DOCSLIB.ORG

Testing the Reality of Exercise Partners As a Moderator of the Köhler Effect

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Testing the Reality of Exercise Partners As a Moderator of the Köhler Effect TESTING THE REALITY OF EXERCISE PARTNERS AS A MODERATOR OF THE KÖHLER EFFECT By Samuel Thomas Forlenza A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Kinesiology – Doctor of Philosophy 2014 ABSTRACT TESTING THE REALITY OF EXERCISE PARTNERS AS A MODERATOR OF THE KÖHLER EFFECT By Samuel Thomas Forlenza Few people engage in recommended amounts of physical activity, and as such, it is important methods are sought out that could help people improve their motivation to sustain exercise. One potential way to do this is to leverage the power of group dynamics, specifically, the Köhler effect (Stroebe, Diehl, & Abakoumkin, 1996). When two people of moderately unequal abilities are partnered together on a conjunctive task, the weaker group member tends to perform better, and this performance gain is known as the Köhler effect (Kerr & Hertel, 2011). A growing body of research supports the idea that the Köhler effect can be combined with exergames to produce improvements in the length of time people hold plank exercises (e.g., Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin, 2011). However, the research thus far has only made use of pre-recorded confederates purported to be live human partners. While this approach has been successful, it may not be practical on a large scale. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation is to explore whether or not the Köhler effect can be achieved with different types of partners. One approach is to use a computer-generated partner. Some research shows that people will team up with computers, suggesting that there is the potential for these types of interactions to improve motivation and performance (Nass, Fogg, & Moon, 1996). Another potential partner is an imagined partner. Research has shown that using associative imagery (imagery focused on the task) and dissociative imagery (imagery focused on something unrelated to the task) helps extend performance on muscular endurance tasks, suggesting that combining imagery and the Köhler effect could be an effective match (Razon et al., 2010). To test this, participants (220 undergraduate students) were randomly assigned to one of six experimental conditions (virtually-real partner, altered virtually-real partner, software- generated partner, imagined partner, associative imagery, dissociative imagery) or to a no- partner, no-imagery control condition. Participants performed two blocks of plank exercises, holding each exercise for as long as possible. The first block was a baseline measure, performed individually and without imagery. For the experimental conditions, the second block was performed either with a partner or with the use of imagery. Measures of exercise duration, perceived exertion, self-efficacy beliefs, enjoyment, intention to exercise the following day, and impressions of one’s partner and group were collected. Results from the main analysis indicated that participants in the experimental groups generally held plank exercises for longer during the second block compared to the control participants, supporting the idea that computer-generated partners, imagined partners, and imagery can be used to increase the time people hold plank exercises. Ancillary analyses indicated that participants in the partner conditions perceived themselves as working harder during the second block, while participants in the imagery and control conditions did not. There were no differences in self-efficacy beliefs, enjoyment, and intention to exercise the following day. These findings are consistent with past research (Feltz et al., 2011) and suggest that incorporating computer-generated partners into exergames may boost how long people play these games. The use of imagined partners and imagery may also be effective methods to improve performance during traditional exercise. As a muscular endurance task was used, future researchers could use a similar paradigm to test these results with aerobic exercise, which would have a greater potential to positively influence health. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….. vii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………… viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….. 1 Purpose and Hypotheses…………………………………………………………. 6 Primary Research Question and Hypotheses…………………………….. 7 Secondary Research Question and Hypotheses………………………….. 9 Delimitations……………………………………………………………………... 10 Definitions………………………………………………………………………... 11 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………… 13 The Problem of Physical Inactivity………………………………………………. 13 The Benefits of Exercise………………………………………………….. 14 Meeting Physical Activity Recommendations……………………………. 16 Video Games: Problem and Solution?……………………………………………. 18 Effects of Video Game Play………………………………………………. 20 Video Games as Solutions………………………………………………… 22 Exergames………………………………………………………………………… 23 Alternative to Exercise…………………………………………………….. 24 Benefits of Playing Exergames……………………………………………. 27 Improving Motivation…………………………………………………….. 32 Group Dynamics and the Köhler Effect………………………………………….. 35 Motivation Losses………………………………………………………… 38 Motivation Gains…………………………………………………………. 39 Human-computer Interactions……………………………………………………. 53 Media Equation…………………………………………………………… 53 Uncanny Valley…………………………………………………………… 56 Cognitive Strategies During Exercise…………………………………………….. 59 Imagery…………………………………………………………………… 60 Imagined Partners………………………………………………………… 62 Summary………………………………………………………………………….. 63 CHAPTER 3 METHOD…………………………………………………………………………………. 65 Design and Participants…………………………………………….……………… 65 Experimental Task……………………………………………….………………... 66 Measures………………………………………………………….……………….. 67 Persistence…………………………………………………………………. 67 Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)………………………………………. 67 iv Self-efficacy Beliefs (SE)…………………………………………………. 68 Enjoyment and Intention to Exercise……………………………………… 68 Uncanny Valley……………………………………………………………. 69 Attitudes Towards Partner…………….…………………………………… 70 Manipulation Checks……………………………………………………… 70 Demographics……………………………………………………………... 71 Procedures…………………………………………………………….…………… 71 Manipulations……………………………………………………………… 72 Analyses……………………………………………………………………….…... 77 Persistence…………………………………………………………………. 77 Secondary Analyses………………………………..……………………… 77 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………………. 79 Preliminary Analyses……………………………………………………………… 79 Missing Data……………………………………………………………… 79 Outliers…………………………………………………………………….. 79 Normality………………………………………………………………….. 80 Manipulation Check – Partner Conditions………………………………... 80 Manipulation Check – Imagery Conditions………………………………. 81 History Effects……………………………………………………………. 86 Main Analysis……………………………………………………………………... 87 Secondary Analyses……………………………………………………………….. 92 Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)………………………………………. 92 Self-efficacy Beliefs (SE)…………………………………………………. 93 Enjoyment and Intention to Exercise……………………………………… 93 Uncanny Valley…………………………………………………………… 94 Attitudes Towards Partner………………………………………………… 98 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Manipulation Checks……………………………………………………………… 100 Main Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 102 Secondary Analyses……………………………………………………………….. 107 Strengths…………………………………………………………………………... 111 Limitations and Future Research Directions………………………………………. 112 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………. 116 APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………. 117 APPENDIX A: IRB APPROVAL LETTER……………………………………… 118 APPENDIX B: THE BORG SCALE OF PERCEIVED EXERTION………..…... 119 APPENDIX C: SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS…………………………………...... 120 APPENDIX D: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ENJOYMENT SCALE (PACES) AND INTENTION TO EXERCISE…..................................................................... 121 APPENDIX E: GODSPEED INDICES…………………………………………... 122 APPENDIX F: ALTERNATIVE GODSPEED INDICES………………..………. 124 v APPENDIX G: TEAM PERCEPTION INDEX……………….………………….. 125 APPENDIX H: GROUP IDENTIFICATION…………………………………...... 126 APPENDIX I: PARTNER MANIPULATION CHECK……………………..…… 127 APPENDIX J: IMAGERY MANIPULATION CHECK……………...………….. 128 APPENDIX K: INDIVIDUAL CONTROL MANIPULATION CHECK…..……. 130 APPENDIX L: DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS………………...……………….. 131 APPENDIX M: MANIPULATION SCRIPTS………………………...………….. 132 APPENDIX N: SUPPLEMENTAL ANALYSES………………….……………... 139 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………. 144 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations of the Imagery Manipulation Check by Condition……………….......................................................................................... 83 Table 2: Correlations Between Difference Scores and Imagery Manipulation Check by Condition …………………………………………………………………………. 84 Table 3: Overall Means and Standard Deviations for All Dependent Variables………..… 89 Table 4: Means and Standard Deviations for All Dependent Variables by Condition........ 91 Table 5: Correlations Between All Dependent Variables…………………………….…… 92 Table 6: Means and Standard Deviations for the Partner Conditions for Emotional Responses to their Partners and Attitudes Toward their Partners…………..……... 96 Table 7: Correlations Between Difference Scores and Emotional Responses to their Partners and Attitudes Toward their Partners by Partner Condition…………….... 97 Table 8: Correlations Between Subscales of the Godspeed Indices…………………...….. 97 Table 9: Correlations Between Subscales of the Alternative Godspeed Indices…………. 98 Table 10: Summary of the Main Analysis, Alternative Follow-up Tests, and Alternative Analyses………………………………………………………………. 142 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure I: A simplified version of Mori’s Uncanny Valley (1970/2005)………………….. 57 Figure II: Pictures
Load more

Recommended publications
  • UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara the Non-Contributive Bystander: Extending the Bystander Effect to Predict Online Informat
    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara The non-contributive bystander: Extending the bystander effect to predict online information sharing A Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Communication by Audrey Nasya Abeyta Committee in charge: Professor Andrew Flanagin, Chair Professor Miriam Metzger Professor Daniel Linz September 2015 The thesis of Audrey Nasya Abeyta is approved. ____________________________________________ Miriam Metzger ____________________________________________ Daniel Linz ____________________________________________ Andrew Flanagin, Committee Chair September 2015 The non-contributive bystander: Extending the bystander effect to predict online information sharing Copyright © 2015 by Audrey Nasya Abeyta iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Andrew Flanagin, for his guidance in my scholarly development. Throughout this process, he patiently mentored me, reading dozens of drafts and leaving insightful comments on each one. He has instilled in me a passion for methodological rigor, while constantly challenging me to grapple with theoretical questions. I cannot imagine undertaking this intellectual journey without him. I would also like to thank my thesis committee: Dr. Miriam Metzger and Dr. Daniel Linz for their feedback, suggestions, and encouragement at every stage of this project. Their meticulous attention to detail and creative ideas were instrumental to the completion of this project. I must
    [Show full text]
  • Social Loafing: a Review of the Literature
    Social Loafing: A Review of the Literature Ashley Simms Texas Wesleyan University Tommy Nichols Texas Wesleyan University Social loafing is a phenomenon that has been discussed and researched since 1913. Though it has been long examined, recent technological developments offer ample opportunity for further study. This paper summarizes its long history of research and offers several propositions for future research. INTRODUCTION In 1913 a phenomenon was found that, at the time, did not receive sufficient attention. Maximilien Ringelmann, a French agricultural engineer, observed that when a group of people collectively pulled on a rope, the output was less than when group members individually pulled on the rope (Kravitz and Martin, 1986; Ringelmann, 1913). The results of this finding were not considered further until 1974 when Ingham, Levinger, Graves, and Peckham recreated the experiment. The term “social loafing” was coined for the discovery that participants working in groups exert less effort than participants working individually. It was described as having a detrimental effect on individuals and the institutions associated with them (Latane, Williams, & Harkins, 1979). From there, the research evolved into five distinct categories: 1) establishing the existence of social loafing in both physical and cognitive group projects, 2) causes and deterrents of social loafing, 3) partner adaptation to group member social loafing (such as the “Sucker Effect”), 4) social loafing as a positive mechanism, and finally 5) social loafing in modern technology. ESTABLISHING SOCIAL LOAFING EXISTS The origins of social loafing begin with “The Ringelmann Effect,” which describes the tendency for individuals to lower their productivity when in a group (Ringlemann, 1913); Ingham, Levinger, Graves and Peckham relabeled this effect “social loafing” when they were successful in demonstrating individual effort declines in a curvilinear fashion when people work as a group or only believe they are working in a group (Ingham, Levinger, Graves, & Peckham, 1974).
    [Show full text]
  • Work Teams Steve W
    1 Work Teams Steve W. J. Kozlowski Bradford S. Bell Michigan State University Cornell University OUTLINE I. ABSTRACT II. Introduction III. Team Types and Task Characteristics IV. Team Composition V. Team Development VI. Team Processes and Performance VII. Building and Managing Effective Teams VIII. Conclusion IX. Further Reading Citation: Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Bell, B. S. (2004). Work teams. In C. Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (pp. 725-732). St. Louis: Elsevier. 2 GLOSSARY work team: A collective of two or more individuals that performs organizationally relevant tasks, shares one or more common goals, interacts, exhibits task interdependencies, manages boundaries, and is embedded in a broader organizational context. team composition: The collective attributes of team members, with an emphasis on how the similarities, differences, and combination of member attributes influence team processes and effectiveness. team development: The progression of a newly formed team from a loose collection of individuals to a well integrated collective capable of coordinating effort to accomplish the team’s task. team processes: Cognitive, affective, and behavioral mechanisms that enable team members to combine the potential of their attributes and resources to resolve constraints, coordinate effort, and achieve success. team effectiveness: A multifaceted factor defined by the degree of the team’s productive output, satisfaction of member needs, and the willingness of members to continue working together. 3 I. ABSTRACT Work teams are composed of two or more individuals; who exist to perform organizationally relevant tasks; share one or more common goals; interact socially; exhibit interdependencies in task workflows, goals, and/or outcomes; maintain and manage boundaries; and are embedded in a broader organizational context that sets boundaries, constrains the team, and influences exchanges with other units in the organization.
    [Show full text]
  • Downloaded Via the Internet) That Allows Users to Send and Receive Voice Calls Via the Internet
    Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2011 Social Loafing and Free Riding in Online Learning Groups Sherry L. Piezon Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION SOCIAL LOAFING AND FREE RIDING IN ONLINE LEARNING GROUPS By SHERRY L. PIEZON A Dissertation submitted to the School of Library and Information Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2011 Copyright © 2011 Sherry L. Piezon All Rights Reserved The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Sherry L. Piezon defended on March 30, 2011. ______________________________ Gary Burnett Professor Directing Dissertation ______________________________ Allan Jeong University Representative __________________________________ Ian Douglas Committee Member ______________________________ Paul Marty Committee Member Approved: _________________________________________________________________ Corinne Jörgensen, Director, School of Library and Information Studies ________________________________________________________________ Lawrence C. Dennis, Dean, School of Library and Information Studies The Graduate School has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this doctoral degree and dissertation would not have been possible without the help and support of all the people who touch my life daily. First, I would like to acknowledge and thank the members of my doctoral committee for their efforts on my behalf. I would like to thank Dr. Gary Burnett, my major professor and mentor. His advice and the countless hours he spent reviewing and editing my drafts are greatly appreciated. I would also like to thank Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • Sport Psychology
    Sport Psychology Contemporary Themes David Lavallee, John Kremer, Aidan P. Moran and Mark Williams Sport Psychology This page intentionally left blank Sport Psychology Contemporary Themes David Lavallee, John Kremer, Aidan P. Moran and Mark Williams © David Lavallee, John Kremer, Aidan P. Moran and Mark Williams 2004 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2004 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 1–4039–0467–7 hardback ISBN 1–4039–0468–5 paperback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources.
    [Show full text]
  • The Relationship Between Social Loafing and Work Alienation: an Empirical Analysis1
    Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi /Journal of Administrative Sciences Cilt/Volume 19, Sayı/No: 39 ss.pp.: 179-202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35408/comuybd.724154 - RESEARCH ARTICLE - THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL LOAFING AND WORK ALIENATION: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS1 Gülşen YURDAKUL2 & Melahat ÖNEREN3 Abstract Social loafing behavior refers to the situation in organizations where organizations collectively produce products or services, hiding from the duties and responsibili- ties of employees and hiding within the group. Social loafing behavior exhibited by employees may have negative consequences for organizations. The phenomenon of work alienation is also a negative situation experienced by employees due to many different reasons. As in social loafing behavior, work alienation behavior can have negative consequences for organizations. In this study, the relationship between work alienation and social loafing behaviors of the employees of an institutional enterprise in Ankara was investigated. Because the employees are employed in teams in a collective manner, it is convenient for examining the behavior of social loafing. In the study, the sub-dimensions of the variables as a result of factor anal- ysis emerged. The relationship between the variables and the sub-dimensions of the variables formed as a result of the analysis were investigated. The data were collected by using survey method. The collected data were analyzed by SPSS 21 package program. First of all, descriptive statistics, frequency and normality were obtained and correlation analysis were performed. Then, t-Test and One-Way Vari- ance (ANOVA) were performed. As a result of the analysis, it was found that there was a positive and significant relationship between work alienation and social loafing behavior.
    [Show full text]
  • The Influence of Task Demand and Social Categorization Diversity on Performance and Enjoyment in a Language Learning Game
    Computers & Education 95 (2016) 285e295 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Computers & Education journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu The influence of task demand and social categorization diversity on performance and enjoyment in a language learning game * ** Wei Peng a, , Hayeon Song b, , Jinyoung Kim c, Tom Day d a Department of Media and Information, Michigan State University, 404 Wilson, Room 429, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA b College of Business, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdaero, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea c 201 Carnegie Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA d 404 Wilson, Room 409, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA article info abstract Article history: Task demand type (e.g., competitive, cooperative, conjunctive) is an important factor Received 3 June 2015 influencing learning motivation and performance in a group. Limited research is available Received in revised form 12 January 2016 regarding conjunctive task demand for learning tasks, especially for the lower performing Accepted 13 January 2016 individuals. Additionally, group composition or social categorization diversity in a group is Available online 14 January 2016 another important yet relatively understudied factor. To fill the research gap, this study attempted to examine the effects of task demand and social categorization diversity in a Keywords: group on motivation and performance in a computer-based foreign language learning Competition Cooperation game. Seven conditions were included: 2 (social categorization diversity: in-group or out- Conjunctive task group) x 3 (group task demand: competitive, conjunctive, or cooperative) plus an indi- In-group vidual task demand control condition. A total of 102 undergraduates without prior Italian Out-group language background were randomly assigned to one of the seven conditions to play an Social identity Italian learning game on the computer in the laboratory for about 15 min.
    [Show full text]
  • From Public Hearings to Consensual Disposal: Insights from the Decisionmaking Literature
    FROM PUBLIC HEARINGS TO CONSENSUAL DISPOSAL: INSIGHTS FROM THE DECISIONMAKING LITERATURE A review for the Professional Standards Authority Dr Paul Sanderson April 2019 0 Dr Paul Sanderson is a Consultant in Regulation, a Research Associate at the Centre for Business Research, Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, and Senior Lecturer in Regulation Studies and Social Policy at the School of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University. The author is grateful to the Professional Standards Authority for commissioning this review. Thanks are due in particular to Douglas Bilton, Assistant Director of Standards and Policy, Simon Wiklund, Head of Legal (Senior Solicitor) and Mark Platt, Secondee Policy Advisor, for their kind assistance. As ever, any errors whether of fact or omission are entirely the responsibility of the author. 1 From public hearings to consensual disposal: Insights from the decisionmaking literature. 1. Introduction and rationale This literature review was commissioned by the Professional Standards Authority in response to the increased use of consensual disposal by health professionals’ regulatory organisations, including various forms of private hearings (Professional Standards Authority, 2017). To inform understandings of this development we examine the literature on decisionmaking and audience effects and consider what lessons can be drawn in respect of the decisions of panel members during fitness to practise hearings, whether held in private or in public. Consensual disposal Consensual disposal is the means by which regulatory panels and registrants can avoid the need for a contested hearing by reaching agreement to conclude cases by deciding in private the outcome that the panel would most likely have reached if hearings were to be contested and held in public.
    [Show full text]
  • Roose Unr 0139D 13387.Pdf
    University of Nevada, Reno A Behavior Analytic Examination of Social Loafing A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology by Kathryn M. Roose, M.A. W. Larry Williams, Ph.D./Dissertation Advisor December, 2020 © Copyright by Kathryn M. Roose 2020 All Rights Reserved THE GRADUATE• SCHOOL We recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by entitled be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Advisor Committee Member Committee Member Committee Member Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph.D., Dean Graduate School i Abstract Social loafing is a phenomenon in which individuals working in groups exert less effort than when they work alone, resulting in substantial losses in productivity. Social loafing has a broad empirical and theoretical research base in various areas of psychology and management, but not in behavior science. Many factors have been shown to influence social loafing; however, research has not assessed the impact of coworker performance on social loafing. This study employed an online data entry task programmed to simulate partner and team performance to vary coworker productivity within subject to assess the impact on participant social loafing. Study 1 assessed participant performance when paired with fast and slow partners in cooperative and competitive conditions. The results indicated a higher prevalence of social loafing in cooperative conditions when compared to competitive conditions, and disparate performance based on the order in which participants were paired with fast and slow partners. Study 2 assessed participant performance while working in pairs or four-person teams with fast and slow coworkers.
    [Show full text]
  • An Investigation of the Relationship Between Social Loafing and Organizational Citizenship Behavior
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Elsevier - Publisher Connector Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect P r o c e d i a - S o c i a l a n d B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s 9 9 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 2 0 6 – 2 1 5 9th International Strategic Management Conference An Investigation of the Relationship between Social Loafing and Organizational Citizenship Behavior Himmet Karadala b, a* a Aksaray University, Turkey b Aksaray University, Turkey Abstract The main aim of this study is to analyze the relationship between social loafing and organizational citizenship behavior. To examine this relationship, the data were collected by the questionnaire forms from school principals and bank managers & employees in Aksaray, Turkey. Organizational citizenship behavior affects the efficiency of employees and increases the possibility of collaboration. If organizations want to increase their efficiency and profitability, they should lead the citizenship behavior among their employees. Otherwise, they would run out of rivalry and success. On the other hand, the term social loafing has a negative reflection in organizations. It lets the employees work individually and expend less effort for their works. In this study counteract tendency that is social loafing have been analyzed in the light of a deep data analysis carried out via statistical assessments. 3 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 9th © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
    [Show full text]
  • Sport and Exercise Psychology: the Key Concepts, Second Edition
    SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY Praise for the first edition: ‘‘The exploration of the concepts is concise; the writing style is engaging and easily understandable without being patronising or simplistic ... a useful reference tool, a quick and user-friendly resource to be used to inform discussion, or [as] a source of illumination.’’ Higher Education Academy Psychology Network Now including exercise psychology terms for the first time in its new edition, Sport and Exercise Psychology: The Key Concepts offers a highly accessible introduction to this fascinating subject, its central theories and state-of-the-art research. Over 300 alphabetically ordered entries cover such diverse terms as: adherence aggression emotion exercise dependence home advantage kinesiophobia left-handedness motivation retirement self-confidence. Cross-referenced, with suggestions for further reading and a full index, this Key Guide contains invaluable advice on the psychology of sport and exercise. A comprehensive A–Z guide to a fast-moving field of inquiry, this book is an essential resource for scholars, coaches, trainers, journalists, competitors, exercisers—in fact, anyone associated with sport and exercise. Ellis Cashmore is Professor of Culture, Media and Sport at Stafford- shire University, UK, and author of Making Sense of Sports as well as biographies, such as Beckham and Tyson: Nurture of the Beast. ALSO AVAILABLE FROM ROUTLEDGE Fifty Key Thinkers in Psychology Noel Sheehy 978-0-415-16775-8 Psycholinguistics: The Key Concepts John Field 978-0-415-25891-3 SPORT AND EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY The Key Concepts Second Edition Ellis Cashmore First published 2002 This edition published 2008 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY10016 RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
    [Show full text]
  • Blurred Lines: How the Collectivism Norm Operates Through Group Perceived Diversity to Boost Or Harm Group Performance
    Blurred Lines: How the Collectivism Norm Operates Through Group Perceived Diversity to Boost or Harm Group Performance Jennifer A. Chatman University of California, Berkeley Lindreed Greer Stanford University Eliot Sherman London Business School Bernadette Doerr Forthcoming, Organization Science October 9, 2018 1 Abstract We develop and test a theory that reconciles contradictions in how collectivistic norms influence group performance. We draw on the perceived diversity literature to hypothesize that collectivistic norms cause group members to “blur” demographic differences, resulting in a shared perception that group members are more similar to one another than they actually are. Whether this benefits or harms group performance depends on the level of objective diversity in the group and the relevance of the perceived diversity attribute for accomplishing the group’s task. For conjunctive tasks, the group’s performance is determined by its weakest member, and high levels of cohesion are needed. Our theory suggests that collectivism benefits group conjunctive performance when objective national diversity is high by blurring divisive relational differences but has no effect in groups with low objective national diversity. In contrast, for disjunctive tasks, the group’s performance is determined by its best member, and we predict that collectivism harms group disjunctive performance when objective expertness diversity is high by blurring differences in task-relevant expertness, but has no effect in groups with low objective expertness diversity. We find support for our theory in two studies, including an archival study of 5,214 Himalayan climbing groups and a laboratory experiment assessing 356 groups. Our results show that collectivism has benefits and detriments for diverse groups, and that these contradictory effects can be understood by identifying how the collectivistic blurring of perceived group diversity helps or hurts groups based on the type of tasks on which they are working.
    [Show full text]