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Subject PSYCHOLOGY

Paper No and Title Paper no.7: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Module No and Title Module no.33: ISSUES

Module Tag PSY_P7_M33

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Learning Outcomes 2. Introduction 3. Gender roles and 4. Media images 5. Gender issues in work and organizations

5.1 Glass ceiling

5.2 Tokenism

5.3 Self-efficacy and outcome expectancies

5.4 Selection and assessment

6. Dangers of stereotyping

PSYCHOLOGY PSY_P7: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY M_33: GENDER ISSUES

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7. Reducing gender stereotypes

8. Summary

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1. Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know about the concept of gender  Identify the various stereotypes related to gender and  Understand the implications of gender stereotypes in various domains

2. Introduction

The terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ are often confused with each other. According to the World Health Organization, "Sex" refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women whereas "Gender" refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Therefore, "male" and "" are sex categories, while "masculine" and "feminine" are gender categories. Also aspects of sex do not vary substantially between different human societies, while there may be variations in aspects of gender.

Gender refers to the characteristics that people associate with male and female. According to Harris (1998) ‘of the 46 chromosomes in the human genome, 45 are unisex’. Due to this, and males are similar in many physical traits as well as developmental milestones. They are also similar in many psychological traits. In her meta-analyses, Hyde (2005) found that gender similarity is the common result for most variables which are studied. However, gender differences are also observed in many aspects of behavior.

Gender identity is the self-knowledge that one is male or female. This knowledge is acquired early in life. Around age two, children are aware of their own gender and by the age of 4 or 5, they can correctly label other people by gender.

Third Gender

In a landmark judgment, the Indian Supreme Court in April, 2014 created the "" status for hijras or . Earlier, they were forced to write male or female against their gender.

The SC asked the Centre to treat as socially and economically backward.

The apex court said that transgenders will be allowed admission in educational institutions and given employment on the basis that they belonged to the third gender category.

Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Supreme-Court-recognizes-transgenders-as-third-gender/articleshow/33767900.cms

3. Gender Roles and Stereotypes

 ‘Men are insensitive’

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 ‘Men don’t cry’  ‘Women are bad drivers’  ‘All men love sports’  ‘All women love shopping’ These are some of the most prevalent stereotypes in our society. These stereotypes have not developed overnight. They are the result of socialization and are therefore ingrained in our minds deeply.

From the moment of birth, boys and girls are treated quite differently (Fogel, Toda, & Kawai, 1988). It has also been observed that male babies and children are treated differently from female ones.

When we meet new people, we try to identify them as male or female. The process of categorizing people and things as masculine or feminine is called gender typing or sex typing (Taylor, Peplau & Sears). According to Glick & Fiske (1999) this process usually occurs automatically without much thought. This happens since most of the time gender cues like physical characteristics, clothing, mannerisms etc are readily available to us. For many people displaying their gender is a very important part of self- presentation.

We not only tend to divide people into masculine and feminine but also objects and activities. Children learn that dolls are for girls and toy trucks and guns are for boys at an early age.

An observational study conducted in a shopping mall found that 90 percent of the infants were dressed up in gender-typed clothes or style. While 75% of the girls wore or carried something pink, none of the boys did. 79% of the boys wore or carried something blue, only 8% girls did (Shakin, Shakin & Sternglanz, 1985).

This process of gender typing beginning in childhood also continues in adulthood. People often distinguish between ‘men’s work’ and ‘women’s work’. Men and women also assume gender linked roles as husband or wife, mother or father. Across different cultures there is a similarity in standards of desirable and expected gender-role behavior. The difference in the way boys and girls are treated is due to gender roles.

Gender roles are the set of expectations that specify appropriate behaviors for men and women. These are defined by the society. However, these expectations often lead to bias and stereotyping. According to Bem (1984, 1993), such stereotypes produce sexism, negative attitudes, and behavior toward people based on their sex. Females are expected to be passive and supportive whereas males are expected to be assertive and competitive. Though there is some variation in gender-role standards across cultures, these standards may vary depending on ethnicity, age, education, and occupation. For example, it has been found that African American families are less likely to follow gender-role distinctions in socializing their children, whereas Mexican-American families are more likely to emphasize gender differences in socialization.

Gender stereotypes are the beliefs and expectations about the typical attributes and behaviors of males and females. Every is an image of the typical member of a particular social category. Though every individual holds gender stereotypes, most of the gender stereotypes are largely shared within a certain culture and some are prevalent world-wide. Characteristics that are generally associated with women are kind, emotional and helpful, whereas characteristics associated with men are aggressive decisive and independent. The feminine stereotype is also termed as communal and the masculine as agentic. PSYCHOLOGY PSY_P7: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY M_33: GENDER ISSUES

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Gender stereotypes are not only descriptive whereby they denote how we think men and women are, but they are also prescriptive, that is, they indicate how men and women should be and how they should behave.

A classic study conducted by Broverman et al. (1972) identified several traditional stereotypes for males and females. In this study, male and female college students were given a list of traits and asked to indicate which traits were more applicable for the typical and which are more applicable to the typical . Results showed that the traits fell into two clusters:

Table 1 Showing Common Stereotypes About Men and Women Traits Perceived as Characteristic of Men Traits Perceived as Characteristic of Women Aggressive Talkative Independent Tactful Unemotional Gentle Self-Confident Religious Very objective Aware of feelings of others Likes math and science Interested in own appearance Ambitious Neat Active Quiet Competitive Strong need for security Logical Enjoys art and literature Worldly Easily expresses tender feelings Direct Does not use harsh language Adventurous Dependent

Adapted from Broverman et al., 1972

As is clear, one set of traits are those relating to competence as contrasted from those which relate to warmth and expressiveness. In this study, traits relating to warmth and expressivity were judged most appropriate for females, while competency traits were seen as most appropriate for males. Since most societies give more importance to competence than warmth and expressiveness, such differences in perception are more favorable for males as compared to females.

Because of the emphasis on warmth in women related stereotypes, people usually feel more positively towards women than men. This finding is described by Eagly & Mladinic (1994) as the “women are wonderful” effect. The traits that women are assumed to possess are considered less appropriate for high status positions than the traits assumed to be possesed by men.

These stereotypes are further fueled by the findings from studies which confirm some stereotypes about women like being less physically aggressive and being more nurturing and socially sensitive (e.g., Prentice & Carranza, 2002). Also many researches have found that women give more priority to close, intimate relationships as compared to men (e.g.,Chodorow, 1989). Maccoby (2002) concluded that girls talk more intimately and play less aggressively as compared to boys.

Such differences in socialization are translated into differential gender schemes. According to social psychologist Sandra Bem (1987), a gender schema is the cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender. Gender schema theory, developed by Bem, explains how individuals use gender as an organizing category in all aspects of their life. It combines aspects of the social learning theory and the cognitive-development theory of sex role acquisition. Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1971) measures PSYCHOLOGY PSY_P7: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY M_33: GENDER ISSUES

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how well one fits into traditional gender roles as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. According to Bem, a person, through gender-schematic processing, sorts attributes as well as behaviors into masculine and feminine categories. However, this understanding of masculine and feminine is derived largely by one’s culture. According to Hofstede, Masculinity and Femininity differ in terms of the social roles that are associated with the two sexes. Masculinity describes a society in which gender roles are clearly distinct. Femininity depicts a society in which gender roles overlap, i.e. here “both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life”. In masculine cultures women are expected to serve and care for children and for the weak. The dominant values in a masculine society are achievement and success while the dominant values in a feminine society are caring for others and quality of life.

4. Media images

According to Matlin (2004), television, movies and other mass media play a major role in conveying messages about the nature of masculinity and femininity. Research has shown that the most common commercial depicts a male expert instructing a female consumer about a product. In a study conducted in the 1970s, 70% men were shown as experts, while 86% of women were shown as product users (McArthur & Resko, 1975).

Archer and colleagues (1983) analyzed thousands of photographs from newspapers and magazines in the U.S. They found that photos of men tended to emphasize their faces while photos of women emphasized their bodies. Archer named this tendency as face-ism.

After analyzing newspaper articles, books, modern art etc, Matlin (2004) concluded:  Men are shown in a variety of social roles and activities while women are shown restricted to domestic and family roles.  Men are portrayed as leaders and experts while women as subordinates  Men are shown as more active, assertive and influential than women

Many studies have shown that children who watch more television tend to have more stereotypical notions about men and women. It also affects the children’s attitudes about gender typing of household chores (Signorielli & Lears, 1992). It is important to note here that since these studies are correlational the direction of causality is not clear.

In recent years, there have been efforts to portray men and women in less gender-typed ways. For example in some ads, women are shown in the business world holding executive positions while men are shown doing household work.

Transgender and are individuals who do not identify with the sex they are born into. "Transgender" individuals feel a lack of fit between their own gender and the gender roles specified by the society. Some transgender people's sense of difference is so strong that they identify as "transsexual". A transsexual is someone who believes their assigned sex at birth is wrong and their correct PSYCHOLOGYsex is one that aligns withPSY_P7: their internal SOCIAL feelings. PSYCHOLOGY M_33: GENDER ISSUES Source: http://www.diffen.com/difference/Transgender_vs_Transsexual

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5. Gender Issues in Work and Organizations

Due to the gender stereotypes prevailing in the society at large gender stereotyping is also reflected in people’s perception regarding which occupations are most suitable for men and women. For instance, women are still perceived as best suited to jobs traditionally filled by women like secretary, teacher, cashier, and librarian. A vast majority of women are found in clerical, healthcare (nursing) and social services, education, retailing and service occupations. These occupations have lesser status and salary as compared to professions which are male dominated. Men, in contrast, are viewed as better suited for such professions as doctor, police officer, and construction worker (Gettys & Cann, 1981; Eccles, 1987; Bridges, 1988). Men work more often as technicians, engineers, finance professionals and managers.

According to Eagly and Steffen (1984), women are seen as most appropriately filling communal professions- professions associated with relationships. Men in contrast are perceived as best suited for agentic professions- professions that are associated with getting things accomplished. Traditionally, professions relating to communal concerns are of lower prestige and are lower paying than are agentically oriented professions (Eagly & Steffen, 1984, 1986).

5.1 Glass ceiling Apart from the specific occupation, even the job level is gender stereotyped. Because successful leaders are expected to have masculine characteristics, women are not expected to be managers or leaders. It has been observed that higher the position in the organization, the lower the percentage of women. Women in higher managerial jobs are scarce, and even scarcer in top management positions. This phenomenon is known as the ‘glass ceiling’: a phenomenon which indicates that an invisible barrier seems to hold capable women back from attaining top positions in organizations. Studies regarding the glass ceiling have been carried out from the perspectives of gender typing of leadership and management positions; gender differences in leadership and effectiveness and emergent leadership. Several studies have confirmed the “Think manager, think male” bias which maintains the glass ceiling (Schein, 2001).

Even when women are able to break the glass ceiling, there are less favorable outcomes in their careers because of their gender. As leaders, women tend to receive lower evaluations from their subordinates as compared to men, especially those who are working in male dominated work environments. But the reverse is true for males. When men enter predominantly female occupations, they get a ride to the top on a “glass escalator” (Williams, 1992). They rapidly become managers and executives in nursing and other female dominated professions.

THE INDIAN SCENARION: SOME FACTS

 India‘s National Population Policy 2000 has empowering women for health and nutrition as one of its strategic themes.  The promotion of gender equality and empowering of women is also one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) signed by India.  Gender inequalities are pervasive in most societies especially in patriarchal societies like India.  There are differences in health outcomes due to gender differences in roles, power, and access to resources.  Trend data based on the three National Family Health Survey (NFHS) surveys provide

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strong evidence of declines in the sex ratio (females per 1,000 males) of the population age 0- 6 and in the sex ratio at birth for births in the five years preceding each survey.  The child mortality rate, defined as the number of deaths to children age 1-4 years per 1,000 children reaching age 1 year, is 61% higher for girls than for boys.  The 2001 census data for India revealed a sharp decline in the sex ratio for the population age 0-6, from 945 females in 1991 to 927 females per 1,000 males.  Women age 15-49 are about half as likely as men in the same age group to be employed: 43% vs. 87%.  Although most men age 15-49 believe that husbands and wives should make decisions jointly, the proportion who believe that it should be the husband who has the major say in most decisions asked about also remains significant.

http://www.rchiips.org/nfhs/a_subject_report_gender_for_website.pdf

 Official statistics of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) show that a total of 244,270 crimes against women were reported in India in 2012 as compared to 228,650 cases in 2011; recording an increase of 6.4 per cent during the year 2012. http://in.one.un.org/hin/task-teams/gender-equality-and-empowerment

5.2 Tokenism Despite the odds some women are able to break the glass ceiling in politics and business and are able to attain higher positions. That might lead people to believe that discrimination does not exist. Such a situation is called tokenism, in which a few members of a previously excluded group are included. This is also used as a strategy to deter collective protest in disadvantaged groups. It may also lead other women to blame themselves for not being able to achieve higher positions in their jobs. Some of the disadvantages of tokenism are that the selected individuals are perceived negatively by other members of the organization (Yoder & Berendsen, 2001). Also people’s confidence in their role is diminished by the awareness of tokenism.

5.3 Self-efficacy and outcome expectancies According to Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994), two types of beliefs determine people’s vocational interests: self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies.

5.3.1 Self-efficacy Self-efficacy beliefs are task-specific judgments of one’s capability to achieve a certain level of performance (Bandura, 1986). People may be highly competent at one task, but not capable in another task. Gender differences in self-efficacy beliefs are strongly linked to gender-stereotypic tasks and jobs.

5.3.2 Outcome expectancies Outcome expectancies are the imagined consequences of performing certain behaviors. They also explain differences between men and women in the workplace. Young women anticipate more educational and career barriers as compared to men. In addition to this, women are aware of the consequences of having children and a family on their career. Women are also influenced by gender stereotypic expectations of their future occupational and job roles. As girls grow older they become more aware of the prevailing gender stereotypes.

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5.4 Selection and assessment Gender stereotypes affect selection decisions through gender typing of application and their behaviors, and gender typing of jobs.

5.4.1 Gender typing of applicants and their behaviors Gender typing people refers to attributing gender stereotypic characteristics and qualities to men and women. Gender typing of jobs refers to considering gender-stereotypic characteristics associated with the sex of the typical job incumbent as necessary characteristics for every job incumbent. If the characteristics of the ideal applicant do not match the characteristics associated with the applicant’s gender, the probability of the applicant for getting selected is reduced.

5.4.2 Gender typing of jobs According to the sex matching model, jobs become gender typed according to the sex of typical job incumbent. Therefore, if one sex predominates in a job, then the image of a successful employee is that of the dominant sex and the stereotypical characteristics associated with that sex.

Juggling multiple roles Juggling work and family responsibilities can be very difficult and stressful for women. Therefore, working women are often seen complaining about lack of time and rest. However, these days, increasingly men are helping women with domestic responsibilities like childcare, grocery shopping, cleaning etc. Also many researches have shown the psychological benefits of having multiple roles for women (eg. Barnett & Hyde, 2001).

6. The dangers of stereotyping

 Stereotypes are generally used to justify prejudice and discrimination of certain groups (Cejka & Eagly, 1999).  Stereotypes exaggerate differences among groups and trivialize or ignore within group differences.  Stereotypes may sometimes lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.  Men’s success is usually seen as a result of their ability, while women’s success is mostly attributed to high effort than ability.

7. Reducing gender stereotypes

Due to the detrimental effects of gender stereotypes, it becomes crucial to understand as to how to reduce them. Some of the measures mentioned below can be employed:

1. Encouraging

According to Bem, one way is to encourage children to be androgynous. Androgyny is a state in which gender roles encompass characteristics thought typical of both sexes. Rather than neatly fitting into a

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female or male , the androgynous person can comfortably express the qualities of both .

2. Parenting interventions Parents act as important socializing agents for their children therefore interventions should be aimed at training them too. For example, parents can be trained to teach their children gender neutral language. Parents can also be encouraged to alter the presentation of gender stereotyped toys and replace them with gender-neutral objects.

3. School based interventions There have been some attempts to promote gender role flexibility in the context of academics in school. School-based intervention programs can be designed to modify teachers through reinforcement and to train them to avoid stereotyping.

Similarly, programs emphasizing non-sexist play, attitudes, and preferences should be designed. is the movement to end gender discrimination altogether in society though the use of gender neutral language, end of sex segregation and other means.

The feminist movement, or women's liberation movement, has worked hard for the rights of women and made efforts to challenge and redefine traditional stereotypic gender roles.

8. Summary

 Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women.  The process of categorizing people and things as masculine or feminine is called gender typing.  Gender stereotypes are the beliefs and expectations about the typical attributes and behaviors of males and females.  Gender roles are the set of expectations that specify appropriate behaviors for men and women.  Bem developed the gender schema theory to explain how individuals use gender as an organizing category in all aspects of their life.  Television, movies and other mass media play a major role in conveying messages about the nature of masculinity and femininity.  Women are seen as most appropriately filling communal professions. Men in contrast are perceived as best suited for agentic professions.  Glass ceiling is a phenomenon which indicates that an invisible barrier seems to hold capable women back from attaining top positions in organizations.  Lent, Brown and Hackett proposed that two types of beliefs determine people’s vocational interests: self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies.  Gender stereotypes affect selection decisions through gender typing of application and their behaviors, and gender typing of jobs.  Tokenism is a situation in which a few members of a previously excluded group are included.  Gender stereotypes can be reduced by encouraging androgyny, parenting and school based interventions.

PSYCHOLOGY PSY_P7: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY M_33: GENDER ISSUES