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Bsc Chemistry Input Template for Content Writers (e-Text and Learn More) 1. Details of Module and its Structure Module Detail Subject Name <Botany> Paper Name <Ecology> Module Name/Title <Species Interaction II> Module Id Pre-requisites <Basic knowledge about interactionsamong organisms> <To make students aware about different negative interaction prevailing Objectives in a community > <Amensalism>,<Predation>,< Herbivory>,< Parasitism>; < Competition>; Keywords < Competitive Exclusion > Structure of Module / Syllabus of a module (Define Topic / Sub-topic of module ) < Species Interactions II> <Introduction>, <Types of Negative Interactions><Summary> 2. Development Team Role Name Affiliation Subject Coordinator <Prof. Sujata Bhargava> Savitribai Phule Pune University Paper Coordinator <Prof. NSR Krishnayya> MS University Baroda Content Writer/Author (CW) <Prof.. Neeta Pandya> MS University Baroda Content Reviewer (CR) < Prof. NSR Krishnayya > Language Editor (LE) < Prof. NSR Krishnayya > Species Interaction II Ecology Negative interactions prevailing among different species TABLE OF CONTENTS(for textual content) 1.Introduction: 2.Types of Negative Interactions: 2.1.Amensalism: 2.2. Predation 2.2.1 Predator-Prey Adaptations 2.2.1.1 Defensive Coloration 2.2.1.2Camouflage 2.2.1.3 Mimicry 2.2.2Predation- Prey Dynamics 2.3. Herbivory 2.4. Parasitism 2.4.1. Endoparasites 2.4.2. Ectoparasites 2.5. Competition 2.5.1 Different Types of Competition: 2.5.1.1 Intraspecific competition 2.5.1.2. Interspecific competition 2.5.1.3. Interference Competition 2.5.1.4. Exploitation competition 2.5.2. Models of competition 2.5.3 Competitive Exclusion Principle 1.Introduction: Ecological communities are assemblage of populations of different species, present in a defined geographic area. The species interact with each other directly and indirectly. The influence of interactions varies in degree of impact and outcome. Species interactions form the basis for many ecosystem properties and processes such as nutrient cycling and food webs. There are several classes of interactions which broadly are divided into positive and negative interactions. 2.Types of Negative Interactions: Negative interactions are mainly classified into following five types: Interaction Effect on species A Effect on species B Nature of Interaction Amensalism (-) (0) One is harmed; other is unaffected Predation (+) (-) Beneficial to predator ; harmful to prey Herbivory (+) (-) Beneficial to herbivore ;harmful to plants Parasitism (+) (-) Beneficial to parasite ;harmful to host Competition (-) (-) Inhibitory to both Table 1: Types of Negative Interactions. The sign +, 0 & - represent the effect of one species on another and indicate positive, neutral or negative effect respectively. Species Interaction II Ecology Negative interactions prevailing among different species 2.1.Amensalism: It is an antagonistic interspecificinteraction where one species suffers and the other species remains unaffected. This is commonly the effect when one species produces a chemical compound (as part of its normal metabolic reactions) that is harmful to the other species.It is also called antibiosis , the affected species is called amensal and the affecting species is called inhibitor. Allelopathy, in which some plants produce chemical compounds that inhibit the growth of nearby would-be competitors, is one type of amensalistic interaction ,for example Black Walnut tree (Juglans nigra), secretes juglone from its roots, it is a chemical that harms or kills some of the surrounding plants species(Fig.1). The other plants are prohibited from growing under or near the trees while the walnut trees do not really get benefit in any way. Interaction between an antibiotic and a pathogenic microbe is also an example of amensalism (antibiosis). Fig.1 Black Walnut tree showing avoidance of plants in its close territory. (Source: www.biomiami.edu) 2.2. Predation: Predation is an in antagonistic interspecific interaction in which members of one species (the predator) consume members of other smaller species (the prey). In most examples of this relationship, the predator and prey are both animals; the best-known examples of predation involve carnivorous interactions, in which one animal consumes another .Predation is also exhibited by a group of plants. Carnivorous plants, such as the Venus fly trap, Bladderwort and Pitcher plant, consume insects. Pitcher plants catch their prey in a pool of water containing digestive enzymes, whereas the Venus fly trap captures an insect between the two lobes of a leaf and seals the insect inside with digestive enzymes (Fig.2 ). A B Fig. 2 (A) Predator and Prey (Lynx and Hare) (B) A carnivorous plant (Venus fly trap) (Source: A - www.bio.georgeasouthern.edu; B - www.ehow.com) 2.2.1 Predator-Prey Adaptations: Species Interaction II Ecology Negative interactions prevailing among different species Predation has a direct effect on density of prey population .Both, prey as well as predator try to increase their efficiency ,prey tries to avoid predation and predator wants to catch maximum number of prey organism to satisfy its own hunger. During a long term history of predation both have developed number of adaptive features involving an evolutionary arms race.The major adaptive mechanism are : 2.2.1.1 Defensive Coloration: Many insects are brightly colored; they advertise their poisonous nature using an ecological strategy known as warning coloration, or aposematic coloration. It helps to prevent predation, by signaling to potential predators that the brightly colored individual is toxic. Toxins may be manufactured within the body or they may be acquired passively via consumption of toxic plants (Fig.3). Showy coloration is characteristic of animals that use poisons and stings to repel predators, while organisms that lack specific chemical defenses are seldom brightly colored. A B Fig.3: Aposematic coloration shown by a caterpillar (A) and Dyeing Dart Frog (B) (Source: www.lifeandscience.org) 2.2.1.2Camouflage:One adaptation helping both predators and prey to avoid detection is camouflage; Camouflage consists of not only color but also shape and pattern. Camouflage, also called cryptic coloration, is a defense or tactic that organisms use to disguise their appearance, usually to blend in with their surroundings.Cryptic coloration is especially common in small animals such as insects, lizards, snakes, and frogs. (Fig.4). In addition to visual crypsis there is also olfactory crypsis. This is the situation when an organism uses scent to camouflage itself. Camouflage is adapted by predators too. A B Fig.4 Crab Spider(A) and Leaf butterfly (B) showing camouflage ( Source: www.duskyswodersites.com) Species Interaction II Ecology Negative interactions prevailing among different species 2.2.1.3 Mimicry: In mimicry a species resembles to the superficial appearance of another species, it can be Batesian mimicryin whicha nontoxic species (the mimic) resembles a toxic species (the model) and is avoided by the predator in response to the toxic model species. Examples of such Batesian mimicry is shown by harmless Viceroy butterfly which mimics poisonous Monarch butterfly (Fig.5).The other type is Mullerian mimicry in which one toxic species resembles another toxic species and both are avoided by predator in confusion. Fig. 5 Batesian mimicry exhibited by two species of Butterflies (Source: www.education.portal.com) Evolution of surface features like thorns, spines hard shells etc. also protect prey from predation. Predators also follow some tactics to catch the prey like they show camouflage, release poisonous chemicals, form web or a trap etc. 2.2. Predation- Prey Dynamics: Predation is not as simple to understand as it seems. In complex food webs, a predator may also be the prey of another species. Some predators eat only specific types of prey, for example, the Canadian lynx feeds mostly on snowshoe hares during the winter. No other cat is so dependent on a single prey species, in this kind of close relationship, the sizes of each population tend to increase and decrease in linked patterns, and show a coupled oscillation. Initially, highprey density increases predator density to a point where the predation causes population decline in the prey, this decline affects dependent predator population and it falls ,this rise and fall is repeated in both populations (Fig. 6).Predator-prey dynamics are also influenced by climate dynamics, changes in food availability for the prey species, and dynamics in other areas of the food web. Species Interaction II Ecology Negative interactions prevailing among different species Fig.6 The predator-prey dynamics showing coupled oscillation in populations (Source:Hijausawah.blogspot.com) 2.3. Herbivory: Herbivory involves eating of plant material by an animal herbivore. Plants are eaten by a tremendous array of herbivores, it is a type of predation in which animals/organisms consume autotrophs such as plants, algae, and photosynthesizing bacteria.Itis almost always non-fatal, and can sometimes be advantageous for the plant, as it may stimulate growth and promote community diversity. Herbivores are at the second level of the food chain. Herbivores like squirrels eat grass and small plants near the ground and are called grazers, herbivores that eat leaves, shoots, and twigs are called browsers. Three terms are commonly used to describe the host range of herbivores, monophagous, oligophagous and polyphagous. Monophagous feeds on only one species of plant. Oligophagous feeds on
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