izza, 48 Lyttelton Constitution, 10, 197

J m Jacob, S. M., 141 MacDonald, Sir Claude, 75, 78 jam, 173 MacKay, Alexander, 133 Jamaica, 31 MacKenzie, N.A.P.G., 135 Jewish Diaspora, 209 Mackie, J. R., 33, 83, 168, 172 John Holt and Company, 298n14 Makurdi, 256 Johnson W. H., 78 Malaya, 159, 207 Jones, G. I., 94, 264 Maloney, Alfred, 78 Jos, 185 Mann, Michael, 103, 104, 105 Jukun, 55

366 The l and has Changed Martin, Susan, 9, 15, 16, 55, 56, 114, 115, Nigerian Civil War, 11, 38, 44, 197, 217, 229, 249 230, 241, 261, 267 Mau Mau, 217 social history of, 286n33 Mba Nina, 57 Nigerian Ten-Year Plan for Development, Mbaise, 2, 41, 114, 116–17, 135, 156, 194, 190 206, 254, 258, 265 Nike, 48 Mbano, 206, 255 Njoku, Raphael, 28 Mbawsi, 127, 187 Nkporo, 240 McCall, J.A.G., 172 Nkwere, 86 McNair, Henderson and Company, 57 Nnaemeka, Obioma, 22 meat, 30, 47, 92, 173, 219, 266 Nnewi District, 169 Meek, C. K., 93 Northern Nigeria, 63, 81, 167, 175, 182–83, Meillassoux, Claude, 36 187, 189, 258 Midim, 114 Provinces of, 63, 191 milk, 173, 175 Nri, 42, 48, 53, 54, 283n7, 296n126 Miller, Henry Alexander, 123 Nsadop Oil Palm Estate, 203 Mkporobo, 153 Nsugbe, 32 Monteith, Archibald, 31 Nsukka, 40 Moore, Sir Ralph, 62, 63, 76 Nung Okot, 114 Morgan, W. B., 37, 251 Nwadike, Mark, x Morrill, W. T., 219 Nwana, Eugene, 210 Nyendael, David van, 39 Nzegwu, Nkiru, 128 n Nziem, Ndaywel, 22 National Archives of Nigeria, Enugu, 23 Native Revenue Amendment Ordinance, 139 o Ndioji Abam, 240 O’Connor, Dermot, 176 Ndoki, 32 Obako, 153 Ndokwa, 283n7 Obanko, 153 New Calabar, 51, 61, 62 Obigbo, 236, 255, 261 New York, 158 Obitti, 240 Nguema, Macias, 263 Obohia, 63, 153 Nguru, x, 153, 156, 157, 158, 186, 253 , 42, 105, 130, 135, 153, 206, 255 Ngwa, 37, 50, 56, 115, 120, 135, 199, 254, Obrenyi Cocoa Estate, 203 283n7 Obubra, 138 Niger Coast, 61 cocoa estate in, 203, 205 Protectorate of, 62 rubber estate in, 203 Niger Company, 132, 133 Obudu District, 171 Niger Delta, 53, 61 Obunku, 153 Niger Diocese, 101 Ofomata, G.E.K., 14 Niger River, 29 Ofonagoro, Walter, 15 Nigeria Defense (Oil Palm Production) , 116 Regulation No. 55, 170 Oghe Cashew Industry, 203 Nigeria General Defense Regulations (Law Ogidi, 32 No. 75 of 1941), 276 Ogoja, 138, 171, 176, 215 Nigeria Oil Produce Marketing Board, 113 Province of, 138

index 367 , 28, 61, 79, 117, 158–59, 249, 283n7 Ormsby-Gore, W.G.A., 59, 68, 91, 137, 250 Ogwe, 187 Orokpo, 63 Ohadike, Don C., 63, 250 Ossamari, 49, 117 Ohafia, 42 Ottenberg, Phoebe, 251–52 Ohaji, 147, 240 Ottenberg, Simon, 15, 249, 253 farm settlement in, 210–11 Oturkpo, 257 Ohambele, 153 , 14, 37, 79, 93, 100, 112, 125, 139, Ohanko, 153 141, 153, 166, 186, 194, 206, 249 Ohanso, 153 District of, 44, 74, 85 Ohaozara, 224 Division of, x, 109, 135, 154, 157, 202 Ohuru, 63, 153 Province of, 4, 33, 71, 79, 86, 88, 103, Oil Palm Rehabilitation Scheme, 200, 201 127, 129, 130, 137, 141, 146, 155, Oil River, 84, 298n14 157, 159, 161, 163, 170, 179, 182, 265, 267 Protectorate of, 53, 61 Owerrinta, 79, 113, 186 Okeke, P. N., 207 Oyewumi, Oyeronke, 11 , 48, 57, 105, 127, 159, 166, 186, 193 Oyo, 66, 136 District of, 130 Division of, 88, 103, 105, 129, 131, 135, Ozuitem, 175, 187, 240, 258 160, 254–55, 283n7 Okirika, 79, 89 p Okpala, 155, 157, 158, 186 Pall Mall Gazette, 59 Okpara, M. I., x, 10, 200, 201, 207, 213, 241 palm oil, xiv, 3, 15, 20, 32, 47, 50–53, 56–57, Old Calabar, 54 60, 70, 84–85, 93, 95, 99, 111–13, Oloibiri, xv 115–18, 131, 134, 148, 158, 160, Oloko, 126, 147, 139, 140, 142, 166 164, 165–67, 187, 194, 199, 214, Olomo, 132, 148 229, 257, 270, 275 Oluwasanmi, H. A., 192 depression in, 257 Omoba, 187, 189, 257 development of 3, 20, 287n35

Omoku, 62 export of, 2, 51, 52, 56, 77, 82, 83, 135, 167, 229, 249 Omuma Native Court, 179 industry, 15 Ondo, 136 inspection of, 87 Onitsha Division, 99 plantations, 80, 86, 111 Onitsha Province, 130, 137–38, 169, 174, price of, 53, 130, 131, 195, 257 176, 211 production of, 4, 16, 52–53, 56, 62, 79, Onitsha, 4, 14, 28, 34, 40, 57, 100, 101, 104, 82, 86, 87, 95, 97, 112, 119, 165, 112, 121, 159, 171, 179, 185, 194, 169, 172, 192, 198, 200, 226 250 source of accumulation, 3 Onwu, Emmanuel Nlenanya, 41 trade in, 15, 49, 52–56, 78, 95, 115, 116– Operation Feed the Nation (OFN), 238 17, 125, 133, 228, 268 Opobo, 114, 155 Palmer, H. P., 59 District of, 63 Peace Preservation Order, 153 Division of, 114 peasants, 79, 81–82, 87, 92, 94, 96, 112, , 135 119–20, 123–25, 128, 130, 134, 136, Organization of Petroleum Exporting 146, 154, 155, 158, 160–61, 166–67, Countries (OPEC), 230 169, 170–71, 176, 178, 179, 182, Orlu, 37, 48, 193–94, 254, 283n7 184, 185, 190, 192, 194, 195, 198,

368 The l and has Changed 200, 201, 209, 213–14, 216, 224, Select Committee on the West Coast of 232, 235–39, 241, 251, 260, 267, Africa, 52 269–71, 278, 280 Shagari, Shehu, 240 peasantry, 19, 60, 118, 170, 195, 196 Shaxson, Nicholas, 233 Perham, Margery, 128 Sierra Leone, 79, 81, 124 petitions, 2, 12, 13, 17, 24, 130, 138, 154, Smith and Douglas Limited, 298n14 165, 179, 182–86, 188–90, 195, 259, Smith, Buchanan, W., 137, 138 276–77 Smith, M. G., 27 Pioneer Oil Mills (POM), 240 Sokoto Caliphate, 59 Polimeni, John, 244 South American, 29 Polimeni, Raluca, 244 Southeast Asia, 29 , 121, 235, 244, 256 Southeastern Nigeria, 33, 160 Portuguese, 29 Southern Nigeria, 15, 63, 136 Prior, Reverend Kenneth, 101 Southern Provinces, 155 prostitution, 261 Spanish, 260 Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, 62 Spitfire Funds, 164 Stevenson, Robert, xiii r Stewart, J. F., 155 raffia, 171 Stockdale, Frank, 172 rebellion, 11, 12, 26, 129, 143, 217 Stockley, G. I., 116 Red Cross, 219 Stone, B. C., 99 revolt, 2, 12–13, 75–76, 123–34, 140–49, Stone, Margaret, 56, 115 153–56, 161, 175, 276 Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), 244 rice, 173, 214 Sub-Saharan Africa, xiii Richard and William King, 298n14 Sudan, 29 Richards, Paul, 124 sugar, 173 Richardson, David, 49 Sumatra, 159 Rio Muni, 260 Swinton, Lord, 166 Robinson, R. E., 298n5 Robinson, W. A., 263 T Rodney, Walter, 96 Takes, Charles, 255 Royal Niger Company, 61–62, 67, 78, Tanenbaum, Marc H., 222 298n14 Tanzania, 125 rubber, 208 Taylor Laughland and Company, 298n14 plantations, 240 tea, 173 Thomas Harrison and Company, 298n14 s Thomas, Northcote W., 14 salt, 30, 31, 47, 48, 84, 133, 173, 180, 224, Thompson, H. N., 78 227, 276, 314n70 Thompson, Paul, 21 Scott, James, 123 Thomson, Graeme, 136 Scott, Joan Wallach, 286n26 Throup, David, 170 Second National Development Plan, 1970– Tiko, 260

74, 230 Time, 220

Second World War, 2, 12, 19, 24, 68, 113, Tiv, 55 120, 163, 165, 193, 195, 276, 277 Tristram, F. W., 157

index 369 u v U.S. Agency for International Development Van Allen, Judith, 128 (USAID), 207 Victoria, 260 Ubahu, 104 Uburu, 49 w Uchendu, Victor, xiii, 32, 270 Walter, B. W., 100 Ude, Emmanuel, 254 Ward, C. H., 161 Udi, 100, 256 Wariboko, Waibite, 55, 61 Division, 166, 176 Warrant Chief, 71–73, 146 Udo, R. K., 253 Watson, McL. E., 174 Ukaegbu, Basil, 115 Watts, Michael, 7, 237 Ukwu, Ukwu, I, 48 Wells, Jerome C., 283n7 Ulakwo, 186 West Africa, 29, 55, 59, 91, 172 Ulonna North, 208, 240 West African coast, 29, 30, 51, 53 Ulonna South, 208 West African Cocoa Control Board, 191 Umon, 127 West African Motors, 147 , 249 West African Pilot, 163, 171, 185 Umuahia, 100, 102, 110, 117, 134, 139, 187, West African Produce Control Board, 191 189 West Germany, 207 Cocoa Estate in, 203 Western Nigeria, 9, 98 District of, 134 Division, 202 wild rubber, 171 Umuakpo, 155 wild silk, 171 Umudike, 86,110 Win the War Fund, 164 Umudioka, 32 Windward Coast, 50 Umueri, 28 Women’s Revolt, 75, 131 Umuhu, 153 Women’s War, xiv, 125, 157 Umuorlu, 40 World Bank, 6, 7, 245, 285n15 Umuosi, 153 Worster, Donald, 243 United Africa Company, 61, 87, 147, 158–59, 169, 191, 258, 262 y United Church of Canada, 101 yam, xii, xiii, 11, 20, 28–32, 34, 38–39, United Kingdom, 168, 207 41–44, 46–47, 49, 50, 87, 174–78, United States, 79, 168 180–81, 183–85, 187, 208, 212, 214, University of Biafra, 219 219, 220, 222–25, 227, 240–41, University of Nigeria, 219 245–46, 249, 250–53, 255, 266–68, Upper Guinea Coast, 39 270, 273–74, 276, 279 USAID, 225 Yoruba, 40, 293n66 Usoro, Eno, 15, 113, 283n6 Yorubaland, 9 Uturu, 159 Trade Centre in, 104 Uyo, 177, 198, 202 Uzere, 63 Uzoakoli, 48 Uzouwani, 208

370 The l and has Changed