Creating and Sustaining Mixed Income Communities in Scotland This Publication Can Be Provided in Other Formats, Such As Large Print, Braille and Audio

Creating and sustaining mixed income communities in Scotland This publication can be provided in other formats, such as large print, Braille and audio.

Please contact:

Communications Joseph Rowntree Foundation The Homestead 40 Water End York YO30 6WP Tel: 01904 615905 Email: [email protected] Creating and sustaining mixed income communities in Scotland

A good practice guide

Nick Bailey, Anna Haworth, Tony Manzi and Marion Roberts The Chartered Institute of Housing Scotland The Chartered Institute of Housing (CIH) is the professional body for people in housing and related ﬁelds. The Institute has over 20,000 members in the UK and internationally. Our purpose is to maximise the contribution that housing professionals make to the wellbeing of communities. There are over 2,000 members in Scotland working in local authorities, housing associations, housing cooperatives, Communities Scotland, voluntary organisations, the private sector, educational institutions and the Rent Registration Service. The CIH aims to ensure members are equipped to do their job by working to improve practice and delivery. We also represent the interests of our members in the development of strategic and national housing policy.

The Chartered Institute of Housing Scotland 6 Palmerton Place Edinburgh EH12 5AA Telephone: 0131 225 4544 Email: [email protected] www.cihscotland.org

The Joseph Rowntree Foundation The Joseph Rowntree Foundation has supported this project as part of its programme of research and innovative development projects, which it hopes will be of value to policy makers, practitioners and service users. The facts presented and views expressed in this report, however, are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Foundation.

Joseph Rowntree Foundation The Homestead 40 Water End York YO30 6WP Telephone: 01904 629241 www.jrf.org.uk

This publication has been supported by the Scottish Centre for Regeneration/Communities Scotland (www.communitiesscotland.gov.uk) and the Town and Country Planning Association (www.tcpa.org.uk).

Nick Bailey, Anna Haworth, Tony Manzi and Marion Roberts are from the University of Westminster.

First published in 2007 by the Chartered Institute of Housing Scotland/Joseph Rowntree Foundation

ISBN: 978 1 905018 42 0

A pdf copy of this report is available at www.cih.org and at www.jrf.org.uk.

While all reasonable care and attention has been taken in compiling this publication, the authors and the publishers regret that they cannot assume responsibility for any error or omission that it contains. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of the publishers. Contents

Acknowledgements 7 Glossary 8

Introduction 13

1 Why do we need mixed income communities? 17

2 Good practice in planning mixed income developments 31

3 Good practice in delivering strategy 47

4 Good practice in delivering partnership and participation 71

5 Recommendations and challenges for the future 87

Appendix I The evidence base for mixed income developments 95

Appendix II Case studies 98

Bibliography 107

Acknowledgements

We would particularly like to thank Derek Williams from the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in Scotland for his support and advice. We also offer our thanks to Craig McLaren from the Scottish Centre for Regeneration in Communities Scotland. We are also very grateful to all those from the case study areas who agreed to be interviewed and met our many requests for additional information.

7 Glossary

Affordable housing This is housing falling existing buildings. It is regarded by been set up in all 32 local authority into one of the following categories: the UK’s construction and property areas, with a range of partners. Local social rented; shared ownership; sectors as the measure of best authorities have a duty to initiate, shared equity; discounted low cost practice in environmental design and facilitate and maintain Community sale; or housing without subsidy. management. Performance is assessed Planning; core partners (Enterprise in relation to: management, energy use, Networks, National Health Service, Architecture and Design Scotland This health and wellbeing, pollution, land Police, Fire and Regional Transport is a non-departmental public body, use, ecology, materials and water. Partnerships) have a duty to participate established by the Scottish Executive in in Community Planning; and ministers April 2005 as the national champion for Brownﬁeld land This is ‘previously to promote and encourage Community good architecture, design and planning developed land that is unused or Planning (including Communities in the built environment. may be available for development’. It Scotland’s participation in Community includes both vacant and derelict land Planning at local level). Barker Review Kate Barker’s review and land currently in use with known of housing supply in England potential for redevelopment. Community Regeneration Fund A commissioned by HM Treasury and fund established by the Scottish ODPM: Delivering stability: Securing our Community Planning This is the process Executive in 2004 and managed by future housing needs, March 2004. where public services in the area Communities Scotland. It aims to of the local authority are planned deliver £318 million over three years Better Neighbourhood Services Fund (BNSF) and provided after consultation to help neighbourhoods escape Funding established from 2001–05 to and ongoing cooperation among all from poverty. It replaces Social deliver £121 million to 12 ‘Pathﬁnder’ public bodies and with community Inclusion Partnerships (SIPs) and local authority areas. These have bodies. It aims to ensure people and Better Neighbourhood Services included projects aimed at tackling communities are genuinely engaged (BNS) funding and drew on good crime and vandalism and introducing in the decisions made on public practice examples from these previous training, education and employment services that affect them, allied to a initiatives. Community Planning opportunities. A key element of the commitment from organisations to Partnerships (CPPs) are required BNSF was the sharing of good practice. work together in providing better to specify how their regeneration The Community Regeneration Fund public services. Community Planning objectives would be delivered through replaced it in 2005. was given a statutory basis in the Local the establishment of Regeneration Government (Scotland) Act 2003. Outcome Agreements (ROAs). BREEAM This refers to the Building Research Establishment’s Community Planning Partnerships (CPPs) Communities Scotland Communities Environmental Assessment Method Under the Local Government Scotland is the Scottish Executive’s to determine the environmental (Scotland) Act 2003, Community housing and regeneration agency performance of both new and Planning Partnerships (CPP) have and was established by the Housing

8 GLOSSARY

(Scotland) Act 2001. Its role is to help impact on wildlife and balances these an assessment of housing needs deliver the policy objectives and against the needs for a high quality, and conditions in their area and to partnership agreement commitments safe and healthy internal environment. produce a Local Housing Strategy of Scottish ministers. It reports to the It is proposed that all social housing (LHS). Guidance from Communities Communities Ministers and works providers meet the EcoHomes Scotland suggested the LHS should closely with them, along with the ‘excellent’ rating in their developments cover a five-year period, address all Scottish Executive Development by 2010. tenures, including affordable housing Department. Its objectives include and be prepared in consultation with increasing the supply of affordable English Partnerships The national stakeholders. housing; improving the quality of regeneration agency for England that existing houses and ensuring a high is charged with promoting sustainable Housing without subsidy Non-subsidised quality of new build; improving the communities and the re-use of affordable housing is likely to take the quality of housing and homelessness brownfield sites. It is currently being form of entry level housing for sale, services; improving the opportunities merged with The Housing Corporation some built at higher densities and with for people living in disadvantaged and will become England’s housing conditions attached to the missives communities; supporting the social and regeneration agency, Communities designed to maintain the houses economy to deliver key services and England, from 2009. as affordable units to subsequent create job opportunities; and using its purchasers. Homes delivered without experience of delivering housing and Homestake A scheme designed to enable subsidy may be considered to fulfil regeneration programmes to inform those on low incomes to become part of the overall affordable housing and support the development of owner-occupiers. It is designed for requirement where it can be clearly ministerial policies. It has also set up first-time buyers or those whose demonstrated that they will meet the the Scottish Centre for Regeneration to circumstances have changed, for needs of, and be affordable to, groups identify and promote best practice in example through domestic separation. of households identified through the community regeneration. Applicants can choose to purchase up housing needs assessment. to 80% of the equity of their property, Discounted low cost sale A dwelling sold while the remainder is owned by a Lifetime Homes standards The Lifetime at a percentage discount of its open registered social landlord (RSL). Homes concept was developed by market value to households in the a group of housing experts under priority client group. Discounted Housing Association Grant Housing the auspices of the Joseph Rowntree serviced plots for self-build can also Association Grant makes up the Foundation Lifetime Homes Group. contribute, particularly in rural areas. largest part of the Affordable Housing Lifetime Homes have 16 design A legal agreement can be used to Investment Programme managed features that increase the flexibility and ensure that subsequent buyers are also by Communities Scotland. Housing adaptability of a house or flat. Many eligible buyers. In rural areas this may Association Grant is available to of these features were subsequently be achieved through a rural housing registered social landlords (RSLs) to covered by Part M of the English burden. acquire land or buildings and to build, Building Regulations. The Scottish convert or improve housing for rent or equivalent is Housing for Varying EcoHomes environmental assessment An low cost home ownership. Needs. environmental assessment method for homes. EcoHomes considers the Housing needs assessment Under the Millennium Communities New broad environmental concerns of Housing (Scotland) Act 2001 all local developments mixing homes, shops, climate change, resource use and authorities are required to undertake workspaces and community facilities

9 GLOSSARY

in England. They incorporate good provide housing to let, and other 2005 and they are now assessed by public transport links, innovation in associated services, but they do not Communities Scotland. building technology, energy efficiency trade for profit. The commonest and ecological and environmental form of RSL in Scotland is a housing Scottish Secure Tenancy (SST) The Housing strategies. They aim to create good, association. (Scotland) Act 2001 establishes the sustainable jobs as well as education Scottish Secure Tenancy (SST) as the and training opportunities and are Right to buy (RTB) Under the Tenants tenancy for all tenancies of social worked up in close consultation with Rights etc (Scotland) Act 1980 local landlords in Scotland. the communities they relate to. authority tenants were given a number of rights, including security of tenure, Short Scottish Secure Tenancy (SSST) Section MINC Mixed income new community. and the right to buy (RTB) their 34 and Schedule 6 of the Housing properties. The Housing (Scotland) (Scotland) Act 2001 establish the basic Mixed development A well-integrated mix Act 1987 consolidated the 1980 Act and conditions when a Short Scottish of land uses with decent homes of extended the RTB to non-charitable Secure Tenancy (SSST) can apply to different types and tenures to support housing associations with more than some tenants of social landlords in a range of household sizes, ages and 100 dwellings. By 2002 over 400,000 Scotland in place of a full SST. incomes. public sector dwellings had been sold under the RTB. In 2001 a ‘modernised Shared equity Housing where the owner New Housing Partnerships A funding RTB’ was introduced that reduced purchases part of the dwelling, with mechanism designed to target the RTB incentives and suspended the remaining stake purchased usually additional resources to address the certain rights in ‘pressured’ areas. The by a registered social landlord (RSL) modernisation of Scotland’s council modernised RTB only applies to new using a Communities Scotland grant. housing stock, as well as to assist tenants. Unlike shared ownership, the owner regeneration areas and for housing pays no rent for the equity stake that development in growth areas. Section 75 Agreement A legal agreement is retained by the RSL. While the RSL signed between the developer and local does not receive any rental income in Regeneration Outcome Agreements authority under the Town and Country respect of their stake, it benefits from (ROAs) These local agreements are a Planning (Scotland) Act 1997. It any equity gain when the house is sold. key instrument in delivering better ensures that local planning authorities services. They are designed to specify can require developers to make a Shared ownership Housing where the intended service improvements and contribution towards social housing owner purchases part of the dwelling the anticipated measurable impacts of or public facilities such as schools, and rents the remainder usually from these improvements. They are intended open spaces or other infrastructure a registered social landlord (RSL). The to establish a strategic framework to improvements. owner can buy tranches of 25%, 50% or integrate local and national priorities 75% of the property. for tackling disadvantage. Scottish Housing Quality Standard (SHQS) Introduced in 2004, the Scottish Social Inclusion Partnerships (SIPs) Forty- Registered social landlord (RSL) In Scotland Housing Quality Standard (SHQS) is eight Social Inclusion Partnerships a registered social landlord (RSL) is a an agreed standard of good quality (SIPs) were allocated £60 million by landlord registered with Communities housing that all local authorities Communities Scotland in 2003. These Scotland. The criteria for registration and social landlords must meet by partnerships were designed to meet are set out in the Housing (Scotland) 2015. SHQS delivery plans had to be the Scottish Executive’s social justice Act 2001. They are organisations that submitted to Scottish ministers during agenda; 34 comprised area-based

10 GLOSSARY

initiatives and 14 were thematic, of an area that guides investment including young adults and health. decisions by both the public and The partnerships were designed to be private sector towards an agreed set of broadly based, community-orientated objectives and outcomes. Membership and involved the local authority and is made up of key stakeholders other public services, alongside the and community representatives. voluntary and private sectors. The Three Pathﬁnder URCs have been Community Planning Partnerships established with funding of £20 (CPPs) subsequently superseded million in Clydebank; Craigmillar in SIPs and from 2005 funding has been Edinburgh; and Raploch in Stirling. allocated through the Community In February 2006, start-up funding Regeneration Fund. was announced for the establishment of two further Pathﬁnder URCs in Social rented housing Housing provided Irvine Bay and Riverside Inverclyde. at an affordable rent and usually The Scottish Executive is also working managed locally by a registered social with Glasgow City Council, South landlord (RSL) such as a housing Lanarkshire Council and their partners association, housing cooperative or to establish a URC to drive forward other housing body regulated by and deliver the regeneration of the Communities Scotland. Social rented Clyde Gateway. stock is also owned and managed by local authorities at a rent lower than Whole Life Costing This is a method of market rent. evaluating or comparing building materials and components by looking Stock transfer Process under which a local at installation costs, life span, running authority transfers some or all of its and maintenance costs. housing to a housing association.

Sustainable Communities Plan A programme of action, published in February 2003, relating to England to tackle the shortage of housing in London and the South East and low demand in the North and Midlands.

Urban Regeneration Company (URC) An Urban Regeneration Company (URC) is a formal partnership of representatives of the public and private sectors, operating at arm’s length to deliver physical and economic regeneration in a speciﬁc area. They offer a strategic overview

Introduction INTRODUCTION

The Scottish Executive has made a sustainable in the longer term” (Scottish a clear vision. This is no easy task since clear commitment to supporting the Executive, 2006a). the creation of sustainable communities development and management of mixed requires the long-term collaboration of a income communities in Scotland. Its recent The overriding objective of mixed number of public and private agencies, regeneration policy statement confirms communities is to enable people of different the establishment of integrated systems of that “A key focus of both our housing ages, lifestyles and incomes to share the management and a delivery process that and regeneration policies is the creation benefits of well-designed housing and the fully engages with existing and future of mixed communities – communities external environment, which meet their residents. If successful, the outcome will be where among other things, there is a needs now and in the future. In particular, places to live that offer genuine choice and mix of incomes and sufficient range, this means that careful attention needs to opportunity for families and individuals diversity, affordability and accessibility be paid to the initiation and planning of from a variety of income groups, of housing within a balanced housing new housing to ensure that local needs backgrounds and lifestyles. market. Evidence demonstrates that and housing market conditions are fully these communities are more likely to be assessed and delivered on the basis of Purpose of this guide A central aim of this guide is to show the What makes a sustainable and training opportunities, health care extent to which achieving mixed income community? and community facilities, especially for developments is an important prerequisite leisure. ■ A flourishing local economy to provide for sustainable communities. Because of jobs and wealth. ■ A diverse, vibrant and creative local the limited data available on household culture, encouraging pride in the incomes, tenure is often used as an ■ Strong leadership to respond positively alternative. We are aware that all tenures are to change. community and cohesion within it. occupied by people with varying incomes ■ A sense of place but well connected to ■ Appropriate size, scale and density, and that these change over time as they its surroundings. and the right layout to support basic move through different stages of the life amenities in the neighbourhood ■ The right links with the wider cycle. While tenure can be determined, and minimise the use of resources regional, national and international at least in the early stages, through the (including land). communities. planning process, it is very difficult, if not ■ A well-integrated mix of decent homes ■ A network of safe, well-designed impossible, to ‘manage’ income levels in any of different types and tenures to streets and public spaces. particular development in the long term. support a range of household sizes, ■ Good public transport and other As privately owned property is increasingly ages and incomes. transport infrastructure both within the seen as a commodity with a commercial ■ A safe and healthy local environment community and linking to urban, rural value, factors such as location, size, with well-designed public and green and regional centres. amenities and condition become of space. ■ Effective engagement and participation increased importance and will rise or fall in ■ Housing and other buildings which, by local people, groups and businesses, value according to demand. For instance, both individually and collectively, meet especially in the planning, design high value one- or two-bedroom units in different needs over time, and which and long-term stewardship of their a central location may well transfer from minimise the use of resources. community, and an active voluntary owner-occupation to being traded in the and community sector. ■ Good quality local public services for ‘buy to let’ market; inferior properties in a all age groups, including education (Adapted from ODPM, 2003a) less favourable location may well be let at market rates en bloc to the local authority.

14 INTRODUCTION

In setting out the good practice guidance It is hoped that the guide will develop Housing (CIH) and JRF in 2006 (Bailey et we argue therefore that achieving a better understanding between the al., 2006). successful and attractive places to live professions involved of the complex (sometimes called ‘liveability’) should be interrelationships of factors that contribute Structure the primary objective. This requires a clear towards achieving successful communities. Chapter 1: discusses the arguments for vision that builds in the highest quality In our view, successful outcomes depend mixed communities and the rationale to all aspects of the development process on getting a wide variety of factors underpinning them. It goes on to review from inception to long-term management ‘right’ from the beginning and ensuring key aspects of central government policy processes, but which also reflects the needs that these are sustained throughout the in planning and housing documents and and aspirations of the people to be housed. development process and beyond. What concludes by identifying themes, issues and This important strategic role is sometimes is right in any particular context requires a challenges for the future. called ‘place-shaping’. careful assessment of local circumstances in relation to local, regional and national Chapter 2: explores good practice in Our intention is not to suggest a model policy. The sustainable communities assembling a strategy (vision) through a approach that works in all situations, but agenda challenges all professionals to think discussion of: clarity of aims and objectives, to identify good practice where this has holistically and to draw on the expertise of understanding the neighbourhood profile, resulted from a full assessment of local their own profession and others. strong leadership, investment partnering circumstances. As each location varies arrangements, the procurement process and socially, economically and environmentally, Preparing this guide achieving integrated neighbourhoods and a so the solutions will vary to meet differing The guide is informed by detailed research sustainable vision. sets of needs and aspirations. We argue, based on published sources and from a therefore, that key stakeholders should series of case studies carried out especially Chapter 3: examines good practice have as much autonomy as possible to for this publication. in delivering strategy by discussing devise local responses, within the broad development and design tools, different policy context of achieving mixed and Our research coincided with the publication types of tenure mixing, social and sustainable communities. of a series of reports on aspects of mixed environmental sustainability, viability and income and tenure also commissioned by risk management. Who should use this guide the Joseph Rowntree Foundation (JRF). This guide will be of interest to anyone These and other sources are summarised in Chapter 4: investigates good practice in involved in the planning, design and Appendix I. delivering partnership and participation management of housing and particularly through partnership arrangements, those involved in creating sustainable A number of case studies were selected community involvement, management communities. Users will include the from a variety of locations in Scotland and approaches and wider structures for Scottish Executive and agencies such as England and each was researched through partnership and participation. Communities Scotland, local organisations interviews with officers of the key agencies such as Urban Regeneration Companies involved and residents. The case studies are Chapter 5: concludes with a discussion (URCs) and Community Planning summarised in Appendix II. of the main challenges that need to be Partnerships (CPPs), local authorities, overcome if genuinely mixed developments registered social landlords (RSLs) including This guide is specifically designed to meet are to become the norm in all areas where community-based housing associations, the needs of those working in Scotland. A new development is taking place or where the design professions and private companion volume focusing on England interventions are occurring in mono-tenure housebuilders. was published by the Chartered Institute of neighbourhoods.

1 Why do we need mixed income communities?

An aspiration 18

Design and planning 18

What are the advantages of creating mixed communities? 19

What is the rationale for mixed communities? 22

How is the policy context changing? 23

How can access to different forms of housing tenure be increased? 25

What policy changes are happening at the local level? 26

How should mixed communities be created and delivered? 26

Which kinds of areas should be the priority for mixed tenures? 28

How can tenure mix be maintained in the longer term? 29 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

Residents seek neighbourhoods of An aspiration Developing mixed communities is increasingly being seen as an important choice represented by a range of well- The creation of socially mixed contribution to sustainable development designed housing to meet the needs of communities has been a policy aspiration in its own right. A major challenge in new- different income groups, household sizes, sought by many governments of different build developments is to devise ways of ethnic backgrounds and age groups in a political persuasions and can be traced funding the infrastructure and services pleasant environment and with the full back at least as far as the post-war New so that they can be provided at the same range of facilities. Towns programme. In the post-war time as the housing is built. HM Treasury period government policy in the UK was is currently reviewing the potential primarily focused on increasing the supply contribution of planning-gain supplement of housing, and in recent decades dealing (PGS) to funding infrastructure as part of with problems of overspill, overcrowding, the government’s response to the Barker concentrations of deprivation and poor Review and it intends to introduce a housing conditions in some of the larger new PGS throughout the UK in 2008. council estates. While current Scottish Consultations about the nature of the Executive policy favours the creation supplement are continuing in England and of mixed communities, there is little Scotland (HM Treasury, 2005). detailed guidance on what constitutes mix and affordability and how these can Evidence from other countries, such as “We want to increase the pace and be sustained in the longer term. These are the Hope VI program in the US (Berube, ensure that our housing policies and issues that are normally resolved at the 2005), suggests that wider issues such programmes support the creation of local level through detailed negotiation as the quality of schools, the provision mixed communities. And we are keen to between local authorities, registered of facilities and the availability of do more to explore new approaches and social landlords (RSLs) and private employment also need to be addressed new mechanisms with the specific aim housebuilders with varying degrees of when planning housing development. of creating mixed, stable and sustainable success. communities.” Joseph et al. (2007) review the research evidence on the social and economic (Communities Scotland, 2006) Evidence from our case studies, and benefits of mixed developments in the US. from other JRF-sponsored research, suggests that achieving a mix of incomes Design and planning and tenures is one of several important components of a successful development. The following guidance argues that the The primary objectives in most new design and planning of new housing developments and in the diversification of developments is a crucial consideration existing estates is to engage experienced because it is at the planning stage that key developers and RSLs in a collaborative decisions are made about density, mix, the effort to deliver a high quality residential design of individual houses and the layout environment, together with appropriate of the neighbourhood as a whole. Many infrastructure, services and facilities. of these early decisions will determine Linked to these objectives is the need to set the future viability of the development up an effective management system that and the quality of life it will sustain. The will sustain the area in the longer term. design process will also determine

18 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

a variety of factors such as the size of What are the advantages Engage experienced developers and RSLs units, mix and appearance of different of creating mixed in a collaborative effort to deliver a high housing tenures, the extent to which the communities? quality residential environment, together development is integrated in the wider Income and tenure with appropriate infrastructure, services urban context and other aspects such as An important issue to be addressed at and facilities. community safety and the extent to which the beginning is the relationship between residents from different tenures integrate income and tenure. Much central and or live separate lifestyles. local government policy tends to conflate income and tenure and assumes that Early decisions will determine the future by achieving mixed tenure, a range of viability of the development and the incomes will also be represented in any quality of life it will sustain. particular development. Because detailed statistics on household income are not available, mixed tenure is often used as a Evidence from other studies has suggested proxy since data on tenure is much more that design and layout have only a limited easily obtainable, for example from the impact on whether the development census. becomes a strong, socially integrated community. This guide contends that A further issue for consideration is the Assessing the housing needs of all well-designed housing in a pleasant extent to which the quality of a particular sections of the community should be environment, designed to meet the needs development, or its location, for example integral to the planning process. of the whole community now and in near a city centre, makes it attractive the future, will tend to attract residents to particular sectors of the market and for the long term, who may also wish to therefore forces up prices in the longer move within the development when their term. This may have the effect of widening household size expands or contracts. income differentials and attracting more transient tenure groups, such as those It is also important to ensure that the renting on the open market. Likewise, housing needs of all sections of the local lettings policies may result in community are included, in terms of size, particular income groups predominating numbers of bedrooms, disabled access in the rented homes. Thus the effect of and a mix of densities. This should apply recent and proposed national policy to all tenures. Evidence suggests that to make it easier for residents to move households with children interact more between tenures may increase social effectively with their neighbours and help mobility but make it more difficult to support local schools, health facilities and manage the mix of tenures in the future. other services. Overall, the masterplanning and design process are crucial because these aspects are the most difficult to change at a later date.

19 Providing a full range of housing sizes and types will encourage the development of a sustainable mixed community.

This report argues that achieving a Evidence suggests that both owner- mix of tenures in an existing or new occupied and social housing have distinct housing development is an important income profiles but that in certain areas element of a broader policy designed there can be significant differences, for to produce higher quality housing with example in household size and income, appropriate provision for all sections of which are contrary to the national the community. Deciding on what mix averages (CIHS, 2006). Unemployment of incomes is appropriate in a particular rates tend to be higher among black and location is much more difficult to achieve minority ethnic groups and there are and then sustain in the longer term strong arguments to say that these groups because of fluctuations in the national and should not be segregated into particular local housing markets. While there is some areas of relative deprivation. Trends evidence that a relatively narrow range of suggest that these disparities between income groups are more likely to interact wealth and tenure are becoming more as members of a local community, it is polarised (Stephens et al., 2005). also argued that different lifestyles may only produce relatively weak ties between neighbours.

20 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

Tackling deprivation International comparisons appear to Benefits of mixed income Much research has been carried out into suggest similar solutions. Kleinhans developments the impact of area effects – the extent to (2004) compares the UK evidence with The potential benefits of mixed income which individuals and households are that from the Netherlands and argues that developments can be summarised as: adversely affected by negative social, closer integration of tenures is desirable economic and environmental aspects of although the evidence is not conclusive ■ Residents of all ages, ethnic groups, the area in which they live (Atkinson and that it creates stronger communities per household sizes and social classes Kintrea, 2002, 2004). While area effects se. In reviewing both the UK and US have the opportunity to interact and are hard to define there is considerable experience, Berube (2005) concludes that to develop weak or strong ties. evidence that high concentrations of the government should address both deprivation reduce the quality of life of all individual disadvantage and adverse ■ The potential for negative areas residents of an area. Unemployment rates area effects and that interventions must affects, such as low aspirations, low and ill health tend to be higher, crime and produce improvements in neighbourhood educational attainment and low-level vandalism more prevalent and the quality conditions to significantly improve crime is reduced. of schools and educational attainment residents’ life chances. Area effects, he ■ Local schools can attract pupils from are lower. In addition, the most deprived argues, may have a greater impact on a wide range of backgrounds. areas often lack access to employment young children than on older children opportunities, a broad range of shops, and adults. He concludes with three main ■ Mixed income areas may be able to health facilities and entertainment, which recommendations: attract and support a higher level of the better-off areas take for granted. The local services, leisure activities, shops quality of the local environment and the ■ Strategies to achieve mixed and related facilities. provision of environmental services is communities must apply to both ■ Residents have the possibility of also often well below standards taken for new developments and existing moving within the development in granted in more affluent areas. neighbourhoods. In closing the order to accommodate changes in gap between areas of affluence and household size, income levels and Atkinson and Kintrea (2002) argue that poverty, greater economic diversity space needs, and can also maintain the policy emphasis has tended towards and the delivery of improved public social and family networks. increasing community involvement and services should receive as much opening up new opportunities within attention as the quality of housing. ■ Higher average levels of disposable income may create additional neighbourhoods, whereas the real ■ The achievement of mixed employment opportunities for local challenge is the spatial segregation of communities requires a careful residents. the poorest communities, for example on assessment of local market conditions. peripheral estates. They argue that: ■ A strategy towards mixed To accept the area effects thesis is to communities must be sustained in recognise that spatial segregation of the the long term, it should apply to all poorest groups in society is undesirable, areas and must be fully embedded in therefore the most straightforward all aspects of housing, planning and prescription is to find ways to regeneration policy. deconcentrate poverty. (Atkinson and Kintrea, 2002: 162)

21 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

this debate there is often a lack of clarity as to which apply in any one situation. Different justiﬁcations may also apply at different scales and according to the history of previous development on the site. Tunstall and Fenton (2006) identify three core objectives:

■ The proposed mix may be a side effect of the short-term goal of getting new development built. Housebuilders and RSLs may be motivated by proﬁt, the desire to attract subsidy or be committed to delivering social housing.

■ The proposed mix may reﬂect the desire to prevent or reduce the A safe and healthy environment, with well-designed public and green spaces, is one factor concentration of social housing or in building a sustainable mixed community. This playpark was built during the New Gorbals redevelopment. low-income households as part of a strategy to achieve improved services and to reduce the need for more public The desire to achieve mixed communities Neighbourhoods that work investment in the future. should not be seen as an end in itself In evaluating Bournville in Birmingham but as one important precondition for – a neighbourhood that ‘works’ – Groves ■ The proposed mix may be an end achieving successful and sustainable et al. (2003) conclude that “It is a in itself in order to increase social places to live. These residential combination of a number of key factors, cohesion between income, age and environments should not only be well which are layered in time and interact ethnic groups. designed and well managed, but also over time and in particular locations, that In addition, there is a strong philosophical provide access to the full range of high determine how neighbourhoods work”: argument based on social equity that quality services including leisure and there are social and economic beneﬁts employment opportunities in the wider Providing a full range of house sizes arising from the intermixing of residents locality. and types, ensuring a high quality with different age, gender, ethnic origin, external environment and enabling household size, lifestyle and employment households to move within the status. development, as well as attracting newcomers, are all important aspects of The different stakeholders and funding providing ‘housing of choice’. bodies engaged in housing provision will What is the rationale for often hold, implicitly or explicitly, different mixed communities? views about the desirability and rationale for mixed communities. Thus it will often Motivation be in the detailed negotiations around A variety of motives are advanced for development agreements that differences achieving mixed communities and within of opinion will be resolved.

22 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

How is the policy context The subsequent policy statement (Scottish changing? Executive Development Department, 2002b) did not directly address the issue The Scottish Executive Development of mixed tenure housing or communities. Department’s Review of Scotland’s cities However, a stronger commitment in this (2002a) was critical of the general quality direction emerged in policy documents the of design and was strongly opposed to following year. ‘low income only’ schemes:

Housing, planning and There is ample evidence from the past development remaking of places that, amongst others, there are two important Scottish Planning Policy 3: Planning for prerequisites for places to thrive in the housing (Scottish Executive Development long term. These are that ‘quality’ is Department, 2003) encourages local important and the other is that ‘low authorities to create quality residential income only’ schemes don’t work. environments, guide development to the The market often fails in identifying right places and to deliver an adequate demands for quality and has little supply of housing. It notes that not incentive to promote mix. The earlier every site will be capable of satisfying sections of this chapter recognise the full range of housing requirements; the mistakes in the past record of each site must be assessed in terms of its politicians, planners, architects and location and market conditions. However, academics in reshaping our cities. We the Scottish Executive Development need to ﬁnd new ways to give voice and Department “encourages more diverse, shape to the designs for places that we attractive, mixed residential communities, would like for the long term. both in terms of tenure and land use”:

Much of what has been produced in To create mixed communities, a range Scottish city regeneration in the last of house types is needed, providing decade, whether social housing or for the needs of all in the community, home-ownership, whether in the centre and all segments of the market, from or on the edge, is decent housing. Some affordable housing and starter homes streets have been well thought through, to executive housing, and including but there are too few examples of where homes for families, older people and the new neighbourhood has a coherence people with special housing needs. in terms of urban design. Crown Street, (Scottish Executive Development Homes for the Future and the like are Department, 2003: 5) the exceptions that make the point. And similar remarks could be made about Housing policy is implemented by the the indifferent, often repetitive design planning system through Structure of much new suburban housing. Plans, which identify the overall (Scottish Executive, 2002a) housing and land requirements for a period of 12 years and a broad

23 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

Key issues in creating and indication of need up to year 20. For characterised by housing supply shortages delivering mixed communities the period up to year 12, Structure in both market and affordable housing. Plans are required to include an action ■ The selection of developers and ■ Urban areas dominated by regeneration plan setting out ‘how implementation housing associations that have a requirements, such as the Greater Glasgow will be achieved and addressing any good track record and that are housing market, featuring problems of critical issues of phasing, infrastructure committed to the concept of mixed housing quality and type, with existing provision, the removal of significant communities. major drainage and water supply constraints, land acquisition and the constraints. ■ Strong leadership from the local preparation of development briefs. authority so that negotiations (Scottish Executive Development ■ Rural areas, characterised by diverse surrounding land assembly, planning Department, 2003: 12) and very localised housing markets. permissions and legal agreements are These include the hinterlands of major resolved without unnecessary delay. Local Plans should conform to the settlements with high demand for Structure Plan and “provide sufficient affordable housing and areas experiencing ■ A clear assessment of need in the LHS effective land to meet the housing high levels of in-migration and second and appropriate guidance in the Local requirement for at least 5 years from the homes where house prices are pushed Plan in relation to the mix of tenure date of adoption” (Scottish Executive beyond the reach of local people. They also and range of size of homes to be Development Department, 2003: 13). embrace remote areas, including a number constructed. Housing and planning departments of of the Islands, which often experience ■ High quality development briefs local authorities are urged to work closely depopulation through a mix of economic and masterplans that will deliver an together in preparing Local Housing decline and limited housing options. appropriate form of development Strategies (LHS) and Local Plans. (Scottish Executive, 2004) to meet defined housing needs and address additional services and Detailed guidance on affordable housing The review concluded that: facilities to be provided. is set out in Planning Advice Note 74 (Scottish Executive 2005b). From 2005 a ■ Arrangements for phasing, marketing ■ A broader view is needed of housing policy new benchmark was established that 25% and letting the development. if the required range of housing types, of all new housing developments should prices and tenures is to be delivered in ■ Provisions for managing the be made up of affordable homes. the right locations. A well functioning development so that as far as housing market will reduce pressure on the possible all tenures are treated Affordable housing need for public investment in affordable equally and are also able to In 2004 the Scottish Executive housing, while the provision of low cost participate in management decisions. commissioned the Affordable housing review home ownership can reduce pressure on to consider the functioning of the housing ■ Monitoring long-term demographic the social rented sector. market at the national and sub-national trends and changes in tenure. levels and to assess the implications for ■ The dominant issue in Scotland is the need housing supply and affordability. The to respond to the geographical imbalances review discovered that the dominant in supply and demand at regional and geographical distinctions are: local levels. Broadly, this means targeting new supply of affordable housing in those ■ Urban areas under pressure, such as areas with a shortfall, placing the emphasis the wider Edinburgh housing market, on regeneration in those areas which have a surplus and ensuring that affordable

24 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

housing provision is tailored to the acquiring part of the equity while the sustainability needs of rural areas. housing association retains the remainder.

■ There was a need to recognise and support Together with right to buy (RTB) the trend towards owner-occupation. provisions available to the majority of The research indicated up to a third of tenants in the public sector, the trend in affordable housing need could be met Scotland is towards an increasing demand through forms of support for low cost for owner-occupation for those who home ownership. In a responsive housing can afford it. While there is evidence of system, tenure should reflect people’s considerable unmet demand for owner- requirements and preferences and respond occupation, the trend towards tenure to the nature and pace of economic and fluidity will make it increasingly difficult social change. to control the tenure mix of developments ■ There was a continuing need to build upon in the future. Experience of 25 years of the assessments of housing requirements the RTB demonstrates that it tends to be produced by the review. In particular, the more desirable properties in more this means assessing housing needs and attractive areas that are bought. It is also demand across the whole market, the these properties that gain in value most implications of changing demography rapidly and are then often sold on as soon for the future shape and type of housing stock, and the impact of the commitment to ensure that by 2012 all homeless people are entitled [to rehousing].

(Scottish Executive, 2004)

How can access to different forms of housing tenure be increased? In 2005 the Communities Minister published a Housing Policy Statement called Homes for Scotland’s people (Scottish Executive, 2005a). The Minister also launched Homestake to assist tenants into the owner-occupied sector. As well as investing £1.2 billion in constructing 21,500 affordable homes over a three- year period, the Scottish Executive announced a new scheme to encourage 1,000 homebuyers a year onto the property ladder. The Homestake scheme involves residents, often ﬁrst-time buyers, New mixed communities need to be well integrated with local facilities.

25 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

as the RTB restrictions are lifted (Jones and and by extension the CPPs, have a very Murie, 2006). important strategic and enabling role to play in order to ensure the best possible Buy to let mix of housing provision is achieved. A more recent development has been the growth of the buy to let market where How should mixed individuals or companies buy properties communities be created in order to beneﬁt from the rise in property and delivered? values and in the growth of the private Creating successful mixed communities is rented market. Several of our case studies a major challenge for the parties involved have experienced a rapid growth in this and the future sustainability of the sector and respondents express concern development depends on many variables, about the adverse effects this can have which cannot easily be foreseen at the on attempts to create a strong, integrated outset. Local housing market conditions, community. A related development is the quality of internal space standards for companies to purchase a portfolio of and design, the location and access to properties in a new development and to schools, shops and other facilities can all lease them on to local authorities at market have a bearing on whether a development rents for those in greatest housing need. prospers or falls into a cycle of decline. Over time this can substantially alter the tenure mix and can result in concentrations Attitudes of deprivation in certain neighbourhoods. Evidence suggests that developers tend to be either ‘enthusiastic’ or ‘reluctant’ in What policy changes are their commitment to mixed tenure; the happening at the local vast majority now accept that this objective level? is a necessary part of national and local Partnership and leadership planning policy (Rowlands et al., 2006). There is an increasing trend towards the Nevertheless: collaborative provision of new housing developments involving local authorities, Mixed tenure is only one tool which can community-based and larger housing be employed in a range of measures to associations and private developers. promote social mix. As seen elsewhere, In some cities, such as Glasgow, there meaningful social interaction is grown are complex negotiations between organically rather than planned and stakeholders in order to agree the density, even this is insufﬁcient to prevent mix of tenures and masterplanning of concentrations of poverty and new development. Local Housing Forums deprivation. play an important role in agreeing area (Rowlands et al., 2006: 60) development frameworks. Existing tenants and residents are also actively involved in Research carried out into the social discussing future plans for their area. In effects of mixed tenure has found that these circumstances, the local authority, residents are largely unaware of either the

26 1 WHY DO WE NEED MIXED INCOME COMMUNITIES?

problems or benefits of living in a mixed one- and two-bedroom units in similar development; indeed they often perceive areas. In some of the case studies where they live as ‘nothing out of the investigated for this guide there were ordinary’ (Allen et al., 2005). A report from growing disparities between the social the think tank Demos concludes: rented housing, with relatively large numbers of families with children, and the The most important finding is probably open market housing, which was under- that the mixed or unmixed nature of occupied or transferring gradually into the estate is usually only a minor or the investment, buy to let category. Where non-existent issue for most residents, this happened, there were suggestions owners and tenants. More than half that households without children often of residents of mixed tenure estates had different expectations about noise and perceive no problems or benefits arising disturbance caused by children. from mix; they are agnostic. (Jupp, 1999: 79) If mixed developments are to genuinely reflect all parts of the community, The report advocates the mixing of tenures including families of all sizes, in social at least within the same streets or blocks, renting and the open market sector, rather than in separate zones. Residents policies need to be developed that require living in mixed street developments agencies to provide medium-range, tended to be much more favourably well-designed houses and flats that disposed towards the whole development. families on middle incomes can afford. As Meen et al. (2005) note, “temporal and Family housing group dynamics are important to help One of the major challenges facing mixed understand neighbourhood processes. income communities in central and inner- Analysis needs to be sufficiently aware city locations is a lack of provision in the of cohort effects, for instance of young private sector for families with children. households, forming families requiring Silverman et al. (2005) found that in four schooling, empty-nesting and then ageing schemes investigated there was a lower and how the local community’s degree of proportion of families in the open market ‘mixed-ness’ has to retain the flexibility housing than the city-wide average and required to work for each of these different that over half intended to move because life-cycle stages” (Meen et al., 2005: 62). of concern about wider issues such as the quality of schools and the escalating cost The wider role of RSLs of family-sized units. The Scottish Executive, through Communities Scotland, encourages RSLs Mixed developments, particularly when to think as broadly as possible about near city centres, tended to attract single how they can help to regenerate their occupiers and childless couples and communities. In doing this it has the developers tended to use this evidence as Wider Role Fund to encourage housing a justification for building predominately associations to develop projects to help

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make life better for people in their ■ They often have very strong links to communities. The Fund can be used for a communities, both of place and interest. very wide range of projects dealing with ■ They have professional staff. issues such as improving health, helping people get training or jobs, improving ■ They are regulated. community safety, helping people with ■ They have an impressive track record as their finances and increasing people’s businesses. skills and confidence. (Communities Scotland, 2003) Guidance on the Wider Role states that: Which kinds of areas RSLs have a number of key features should be the priority for which make them extremely attractive mixed tenures? as organisations who can have a While some advocates have argued that positive impact on community all areas should be subject to social and regeneration. These include: income mixing strategies, including the more affluent suburbs, we argue that the ■ RSLs’ own assets. priority should be those areas currently undergoing change or development, ■ They have secure revenue streams. whether in areas of social housing, brownfield sites or on the urban fringe. Scotland’s major cities have historically high levels of social housing and as the economy improves and levels of unemployment continue to fall, many aspire to owner-occupation. Evidence from the Affordable housing review suggests that in Scotland house prices have risen less steeply (on average 1.5% per year compared with 3.5 % in England) and that a higher percentage of first-time buyers can afford to buy properties. The priority in Scotland should therefore be to encourage tenure diversification and social mix not only in areas where there are high levels of social housing but also in new developments on brownfield and greenfield sites.

There is considerable evidence from our A mix of housing tenures and sizes. Many developments lack sufﬁcient large, family-sized homes. case studies that ‘demonstration projects’ such as the New Gorbals development can have a dramatic impact on creating

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new markets for private housing, which General principles for ■ The management organisation should did not otherwise exist, and in setting maintaining mixed tenure have responsibility for the housing new standards of design, layout and in the long term as well as private and public amenity environmental quality that can be adopted space to avoid dual standards of ■ Early decisions need to be made elsewhere. maintenance. between the local authority, the private How can tenure mix be developer and one or more housing ■ Systems of governance should be maintained in the longer associations about the structure and established whereby issues relating to term? organisation of the management local schools and local services (such function, its terms of reference, and as health services) can be taken up at Much of what has been said so far its powers to manage internal and a high level with the relevant agency, suggests that there are significant external spaces. particularly where these may impact challenges to be faced in initiating and adversely on housing quality. delivering mixed tenure developments. ■ A lead organisation should be The essential requirement is an effective, identified to avoid conflicts over roles ■ Residents should be made fully aware long-term system of management. It and responsibilities. of covenants and tenancy agreements is important that the organisation and before they become tenants and/or ■ The management organisation should process of management is determined owners. They should also be informed have a local presence in the form of at an early stage and, indeed, should be of the extent of tenure mixing a neighbourhood office that is easily part of the initial vision underpinning the (Andrews and Reardon Smith, 2005). accessible and well known to residents. development. As illustrated in our studies ■ Lettings and nomination policies should of Ardler and Craigmillar in particular, ■ Involving local people from all sectors be fully reviewed in order to assess local communities should also play an in management processes can have real whether they promote the broader active role in developing a safe and benefits (Knox and Alcock, 2002). vision of the development, for example sustainable community. ■ Decision making needs to be robust to giving people with local connections maintain the original vision, while also priority or enabling households to being flexible so that it can respond to move to a larger or smaller property changes in national and local policy, to within the same development. local levels of need, and changes in the ■ Service charges should be affordable, housing market. transparent and evenly distributed ■ The lead organisation should carry out between tenures. regular reviews of the development ■ There should be a clear strategy for to assess changes in tenure and tackling anti-social behaviour and low- investigate ways of ensuring the level crime. original objectives are being adhered to. It may be possible to maintain the mix through the repurchasing of some properties that have moved into owner- occupation, or to increase intermediate tenures such as shared ownership.

2 Good practice in planning mixed income developments

Introduction 32

Shared aims and objectives 32

Understanding the neighbourhood proﬁle 33

Local leadership 34

Robust investment partnering 37

An effective procurement process 38

Integrated neighbourhoods 39

A commitment to the long term 43 2 GOOD PRACTICE IN PLANNING MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

Introduction into its wider physical context, with facilities and services that will allow the A clear sense of what those involved community to be sustainable over time. would like to achieve in the long term Moreover, there must be a sense that (the vision) is a necessary precondition of neighbourhoods represent an effective any successful sustainable mixed income long-term investment, and a commitment development. Shared aims and objectives, to managing an investment over the established in the context of local housing long term should underpin management needs and conditions, local leadership to approaches, regardless of tenure or carry through those aims and objectives, the income profile of occupants. These and high quality design that integrates ultimate goals need to be embraced by all the development into the surrounding stakeholders, whether public, private or area and evenly distributes the different voluntary agencies or residents. tenures throughout the development are key factors here. The Scottish Executive “attaches high importance to the development of mixed, Factors that are critical to success in the sustainable communities with a range course of development are appropriate of housing types and tenures which can financial arrangements, including share community and other facilities, to adequate levels of funding, the ability ensuring that the appropriate levels and to procure the necessary land for the mix of affordable housing to meet assessed development on suitable terms and robust requirements are provided and, and to investment partnering that endures over achieving this with the most efficient use the course of the development. of public subsidy” (Scottish Executive, 2005b: 2). In assembling the strategy, a long-term view should be taken in the early stages of To achieve these goals, the following the development process, incorporating an factors are essential. assessment of the future needs of residents as well as their present needs, and the Shared aims and objectives establishment of post-development management arrangements to ensure There should be a shared sense, between the longevity of the original aims and all the development partners, of the objectives of these developments. desirability of establishing a mixed income sustainable community, both in terms A strategy for sustainable mixed of the overall design that will facilitate communities should also incorporate such a community and in terms of the objectives that will produce a good mix infrastructure and services that will of housing in terms of size and tenure, allow the community to be sustainable. where social housing is evenly distributed, In a recent review of Scotland’s cities, the indistinguishable from owned or privately Scottish Executive reported that, “a variety rented housing, situated in a mixed use of forward looking ‘vision’ statements neighbourhood that is well integrated existed. However, a comprehensive,

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overarching ‘vision’ for each city and its areas of opportunity and change ... based Case study surrounding area was absent” (Scottish on their future economic potential as Executive Development Department, well as current needs” (NWSCT, 2006: Consultation in Ardler 2002a: 208). 25), “bringing people [back] into inner- In Ardler, tenants had been involved in urban areas perhaps, or changing the discussions about the future of their In terms of agencies contributing to residential profile and economic role of estate (at the instigation of Dundee City the formulation of national aims and an area of housing market weakness … Council [DCC]) for several years before objectives, Communities Scotland leads on a transformational approach” (NWSCT, the stock transfer and the appointment housing investment and the regeneration 2006: 25). In Ardler, Craigmillar and the of a consortium to redevelop the estate. of Scotland’s most deprived communities, New Gorbals economic development is a DCC provided training for tenants on manages the Community Regeneration major policy objective in the wider area; regeneration and housing options, Fund and supports community in Craigmillar this is expressed as ‘getting including stock transfer, and tenants’ engagement. The Scottish Centre for people into work and revitalising the committees had been involved in options Regeneration, established by Communities economic base’. appraisal, the initial masterplanning Scotland, aims to identify and promote process and the appointment of the best practice in community regeneration, The Housing (Scotland) Act 2000 developer. Gordon Laurie, Director using lessons from Scotland, Great Britain requires local authorities to undertake of Sanctuary, said, “following our and elsewhere. an assessment of housing needs and appointment in 1998, we had a year conditions in their area and to produce a when we worked on developing A major challenge is to maintain a LHS. Communities Scotland has indicated the masterplan with more detailed sense of vision over the lifetime of the that the strategies should cover a five- consultation with the Ardler community development, while also engaging the year period, address all tenures and be and other stakeholders … to come up major stakeholders and, in particular, local prepared in consultation with stakeholders with a masterplan that everyone signed residents. including RSLs and developers (www. up to … everyone clearly understood lhs.scot-homes.gov.uk). The housing what was going to happen … our Understanding the market assessment process is somewhat original plan was to keep two or three neighbourhood profile broader, encompassing a framework for a of the blocks and refurbish them but A precondition to developing better understanding of housing demand tenants argued for demolition…”. sustainable mixed communities is a clear issues and how housing markets operate understanding of the local housing market at a sub-regional level, and requiring and local conditions, including socio- an understanding of changing housing economic profiling. Scottish Planning Policy demand and supply. The Structure Plan 3: Planning for housing states that planning will include a calculation of the overall authorities should assess future land housing land requirement for a period requirements for each housing market area of at least 12 years, and preferably and ensure that land is identified to fully indicate the scale and location of housing meet requirements including affordable development for the period beyond year housing needs (Scottish Executive 12 (Scottish Executive, 2005b: 12). All Development Department, 2003: 1). In these sources provide a context but often England, the Northern Way Sustainable exclude detailed assessments of the needs Communities Team also notes that “it of individual neighbourhoods in order to is vital to identify specific geographic guide decision making on the matters of the proportions of affordable or private

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Case study housing, and the mix of house types. The challenge in relation to estimating In England it has been suggested that, need and demand is to anticipate likely Leadership in Ardler although the evidence base on housing changes in the local housing market, Dundee City Council (DCC) provided needs is likely to be adequate at least, both in owned housing but also in the leadership in guiding the future of the “there are deficiencies in the evidence demand for affordable housing. Changes Ardler Estate by conducting an options base supporting regional strategies and in demand for different kinds of housing appraisal and assisting in the process the way evidence is applied to policy – larger family units for example – should of partial stock transfer by persuading making … [and] there remains limited also be anticipated. The struggle to the Scottish Executive that Housing awareness of and understanding of encourage the provision of private family Partnership Funding was a feasible housing-economy links” (NWSCT, 2006: housing on developments that are close option. DCC remained closely involved 29). This report recommends a city region to metropolitan centres was noted in in the redevelopment process through concept for planning in England and calls Silverman et al. (2005), and remains a the personal involvement of high for “a stronger steer and clearer advice problem in some of the case study areas, level officers, including the Director of from the government on the need for a where one- and two-bedroom flats are Housing, for the first three years of the more effective and prominent approach being developed for private owners development process. to the integrated development of housing, alongside family housing for tenants and planning and socio-economic policy at city shared owners. Similarly, most new-build region level” (NWSCT, 2006: 31). housing for shared ownership is made up of one- or two-bedroom flats. The issue Neighbourhood profiling raises issues of the identification of social housing of supply and demand and most of the units by size is one that might increase case study developments in England the difficulty of establishing a sustainable were in relatively buoyant housing community. markets that guaranteed the sale of the private housing: this was the case in The Scottish Executive argues that, Northampton, Kent and Birmingham. In “community planning partnerships, Scotland, metropolitan local authorities which bring together the public private are often facing problems of over-supply and voluntary sectors at the local of unpopular housing, as was the case in authority level, can and should take Dundee and Glasgow, but even in these the lead strategic role in regeneration at locations, following redevelopment, a this level …” (Scottish Executive, 2006a: market can be created for properties for 2). All schemes need to have effective sale and areas can become destinations structures in place to ensure that local of choice despite former unpopularity. leadership can be exercised. The context This has been clearly demonstrated in within which such leadership can be Ardler in Dundee and in the New Gorbals exercised should allow local autonomy in Glasgow. The shortage of affordable because it is important that one agency housing in rural locations in Scotland can assume responsibility for the overall presents different problems where strategic direction, whether this is the owners of second homes and holiday let local authority, an RSL or a private purchasers compete with those seeking developer. Evidence from the best mixed cheaper housing in a desirable locality developments suggests that ‘place- (Scottish Executive, 2005b: 2). shaping’ powers need to be assumed and

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Case study From the beginning there was a strong Thus commitment to the original vision, commitment from the City Council and an exceptional masterplan by a leading UK Leadership in Glasgow’s Crown Glasgow Enterprise (GE) to make Crown architect, extensive public consultation, Street Regeneration Project Street a ‘demonstration project’ of how and high quality housing in tune with The Crown Street Regeneration Project successful regeneration can be achieved Glasgow’s cultural history, have collectively was formed in 1990 and was made up in areas of deprivation. Having a powerful established a development which produces of a partnership between the Glasgow champion of the scheme in the director quality housing which also works socially, Development Agency, Glasgow City of the Crown Street Regeneration Project, economically, aesthetically and practically Council, Scottish Homes and the local meant that stakeholders and residents in terms of parking, access, open space community. The long-term aims of the were brought together to ensure that the and community safety. Perhaps the project were to make the Gorbals an original objectives (and masterplan) were important factor is that the vision has attractive area where people wanted to live implemented in full. GE contributed GRO- been sustained despite changes in stafﬁng in a balanced and sustainable community, grant to ‘gap fund’ private housing in the and the replacement of the Crown to boost the local economy and to integrate early phases (i.e. the site originally had a Street Regeneration Project by the New the new development into the social, negative value). Gorbals HA working closely with Glasgow economic and physical fabric of the city. Enterprise as lead agency.

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used to the full by the lead agency. Leadership also requires clarity about the level of service that will be provided and how different demands from owners and tenants can be reconciled. As leadership in developing mixed communities involves working with stakeholders who may be unaccustomed to working in a partnership role, relevant factors include:

■ a leadership style that is strong and committed but also inclusive and participative, avoiding autocratic and inﬂexible approaches

■ a business plan that clearly sets out the ﬁnancial inputs for development and management and that identiﬁes the risks and rewards to be borne by each party to the development agreement

– clarity of mutual expectations about roles and responsibilities: it is crucial to agree at the outset what these expectations are and to establish realistic objectives

■ the extent to which other partners are prepared to invest resources and time in the partnership; it is important to establish the level of commitment to initiatives and the extent to which different partners must be willing to invest in particular schemes Case study Hulme, Manchester ■ the pace of development; avoiding pushing partners too quickly but Taking the lead in the redevelopment of Hulme, the city council generated the necessary not being held back by the slowest funds for Phase 1 of the development through intensive lobbying of central government, (adapted from Russell, 2001: 23) and processing land sales and planning permission with great speed. High quality low rent housing was achieved through nil land valuations and maximising HAG (now Social Housing Grant), and the chairman of AMEC, the private developer in Hulme, provided the impetus for the adoption of urban design guidance.

36 The supermarket in Crown Street, New Gorbals, serves the local community and is also an informal meeting place.

■ capacity building: identifying other Robust investment community leaders and providing partnering suitable training schemes and skills Clearly identiﬁed stakeholders, including development. carefully selected developers with a good track record of working in mixed The advantage of strong leadership, either developments, and good working from one agency assuming responsibility relationships between them, are key for the overall strategic direction of the factors in developing successful mixed development, or from one individual communities. Scottish Executive guidance taking that responsibility, was illustrated notes that, “planning applications are in several of our case studies, where the likely to progress most smoothly where importance of public sector leverage was the developer enters into early discussions crucial. with an RSL as a potential development partner” (Scottish Executive, 2005b: 7). The challenge here is to have ﬂexibility and local autonomy within agreed In Ardler, a competition was held to select working arrangements so that a leader a consortium to redevelop the estate. or champion, working with a strongly Sanctuary Housing Association, which committed steering group, can emerge.

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had recently set up a Scottish office, for the Scottish Executive recommended was selected partly on the basis of their that, “a quota system must be the previous experience of working in mixed backbone of the affordable housing land communities in England. supply in Scotland. Without it, it would be very difficult to secure the mixed Communities Scotland expects RSLs communities which are an important and to be able to derive the full benefits of worthwhile objective of the Executive” innovative approaches to procurement (Scottish Executive, 2006b: 1). and to demonstrate that they are ‘expert’ or best practice clients by: The Scottish Executive through providing leadership to improve the Communities Scotland, is encouraging procurement process and allowing the RSLs to develop a new approach to supply side to develop and innovate, procurement in order to deliver ... adopting partnership working better value for money … better value using long term relationships for all for users … in future procurement suppliers…. strategies.… [It] should be based on a (Scottish Executive/Communities more collaborative approach between Scotland, 2006: 7) clients and the construction team. (Scottish Executive/Communities The challenge here is to overcome the Scotland, 2006: 7) institutional barriers that may exist between different organisations, to Land ownership by one visionary public have incentives in place to encourage (or private) authority allows a far greater the realisation of the agreed aims and degree of control over the process in a objectives, and flexibility in terms of buoyant development market. This is the cost and working arrangements to avoid case at Upton, in Northampton where blockages in the development process. the site owner, English Partnerships, has been able to act as ‘facilitator’ to guide An effective procurement the development framework, subsequent process masterplan and detailed design code. The The value of the site has a significant ownership of land in Ardler by Dundee effect on the tenure and size mix of the City Council, which had a clear strategy final development. Planning Advice Note for the estate and the area, allowed a long 74 states that local authorities may make lead-in to the eventual redevelopment available surplus land at less than full with time to raise the necessary funds and market value or may work with third to involve tenants and residents in the parties to assemble sites for affordable process. housing including other public agencies such as the Forestry Commission However, in a difficult housing market, or development trusts or may use land ownership does not necessarily compulsory purchase powers (Scottish confer greater control over the detail Executive, 2005b: 5). Research carried out of development, but does enable development to be kick-started and the

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overall framework for development to be desirable outcome of establishing mixed Case study determined. communities with appropriate facilities and services, and to do this regardless of Innovative approaches to ■ In Hulme, Manchester City Council who owns the land. housing finance was able to value the concrete In Craigmillar, an innovative financial pedestrian deck blocks (the Crescents), Integrated arrangement involved funding provided at nil land value, thereby enabling neighbourhoods through a joint venture company (EDI the chosen RSLs to demolish Mixed use developments that link into Group), an arm’s length company and redevelop them within the the surrounding area and incorporate established by the City of Edinburgh contemporary restrictions of the a broader programme of economic Council, whose holdings generated a Housing Association Grant. and social regeneration are most likely dividend for the council. The EDI Group and the Council share ownership of an ■ Land is retained by English to lead to communities that are more Partnerships at Upton and in the sustainable over time. In the case studies, URC – Promoting and Regeneration case of Attwood Green most of the there was widespread recognition that Craigmillar (PARC) – and this allows city council-owned land and the simply changing tenure and improving the company to access private capital housing has been transferred to design would not lead to longer-term funding that would otherwise not have Optima Community Association, regeneration. The interaction between been available and ensure that profits giving greater control over future residents from different income bands may from the development are used to development. be a desirable outcome of mixed tenure finance further regeneration work. developments but the overall economic In Ardler, Dundee City Council has and social sustainability of a development retained the provision of services to the is also dependent on the ease with which estate including maintenance, for a three- its inhabitants can gain access to the world year period, and has committed to recycle beyond its boundaries, and the availability revenue from the estate back into the of facilities and services near their provision of services on the estate. houses. The production of an attractive neighbourhood with open spaces, local Clearly, the ability to plan and control services, leisure facilities and the quality of the development varies according to the schools may be as important as the tenure ownership. Where land is released in small mix. Figure 1 represents some of the key parcels on the larger developments, there features necessary for the development are more favourable outcomes in terms of an effective, sustainable, mixed income of sustainability as these elements can be community. incorporated into each section of the site as it is developed, rather than taking the A mixed income community is more risk of having insufficient funds to insert than a housing estate, and its impact will facilities and services at the end. depend on its relationship to the wider area it is in. A longitudinal study of three The challenge in procurement is to achieve mixed income neighbourhoods found that a balance of influence that takes into residents moved in not just for the housing account the requirements of the affordable but for the wider neighbourhood itself housing provider and the private (Allen et al., 2005). developer without compromising the

39 2 GOOD PRA CTICE IN PLANNING MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

Figure 1: Essential elements for a sustainable, mixed income community

Governance Ef fective and inclusive r epr esentation, participation and leadership Transport Social and a n d cultural activities c o n n e c t i v i t y Vibrant, harmonious, Linking people to inclusive jobs, schools, health services and other services

The sustainable mixed income Housing Services and the built community A range of envir onment appr opriate public, Quality design private and and natural voluntary services envir onment

Economy Envir onment Flourishing and Sustainable places diverse local for people economy to live in

Source: adapted from Egan, 2004.

40 Good quality schools and children’s play spaces have been found to provide signiﬁcant places in which residents from different tenures can mix (Tunstall and Fenton, 2006: 19). Other types of facilities and resources such as shops, community centres and sports facilities add quality to a neighbourhood. They are also social spaces where near neighbours and friends from different tenures and income bands can develop social ties (Jupp, 1999: 48), and also provide spaces in which different income groups come into contact with each other as part of a mixed use, as well as a mixed income, neighbourhood.

Evidence from our case studies has This retail centre, with pedestrianised streets and a range of local shops and facilities, is part of a mixed tenure community. highlighted the following signiﬁcant Attwood Green, Birmingham, is within walking distance of the city centre, and is well connected relationships between the development to the wider area by roads and public transport. and its surrounding context:

■ Transport and pedestrian links: these connect the development to its wider area and give lower-income residents access to employment, shops and other resources and facilities. Public transport links are particularly important for tenants without use of a car although cost is an important factor here and evidence of residents sharing taxis because it was cheaper than public transport was noted in one case study. Future mobility patterns need careful modelling though.

■ Integration not isolation: this is particularly important in former council housing estates where high quality streets and transport links can help to reduce the stigma that the estate may have acquired. 2 GOOD PRACTICE IN PLANNING MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

■ Shops: Provision of services and facilities in the case study areas the nature of retailing is changing and while local shops Case study Non-housing uses are important to those with no cars and/or reduced mobility, they are Ardler Community centre, library, clinic, shops, two primary becoming more difficult to sustain. schools Providing easy access to a supermarket is becoming increasingly important Caterham Village Supermarket, nursing home, cricket pitch, health for all residents. Allen et al.’s club, skate park, enterprise hub, restaurant, arts longitudinal study of three mixed centre income neighbourhoods found that Craigmillar New schools, public open space and reconfigured it was the district centres that were town centre with 300,000ft2 of office, retail and most vulnerable to change (Allen leisure space et al., 2005: 40). A masterplan that provides a realistic catchment area Grahame Park Library, community centre, nursery day centre, for a supermarket and makes flexible shops, new village green provision for local shops and services is most likely to be sustainable in Hulme Hulme is part of a major regeneration initiative that the long term. The proponents of covers two wards and has a wealth of social facilities; ‘traditional neighbourhood design’ entertainment and employment uses remain an issue recommend that shared facilities are no longer planned at the ‘heart’ of Kings Hill Business park, supermarket, golf club, day nursery, new neighbourhoods, but are rather commmunity centre, pub, shops, hairdresser, dispersed around its edge, in order to beautician, estate agents, building society, restaurants, ensure their viability. cafes, university campus, two primary schools, medical centre, local parks ■ Green spaces: access to well-managed and maintained green space is most New Gorbals (Crown Street) Business centre, local shopping centre important to the overall quality of including supermarket, budget hotel, small local office a development. Green spaces also accommodation, light industrial units, local park, provide opportunities for social library, resource centre, leisure centre, swimming pool interaction. Large parks and other facilities do not have to be provided Ocean Estate Shops, mosque, community centre within the mixed income community Park Central (Attwood Green) Fourteen commercial units, two itself.

supermarkets, hotel, community centre (existing ■ Community halls and centres: although primary school), new park community halls and centres tend to be used by a minority of residents, Royal Quays Shops, community centre, park and major leisure they can act as important points of centre adjacent social interaction (Jupp,1999). This is Upton Urban boulevard with flexible ground floor uses to particularly true if they are supported incorporate retail and commercial uses, retail provision by a community development officer. on the periphery of the site, primary school The community centre at Ardler, which the RSL supports, has provided an

42 2 GOOD PRACTICE IN PLANNING MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

important point of contact between providing places where previously formed different groups of residents and relationships may be cemented. The box attracts people from outside the estate. opposite sets out examples of the services It is vital that facilities should attract and facilities provided in each of our case a variety of income groups if they are study areas. to function as an effective community resource. A further challenge here is to be found in the provision of facilities and services The challenge to developing integrated that meet the changing needs of the neighbourhoods with appropriate services residents. For example, good secondary and facilities lies in the critical mass schools as well as primary schools in the of population that can support them. neighbourhood, youth facilities, facilities Whereas neighbourhood planning in the and services for the elderly and continuing 1940s and 1950s presupposed a level of employment opportunities. self-sufﬁciency in terms of communal services and facilities, contemporary A commitment to the long mixed income communities have to be term realistic about the facilities that even large Sustaining the original vision will only developments can support and services occur if there is continuing commitment and facilities that will attract people from to the original aims and intentions, and a outside the immediate area will be an strategy for the management of the area advantage. after it has been built.

The population required to support a In terms of management, the need to supermarket varies according to its floor take a long-term view in order to protect area and the average disposable income in the effective long-term investment the area. Economies of scale are also being represented by these neighbourhoods was gained in the health service as doctors’ acknowledged by several interviewees surgeries are becoming part of group but the problems were not understated practices. The local pub is also vulnerable and one private developer confirmed to decisions made by corporate owners, that “the biggest headache with mixed as are local coffee shops when the major income communities is post-occupational chains take over. This creates a challenge management” (Interview). However, an for urban designers and spatial planners, RSL manager commented: since there are few facilities that are not part of a larger corporate network whose One of our strengths is that [our future is determined outside the local organisation] has been around for 110 community. Whereas other studies of years, so we are not going to walk away mixed communities have pointed out that from developments. So we say to our shared facilities do not provide a point of residents ‘We are not going anywhere, first contact for residents from different we will be here for the long term, that is income bands or tenure groups, they important to us’. nevertheless play an important role in

43 2 GOOD PRACTICE IN PLANNING MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

Of course, taking responsibility for association. The Trust was established for a managing their investment over the long period of seven years from the inception of term is what has always underpinned the the development with funding from the RSL management approach of social housing and now receives some European funding. providers, and it is interesting that private sector developers in some of our case It is critical to these schemes that, studies have adopted this approach. The use post-completion, there are proper of covenants to control behaviour on Kings management schemes in place to ensure Hill, the management company proposed the upkeep of the development. And on Upton, and the use of management to ensure that the changing needs of agreements on other developments are residents are accommodated. (Interview, examples here. In Ardler, the Village Trust RSL manager) was established to bring together residents and community organisations with the The requirement for affordable housing to local council and the managing housing comply with Housing for Varying Needs design guidance and the possibility of promoting Lifetime Homes may help Critical success factors in planning ■ Delivery structures such as New ensure that homes meet long-term needs mixed tenure developments Housing Partnerships, CPPs and URCs (Scottish Executive, 2005a: 14). Further, the should be fully consulted and engaged. ■ A range of stakeholders, including the use of planning agreements to regulate the local authority, private developers and ■ A development brief, planning and future sale of discounted sale dwellings housing association with experience urban design guidelines for the area (Scottish Executive, 2005a: 14) may allow of providing mixed tenure housing that encourage a range of attractively the retention of affordable housing. The and previous experience of working in designed homes to meet the needs of use of masterplans and design codes collaboration. different household sizes, age groups, might ensure the longevity of the original lifestyles and income groups. intentions. There are currently seven pilot ■ Early agreement among stakeholders schemes sponsored by the government in on the range of housing units required ■ An integrated business plan that takes England to “see how codes can provide and the extent to which different advantage of opportunities to cross- greater certainty, speed and high quality tenures should be integrated in the subsidise between social, affordable development” (HM Treasury/ODPM, 2005: masterplan. and open market housing. 8; see p.37 for a discussion of the impact ■ A clear ‘vision’ developed and agreed ■ Planned provision of all the facilities of design codes). The Scottish Executive between the key stakeholders. This and services required for an active and notes that, “well designed projects should go beyond the provision of sustainable community. which function well and are adaptable new housing and address the wider to changing circumstances are valued, ■ A long-term commitment from all community needs, such as social respected and liked by the communities stakeholders that they will work inclusion, social cohesion, health, they serve. They can have long, effective together in developing and managing education, leisure and training lives and relatively low life-cycle costs the development in the long term and opportunities. to the owner, users and communities” fully consult and engage local residents. (Scottish Executive, 2006a: 45).

3 Good practice in delivering strategy

Introduction 48

Development and design tools 49

Mixing tenures 54

Integrated housing layouts 56

Segmented housing layouts 56

A segregated housing layout 57

Social sustainability 63

Environmental sustainability 64

Viability 66

Conclusions 68 3 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING STRATEGY

Introduction Design quality is not an add-on but needs to be embedded in the scheme from Once the vision for the mixed income its inception. It is produced through a community has been agreed between chain of decisions that result from the the development partners, attention interactions between the development then needs to be given to delivery ‘on context, the specific objectives that have the ground’. The overall quality of the been identified for the particular scheme, development produced is critical to its the policy context, the market, the success, both at the point of sale and financial arrangements and the aspirations letting and into the future. of the neighbouring communities and the end users, if such can be identified. Among the most important elements In addition the standards used by the for the sustainability of estates are their different development partners, public design qualities. The design of an estate and private, have to be reconciled. is one of its lasting advertisements for a developer. Furthermore, design plays A strategy needs to be adopted in order an important role in exacerbating or to achieve the vision. This strategy, reducing noticeable tenure differences. particularly if the development is large (Rowland et al., 2006:64) scale, may be in place for a number of

Housing design can exacerbate or reduce notable tenure differences. Good design quality needs to be embedded in a development from its inception.

48 3 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING STRATEGY

years. It will need sufficient flexibility to accommodate changing market conditions and needs on the one hand, and to incorporate a set of clear principles that will guide the development beyond its physical completion and first occupation on the other. The strategy should cover all aspects of delivery that are necessary for the production of a successful mixed income scheme. Depending on the scale of the development, this will include a business plan, a clear and transparent partnership policy and arrangements for governance, and may also include a social and economic programme. The discussion in this section focuses on the physical aspects of development.

Development and design tools There are different ways of guiding The Craigmillar Urban Design Framework covers the following: development and contemporary practice is constantly reﬁning these. Furthermore ■ Context (policy, physical, heritage) the terminology used to describe each type of document varies locally. Those set out ■ Vision and process below are derived from our investigation ■ Consultation of our best practice case studies. A hierarchy of documents is suggested, but ■ Housing and design the exact form and remit of these may ■ Movement obviously vary from scheme to scheme and is dependent on the scale of the ■ Centres and services proposed development. The hierarchy is ■ Community facilities unlikely to be produced sequentially and there may be several rounds of negotiation ■ Parks, open spaces and environment before a scheme is both ﬁnancially ■ Business and employment viable and meets all the required policy objectives. In several of our case studies, ■ Infrastructure and drainage masterplans were produced and then ■ Implementation substantially changed, for example in the case of Craigmillar. It was adopted by the City of Edinburgh Council on 29 September 2005.

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adopted the development framework as supplementary planning guidance.

The development framework will be supported by proposals regarding the social, economic and ﬁnancial underpinning for the scheme as a whole. These will draw on the research carried out for the planning process. The development framework, particularly if it is adopted as a formal document in the planning process, would also form a lasting record to refer back to as key personnel and development partners change.

For larger-scale mixed income communities such a permanent record of intentions would provide an important point of reference as the community Timber-clad social housing in a mixed community, Dalfaber Aviemore North. matures and tenures change. Chapter 1 suggests that tenures become more Development framework ‘ﬂuid’ over time. Chapter 2 recommends Where a site is large the use of a the use of neighbourhood proﬁling in development framework or strategy order to sustain the mixed nature of the provides a guide for the development as community. a whole. The adoption of a framework can be used to provide a measure of Care needs to be taken to ensure the even certainty for the future partners or phasing of all tenures throughout the developers who may be involved in development. Evidence from the case smaller sites or parcels of land within studies suggests that it is important that the development. The production of a social housing is incorporated into each development framework provides an phase of the development. In developer- opportunity for community involvement led schemes, developers may be keen to in the initial stages of the process, without sell their owner-occupied units quickly the need to negotiate in detail. Similarly in order recoup some of their costs. This the framework can be used as one of the carries the danger that the social housing documents to support an application may be concentrated in the latter phases. for outline planning permission. At Craigmillar, where the local authority There is also a need to ensure that was a partner in the development services and facilities are provided as the company, the City of Edinburgh Council development progresses and it will fall to the local planning authority to monitor

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this and to enforce the mix of tenures several individual housing estates, a through Section 75 agreements throughout development framework or strategy is a what may be a lengthy process spanning more practical document, simply because two decades. Much social housing is it is less prescriptive. The development concentrated in metropolitan areas, but may then be divided into phases and housing need is just as urgent in rural the individual parcels of land put areas. The Albyn Housing Society’s out to tender or competition for their development at Dalfaber, Aviemore North, individual masterplan. The masterplan provides much needed social housing in itself may undergo further sub-divisions, a rural area within the context of a mixed with different RSLs, design teams and development. developers taking responsibility for individual sites. Masterplans The term ‘masterplan’ is often used to The Urban Task Force deﬁned a spatial describe drawings setting out different masterplan as a set of proposals for a scales of development, from small sites movement strategy, buildings, spaces of a hectare or more to completely and land use in three dimensions. These new settlements. For large sites, such proposals need to be supported by as new settlements or those covering ﬁnancial, economic and social policy

The re-establishment of Crown Street in Glasgow creates opportunities for chance encounters between residents.

51 51 3 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING STRATEGY

Case study Hulme design guidance A masterplan and a design code were produced for Hulme. Both documents set out the urban character of the development and introduced a medium density urban block layout that was innovative for the UK. Initially RSLs and developers were opposed to a layout that challenged conventional low density cul- de-sac arrangements. The local highway engineers also demanded that each junction be provided with visibility splays and junctions suitable for double-decker bus routes. Eventually these problems were resolved through negotiation and consultation, with the support of tenants. The design code encouraged architectural variety within the rubric of the perimeter block. The resulting RSL development has been to a quality that continues to inspire passers-by to call in to the local RSL ofﬁces to ask if the individual units are for sale.

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documents and by a delivery mechanism. principles, the ‘vision’, but also allow for Guidance on how to produce a masterplan creativity and imagination on the part of is set out clearly and comprehensively the development and design teams. by CABE (2004) in Creating a successful masterplan: A guide for clients. This sets out The brief also sets out ﬁnancial the parameters for a masterplan and the requirements and phasing. Other demands processes necessary for its production. can be made too. For example, the brief for Upton’s different masterplans requires Design codes each consortium to meet a minimum requirement in terms of accredited core Design codes have a long and venerable skills for design and built environment history. They were used in Italian professionals. Renaissance towns such as Siena. A design code: Mixed income and quality

… is an illustrated compendium The use of the documents discussed of the necessary and optional above is not a guarantee of urban design design components of a particular quality, but is a pre-condition for it. The development with instructions and production of each document requires partners to clarify the most essential parts advice about how these relate together of their objectives and to define what may in order to deliver a masterplan or or may not be compromised. The Scottish other site-based vision. Executive defines good design as (Bartlett School of Planning and Tibbalds Planning & Urban Design, a key to achieving social, economic 2006: 7) and environmental goals of public policy, as laid down by central and Recent research carried out in England has local government. It can bridge the found that where codes are used, in most gap between aspirations and reality. cases the investment in resources involved (Scottish Executive, 2001: 18). in producing them has been more than off-set by enhanced sale and land values The definition of urban design quality (Carmona and Dann, 2006). is especially important in two ways for mixed income communities: Briefs

In most developments one or all of these ■ the overall urban design quality of a stages in the design and development neighbourhood is one of the factors process may be put out to tender essential to its future sustainability as or limited competition. This places an attractive area to live in importance on the quality of the brief ■ consistency of a high quality public at each stage. The lead partner has a realm and external architectural responsibility to ensure that the brief treatment across tenures ensures meets the requirements and aspirations ‘tenure blindness’. This will be of all stakeholders. It needs to set out discussed in more detail later.

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Mixing tenures units should be dispersed singly. Upton provides an example of this approach and The proportions of the mix of tenures its development brief imposed a standard across the layout have hitherto been of no more than three social housing regarded as important determinants houses together and no more than four of the success or failure of particular social housing flats together. In practice developments. The evidence gathered so there has been a tendency to provide far for this report suggests that the precise houses in pairs. proportion of different tenures within a development is of little importance to the However, such dispersal need not be in future social and economic sustainability single units, but can be in small clusters, of a mixed income neighbourhood. More as in the New Gorbals development, evidence is available with regard to the where one side of each perimeter block issue of spatial dispersal. is social housing and the remainder of the block is privately owned. While it is A clear finding that has emerged from accepted good practice that properties research studies is that it is vital that should be indistinguishable, the Scottish the social rented units should not be Executive recommend that “concentrating stigmatised in any way. If they are affordable housing in small groups rather dispersed throughout the development, than ‘pepper-potting’ individual houses this is far less likely to happen. Different will ease the subsequent management of authors have described various homes by an RSL” (Scottish Executive, classifications of dispersal. Perhaps the 2005b: 10). most useful is the following simple set of categories: Segmented

■ integrated: different tenures are side by Wauchope Square offers an example side in the same street, for example, in of a segmented development where New Gorbals the social rented housing is arranged around a separate courtyard within the ■ segmented: different tenures are in development. Here it is regarded as being separate blocks, for example, in Hulme ‘very important’ that the housing for sale ■ segregated: different tenures are in looks the same as the housing for rent. concentrations, for example in Ardler As with New Gorbals, there is no visual Village. separation between the two housing tenures. Where the situation is reversed, Integrated the RSL housing can be the subject of stigma. One RSL director commented Contemporary advice is that the greatest in relation to what he felt was an integration between tenures is achieved unsuccessful scheme: when the social rented or shared housing units are dispersed evenly throughout At the other extreme you have got the development. This has been described places like […] where it is very clear as ‘pepper-potting’ that implies that the

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that the developer is working with the of a residential development. It can, RSL under duress. The design is such however, be facilitated. The sharing of that the social part of the scheme is streets, cycleways and footpaths provides very much in the way; the entrance to situations where near neighbours can, our block which is 55 units of rented almost literally, ‘bump into each other’. housing (as well as shared ownership This observation implies both that housing) feels like servants quarters identifiable streets and spaces are available round the back. and that they are sufficiently safe and attractive to encourage residents to use There are factors that promote a them. segmented solution. At Wauchope Square, the RSL preferred to manage a back court Past experience in housing design, where in its entirety. By contrast, in the New streets have been removed and confused Gorbals development the community- movement systems have been substituted, based housing association took over the have led to winding footpaths that management of the semi-public and public appear to be unsafe at night and paths spaces, thereby blurring the boundaries that serve only a few front doors. Many between tenures. housing schemes in the past failed to distinguish sufficiently between the fronts Segregated and backs of houses to the extent that Although concentrations of different some blocks appeared to be surrounded tenures are generally to be avoided, in by a species of anonymous no-man’s difficult housing markets this may prove land. This observation applied to all of the only way in which a scheme will our case studies, prior to demolition and be viable. This was the case at Ardler redevelopment. Village. In the Royal Quays development in Newcastle, which followed a similar development pattern, mixing between tenures was found to occur in one post- occupancy study (Jupp, 1999). The masterplan ensured that residents from different tenures shared streets and public spaces. Indeed, the author of the study found this factor to be of greater significance than the tenure distribution. Ardler Village also has several streets that are shared and a careful distribution of public space.

Shared streets Social mixing cannot be determined by physical means within the context

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Integrated housing layout Each street block contains one side of social rented housing, as in New Gorbals (below).

Segmented housing layout This permits RSLs and developers to separate the management of shared private space such as back courts.

Key

Market housing

Social rented housing

Hulme

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Segregated housing layout Key

The tenures will be mixed on the sites left Market housing blank (in the north-east and south-west corners of development). Social rented housing

Ardler Village

57 Ten characteristics of public spaces that facilitate social housing

1 Clearly identiﬁable streets and public spaces. 2 Streets designed to encourage pedestrians.

3 Connected streets with short, direct routes. 4 Streets that are attractive and safe to use day and night.

58 6 Fronts of buildings facing the street/public spaces, backs 5 Continuous frontages with few blank walls. of buildings facing courtyards/private areas.

7 Buildings that provide a sense of enclosure to the street. 8 Well-deﬁ ned entrances onto the street at frequent intervals.

9 Streets that encourage safe vehicle use. 10 A clear differentiation of fronts and backs of buildings.

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High quality children’s play areas Chapters 1 and 2 mentioned the importance of schools in encouraging different tenures to mix. This is also true of children’s play areas and providing well-designed, accessible play areas is therefore important for mixed income developments.

In the medium to high density context of Glasgow informal play areas were provided in the shared courtyards of the blocks in the New Gorbals development. The courtyards were formed from the rear of the perimeter blocks. These were found to be effective in terms of mixing and it was the larger of the courtyards that were most successful. Providing either supervision or conﬁgurations that meant that parents could supervise play was A high quality sports area in Attwood Green.

The landscaped backcourts in New Gorbals provide play areas which are visible from the ﬂats.

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found to be signiﬁcant too. It is important Case study that parents can supervise play where possible. Small courtyards that included New Gorbals, Glasgow car parking, as in the smaller blocks in Hulme, did not work so well (Silverman et al., 2005).

Consistency of external architectural treatment Potential stigma for RSL and shared housing units can be avoided through treating their external appearance absolutely consistently with the standards applied to private housing for sale. Although developers and RSLs may complain about the ﬁnancial pressures that this demand imposes, our case studies demonstrate that such consistency can be achieved.

Housing associations may experience difficulties in providing external features such as porches, or may need to vary their standard provision. Developers may have to provide higher space standards at the Perhaps the most striking example comes from one of the earliest mixed income lower end of their price range, in order to developments, the Crown Street phase of the New Gorbals development. Here each ‘stack’ social rented and for sale flats on perimeter block accommodates one side of RSL dwellings. The development draws on the top of each other. tradition of the Glasgow tenement block, with the block being composed of a maisonette on the lower ground and first floors and the top two floors comprising flats of different Care also needs to be taken with sizes. Visual inspection of the different sides of each block do not yield any clues as to ‘personalisation’. In low density housing tenure and even tell-tale details, such as types of letter box or door bell, do not provide developments, where it is commonplace to any means of differentiation. establish a small strip of garden between the footway and the front elevation of the Integration of different types of dwelling, many RSL tenants may lack the dwellings resources to personalise their property. One of the keys to the successful visual This is in contrast to owner-occupiers integration of tenures appears to be the who frequently establish pot plants, blending of different types of dwelling, hanging baskets and floral displays. Such be they houses or flats. In our case markers of personal identity can act as studies, houses and flats of different a distinguishing feature of tenure, as tenures have been mixed skilfully across strongly as any architectural feature. the development. This provides a stark

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contrast in approach to housing estates design framework or masterplan, with in the immediate post-war period, where separate architectural practices designing houses and flats tended to be positioned different parts of the development can in groups across the site, with no visual help to produce variety. The design coding relationship between them other than should be sufficiently flexible to permit stark contrast, often heightened by a this. different choice of materials. Another problem that can arise is The local authority requirements for a where small units of housing for sale, particular proportion of units that are for example blocks of one- and two- disability aware or wheelchair accessible bedroom flats, are sold to either small or should be accommodated. Again, skill and institutional landlords who then let them care is required to prevent these units from out, sometimes leasing them back to local becoming isolated. Problems can also arise authorities or housing associations for where family houses are grouped together, homeless families. This can equally lead to The re-installation of Stretford Road producing high child densities in one stigmatisation. On an inner-city site it may in Hulme created a vital link with Manchester city centre. part of the development that can lead to be tempting to introduce high-rise blocks friction with childless residents. of one- and two-bedroom flats to ensure the financial viability of the development Nevertheless, a certain level of difference overall. As has been discussed, this in building footprint, scale and massing is solution may lead to management desirable in terms of creating an attractive problems in the long run, such as townscape. The production of an urban concentrations of families with children

The location of the town centre at Craigmillar will be moved eastward for stronger integration.

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in the social housing and one- and two- person households in the private units.

Social sustainability A mixed income community needs to move from being a ‘development’ or an ‘estate’ to a ‘place’ or a ‘neighbourhood’ in the wider area. As one RSL worker said of the redeveloped Hulme:

Hulme has therefore succeeded in becoming another part of the city, but is special in its own way. One of the ways in which this has been achieved is through its integration into its neighbouring context.

I have been here only 18 months. Hulme to me is just like any other part of Manchester, but it has got a special character.

Integration into the wider context Case study The movement system that is provided Shared streets in Greendykes North within the mixed income community The design guide for Greendykes North sets out a hierarchy of streets, boulevards, provides one of the keys to successful avenues, shared streets and mews. The shared streets are designed for trafﬁc speeds of integration into the wider area. In two 10 mph, in accordance with Planning Advice Note 76 (Scottish Executive, 2005b). They of our case studies, Hulme and the encourage pedestrians and children to dominate the space and drivers to understand New Gorbals, the new community that they are in a residential area and not on a highway. The guide states: “The spatial replaced a formerly stigmatised area enclosure, the proximity of front doors and activity, parking, the informal seating and play of predominately council housing. The areas and planting work together to reduce the speed of vehicles” (Scottish Executive, achievement of the masterplans for each of 2005b, p.29). The guidance was agreed following extensive negotiation with City of the new neighbourhoods was to re-instate Edinburgh Council and drew on expert advice. This method of trafﬁc calming is at the the Victorian main streets that connected forefront of highway and urban design. the developments back into the city (Stretford Road and Crown Street). discussed the importance of providing mixed uses for the social sustainability Establishing links between new of a neighbourhood. Given the changing neighbourhoods and the existing area nature of retail, and of many other services can also be facilitated through the and facilities, it seems prudent to avoid sharing of shops and other commercial redundancy by locating them at the and community facilities. Chapter 2 periphery of new developments, rather

63 High quality green space is critical to successful mixed developments. In Ardler Village a sustainable urban drainage system is provided and the creation of two new ponds creates two attractive environmental features. Excess water, which was a problem before redevelopment, has now been transformed into an attractive feature providing beneﬁts for all residents.

than, as was previously fashionable, at the Environmental centre. At Craigmillar, the re-establishment sustainability of the shopping centre adjacent to the Environmental sustainability should major through route, Niddrie Mains, is be a component of all new housing an important feature of the urban design developments. This encompasses many framework. In addition, two smaller issues, from vehicular and pedestrian district centres will be provided. movement, to car parking, to the provision of green spaces and landscaping to energy Park Central in Attwood Green and efficiency and ‘green building’. The Upton provide good examples of aspects that are discussed below are those flexible masterplans set within strong that have been raised, either in research development frameworks, where studies or in our case studies, as having different services and new facilities have a particular relevance to mixed income been planned, but will be located on communities. streets where they can share catchments with neighbouring developments. Encouraging walking and cycling Flexibility is being demanded within As discussed above, the possibilities the masterplanning process, so that of spontaneous chance encounters are uses can change over time. For larger increased through movement in public developments, such as Craigmillar, the areas. Walking and cycling, in contrast to adoption of an urban design framework travelling by car, permits residents to greet that sets the parameters for subsequent and otherwise engage with each other. masterplans of different quarters and Careful design of footways and cycle paths centres allows for flexibility. can tick two policy boxes simultaneously:

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those of encouraging social interaction and have supported the provision of major of pursuing environmental sustainability. new parks. Hulme Park in Hulme and Evidence from established mixed Redburn Dene Park in Royal Quays are tenure developments demonstrates the particularly enjoyed by residents. popularity of cycle routes for both adults and children, with the proviso that they Car ownership also need to be overlooked by adjacent In addition to providing a means for houses and be safe (Allen et al., 2005). movement, car ownership provides a Good trafﬁc management also makes it marker of wealth and status and a double easier for children to cycle and to play in garage provides an immediate clue as to streets and public spaces. the tenure of an occupant. At Royal Quays, for example, the double garages in one High quality green spaces and street provide a clear indicator of privately landscaping owned housing. The higher densities demanded by Scottish Planning Policy 3 (Scottish Executive In rural areas car ownership may be Development Department, 2003) places vital, for both RSL tenants and owner- a pressure on project providers to create occupiers. Access from a motorway is also more meaningful public space. The quality an important feature in attracting higher of green space and landscaping generally income residents. Furthermore, the rigid are critical to the success of mixed income application of sustainable development developments. This is not only because principles in terms of limiting car parking parks provide some opportunities for provision may deter higher income children’s play and residents’ interaction residents from buying into mixed income but also because well-designed green schemes. Clearly these considerations pose spaces and landscaping form part of a challenges to local planners and designers. high quality residential environment that In the more recent of our case studies residents can ‘buy into’. car parking has skilfully been made less visually intrusive through the use of Maintenance obviously also plays an semi-enclosed rear courtyards. Where the important part in retaining this perception courtyards are also used as play areas, and ensuring the sustainability of the this may not be an ideal solution. On- overall development as a social entity. The street parking not only provides parking urban design framework for Craigmillar spaces that can be subject to informal makes the most of its location with its surveillance, but when combined with views of Arthur’s Seat and green vistas. skilful employment of the principles of The developers for the Greendykes ‘shared space’ street design, may actually neighbourhood within Craigmillar are contribute to pedestrian safety (Hamilton- using the ‘green’ qualities of Craigmillar in Baillie and Jones 2005). Clearly the the marketing of their development. provision of garage space and suitable car parking arrangements will continue to be In our case studies that are located in areas an issue for design and management. of economic stress, regeneration funds

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Mixed income schemes will need to ensure that they have effective procedures for managing risk and for ensuring that effective safeguards are built into ﬁnancial arrangements. Realistic business plans have to be put forward at the start, with development in achievable phases.

“The object should be to create land values, not simply to capture them” (NRU, 2006). Good urban design is part of this process, as a strong framework of streets and external spaces, combined An ambitious shared vision, based on a realistic, deliverable business plan provides a good foundation for development. with a high quality ﬁrst phase, builds conﬁdence among private investors. This was the process at Hulme, New Gorbals, Royal Quays and Ardler Village, each constructed in areas of nil or low land values.

Costs can be kept low and design quality maintained as the scheme proceeds, through the enforcement of masterplanning and/or design codes and by letting the development in small parcels. This procedure makes the most of developers’ inclination for competition and allows for ﬂexibility in delivery.

The wider powers of public authorities may allow significant extra funding to be attracted through other programmes, such as European funds. The first Crown Street phase of the New Gorbals development Viability was underpinned by extra funds supplied Finance by the Scottish Enterprise (Glasgow). The development of a mixed income This ensured that a high quality public community will require additional sources realm could be provided, with both hard of money over and above Housing landscaping and a new park and indirectly Association Grant. Partners cannot assume supplied funds for the masterplan. that monies provided by government will Confidence and land values have since be sufficient, or that past funding levels accelerated to the extent that the Queen will be matched in the future.

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Elizabeth Square phase no longer needs a the lowest possible value subsidy from public funds. ■ where demolition of existing estates forms part of the development, The early injection of public funding is allowance should be made for the loss important in terms of ensuring a mix of rent of housing types. In inner-city areas, where land values are high and public ■ resources should be allocated to the subsidies are insufficient, it may be establishment and development of difficult to provide family-sized homes. community groups to ensure their For developers, when land values engagement in the process rise, their margins may restrict the ■ proposals for mixed communities construction of family-sized homes. In need to take advantage of regeneration these circumstances local authorities may funds where available, and should have to be flexible in their application be fully integrated in community of Section 75 Agreements, trading in the strategies and local area agreements proportion of social housing in return for the inclusion of three-bedroom-plus ■ community development trusts can dwellings. help to attract inward investment opportunities Profit sharing was an approach adopted ■ long-term investment requires a in one of the case studies. In Attwood strategic view about short-term costs Green, land was transferred to the housing association and licensed to the developers. ■ there needs to be the right balance In return the development agreement between capital and revenue funding. stipulated that a share of any profit made over a stipulated amount should be The challenge in the area of finance returned by the developer to a fund that and funding is to achieve high quality is then spent in the area. This is called a developments without the levels of public virtuous investment cycle and is likely to funding that have been available in the generate £30 million over the lifetime of past. the project. Uncertainty Without adequate financial arrangements, For mixed income communities that the masterplan cannot proceed. Financial are based on existing council housing arrangements will need to acknowledge estates, balancing refurbishment with the following: redevelopment is also an issue, about which the existing tenants and residents ■ high quality design is initially more are likely to have strong views. In each expensive of our case studies that included council

■ compulsory purchase order (CPO) estates the ﬁnal proposals were the powers should be used early on in the results of years of negotiation, business process to ensure that land is bought at planning, community consultation, design

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Good practice in delivering a strategy and redesign. This produces uncertainty for the stakeholders involved. Where a Factors that discourage Factors that encourage transfer ballot is carried out in a relatively integration integration small area which involoves demolition of properties, there is a risk that the ■ segregation of scheme from wider ■ mix of uses proposals will be rejected. Experience neighbourhood suggests that a high quality and visionary ■ integration of scheme into wider design, that covers a large area, is more ■ social rented housing grouped together neighbourhood likely to be accepted (NRU, 2006). It is ■ social housing segregated from private ■ an even mix of housing types and sizes easier for tenants to unite over proposals for sale between tenures that can provide a better estate, village or new town and to bury their personal ■ separation of housing types and sizes ■ social rented housing evenly dispersed differences. into different tenures through development

■ separate route system for different ■ careful integration of different There were also complaints from tenures densities, for example, ﬂats and houses developers and RSLs about the uncertainty in the planning process. They commented ■ separated children’s play areas ■ shared streets and public spaces for on long delays in getting approvals and near neighbours from different tenures ■ separated public parking areas lack of clarity about the proportions of between tenures ■ high quality public realm with social rented and affordable housing to be continuous building frontages provided. These uncertainties add to the ■ confusion between public, semi-public overall costs of development and hence and private space ■ attractive landscape and green spaces have an impact on the ability to achieve ■ poorly designed and maintained public ■ walking and cycling encouraged mixed income new communities. realm ■ shared children’s play areas Conclusions ■ car use dominant ■ shared public parking areas between There is no rubric or pattern book for ■ social rented housing stigmatised tenures producing a strategy for successful through visual markers ■ consistent external architectural mixed income new communities. A list ■ no design controls treatment across tenures of factors that do and do not encourage integration is given here. It should be ■ no resident empowerment. ■ use of design guidance, for example, used with caution, as the presence of one masterplans and design codes to negative factor may be overcome, such as ensure uniformly high standards introducing high quality design features in

■ inclusive consultation with residents the RSL-managed housing. and neighbours and empowerment of existing residents.

4 Good practice in delivering partnership and participation

Challenges 72

Partnership 72

Community involvement 74

Partnership in management arrangements 75

Wider structures for partnership and participation 83

Conclusions 84 4 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING PARTNERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION

Challenges with competing cultures and different lines of accountability: for example, One challenge with mixed income schemes Partners ‘need a common understanding a private developer accountable to is that a wide range of social landlords of their collective role’. their shareholders; a statutory sector and developers may be used. For example accountable to the local community; and there are multi-landlord consortium voluntary agencies accountable to their developments where lines of responsibility board. are unclear. In such circumstances it is important to ensure a streamlining of While lines of accountability may be management arrangements with clear disparate, it is important to reach a Case study lines of accountability that are transparent common understanding about shared Problem-solving Partnerships in to owners and renters with consistent and objectives for the area: ensuring that Edinburgh fully integrated procedures (Andrews and schemes can become a destination of Problem-solving partnerships (PSPs) Reardon Smith, 2005). choice; meeting housing need; and are based on multi-agency approaches raising the profile and status of the to issues within communities where One way that different partners have neighbourhood. problems experienced are shared evolved is to use common management between agencies. They were established arrangements and to provide services It is also important to consider the overall as multi-agency groups designed through a single agency (often a private leadership roles discussed in Chapter 2. to tackle recurrent problems within management company for landscaping Effective partnership arrangements are communities or to implement strategic and cleaning common parts). It is dependent on a champion who can hold policies to address common issues important that there are not differential all the different agencies together and highlighted across the City of Edinburgh. arrangements, resulting in different drive the vision for a scheme. This is a Partnership working was seen as the standards of service delivery for different necessary but not sufficient condition key to addressing these problems tenure groups. for partnership working to function effectively and PSPs focus on tackling effectively. It should also be noted that the cause of the problems, not solely Based on what was said in Chapter 2 leadership may not be invested in one the symptoms, ensuring sustainable about the importance of vision, partners individual but there should be clear lines improvements within communities. PSPs ‘need a common understanding of their of accountability and responsibility. In are considered where a specific problem collective role’. This role is based on a some respects this leadership can become has been identified that is supported mix of formal and informal expectations, invisible over time. with analytical intelligence and requiring understanding and relationships. While it a multi-agency approach to resolve it. is not possible to formalise everything, it The main principles of partnership For a PSP to be successful in the long may be useful to articulate shared values working in mixed income communities term, partners need to identify the and understandings, symbolically and can be stated as follows: specific cause of the problem presented. practically (Russell, 2001). For example, they would consider ‘anti- ■ Organisations need to be clear about social behaviour caused by individuals Partnership the challenges of working with new gathering, drinking and using drugs in a The importance of developing trust, agencies: mixed income schemes will public area’ rather than a general list of understanding and shared values is inevitably involve a variety of different local problems such as ‘theft, vandalism, central to a successful mixed income agencies, most of which will not be littering, fire raising or graffiti’. scheme. This can be difficult with familiar to one another. An effective very different institutional actors, partnership needs to have mechanisms

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to bring groups together and to resolve Case study inevitable disputes. Ardler Village Trust ■ Partners need to establish shared objectives: while different positions will be inevitable in the short term, there needs to be recognition that all are working to the same ends, that is, the development of ﬂourishing and integrated, cohesive neighbourhoods. There needs to be acknowledgement of speciﬁc aims, such as providing equal access to services, a fair distribution of resources, a well-maintained environment and minimising neighbour nuisance.

■ Involving service users: there needs to be an explicit recognition that service provision is dependent on the desires and needs of local residents and that services will be provided on an equitable basis regardless of income. Ardler Village Trust (AVT) incorporates a partnership between the Ardler community, There is a need to change attitudes Dundee City Council, Communities Scotland and Sanctuary (Scotland) Housing towards the longer-term investment Association. AVT is an independent charity and was established to support non-housing potential of neighbourhoods and a community projects. It operates through three sub-groups, developing projects addressing cultural change on the part of both private the needs of the area and managing partnership activity. The sub-groups are: developers and social landlords. While the legacy of the past continued to generate ■ Social and community: aiming to develop and coordinate activities that build the suspicion, there was some evidence that capacity of local people, improving community spirit and tackling social exclusion. attitudes were changing. For example one ■ Physical regeneration: overseeing and implementing physical regeneration projects. manager commented: ■ Economic: aiming to develop and coordinate activities that enhance the economic … whereas in the past it was status of residents through employment, training and personal development. traditionally almost a contractor/client relationship between housebuilder Membership of the AVT is open to all Ardler Village residents over the age of 16 and six and housing association; you are community members act as directors on AVT’s board. AVT organises job fairs, developing now starting to see joint venture sports provision, organising social and community events and supporting local business. partnerships coming through, the AVT is committed to community capacity building and it has created 50 apprenticeships, sharing of risk, complementary skills 100 additional jobs and developed commercial and retail space. It has delivered being brought to the procurement environmental improvements and provided care and support to vulnerable members of process. It’s early days; you are putting the community. together two quite different cultures.

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But you are starting to see some corporations. In each case the consultation differences in the way that developers process assisted in gaining support are thinking and the way that housing from stakeholders for the mixed income associations are thinking. community as a concept, in addition to (Interview) providing an input to the design itself.

Community involvement It is of particular note that overall the Resident involvement and community consultation process tended to support consultation have now become essential innovation in design and encouraged parts of the planning and regeneration developers and RSLs to experiment. processes and it is striking how important Community involvement and capacity community consultation was to all but one building will help to determine of our case study developments, three of effective and responsive management which were started in the early 1990s. This arrangements. Effective partnership applied whether they were led by local arrangements will provide strong authorities, developers or by development evidence of ‘added value’ to mixed income schemes:

Case study A successful renewal strategy is not a set of compromises but is built on a Community involvement in Craigmillar solid understanding of the differing The Craigmillar Housing Area Board was established in 2004. Including representatives values and priorities of the community. from resident organisations, local councillors, officers from service groupings, it is seen Putting the community at the heart as an essential part of the overall strategy for the area. One benefit for residents was the of the process provides a wealth of ability to hold pre-meetings at which officers and councillors were excluded. “Then we knowledge and insight. But difficult can prepare and go in properly informed. We have a good understanding of what we decisions require strong leadership. want to get out of the meeting. I don’t think there has ever been a vote and priorities are (CABE, 2004: 3) agreed amicably” (Interview, resident representative).

Resident involvement should incorporate Case study all residents and schemes should Tenants and Residents of Ardler (TARA) incorporate a collective association, The Ardler Steering Group was made up solely of tenants and residents who were creating opportunities to act as a pressure actively involved in the masterplan process. Resident involvement has continued with group with a common interest in service the Ardler Village Trust (see above), which is involved in non-housing aspects and TARA, improvements and facilities. which is the sole resident and tenant organisation (RTO) and has regular liaison with Sanctuary (Scotland) Housing Association (SSHA). TARA is an active tenants group that However, consultation processes may vary works on behalf of all Ardler Village residents in tackling local issues; meetings are open and again it is important to be ﬂexible to all Ardler Village residents. It runs regular fundraising Bingo nights and activities for about the kind of approaches offered. pensioners. There is also involvement in community networks and structures, such as For example, large public meetings may the Community Safety Panel, and it has been involved in seeking funding to convert a not always be appropriate where they redundant building into a village hall. A key objective for the association is the integration are likely to be dominated by vociferous of new residents regardless of tenure. individuals and narrow interests. It may be preferable to talk to small groups of

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tenants and residents individually to gain Case study a sense of their wishes and aspirations. Those responsible for managing schemes Local housing management in Crown Street should be encouraged to support New Gorbals Housing Association (NGHA) is a community-based housing association residents’ associations in a variety of formed in 1989 by a group of local residents. Key to its success was its local profile in the forms. Gorbals area, allied to a strong focus on regeneration and design quality. “NGHA is only interested in New Gorbals – no one else is in that position, other partners are just passing One clear finding from the research through” (Interview). This local profile was central to its management approach: “where is that community involvement is the local housing association is well known and integrated, the likelihood of success is crucial at the outset. The earlier the that much greater”. Local management was strengthened by a committee with a majority consultation mechanisms are in place of residents on the board with assets owned by the local community. The board was and decision making is devolved the described as: greater opportunities there are to develop trust and loyalty among the different … raising the bar in terms of standards. They [the board] hold things very dear participants. As one resident commented: and have experience of what went wrong in the past. The committee embraced “Consultation cannot come soon enough” regeneration and there were strong expectations that things would be managed (Interview). properly. You will notice how little graffiti there is….

Further guidance can be obtained from Communities Scotland, which has the resident proﬁle; common standards published ten national standards for in maintenance, repair, and improvement community engagement that can be used services; service charges; managing anti- to develop and support better working social behaviour; and in establishing relationships between communities and neighbourhood agreements. agencies (www.communitiesscotland.gov. uk). The Scottish Centre for Regeneration Nomination agreements and has also published an online ‘how to’ allocation policies ‘Guide to community engagement’, which The allocations policies of social landlords sets out a range of techniques that can be may have a key role to play in determining used to work with communities (www.scr. the sustainability of local areas. The policy communitiesscotland.gov.uk). of creating mixed income communities is Partnership in designed precisely to avoid concentrations management of deprivation and this objective will arrangements be undermined if the policy of the social landlord is simply to provide One of the main components of accommodation on the basis of the greatest management effectiveness in mixed need. “Local housing professionals income neighbourhoods is that there should reject strategies that explicitly are robust partnership arrangements concentrate the most economically with commonly agreed and understood deprived households on certain estates in arrangements. These should include order to ‘cluster the problem’” (Berube, principles for: determining a balance in 2005: 51). At the same time, there may be

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conflicts between social landlords, who are A first step may be to reach mutual interested in the longer-term sustainability nomination agreements between local of neighbourhoods and local authorities authorities and partner RSLs (see below); with statutory duties to house homeless there should therefore be “a clear protocol families, whose priority is to reduce about new developments in particular” numbers on their housing register. These (Interview, RSL manager). Thus in order conflicts should be accepted as inevitable to avoid negative stereotyping, social dilemmas that do not have easy answers. landlords need to provide accommodation Nevertheless, a number of mechanisms for a wide range of age groups, avoiding can be used in order to minimise concentrations of young children in one difficulties. tenure. Agreements will vary according to local need, demand and conditions, One of the main tensions may be between but it is important that all parties are the local authority statutory duty to meet represented in the process of drawing up housing need through homelessness the nomination agreement and that this is provision and the landlord’s desire to clearly understood. manage a stable community. As Holmes (2006) maintains, the fact that landlords A second step may be for landlords to are housing vulnerable tenants should not establish local lettings plans and to establish in itself be seen as a sign of failure. “The targets for neighbourhoods: for example, opening up of council housing to more of the number of single-parent families and the poorest households was a desirable child densities. “Our view is that you get and overdue change” (Holmes, 2006: 197). better management if you actually plan However: who you house”, as one RSL manager commented. The housing of more low income tenants would not have been a problem One of the key difficulties in mixed if council homes had been integrated neighbourhoods is when social housing within neighbourhoods of owner is occupied to the maximum by families occupied and privately rented housing. with children and by home owners who It became a serious problem because under-occupy their property. While there single tenure estates housed only low are resource considerations, particularly income, predominantly non owning in high-demand areas, social landlords tenants, and so created neighbourhoods could consider under-occupation of of concentrated poverty. certain properties, for example, by making (Holmes, 2006: 197) offers of properties with spare rooms and allowing for adult-only households Given this situation, how can the tension in some circumstances (Andrews and between allocation according to need and Reardon Smith, 2005: 7). These local the requirement to develop sustainable lettings policies may appear problematic communities be resolved? in areas of severe housing need and in such circumstances landlords will need to consider other alternatives, such

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Case study Craigmillar Allocations Agreement The Allocations Agreement was signed by the Craigmillar Regeneration Forum, the Craigmillar Neighbourhood Alliance, City of Edinburgh Council, Manor Estates Housing Association and the Kintry Partnership. The Agreement contained a wish list of ten items, identifying problems and recommending solutions and action points. The following items were identiﬁed as priorities:

■ highly trained staff

■ plain language information

■ up-to-date information

■ lettings plans

■ involvement in allocations

■ local information involved in discussions about vetting of aims and objectives of the community and ■ vetting and probationary tenancies new residents and probationary tenancies, the council are identical; we both want ■ voids standards it was recognised that these would only this to be a better place”. The process ■ monitoring allocations be used in very limited circumstances. offered regular and relevant dialogue ■ anti-social behaviour. Residents expressed positive views on and “an insight into council staff and their involvement; one maintained that how difficult their job was”. Work on the The result was a ‘sensitive lettings’ “the process was as important as the neighbourhood agreements had helped policy avoiding inappropriate lettings outcome” and another commented on to foster a better relationship between the (for example, people with conflicting a “fantastic process”. The main benefit local authority, landlords and residents, one lifestyles). Although residents have been was that residents came to see that “the “where people did not feel intimidated”. as the provision of ‘keyworker’ and Landlords should pay attention not simply ‘intermediate’ housing to increase social to the first letting but also to subsequent mix or projects to boost local employment. allocations. Therefore a third step may be that landlords should regularly conduct In particular, lettings policies should not neighbourhood profiling schemes. They need discriminate against particular individuals to be aware of differing needs and desires on the basis of their past behaviour, for of communities and should be able to example, including broad categories of collect accurate information about their applicant that will be excluded (Scott et al., neighbourhoods. 2000; Somerville, 2000).

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It is essential to understand the social and economic fabric of neighbourhoods, in order to determine and tackle the root causes of problems and not just the symptoms. (CABE, 2004: 3)

Landlords should collect information at an early stage. “Housing agencies should consider using estate proﬁles that map the characteristics of tenant applications against potential destination neighbourhoods to maintain a more balanced estate character” (Berube, 2005: 52). Lettings policies should not just be limited to single estates but “across the housing and neighbourhood spectrum” (Berube, 2005: 52).

Communities are dynamic and income Case study profiles are likely to fluctuate; housing professionals therefore need to see Maintenance in New Gorbals neighbourhoods as long-term investments: New Gorbals Housing Association (NGHA) has developed a strong reputation for “We have taken a long-term approach; providing high quality factoring services with responsibility for common areas, staircases, these people have got to live on our back courts, grass cutting, cleaning, cyclical maintenance and common repairs. In estates for the next ten or twenty years. providing a management service that was “locally-based, accessible and accountable … So we will fight our corner” (Interview). you see people out and about on the street” (Interview), and contrasting with traditional These principles should equally apply to private sector factoring services based in the city centre. Factoring was provided to social private developers and they should be and private residents with NGHA acting as property managers of public and common encouraged to view their developments as land. The organisation benefited from what was referred to as the ‘synergy of mixed long-term investments. tenure’; for example, undertaking landscaping contracts where work was carried out in both rented and owner-occupied properties and generating what were described Common standards for factoring as “massive economies of scale”. In practical terms this allowed a community-based services housing association to employ someone five days a week, rather than one or two days It is important that landlords are able as with most private sector organisations. Savings were then passed on to tenants. In to address factoring, maintenance and addition this allowed ‘joint walk-arounds with residents and block representatives’, where repair problems quickly to avoid stigma problems could be identified and effective action taken to resolve repair and maintenance becoming associated with socially rented issues swiftly. properties. As one local authority officer commented: “Generally the local authority does things to the minimum standard and the challenge is to raise the game”

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(Interview). An effective factoring policy is essential across developments to ensure that there is no distinction between public and privately owned properties.

Landlords may employ private management companies to assume responsibility for common parts within properties and external communal areas. These arrangements can help to generate more uniformity of service rather than having many different management arrangements carried out by a range of service providers. Maintenance responsibilities should include:

■ effective procedures for reporting repairs (both major and minor)

■ commitment to the swift maintenance Case study of amenities and facilities, for example Kids in the Street (KITS): street football for all children’s play areas The City of Edinburgh Council initiated a scheme to provide mobile sports facilities to

■ a decision on whether to outsource young people in the Craigmillar area. The scheme includes a mobile four-a-side football maintenance responsibilities pitch that is dismantled and put in a trailer. It is used during the summer every day in ‘hot-spot areas’. The scheme is seen as very successful in engaging young people and ■ effective and uniform arrangement for providing a well-structured environment to engage in team sports. Local police reported landscaping and gardening a signiﬁcant decrease in youth disturbance when the football pitches were being used.

■ common procedures for refuse Other projects have included a youth cinema, funding for a project worker for youth disposal and recycling facilities. inclusion and a designated bonﬁre zone on the 5th November.

Partnerships in managing a view that owner-occupiers will perceive anti-social behaviour the majority of anti-social behaviour from As mentioned above, one of the central residents of affordable housing properties. challenges in managing a mixed income However, evidence from our case studies community is the need to avoid negative suggests that complaints can arise from stereotyping about the behaviour the behaviour of residents of all tenures. of residents and the management of the socially rented properties. The In order to avoid negative stereotyping, management of anti-social behaviour landlords need to adopt a ﬂexible represents one of the key challenges in response, including appointing a named mixed income communities. There may contact person from the outset of a be mutual suspicion between tenures and scheme, with the ability to resolve conﬂicts

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Case study between residents. An important principle that have a particular bearing on mixed is to ensure that landlords create places tenure, high density schemes. These Community safety concierges in “where people might report anti-social challenges include: Craigmillar behaviour and where people feel they can The City of Edinburgh Council has piloted report anti-social behaviour” (Interview). ■ a differential quality of service community safety concierge schemes provision between owners and tenants to assist with a range of landlord While landlords have the opportunity ■ the affordability of costs and charges duties, including: noting breaches to offer Short Scottish Secure Tenancies of tenancy conditions; carrying out (SSSTs) to applicants with a history of anti- ■ tenure segregation estate inspections; monitoring empty social behaviour and to grant SSSTs on ■ resentment between owners and properties; and undertaking minor satisfactory behaviour, it is recommended renters, particularly where owners repairs. In addition the concierges have that such powers are only used in perceive themselves to be subsidising a role in patrolling estates, assisting exceptional cases. services for affordable housing. with crime prevention measures and observing and reporting low-level In guidance produced on tackling What practical steps can be taken to anti-social behaviour. They also help anti-social behaviour on mixed tenure resolve these difficulties? Possible with organising the Christmas ‘drop’. estates in England (ODPM, 2003b), the solutions include: Concierges are able to identify who use of Crime and Disorder Reduction properties belong to and can find out Partnerships is advocated to: ascertain ■ Ground rents that are payable by quickly who the housing officer is. the nature of the problem; to develop all residents and collected by a They play a valuable role in community multi-agency partnerships; and to engage charitable trust. These can be used to development and in managing common residents to build community capacity. subsidise certain services for social areas as their responsibilites are not Within mixed income communities it is rented tenants. The advantage of limited by tenure or ownership. Seen as important that interventions should not this arrangement is that it creates a ‘the eyes and ears of the council’ the be limited to particular forms of tenure freeholder dedicated to the sustainable concierges work closely with the police, and landlords should review their use of management of the site. other landlords and the local community Acceptable Behaviour Contracts (ABCs) on crime prevention programmes. In and Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (ASBOs) ■ Developers can subsidise service costs developing a relationship of trust within to ensure they are utilised effectively. for social rented tenants through the local communities, the concierges are planning gain system. The imposition trained to collect concrete information Partnership arrangements and of service charge limits may encourage and to act as professional witnesses. service charges tenure segregation or unsustainable They have attended masterclasses in Service charges represent a particular approaches to apportioning charges acting as witnesses and have checklists difficulty for mixed income schemes. between market and affordable for evidence gathering. The scheme Private households have tended to housing residents; development has been described by officers as consume services based on their desire proposals should be “underpinned “imaginative and proactive”, “not and ability to pay, whereas social residents by sustainable arrangements for another kind of traffic warden” and “far have been limited by the constraints of delivering affordable charges” from a council snitch”. the Housing Benefit system as well as by (HACAS Chapman Hendy, 2004: 58). the issue of affordability and discouraging dependency on benefits. A number of problems and challenges can be identified

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■ RSLs can contribute from within encourage local authorities to use planning their margins or by offsetting subsidy contributions for affordable housing against identified savings/efficiencies; and direct impact mitigation. Further there may be scope for allowing issues for government policy include: housing providers to use Housing Association Grant to offset costs of ■ Service costs should be considered as services; RSLs should be involved in part of overall scheme costs and not scheme development at the earliest as a separate, self-financing revenue stages in order to consider the cost- cost; “current approaches to financing effectiveness and sustainability of service charges undermine rent policy management arrangements proposed and compromise the affordability for new developments. of gross rents” (HACAS Chapman Hendy, 2004: 45). ■ Providing higher levels of Housing Association Grant above subsidy levels ■ Policy should encourage local typically required to support planning authorities to ensure planning gain to reflect the costs of essential contributions are used effectively to high density amenities. support the whole costs of affordable housing provision, taking account ■ Local authorities can use subsidy of the costs of servicing high density to limit charges (using powers to communities. provide financial assistance) or through adoption of public areas Neighbourhood agreements such as parks, roads and play areas, Neighbourhood or estate agreements can “where local authorities insist on the be used to combine a mixture of formal provision of public realm within new resident involvement and informal schemes (such as parkland) but will arrangements (Steele et al., 1996; Cole et not consider adoption they may be al., 2000). A central principle should be to undermining the scope for delivering ensure a sense of uniformity across service affordable housing” (HACAS areas: Chapman Hendy, 2004: 48). We are looking at how we are going to Planning authorities, developers and unify our estate management in the housing associations therefore need to future.… What we want to achieve is work together to examine the range of a single service across all tenures; we mechanisms available to control service don’t want to be bowing down to the charges. As discussed above consistency needs of shared ownership, assuming in management for residents of all tenures they are more important people. We is crucial; there should be effective joint want to agree a common set of service management solutions ‘tailored to the standards; the same people responsible demands of high density living’ (Source: for services so everyone on the estate is HACAS Chapman Hendy, 2004, p.6). aware of whom to contact and to deliver In broader terms the Barker Review in a single level of service. England (2004) included a proposal to (Interview)

81 4 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING PARTNERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION

Case study The Craigmillar Bon Accord Project This project was intended for residents to identify key areas of service improvements and for these to be formally negotiated between residents and local service providers. The Kintry Partnership took an ‘open’ approach to issues that should be included that eventually involved housing, street cleansing, education, policing, youth work and advice services. The agreements outline responsibilities in a written document involving a voluntary contract, which, although it has no legal status, is regularly monitored by a working group. Formal neighbourhood agreements have included: housing allocations (see above); community safety and anti-social behaviour; estates; and open space management.

Neighbourhood agreements are While there may be some scepticism dependent on an understanding of the about the ability to enforce agreements, it wider housing market, including the is acknowledged that formal agreements private rented market (an often neglected are required to ensure high quality estate aspect of managing mixed income management. communities): Estate agreements provide a basis for There needs to be a more direct these and should apply to residents engagement with the management and property owners in all tenures. In of the private rented sector, and the particular there is a need to incorporate impact of a large amount of privately private landlords within this to insure rented housing on new estates. Private against potential problems of absentee landlords along with other owners, landlordism which may undermine the should be required to enter into long sustainability of estates. term agreements related to standards (Rowlands et al, 2006: 62). of management and maintenance of property, and these compacts can form part of a wider neighbourhood management arrangement. (Rowlands et al., 2006: 62)

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Wider structures value activities or Wider Role services Case study for partnership and such as providing amenities and facilities participation and ensuring effective education, health, Carr Gomm 24-hour supported security and other community support living In order to sustain more successful and services. In conjunction with New Gorbals balanced communities, mixed income Housing Association, Carr Gomm schemes need to pay close attention to Education initiatives should be given Housing Association has instituted a broader social and economic features priority as the importance of high quality system of supported assistance to enable of neighbourhoods. This need will be local schools is an essential feature of residents over the age of 65 to remain particularly applicable to newly developed sustainable community. Schools are seen within their own homes. The scheme large schemes. The sustainability of an as a crucial indicator of confidence in a avoids the need for residents to move area is on not only contingent existing community and are particularly important into residential care, or for partners housing provision but also depends on to ‘newcomer’ families. Confidence to separate due to care requirements. wider amenities and facilities. A number building can be undertaken through Providing services for ‘managing your of ‘golden rules’ for mixed income community outreach and involvement in money’, ‘maintaining your house’ and communities have been formulated. These pre-school childcare. ‘keeping well’, the initiative provides include: round-the-clock assistance for residents Where new schools are needed, they who would otherwise be unable to cope ■ area policies need to go hand in hand with require careful inter-agency planning, with their tenancies and ensures that the labour market policies including consideration of pupil community remains diverse in terms of ■ incentives should be targeted on those most composition, and links between school age profile. likely to move into the area, that is, the and housing allocations. young and highly skilled without children (Silverman et al., 2005: 73)

■ the quality of schools is critical to location. In areas of high unemployment an (Meen et al. 2005: 64) effective partnership to generate employment opportunities should follow A successful scheme will have the ability from training schemes. Partnerships with to “provide links between public agencies local businesses and voluntary agencies to deliver effective schools, childcare, to provide employment opportunities play facilities, public spaces, community can assist in avoiding a situation where work and neighbourhood management” a distinction in economic activity occurs (Silverman et al., 2005: 74). The factors between owner-occupiers and social needed for longer-term sustainability rented tenants. include partnership and participation arrangements for training, education and Partnerships in health care are also vital employment initiatives. to ensuring sustainability. These might include the establishment of local health Training opportunities represent a clinics and participation in decisions about particular challenge and are essential to health care provision from health workers, capacity building within mixed income including community nurses, GP services schemes. Landlords may wish to consider and psychiatric services. partnership opportunities that offer added

83 4 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING PARTNERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION

Case study Ardler urban ranger scheme The urban ranger scheme is designed to support the regeneration process by engaging the community in local projects. The work of the ranger is coordinated by a steering group of local residents. The aim of the ranger is to enable the community to realise its natural heritage, involving care for wildlife and supporting projects that enhance the local environment. The urban ranger promotes understanding and awareness of the local environment. The urban ranger initiative supports environmental projects but also involves broader issues such as litter, vandalism, safety and sustainability.

The urban ranger provides support for the Ardler in Bloom horticultural project, supported by Greenspaces Scotland established in 2004. It involves running a local gardening competition encouraging residents to take pride in their environment and to grow plants. The project emerged from a group of local residents and was seen as a way of encouraging residents to take pride in their environment, many of whom had gardens for the ﬁrst time. The aim was to promote gardening as an enjoyable activity as well as emphasising the beneﬁts of health, fresh food, wildlife and the environment. It aims to provide green spaces as places to enjoy and to promote communal activity, creating a sense of pride and local ownership among residents. Ardler won the ‘Beautiful Scotland in Bloom’ award for the best urban regeneration scheme in 2005 and 2006.

In addition, landlords should consider Despite the difﬁculty of ensuring social environmental improvements to their area cohesion and mixing between groups, and develop projects that can assist an effective arrangement for partnership residents to engender a sense of ownership and participation will be a key factor in and local pride in their area. assisting the sustainability of a mixed income scheme. Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that some of the expectations Conclusions relating to social cohesion may be This chapter has shown how effective unrealistic. As one resident commented: partnership and participation arrangements can build on the principles I don’t think there is a huge amount of of effective design, a clear vision and mixing between the two [groups] … robust strategies for success. The crucial it’s very difﬁcult because it’s how you point is that these approaches must go dispel the resentments of those who hand-in-hand; the neglect of one will have don’t have quite as much as someone a serious impact on the others. The key else who is living near them … that’s issues to consider are: always a problem. (Interview) ■ negotiating and agreeing decisions about neighbourhoods in a spirit of shared understanding

■ clariﬁcation of responsibilities and lines of communication from the outset

84 4 GOOD PRACTICE IN DELIVERING PARTNERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION

■ acknowledging the importance of a Case study local management presence in the long term Gorbals Arts Project Gorbals Arts Project is a locally based ■ recognising the added value offered by scheme that is committed to producing resident participation and community involvement local artwork in the ﬁeld of arts-led community-led regeneration. It provides ■ ensuring that decision making is tuition and a workshop for local people equitable, robust, transparent and and works with other local agencies to ﬂexible produce artwork that gives a sense of ■ demonstrating a commitment to pride and ownership in their local area. tenure neutrality and commonality of Projects have included children involved standards in pebble mosaic murals and designing

■ joint agreement and regular review entrance gates for new-build apartments. of allocation policies; neighbourhood proﬁling to take place on a regular basis to ensure mix targets are maintained

■ attention to the affordability of service charges and their distribution between tenures

■ a clearly understood and jointly agreed strategy for tackling low-level crime and anti-social behaviour.

5 Recommendations and challenges for the future

Introduction 88

Developing national policy guidance 89

Integrating funding mechanisms to achieve high quality mixed development 90

Engaging the private sector 90

Setting up collaborative arrangements between stakeholders 90

Ensuring development strategies are robust but ﬂexible 91

Setting up strategic management systems 93

Developing fair and equitable allocations priorities 93

Sustainability 94

Conclusions 94 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

Introduction of being mixed, will not experience the levels of deprivation seen within some This guide has addressed the issue of neighbourhoods where unemployment how to develop mixed income sustainable and poverty, poor educational outcomes communities, drawing on both case and poor health have combined to reduce studies and recently published research on life chances. mixed income communities.

Evidence from our case studies in All the evidence suggests that, while there Scotland and England, as well as from are many similar policy, financial, design Bournville (Groves et al., 2003) and the and management considerations that need Recommendation 1 estates discussed by Allen et al. (2005), to be addressed, very different market Mixed housing development should suggest that clear objectives and careful conditions, housing needs and factors be seen as part of the place-marketing management can produce successful relating to scale and location will affect process where people are attracted to outcomes. It is also clear that there is the approach that should be adopted in buy or rent out of choice rather than enormous variation in practice, in terms of individual cases. necessity, where quality and commercial developing these communities, and some values are enhanced for both households variation in the extent to which developers While there are many mixed income and the wider community, and by and public bodies have embraced the communities in Britain, particularly in applying policies that are fully integrated notion of sustainable mixed communities. cities, most have developed organically into wider economic development On the other hand, a clear strategy, the as a result of past housing policies (for strategies. pooling of resources and a well-integrated example, through municipalisation), small partnership approach demonstrate what in-fill developments, or the introduction can be achieved. of owner-occupied housing into existing estates. New mixed developments should not only create housing of choice that people The difference in the recent attempt from all income groups actively choose to develop mixed income sustainable to live in, but should also include the full communities is that it requires a strategic range of facilities and services as well as and integrated approach that engages becoming assets that increase in value all stakeholders in what is now called to both the occupants and to the wider ‘place-shaping’. It is propelled by national community. New housing development housing and planning guidelines with the also has an important role to play in specific aims of reducing concentrations of integrating employment opportunities, poverty and unemployment, and giving including training opportunities and lower-income households access to higher attracting creative and innovative people. quality services found in mixed areas.

There is a recognition that mistakes have Through inserting public housing into been made in the past, both in private private developments or by developing and in public sector housing, and many private sector housing on existing housing of these lessons have been taken into estates, the intention is to achieve socially consideration in developing these new cohesive communities that, by virtue communities. It is generally accepted that

88 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

the rapid development of council housing in the 1950s and 1960s led to the building of some estates that were isolated from city centres, lacking services and facilities and with poor transport provision – places that were difﬁcult to let and difﬁcult to live in, and had an adverse effect on the lives of their inhabitants (Power, 1987; Morris and Winn, 1990). Page (1993) argues that the development of housing association estates in the 1980s replicated similar mistakes to those made by local authority landlords. For example, poor design and inadequate attention to management, maintenance and allocation policies resulted in high child densities and concentrations of low income and vulnerable groups. At the same time, private sector developments of relatively low cost housing for sale have been built without adequate services or facilities Residents should be able to participate fully in all stages of the development process. nearby.

housing needs assessments, development In the following section we discuss a agreements and other mechanisms be number of challenges that remain to applied? How can high quality design of be addressed if high quality mixed housing, other services and the external development is to become the norm rather environment be incorporated through than the exception. the masterplanning and commissioning Developing national policy process? guidance National policy needs to provide clear The starting point should be clear policy objectives to all stakeholders without guidance from central government on appearing to be over-prescriptive, while the broad policy objectives. This should enabling innovative, locally relevant provide clear answers to these questions: proposals to be carried out. There should what are the benefits of socially and also be greater convergence between economically mixed developments? What the objectives of the Scottish Executive, good practice exists in different locations Communities Scotland, local authorities and in different contexts? Which financial, and housing associations so that all are planning and development tools offer using their various powers and financial the best prospects for success? How and resources to achieve an agreed set of in which ways should planning briefs, objectives in conjunction with local

89 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

Recommendation 2 communities. There is also a good case diversification of a large, inner-city council for Communities Scotland playing a estate compared with constructing a National guidance setting out the promotional role in setting up a number new development on a greenfield site. arguments for mixed developments of demonstration projects that set new It is essential that each area has as much needs to be clearly stated, relevant to all standards of quality and sustainability, autonomy as possible to devise the best locations and agreed between leading to which others can aspire. Also, in approach to suit local circumstances. agencies. If demonstration projects are addition to publishing policy guidance, to be selected, special attention should national agencies should sponsor teams Engaging the private be paid to the dissemination of best of experts in finance, delivery structures sector practice. This would be enhanced by and masterplanning, which could provide There are many examples of innovative sponsoring teams of experts to advise advice and guidance at the planning stage approaches being developed by the others in the early stages of planning of development. major housebuilders, and many have on finance, delivery structures and demonstrated a willingness to work masterplanning. ‘Place-shaping’ implies a Integrating funding closely with local authorities, housing joined-up approach to planning, delivery, mechanisms to achieve associations and other agencies in order to the integration of facilities, services and high quality mixed deliver successful mixed developments. management. development Others have proved more resistant to There are currently many public change and are less willing to work Recommendation 3 funding streams that contribute towards with local authorities and RSLs and As part of the national review of policy, the delivery of integrated housing to apply innovative solutions to the consider how effective and integrated developments. At present, responsibilities planning, design and financing of their delivery vehicles can be established in are spread between a number of national developments. A clearer national policy each area undergoing development in agencies, local authorities and city-wide framework and a more positive planning order to encourage maximum integration housing associations, and local delivery response to high quality developments of funding streams, partnership working vehicles such as community-based may encourage more private sector and management practices. Also, housing associations, CPPs and URCs. developers to adopt the standards of consider which delivery vehicles are most the best. Housebuilders and developers appropriate in different contexts. The successful management of mixed should also be encouraged to see their developments also requires the integration role not so much as short-term capital Recommendation 4 of powers and working practices of a investment but as a major contributor large number of agencies. All the evidence to the development and enhancement The housebuilding industry and from Scotland suggests that an holistic of value in the long term. This might be developers should be encouraged approach brings real benefits to residents achieved through land ownership and to see themselves as part of a wider and quite possibly cost savings and profit-sharing arrangements. partnership with the common goal of economies of scale. successful place-shaping. They should Setting up collaborative be encouraged to take a longer-term An important issue to be reviewed is arrangements between perspective towards the creation and whether different types of area and stakeholders enhancement of attractive places where location require different solutions values are maximised for all residents and Evidence from our case studies suggests and funding mechanisms. Clearly the wider community. that, increasingly, new development the processes of intervention and on both brownfield and greenfield sites development are very different in the is being provided by a broad range of

90 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

agencies and stakeholders. Very often it is authorities where relevant), health Recommendation 5 the local authority that provides strategic authorities and other providers, the In planning a new mixed development, guidance through the preparation of police authority and local retailers and the two primary considerations should local housing needs assessments and employers to ensure that all services are be the delivery structure that determines local development strategies. RSLs and capable of delivering quality services the organisational and financial private developers are then selected and when new residents move into the area. arrangements agreed between the a complex negotiation process is entered partners and the design process. into about the financing, mix, phasing There also needs to be more emphasis and allocation and sales of the housing, on the delivery structures whereby infrastructure and other uses. Increasingly, stakeholders agree at an early stage the the provision of health, community, financial arrangements, performance shopping and other facilities are being criteria, distribution of risk and reward integrated into development plans. over time and longer-term management arrangements. We argue that these This process often takes many months, considerations are as important as the and in many cases several business masterplanning process but this is not and masterplans have to be produced always fully appreciated by housing before a viable solution is finally agreed associations and local government. that is acceptable to all parties. There Specialist advisers offer this service is a strong argument for encouraging at risk (this incurring no cost until the greater dialogue between stakeholders development is approved) and also around fundamental issues of land provide advice on the tax implications assembly, tenure mix, density, layout and of particular collaborative arrangements. integration into the wider urban context The margins saved from effective financial in a particular locality or local authority planning can often be used to improve area so that the broad strategic context facilities on the development or to increase is agreed before sites come forward for the proportion of affordable housing. development. It is also essential that a lead agency is identified early on that is able to Ensuring development coordinate the others by agreement. The strategies are robust but lead agency might well vary in different flexible situations according to which has the It is inevitable that over time local housing resources to provide leadership and which market conditions, and levels of need, has a long-term commitment to delivering will change. Once development is under a scheme of the highest quality. Innovative way it is essential that the consortium of financial arrangements, as demonstrated stakeholders is able to remain committed by Promoting and Regenerating to the original vision underlying the Craigmillar (PARC) in Edinburgh, could development, but is also able to make be applied more widely. adjustments to the mix, density, range of house sizes and other factors in order These partnerships should also engage to ensure that the development remains with other service providers such as attractive to all categories of resident. local schools and colleges (and education

91 The presence of young children often encourages stronger links between different tenure and income groups.

The viability of a development is a crucial used, for example, in terms of room sizes, factor. Viability is a concern to the private the provision of facilities and energy- developer that will be primarily concerned saving adaptations, can significantly with the costs and potential saleability increase the long-term sustainability of a of a development. Thus in inner-city and development. central area developments, developers Recommendation 6 tend to favour one- and two-person units Thus if national policy is to encourage The range of sizes of housing units which, they argue, are more commercially greater provision of family-sized units and the tenure mix may be influenced attractive and produce a higher rate of in inner and central area developments, by a number of factors relating to return. there will need to be adjustments in the assumptions about the commercial provision of affordable housing and viability of the development and existing Developers will be particularly committed contributions to infrastructure. This raises commitments to re-house former to smaller units if they are also asked wider issues such as the extent to which residents. Wherever possible developers to provide a considerable proportion of lower to middle-income families can be should be encouraged to include the full affordable units as part of a Section 75 persuaded to move back into inner and range of housing types, including family Agreement. Viability is also an important central locations (Silverman et al., 2005). housing. Public sector funding should issue for housing associations that are also be used as flexibly as possible to constrained by limitations of the Housing ensure all housing needs are provided for. Association Grant. Increased flexibilities in the ways in which public funding can be

92 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

Setting up strategic Recommendation 7 management systems Proposals for establishing responsive local management systems need to be devised at the The case studies demonstrate the beginning of the planning process and should cover both public and private housing and importance of ensuring ﬂexible and robust external spaces, where appropriate. The level of service charges for all tenures should be management systems that effectively carefully considered. incorporate inclusive partnerships (regardless of tenure). The principle of tenure neutrality must underpin the Recommendation 8 approach to a sustainable mixed income Existing residents should play a full part in the planning of developments and also have an community. On this basis schemes important role to play in contributing to management systems on completion. Agencies should adopt a uniformity of approach to should work closely with local forums and neighbourhood councils, funding should management, to avoid stigmatisation and be identiﬁed for special projects to promote active involvement in training, sport and to ensure that common areas, facilities and leisure to reduce anti-social behaviour, and the role of community-based trusts should be amenities are maintained to a high quality. considered. Concierges have an important role to play as contacts between residents and This neutrality should also apply to the statutory bodies. administration of service charges. The case studies in Chapter 4 illustrate a number Recommendation 9 of successful management arrangements between stakeholders and local residents. Sensitive allocations agreements and resident and tenancy agreements need to be established at an early stage so that all residents are aware of their rights and While considerable attention has been responsibilities towards creating a successful community. Powers to control anti-social devoted to the affordability of rent behaviour should be used only with the consent of residents and as a last resort. levels in new schemes, this debate about affordability has to date tended to ignore most affected by decisions taken (that is, the impact of service charges (particularly the residents themselves). Support for within high density schemes). This issue community development trusts, as in requires attention at a government level Ardler, and arrangements for effective through the Treasury’s proposals for a participation, must be a prerequisite in the PGS, at the planning stage (for example, planning of any mixed income community. in considering local authority adoption of public space) and in negotiations between Developing fair and service providers (whether public, private equitable allocations or voluntary sector). priorities In any development it is important The focus on effective partnership to establish an effective balance arrangements must not only include between management imperatives service providers but increasingly service and a commitment to meeting a wide users. The most effective schemes in spectrum of need, particularly in high the case studies were those that were demand areas. However, it is essential able to incorporate a range of views, that households in the greatest need demonstrating not only a leadership role (including vulnerable groups) are not but also the capacity to include those disadvantaged by the demands of

93 5 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

Recommendation 10 sustainability. This will require a sensitive Therefore, all the arguments in favour approach to local lettings policies, and of creating mixed income communities All agencies engaged in housing flexible arrangements to ensure there is become of even greater importance. provision should adopt the place-shaping not an over-concentration of children or a approach that takes full account of the disproportionate number of people with Conclusions physical, environmental, economic and special care and support needs where All the evidence suggests that successful social aspects of achieving sustainability. resources to meet these needs may be mixed tenure and income developments limited. can be achieved as part of a wider commitment to creating attractive, There is evidence from many serviced and well-connected places to developments that, despite the live. This guide has focused on drawing commitment to creating fully mixed out the best practice from both the case communities (by age, gender, ethnic studies and written sources. A great deal origin, disability, income level and family of evidence exists for ‘what works’ but this size), there are a number of formal and is not always immediately accessible to the informal selection processes in operation practitioner and best practice is not always for social tenants, intermediate tenures widely disseminated. Our perspective and owner-occupiers. These may relate has been that the housing development to a tenant’s rent paying record, criminal process is extremely complex, involves record or other personal circumstances. In many stakeholders over long periods the case of owner-occupiers factors taken of time, and that successful outcomes into account could include previous place require vision, imagination and a sound of residence and local family or other understanding of local conditions. connections. These methods of allocation and selection need to be reviewed to While the principles of mixed income and ensure that the broad principle of social tenure developments are becoming more and income mix is being adhered to and firmly established in national and local that they are non-discriminatory. policies, our final plea is that these should not be taken for granted or treated as Sustainability national standards to be applied uniformly Considerations regarding the and without detailed consideration. If sustainability of housing development there is one message to arise from this are rapidly emerging as a new and report it is that the ‘right’ decisions need important priority for housing to be made at each stage of the process development. Communities Scotland’s – planning; designing; agreeing the draft sustainable development policy distribution of risk, responsibility and (2006) has substantially advanced this reward; development and long-term process. Sustainable development relates management. All have implications for not only to the physical fabric of housing each other and fundamental decisions but also to the location, travel patterns, made early on are very difficult, and accessibility to jobs and facilities, and expensive, to change at a later date. viability in social terms as a community.

94 Appendix I: The evidence base for mixed income developments

A good place for children? Attracting led. Concludes with recommendations on Housing management practice in and retaining families in inner urban tenure mix for key stakeholders. Scotland: Review of progress mixed income communities S. Scott, H. Currie, J. Dean and K. Kintrea E. Silverman, R. Lupton, and A. Fenton Economic segregation in England: (Central Research Unit, Scottish Executive, (CIH and JRF, 2006) Causes, consequences and policy 2000) Evaluates four new, inner-city housing G. Meen, K. Gibb, J. Goody, T. McGrath, Two reports that provide comprehensive developments to find out how far families and J. Mackinnon coverage of the major issues relating with children occupy the private housing (JRF, 2005) to housing management practice and and what motivates them to live there. Examines the social and economic trends consider examples of good practice among on three mixed tenure estates to determine Scottish social landlords. Approaches to community governance: what the key drivers are and whether Models for mixed tenure communities tenure changes are sustainable. Concludes Homes for Scotland’s people: A Scottish M. Knox, D. Alcock, A. Roderick, and J. Iles with eight policy recommendations for housing policy statement (The Policy Press and JRF, 2002) achieving tenure mix. Scottish Executive Considers governance mechanisms in (Scottish Executive, 2005) various neighbourhoods, to identify Factors in common: How local Sets out the housing strategy for Scotland models of local involvement that could be authorities manage properties in mixed with a strong commitment to addressing applied to mixed tenure areas. ownership in Scotland disadvantaged neighbourhoods and F. Russell and J. Welsh creating mixed communities. Allocation of land for affordable (Scottish Consumer Council, 1998) housing through the planning system Looks at ways local authorities can most Hulme ten years on: Draft final report – Research findings effectively manage properties of different to Manchester City Council Scottish Executive tenure types that share common parts. Centre for Sustainable Urban and Regional (Scottish Executive, 2006) Futures (SURF) Reviews alternative approaches and Good practice in housing management: (University of Salford, 2002) suggests good practice in allocating land Case studies, conclusions and An evaluation of the redevelopment of for affordable housing in Scotland. recommendations Hulme from the 1990s onwards. S. Scott, H. Currie, S. Fitzpatrick, M. Challenging perceptions: Case studies of Keoghan, K. Kintrea, H. Pawson and J. Tate Improving the understanding of the dispersed and mixed tenure new build (Central Research Unit, Scottish Executive, influence of owner occupiers in mixed housing 2000) tenure neighbourhoods C.L. Andrews and W. Reardon Smith T. Beekman, F. Lyons, and J. Scott (Sovereign Housing/The Housing (Scottish Homes, 2001) Corporation, 2005) A review of mixed developments in Evaluates in depth four recent mixed Scotland that finds generally positive tenure developments that are developer- outcomes of mixing in terms of local

95 APPENDIX I THE EVIDENCE BASE FOR MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

services, educational performance, skills Mixed tenure twenty years on – internal design of homes, and the quality and employment and perceptions of the Nothing out of the ordinary of the external environment are also area. C. Allen, M. Camina, R. Casey, S. Coward important. and M. Wood In the mix: A review of mixed income, (CIH and JRF, 2005) Neighbourhoods and communities mixed tenure and mixed communities Examines the experiences of strategy R. Tunstall and A. Fenton professionals, adults and children in three The Housing Corporation (The Housing Corporation/English neighbourhoods that were created as (The Housing Corporation, 2006) Partnerships/JRF, 2006) mixed tenure communities over 20 years Encourages housing associations in Reviews the evidence base for achieving ago. These have produced what residents England to consider their wider role in social, economic and environmental see as ‘ordinary’ communities with very fostering neighbourhoods and promoting objectives through mixed communities. little tenure prejudice. mixed communities in the areas in which they operate. Living together: Community life on More than tenure mix: Developer and mixed tenure estates purchaser attitudes to new housing People and place: Regeneration policy B. Jupp estates statement (Demos, 1999) R. Rowlands, A. Murie and A. Tice Scottish Executive Explores the social aspects of mixed (CIH and JRF, 2006) (Scottish Executive, 2006) tenure housing and concludes that social Explores the arguments that mixed tenure Describes Scotland’s strategy for inter-mixing is more likely to take place developments are difﬁcult to deliver, successful regeneration – the lasting in schools and streets. Tenure mix is not developers are unenthusiastic about them transformation for the better of places and a particularly important issue for most and that people buying new homes do not communities. residents. want to live on mixed estates. Performance management in local Managing housing voids Neighbourhood agreements in action: A authority housing services: An empirical Audit Scotland and Communities Scotland case study of Foxwood, York view (Audit Scotland and Communities Scotland, I. Cole, E. McCoulough and J. Southworth H. Pawson, H. Currie, A. Currie, W. Hayhurst 2004) (JRF, 2000) and J. Holmes Considers good practice in ensuring that Examines the use of ‘estate contracts’ (Communities Scotland, 2004) social landlords keep empty properties to or neighbourhood agreements as a way Considers the evidence for ways in which a minimum. of promoting resident involvement in local authorities are attempting to improve management. Such agreements can offer their managerial performance. Mixed communities in England: A US greater transparency, accountability and perspective on evidence and policy more effective resource allocation. Planning Advice Note 74: Affordable prospects housing A. Berube Neighbourhoods that work: A study of Scottish Executive (JRF, 2005) the Bournville estate, Birmingham (Scottish Executive, 2005) A comparative study of mixed R. Groves, A. Middleton, A. Murie and K. Sets out guidance to local authorities and communities in the US and UK that Broughton others on how the planning system can demonstrates that the reduction of (The Policy Press and JRF, 2003) increase the supply of affordable housing. neighbourhood effects of mono-tenure Demonstrates that tenure mix is just one estates is an important objective. aspect that promotes attractive, well- designed places to live. Schools, the

96 APPENDIX I THE EVIDENCE BASE FOR MIXED INCOME DEVELOPMENTS

Rebalancing communities: Introducing Sustainable development policy: Draft Towards a strong urban renaissance mixed incomes into existing rented for consultation Urban Task Force housing estates Communities Scotland (Urban Task Force, 2005) G. Martin and J. Watkinson (Communities Scotland, 2006) Sets out the Task Force’s current (JRF, 2003) Sets out a draft strategy and action assessment of urban policy and makes Reviews the experience of registered plan for promoting the sustainability recommendations on ways to promote the social landlords (RSLs) that have taken in all aspects of housing, community quality of design in growth areas such as some initiative to rebalance tenures on development and other policy areas the Thames Gateway. single-tenure estates. Also evaluates the within its remit. Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust’s SAVE Towards an urban renaissance Programme in York. The effectiveness of estate agreements: Urban Task Force A new arrangement for tenant (E. and F.N. Spon, 1999) Safer places: The planning system and participation Detailed investigation into all aspects crime prevention A. Steele, P. Somerville and G. Galvin of urban policy together with over 100 Llewelyn-Davies (University of Salford, 1995) recommendations. Well designed, high (ODPM/Home Ofﬁce, 2004) Advocates the use of estate agreements to density mixed communities are strongly Sets out good practice in designing increase resident involvement in housing advocated. out crime as part of the broader aim of management. Involving both formal and achieving housing quality and sustainable informal arrangements the agreements are Visionary leadership in housing communities. ﬂexible and jointly negotiated covering M. Simpson, R. Lucas, B. Blackaby and S. standards of service and future priorities. Davis Scottish Planning Policy 3: Planning for (CIH/LGA, 2005) housing The urban design compendium Argues that a renaissance of the local Scottish Executive Development Department Llewelyn-Davies authority’s strategic housing role is (Scottish Executive Development (English Partnerships/The Housing needed that is different from the past Department, 2003) Corporation, 2000) and makes recommendations for a Sets out guidance to local authorities One of the best good practice guides new national framework to deliver this on housing in relation to the statutory to improving the quality of design in a enhanced role. planning system. variety of urban contexts. A major section deals with improving the layout and What price sustainability? Keeping Sustainable communities: Building for integration of new housing into its wider service charges affordable in mixed the future context. tenure high density developments ODPM HACAS Chapman Hendy (ODPM, 2003) The theoretical basis for addressing (Moat Housing Group et al., 2004) Sets out the government’s strategy for poverty through mixed-income Explores ways of limiting service charge improving the quality and the supply of development costs for affordable housing residents in housing in England. M.L. Joseph, R.J. Chaskin and H.S. Webber mixed tenure developments. (Urban Affairs Review, 47 (3), 2007) Examines the theoretical foundations and evidence on which is built the rationale for mixed income development as a strategy to confront urban poverty, drawing on mainly US sources.

97 Appendix II: Case studies

Ardler Village, Dundee Ardler Village Trust, the main focus for was mainly explained by the demolition community involvement. programme). Ardler is located on the outskirts of Dundee. It was built between 1965–74 as A demolition programme carried out A range of methods for engaging with an estate of 3,000 dwellings incorporating between 1995 and 1997 left 1,500 dwellings communities was deployed including six high rise blocks of one- and two- and just two of the six high-rise blocks structured interviews, Planning for bedroom flats and several four-storey remaining, together with the four-storey Real, Group Priority Search, and blocks and inter-linked maisonettes. blocks, and a failing shopping centre. The large-scale household surveys. DCC The estate was built to a courtyard very high cost of refurbishment and the recognised the need to enhance the design, with flat roofs, and uninsulated rising demand for better quality housing capacity of local people, to build strong cavity wall construction contributing (in part, propelled by developments being community networks, and for “a range to condensation problems. The core of carried out by local housing associations) of opportunities to accommodate the estate was the Ardler complex that meant that wholesale or partial stock different levels of involvement” (Dundee included a community centre, a library, transfer was considered but DCC was Partnership, 1996: 14). a clinic, a small shopping centre and two aware of the need for economic and social primary schools (one Roman Catholic, one change as well as physical improvements. A project coordinating committee was non-denominational). In 1996, the complex established that invited expressions of was described as “an intimidating and However, the estate was well looked interest in January 1998. Seven expressions negative focal point in the centre of this after and received favourable ratings in of interest were received. These were estate” (Dundee Partnership, 1996: 4). surveys done prior to the redevelopment. presented to the residents at daytime An area profile of the estate in 2000 stated and evening meetings, and development In the mid-1990s, Dundee City Council that, “the Ardler estate is dormitory in officers knocked on doors to engender (DCC) determined to improve the character, comprising mostly high-rise and interest. estate that was suffering from high deck access housing built in the sixties, turnover, unpopularity, high levels with associated educational, community In May 1998, detailed submissions of social deprivation, rising levels and commercial facilities. There is were invited from the four short-listed of unemployment (as a result of the considerable provision of parking areas consortia, and the assessment was carried closure of local factories in 1970s) and in the estate which, given the low level of out by DCC, Communities Scotland and a continuing population decline. Local car ownership, lies unused and desolate” the Ardler community. In September 1998, authority-led housing and social strategies (Geddes Centre for Planning Research, Sanctuary Scotland (SSHA), Wimpey and have been assisted by the funding 2000: 2). Hunt Thomson Associates (now HTA) provided through Priority Partnership were selected as the preferred developers. Areas, the Social Inclusion Partnership Between 1991 and 2001, the population of The year 1999 was a year of negotiation (SIP) and a New Housing Partnership. the core area decreased by 65%, compared and SSHA used it to engage with the local The community has played an integral to a decline of 2.7% in Dundee and an community. The original plan had been to role with the Ardler Steering Group, now increase of 1.3% in Scotland (the former keep one or two of the four-storey blocks

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but tenants opposed this. It was finally the Ardler Village Trust was set up with Association. At the time it was estimated agreed that there would be wholesale the aim to promote social, economic that the ERCF grant would access a further demolition, excluding 73 low-rise and community regeneration alongside £30 million from the RSL and £30 million properties on the edge of the estate, mostly physical regeneration. The Trust is a of private investment for housing and because it was better quality housing but company limited by guarantee with commercial uses. The £46.6 million from also because 50% had been sold under the charitable status and has six directors the ERCF was to be used to demolish right to buy (RTB) and owners wished to representing the local community. Core at least 900 substandard properties and remain at that time. funding comes from Sanctuary (Scotland) included £4.48 million to go towards open Housing Association (£25,000 per annum space and community projects. In December 2000, a stock transfer ballot for seven years from 2003), European took place and had a turnout of 87.5%, Regional Development Fund (£15,000), The assumptions underlying the with a ‘yes’ vote of 95.5%. The stock and Communities Scotland (£30,000 for development strategy were that densities transfer (1,467 units) was completed in three years). would be increased, mixed uses would be December 2001. introduced and private housing would be Attwood Green, constructed to balance the already high The building work on phase 1 began Birmingham levels of social housing (in excess of 80%). in 2002; 147 new homes for rent were Attwood Green is the new name for Lee The housing department carried out a completed by 2003, together with 40 Bank, Benmore, Woodview, Cleveland, feasibility study that recommended that sheltered flats, the refurbishment of 48 Clydesdale Towers and the Five Ways at least 1,200 units could be built in the properties, and landscaping. Works on Estate lying to the south of Birmingham area. The better quality housing would be phase 2 began in 2003. city centre. The estates were almost retained and refurbished and the worst entirely in council ownership and were would be demolished. Crest Nicholson These homes were allocated during uniformly residential, apart from three Residential (Midlands) was the developer April 2003, and tenants who received an local shopping centres, a health centre and they signed an agreement with allocation were invited to attend a tenant and three schools. A large proportion Optima and the council. Most of the site choices surgery to choose their colour of people were benefit-dependent, car has been transferred from the council to schemes, kitchens and bathrooms for their ownership was low and at least 65% of Optima and a profit-sharing arrangement new homes. Tenants who were allocated school children were eligible for free is in operation with Crest Nicholson. homes in this phase moved into their new school meals. Although many of the flats Proceeds go into the local infrastructure homes during November and December were in high-rise blocks, they were set in and services. 2003.. a ‘parkland’ setting with large amounts of open space. The main focus of the redevelopment is By November 2006, 693 houses for rent the former Lee Bank Estate, which is being were completed, and 47 new houses In December 1997 the council submitted marketed as Park Central. TM2 architects for rent were on site. The final phase, a bid for Estates Renewal Challenge Fund were commissioned to prepare a revised predominantly housing for sale but (ERCF), based on the assumption that it masterplan and, after a split in TM2, including 50 houses for rent, is to follow would be transferred to an RSL. In 1998 Gardner Stewart is the sole architectural the demolition of the last multi-storey the government approved the bid and practice for the scheme. From the block in early 2007. offered a grant of £46.6 million conditional proposed seven stages of development, on a ballot of tenants held in 1998. Tenants the first three completed are at an average In 2003 the Ardler Village Housing voted in favour of the transfer to a density of 155 housing units per hectare. Committee was established with tenants/ newly formed RSL, Optima Community The proposed uses on the 24-hectare Park residents in the majority. Also in 2003, Central site are:

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■ 14 commercial units, two process and to prepare a masterplan for These affordable properties comprised: supermarkets, one hotel and a the site. Guinness Trust was selected as the multipurpose community centre RSL. Tandridge District Council granted ■ 75 social rented flats and houses outline planning approval in June 1999 ■ 1,596 one-, two- and three-bedroom ■ 19 shared ownership flats with the proposals delivered through a private apartments, 622 with parking six-phase programme for completion in ■ eight single person units for ‘move on’ spaces 2006. accommodation ■ 78 affordable apartments, 31 with ■ a 60-bed nursing home for Anchor parking spaces The 57-acre site was purchased on the Trust basis of a draft development brief that ■ 250 social rented houses with gardens proposed employment and recreation uses ■ a single dwelling for five disabled ■ 77 two-, three- and four-bedroom and only a small amount of housing. The persons. private town houses developer (Linden Homes) considered this was too restrictive and the planners and Many of the original buildings have been ■ 147 affordable town houses developers took the decision to consult re-used. There are open spaces, mature ■ eight live/work units. the public again, “with the intention of trees and extensive landscaping. There involving the community much more are numerous facilities and amenities, Attwood Green is a mixed development fully in the decision making process, and including: a Tesco supermarket, a nursing in terms of uses and tenures. Much of the of securing council support for a broader home, a cricket pitch, health club, skate better quality housing has been retained scheme”. park, a GP, a vet, a small business with new development facing onto the centre (enterprise hub), a restaurant and main roads and a newly landscaped The masterplan for the site had two proposals for a separate arts centre and park in the centre of the development. main aims: first, to apply the principles further sports and leisure facilities. Attwood Green was the overall winner of of an urban village to create a balanced the Deputy Prime Minister’s Award for community with a mix of uses. Second, Craigmillar, Edinburgh Sustainable Communities in 2005. to create a sense of place through high Craigmillar is a large peripheral estate to quality design, incentives for new the South East of Edinburgh and is made Caterham Village, business, the provision of low cost up of four main neighbourhoods: Caterham, Surrey housing and community facilities, and The development is close to Caterham the preservation of historic buildings and ■ Niddrie Mains and Niddrie Mill on the Hill, 20 miles south of London, heritage. The scheme was substantially (North) close to the M25. It is seven miles from completed in 2003. The site comprised a ■ Niddrie Marischal and Niddrie House Croydon and 15 miles from Gatwick total of 366 housing units (70% of which (South East) airport. Caterham Village was originally were two- and three-bedroom properties) developed as an army barracks at the end plus 24 sheltered housing units and 60 ■ Craigmillar Castle and town centre of the 19th century. Two-thirds of the 57- units provided from the conversion of (West) acre site was designated as a Conservation the original buildings. A total of 102 units ■ Greendykes (South) Area in 1996 and the site was bought from were affordable housing properties (27.5% the Ministry of Defence in 1997 by Linden of the total). The Guinness Trust was also The area has a good range of shopping, Homes. John Thompson and Partners closely involved in the initial planning health and community facilities but were commissioned in January 1998 decisions and in the agreement that 27.5% in the late 1970s and early 1980s the to instigate a community participation of the properties should be social housing. area experienced a steep decline,

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with depopulation, high levels of The physical outputs include: 3,200 new Grahame Park, North unemployment, low demand, physical homes (including 2,600 for sale). These London decline and a range of social problems. homes will incorporate a mix of houses Situated in Colindale in the London The area was heavily dependent on and flats. Thirty-three per cent will be Borough of Barnet, the Grahame Park mining and brewing, both of which closed family housing; one new community Estate was originally developed in 1910 in the 1960s and 1970s. The area is the high school; three new primary schools, as an airfield and aircraft factory. The fourth most deprived in Scotland. with a fourth if needed; a new library; first housing was built in 1968. The estate a new public park and public realm; comprises 1,777 properties – of which The regeneration proposals are designed internal parks and play areas; and a new 1,365 are council owned and 412 are to address development over a 10 to 15- reconfigured town centre with 300,000ft2 privately owned – together with 13 retail year period. Mixed tenure and integrated office, retail and leisure space. units, in a site containing over 18 hectares neighbourhoods were seen as a key strand of open space. of the proposed regeneration programme. Other outcomes include improved access A key feature of the proposals was that to employment and education. There are Grahame Park is part of a larger existing residents would have a ‘right six key regeneration themes: a regenerated regeneration programme in the Colindale of return’; up to 60% are expected to town centre; economic development area. The estate adjoins a vacant hospital take advantage of this. There is a strong including job and local business site and a metropolitan police centre, both community in the area, described as a key opportunities; education and lifelong of which are due for redevelopment. The ‘infrastructure of support’, with extended learning; opportunities and facilities for neighbourhood also forms part of four family networks based on four to five young people; improving access and comprehensive regeneration schemes previous generations. The major areas of movement; and the area a destination of in the borough. The other estates are redevelopment and new building will be choice. Cricklewood (5,000 homes), West Hendon in Niddrie Mains and Greendykes. The (which will increase from 600 to 2,100 aim is to increase the population from The regeneration strategy is being homes), and Stonegrove Spur Road at around 7,500 in 2004, to approximately promoted by PARC (Promoting and Edgware (which will increase from 600 to 15,000. Regenerating Craigmillar); one of 1,375 homes). three Pathfinder Urban Regeneration The proposals are designed to ensure Companies (URCs) in Scotland. The City The regeneration scheme originated compliance with the Craigmillar Urban of Edinburgh Council established an in 1999 with an acknowledgement by Design Framework and the council arm’s-length property company (EDI) the local authority that the estate was wanted to avoid large concentrations of and both bodies jointly own PARC. This failing and an estimate that repair and deprivation. The council is keen to mix allows access to private capital funding maintenance work would cost around £80 aspirations and the business plan. One that would not otherwise be available. Of million. This development of 2,800 homes objective is to avoid urban sprawl and the total budget of £400 million, PARC has is an exclusively private-led scheme, have medium density housing. raised £160 million, the Scottish Executive comprising 42% affordable housing, of £18 million and a further £200 million is which 16% is for social renting, 8% for The target is to develop 33% family anticipated from housing associations and shared ownership and the remainder housing; this is to be a mix of houses/flats commercial developers. comprises what is termed a ‘discount of varying heights. There is an overall market’ (for example, entry point workers’ target for affordable housing of 20–25% studios). The developer, St George, is (including rented and low cost home constructing properties within the price ownership). range of £190,000 for one-bedroom flats

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to £370,000 for two-bedroom penthouse Finance for the regeneration of Grahame located on the border of Hulme where it apartments. Park was primarily to be achieved joined Moss Side. Following that, efforts through surpluses raised by the sale of would be made to attract major new In 2001 architects Levitt Bernstein were over 2,000 properties. A key feature of commercial employers into the area. commissioned to produce a masterplan the development is that no government with the intention of providing around grant is available, so new housing must The first phase of Hulme’s regeneration 3,000 properties and to reverse the tenure be built for private sale to pay for the new was managed and funded through the mix, so that the proportion would be development as a whole. The total cost City Challenge programme that provided approximately one-third social rented to of the scheme is anticipated to be in the £35.5 million of government grant. Other two-thirds privately owned. A consortium, region of £400 million. public sector monies were also directed called Choices for Grahame Park, was towards Hulme with funds from the set up in 2002. Two housing associations Hulme, Manchester Department of Transport, the regional are involved (Genesis and Notting Hill Hulme is a neighbourhood in South East health authority and the European Housing Trust). An interim partnership Manchester, less than a mile from the city Commission. By the end of the City board was established in 2003 comprising: centre. The area went into decline and Challenge programme in 1997 the public Choices for Grahame Park, Countryside between 1962 and 1972 underwent major sector had committed £65.3 million Properties plc, residents’ representatives redevelopment, when all the terraced to the area. The development process and local authority members and officers. housing was bulldozed and replaced was aided by securing a private sector by 5,000 new dwellings. The majority partner, the construction company AMEC, Outline planning approval was gained in of these were deck access and Hulme early in the bidding process. Two RSLs, September 2004; local authority approval was renowned for being Britain’s largest Northern British Housing Association and of the terms of the regeneration and system-built estate. Hulme suffered the Guinness Trust, were appointed as the first demolitions took place in 2005. from many of the problems of modern development agents. Building work is due to continue until council housing estates of that period. 2015. The scheme involves the following: The multistorey crescent blocks presented By the end of the City Challenge huge problems in terms of management, programme, 3,016 units of unfit council ■ phased demolition of 1,300 homes were hard to let and suffered from housing had been demolished, 874 and community buildings and the structural problems. council dwellings had been improved, construction of 3,000 new mixed and 1,000 housing associations units had tenure homes in a traditional street In 1991 the council owned 91% of the been completed. Only 214 private sector lay-out land and 98% of the housing properties. dwellings had actually been finished but 1,151 were expected to be complete by ■ replacement of old concourse with Diversification of tenure and the 1999. This included 564 student flats and new village green and shops introduction of a private sector housing market was a key priority. In order to 48 privately rented flats. Bellway was the ■ reprovision of major community make the area attractive for private sector first of the private developers to build in facilities including library, community development, it was recognised that all Hulme. Moss Side and Hulme Partnership centre and nursery day centre the crescents had to be demolished first was set up in 1997 and funded by Single Regeneration Budget (SRB), Capital ■ new civic and retail centre and replaced with new, high quality social Challenge and European funding. Over complementing a private sector housing. Following the introduction £400 million of private and public sector development at RAF East Camp of new private sector housing the programme would move on to replacing investment has been levered into the area. ■ 5,000 new homes to be constructed by the district shopping centre, which was By July 2001, over 2,000 new homes for 2012. sale or rent had been created in addition to

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three new public parks, the formation of a Kings Hill, West Malling next stage. The site also accommodates new business and office development site, an 18-hole golf course, an ASDA store, a West Malling in Kent is seven miles a new bridge and a new ASDA superstore. retail development, which includes cafes, from Maidstone, and about 75 miles The ongoing development of Hulme is restaurants, hairdresser, beautician, estate from central London. The Kings Hill now being overseen by the council-led agents, building society, a medical centre, development began with the building of a South Manchester Regeneration Team. a campus of the University of Greenwich, business park on the former airfield in the two primary schools and a day nursery. late 1980s. The development is described Rebuilding the city: A guide to development as “a quality mixed use development in Hulme was published in 1994. This Kings Hill provides a range of house of approximately 263 hectares with guidance amplified the masterplan that set types from apartments to detached family outline consent for 185,805m2 of office out an overall development framework. homes, affordable housing and a variety and business space, and approximately The guide suggests that Hulme should of urban forms including high density 65,032m2 occupied by over 100 businesses, not be redeveloped as a series of suburban development in the central area. It also with a residential community with consent style ‘estates’ or enclaves but that it should has housing that provides the opportunity for 2,600 homes – 1,390 are now occupied form a seamless web of streets and spaces to accommodate differing housing needs and around 354 under construction”. that integrate Hulme with its hinterland and to create a diverse community, for and the city centre. The density was set example, accommodating the needs of The development partners are Liberty at 75–87 dwellings per hectare. Mixed the elderly, single-person households and Property Trust Ltd (formerly Rouse Kent), uses were proposed together with the lower-income families. The average site Kent County Council and Russet Homes. re-instatement of Stretford Road as the density is 30 houses per hectare. Described as a collaborative public/ high street through the northern part of private partnership, the development Hulme. A lower level of car usage was New Gorbals, Glasgow began in the late 1980s. The masterplan envisaged and the principle of fronting was developed by Rouse Kent Ltd using In the 19th century the Gorbals was a high dwellings onto the street to promote an local architects Clague. According to density, tenemented neighbourhood lying urban character with ‘natural surveillance’ www.buildingforlife.org, the original close to the southern bank of the River was upheld. The design guidance also masterplan was superseded and this Clyde. The Crown Street Regeneration made proposals with regard to energy resulted in the removal of all cul-de- Project was formed in 1990 made up sustainability, visual identity and the sacs and the road layout becoming more of a partnership between the Glasgow provision of a ‘legible’ street pattern. organic. In addition, the development was Development Agency, Glasgow City The guidance allowed for considerable required to have a village centre in order Council, Scottish Homes and the local variation between blocks and in fact to meet the requirements of the local plan. community. The long-term aim of the encouraged innovation. Because of the project was to make the Gorbals an phasing, the tenures are disposed in Phase 1 of the residential development attractive area where people wanted different grid blocks throughout Hulme, was completed in 2005; phase 2 (the final to live in a balanced and sustainable with some larger tranches of RSL housing, anticipated phase) will complete by 2011. community, to boost the local economy as in the Guinness Trust’s developments One hundred units of affordable housing and to integrate the new development into that are outside the main area of Hulme. are located in five phases around the site the social, economic and physical fabric of The SURF report (2002) notes that Land with another 150 (out of 750) projected the city. Registry figures demonstrate that the for the next stage of the development. average increase in property prices The mix was 50% for rent, 50% shared The urban design competition was won between 1998 and 2001 was higher (49%) ownership in the first stage and will be by CZWG Architects who worked closely in Hulme than in Greater Manchester as a 75% rent, 25% shared ownership in the with residents to develop the masterplan. whole (29%).

103 APPENDIX II CASE STUDIES

The aim of the masterplan was to (NGHA). These developments together there was a priority purchase scheme create high quality housing for a mixed created two new street blocks (Ballater where discounts were offered to potential community, to promote the full range of Gardens and Errol Gardens) and also purchasers with local connections. services and jobs, and to ‘stitch’ the new included eight new ground floor shops Approximately a third of owners used development into its urban context. The fronting Crown Street. A competition in this scheme. Portable discounts of £10,000 masterplan proposed almost 1,000 new 1994 for phase 2 was won by Tay Homes are also available to previous council houses: 75% for sale, 25% for rent; a new with Hypostyle Architects and included tenants who want to purchase in the area. business centre; a new local shopping 70 homes for sale and 44 socially rented Research by the city council shows that centre based on the former Crown Street; houses provided by NGHA. property prices in the New Gorbals have a budget hotel; some small local office risen faster than the Glasgow average. The accommodation; student housing; light The Crown Street Regeneration Project NGHA is expecting to play a major part in industrial units; and a new local park. partnership has been replaced by the the development of Laurieston to the west NGHA as the main implementation of New Gorbals. The original vision of the masterplan has agency. The NGHA has also taken on a been successfully maintained with most wider role in managing and developing The Ocean Estate, East development being carried out in a built housing in four other adjoining areas: London form that recreates the traditional Glasgow Hutchesontown, Gorbals East, Queen Ocean Estate, built between 1949 and tenement. In most cases the squares are Elizabeth Square and Waddel Court. 1960, is located in central Stepney less designed as a single entity with one side of In total 1,157 private units have been than a mile away from the City and a square development being constructed completed or are proposed compared Canary Wharf. It houses 6,500 people in as social housing and the other three sides with 715 socially rented units and 31 2,000 homes, of which 1,400 are in local in private ownership. The central court is in shared ownership. In addition, 1,015 authority ownership. Around 400 homes landscaped and is shared by all residents. homes are rented from the Glasgow have been purchased under the RTB and A number of new parks and leisure Housing Association (GHA), 57 are the balance is managed by RSLs. The facilities have been integrated in the area. owned through the RTB from GHA, 618 layout and design of the estate together have been modernised by NGHA, 230 with inadequate maintenance, infestation The masterplan proposed dividing the have been acquired through the RTB and overcrowding have created many area into manageable development from NGHA and 40 are privately rented. problems, some of which are: lower packages for phased release. Each package This indicates that a total of 2,348 units health standards, difficulties in learning at is procured through developer/architect are socially rented out of a total of 3,863 home coupled with low self-esteem, fear competitions based on detailed urban homes – approximately 61%. Different of crime and high levels of drug abuse. design briefs and fixed land prices. In the tenures are integrated in the New Gorbals High rates of unemployment and poor early stages developers bid for a subsidy developments on a block basis with performances at school are among other from the Scottish Development Agency in normally one side of a four-sided square deprivation indicators. The Ocean Estate order to make the development viable. The being socially rented. has been the subject of several attempts first phase of the development began in at regeneration, most recently under the 1992 and was carried out by two consortia: In the early phases a subsidy was available New Deal for Communities (Ocean NDC), Miller Partnerships with the Holmes to the developer of private housing in but it remains one of the most deprived Partnership (architects) and Wimpey the form of GRO grant provided by neighbourhoods in England. Homes with Cooper Cromar Associates the Scottish Development Agency. This (architects). Two further packages was a form of gap funding to bridge the The development partners are London involved 61 houses for rent constructed difference between development costs Borough of Tower Hamlets, local by the New Gorbals Housing Association and sales value. Also, in the early phases

104 APPENDIX II CASE STUDIES

residents, Ocean NDC, Sanctuary Housing include more private housing (714 units), the affordable and special needs housing Association (SHA), together with lead requiring further amendments to the and three private developers were consultants PRP architects and Frost masterplan. involved in the private housing. Associates. The Government Office for London and the Office of the Deputy The Ocean Estate currently accommodates Royal Quays was developed as a Prime Minister (ODPM) were consulted a high proportion of residents from mixed use scheme with new homes, to determine the recommended option minority ethnic groups and has high levels jobs and leisure facilities to uplift the as the proposal went through phases of of unemployment and ill health. The estate economy and the environment in an area amendments to reach a financially viable contains a wide variety of housing sizes spreading beyond the site. The project one. The business plan, developed by PRP and types, from pre-war walk-up flats to was completed in 1998 at a cost of £260 architects and Frost associates describes high quality town houses with gardens. million. The development progressed the masterplan as “a realisable financial The site includes a canal that fronts onto alongside extensive community model in which all stakeholders can have the recently renovated Mile End Park. If development activity and confidence confidence and to ensure the support the regeneration plan is implemented, building, providing mixed tenure of residents, public and private sector much will depend on young single and housing, leisure facilities in Wet’n’Wild, funders”. The business plan will only two-person households being attracted a Morrisons factory outlet, a shopping become operational after council tenants to the area because of its proximity to the centre, and industrial floorspace providing vote in favour of the stock transfer to SHA. City of London and Canary Wharf. This employment and training opportunities The ballot was held in the summer of 2006 will enable much-needed improvements for local people. and a majority of residents voted against to be carried out to the social rented the transfer. housing through redevelopment and The unique topography forming a refurbishment. Leaseholders will be giant amphitheatre around the Albert A total of 659 rented homes in 47 blocks required to fund improvements to their Edward Dock was one of the major site will be refurbished to Decent Homes own properties. opportunities for the development. Two standards and 440 affordable rented and parks, Chirton Dene and Redburn Dene, 103 leaseholder homes in 15 blocks will Royal Quays, North Shields have been created around this, and both be demolished. The new build will be for The 80-hectare Royal Quays development are popular with residents and visitors. 440 new affordable rented homes, 103 new in North Shields is on the north bank There are 1,200 new homes, 300 of which homes for affordable home ownership and of the River Tyne. With the decline of are affordable housing for rent and shared 714 new homes for private sale to diversify traditional industries in the area land ownership developed and managed by tenure and to provide a cross-subsidy. on the banks of Tyne and Wear became Homes Housing Association. The special Under the original masterplan produced derelict, alongside severe economic needs housing is developed to meet in 2002, 748 flats were to be demolished problems. Tyne and Wear was exhibiting Lifetime Homes standards and is managed and replaced with 1,150 new homes with many aspects of decay at the time with by Habinteg Housing Association. 190 new homes for private sale. However, little business investment. Tyne and Wear The balance of 900 private homes was the business plan for stock transfer Development Corporation (TWDC), a developed by three developers, Leech, proposal indicated that an additional government-appointed body, was the key Cussins and Bellway Homes. The houses subsidy of £115 million was necessary partner responsible for the development to vary in design and size, ranging from that the ODPM could not support. The regenerate 2,428 hectares of land alongside bungalows, flats and terraced houses to objectives for the project had to be revised 30 miles of the Tyne river bank. EDAW detached homes. again in order to achieve Decent Homes acted as masterplanners for the scheme. standards. The balance of affordable and Homes Housing Association developed The densities are around 30–40 units private housing also had to be changed to per hectare with the social housing at

105 APPENDIX II CASE STUDIES

the lower end of this range. The initial EDAW to bring forward the area as an Servite Houses has 14 properties for market for the private development was example of how large-scale development shared ownership distributed throughout identified as being at the cheaper end of projects can adopt sustainable principles the site. the market. Phase 1 of the scheme proved of urban growth”. to be successful with rapid sales of homes, The developers for site B are Fairclough contrary to the national housing market The requirements for the development Homes and Cornhill Estates; Leicester trends at the time. Subsequent phases are stated in the design code as Housing Association is the RSL. Plans attracted developers willing to build “achieving social diversity (critical mass, for site C have been approved. The houses for the middle and upper ends of diverse dwelling types and tenure mix, development is being carried out by the market. indistinguishable affordable housing, Cornhill Estates at a density of 35 mix of uses, area wide integration); dwellings per hectare. Upton, Northampton environmental sustainability (BREEAM Upton is situated in the designated south excellent, SUDS); long-term biodiversity west development area of Northampton, (enhance local ecology); local identity and forms the first phase of the local plan (distinctive local character); liveability proposals for the area which will include (accessible public transport, well- 5,000 homes, 280,000m2 of industrial connected open space network, legible space, a country park and associated design, resident management) … [with a] services and facilities. Upton is on a 43- range of dwelling types to suit people of hectare greenfield site owned by English different incomes and at different stages of Partnerships. It has outline planning their lives”. permission for up to 1,200 homes and 280,000m2 of industrial space. A total of 400 homes have planning consent and around 200 have been The key agencies involved are: English completed. Of these, 22% will be Partnerships as the landowner, ‘affordable’ (for rent and shared Northampton Borough Council as the ownership). These are pepper-potted in planning and housing authority, EDAW the development with no more than three that leads a consortium to produce the social housing houses together and no masterplan, and The Prince’s Foundation. more than four social housing apartments Upton is divided into eight sites, “varying next to one another. in size and development capacity so that large and small developers can participate Shenley Lodge Developments (now in the process”. When a developer tenders Paul Newman Homes) was selected in for the work on each site, they must November 2003 as the preferred developer identify an RSL partner and both then for the first 3.7-hectare development work with the Upton Working Group to site (site A). The site has just over 200 bring the plan to fruition. This process homes, including a mix of higher density is described in the following terms: “the townhouses and apartments as well as land is owned by English Partnerships, semi-detached and detached homes and working with Northampton Borough includes 22% of affordable homes. The Council, The Prince’s Foundation and private housing is in three courts, Ashby, Brixworth and Kirby Row (92 properties).

106 Bibliography

Allen, C., Carmina, M., Casey, R., Coward, Design coding in practice: An evaluation, Dundee Partnership (1996) PPA1 Ardler, S. and Wood, M. (2005) Mixed tenure, London: The Stationery Office. Kirktown, Mid Craigie, Linlathen, twenty years on – Nothing out of the Hilltown, Dundee: Dundee Partnership. ordinary, Coventry and York: CIH and Berube, A. (2005) Mixed communities in JRF. England: A US perspective on evidence EDAW et al. (2005) Upton design and policy prospects, York: JRF. code (Version 2), London: English Andrews, C.L. and Reardon Smith, W. Partnerships, Northampton Borough (2005) Challenging perceptions: Case CABE (Commission for Architecture and Council and The Prince’s Foundation. studies of dispersed and mixed tenure the Built Environment) (2004) Creating new build housing, London: Sovereign a successful masterplan: A guide for Egan, J. (2004) Skills for sustainable Housing/The Housing Corporation. clients, London: CABE. communities: The Egan Review, London: RIBA Enterprises. Atkinson, R. and Kintrea, K. (2002) ‘Area Carmona, M. and Dann, J. (2007) ‘Design effects: what do they mean for British codes in England: what do we know?’, Geddes Centre for Planning Research housing and regeneration policy?’, Urban Design Quarterly, 101, pp.17–20. (2000) Ardler area profile, Dundee: European Journal of Housing Policy, 2 (2), University of Dundee. pp.147–66. CIHS (Chartered Institute of Housing Scotland) (2006) The future for social Groves, R., Middleton, A., Murie, A. and Atkinson, R. and Kintrea, K. (2004) renting in Scotland: Discussion paper, Broughton, K. (2003) Neighbourhoods ‘Opportunities and despair – it’s all Edinburgh: CIHS. that work: A study of the Bournville in there: practitioner experiences and Estate, Bristol/York: The Policy Press/ explanations of area effects and life Cole, I., McCoulough, E. and Southworth, JRF. chances,’ Sociology, 38 (3), pp.437–55. J. (2000) Neighbourhood agreements: A case study of Foxwood, York, York: JRF. HACAS Chapman Hendy (2004) What Bailey, N., Haworth, A., Manzi, T., price sustainability? Keeping service Paranagamage, P. and Roberts, M. Communities Scotland (2003) Regenerating charges affordable in high density mixed (2006) Creating and sustaining mixed communities – Wider Role policy tenure development, London: HACAS/ income communities: A good practice statement, Edinburgh: Communities Chapman Hendy. guide, Coventry/York: CIH/JRF. Scotland. Hamilton-Baillie, B. and Jones, P. (2005) Barker, K. (2004) Delivering stability: Communities Scotland (2006) Sustainable ‘Improving traffic behaviour and safety Securing our future housing needs, development policy: Draft for consultation, through urban design’, Paper 14014, London: The Stationery Office. Edinburgh: Communities Scotland. Proceedings of ICE, Civil Engineering, 158, pp.39–47. Bartlett School of Planning and Tibbalds Planning & Urban Design (2006)

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HM Treasury (2005) Planning-gain Morris, J. and Winn, M. (1990) Housing Scott, S., Currie, H., Fitzpatrick, S., Kintrea, Supplement: A consultation, London: The and social inequality, London: Hilary K., Pawson, H. and Tate, J. (2000) Good Stationery Office. Shipman. practice in housing management: Case studies, conclusions and recommendations, HM Treasury/ODPM (Office of the NRU (Neighbourhood Renewal Unit) Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, Deputy Prime Minister) (2005) (2006) ‘Masterplanning and designing Scottish Executive. Extending home ownership, London: The mixed communities’, 4th Mixed Stationery Office. Communities Learning Event, 12–13 Scottish Executive (2001) Designing June, Liverpool and Knowsely DCLG. places: A policy statement for Scotland, Holmes, C. (2006) A new vision for housing, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive. London: Routledge. NWSCT (Northern Way Sustainable Communities Team) (2006) The North’s Scottish Executive (2004) Affordable housing Jones, C. and Murie, A. (2006) The right residential offer: Policy and investment review, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive. to buy: An analysis and evaluation of a review, London: Ove Arup & Partners housing policy, Oxford: Blackwell/RICS. and Innovacion Ltd. Scottish Executive (2005a) Homes for Scotland’s people: A Scottish housing Joseph, M.L., Chaskin, R.J. and Webber, ODPM (Office of the Deputy Prime policy statement, Edinburgh: Scottish H.S. (2007) ‘The theoretical basis for Minister) (2003a) Sustainable Executive. addressing poverty through mixed- communities: Building for the future, income development’, Urban Affairs London: ODPM. Scottish Executive (2005b) Planning Advice Review, 42 (3), pp.1–41. Note 74: Affordable housing, Edinburgh: ODPM (2003b) Tackling anti-social behaviour Scottish Executive. Jupp, B. (1999) Living together: Community in mixed tenure areas, London: ODPM. life on mixed tenure estates, London: Scottish Executive (2006a) People and Demos. Page, D. (1993) Building for communities: A place: Regeneration policy statement, study of new housing association estates, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive. Kleinhans, R. (2004) ‘Social implications York: JRF. of housing diversification in urban Scottish Executive (2006b) Allocation of renewal: a review of recent literature’, Power, A. (1987) Property before people: The land for affordable housing through the Journal of Housing and the Built management of twentieth century council planning system – Research findings, Environment, 19, pp.367–90. housing, London: Allen and Unwin. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.

Knox, M. and Alcock, D. with Roderick, Rowlands, R., Murie, A. and Tice, A. (2006) Scottish Executive Development A. and Iles, J. (2002) Approaches to More than tenure mix: Developer and Department (2002a) Review of Scotland’s community governance: Models for mixed purchaser attitudes to new housing estates, cities: The analysis, Edinburgh: Scottish tenure communities, Bristol/York: The Coventry and York: CIH and JRF. Executive. Policy Press/JRF. Russell, H. (2001) Local Strategic Scottish Executive Development Meen, G., Gibb, K., Goody, J., McGrath, Partnerships: Lessons from New Department (2002b) Building T. and Mackinnon, J. (2005) Economic Commitment to Regeneration, Bristol/ better cities: Delivering growth and segregation in Britain: Causes, York: The Policy Press/JRF. opportunities, Edinburgh: Scottish consequences and policy, York: JRF. Executive.

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Scottish Executive Development Urban Task Force (1999) Towards an urban Department (2003) Scottish Planning renaissance, London: E. and F.N. Spon. Policy 3: Planning for housing, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive. Urban Task Force (2005) Towards a strong urban renaissance, London: Urban Task Scottish Executive/Communities Scotland Force. (2006) Procurement guide for use by RSLs, Edinburgh: Scottish Executive/ Communities Scotland.

Silverman, E., Lupton, R. and Fenton, A. (2005) Mixed and balanced communities? Attracting and retaining families in inner city mixed income housing, Coventry and York: CIH and JRF.

Somerville, P. (2000) Written housing allocation policies and social exclusion, Edinburgh: Scottish Homes.

Steele, A., Somerville, P. and Galvin, G. (1996) The effectiveness of estate agreements: A new arrangement for tenant participation, York: JRF.

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109 Also published by the Chartered Institute of Housing and Joseph Rowntree Foundation

Mixed tenure, twenty years on A good place for children? Nothing out of the ordinary Attracting and retaining families in inner urban mixed income Chris Allen, Margaret Camina, Rionach Casey, Sarah Coward and communities Martin Wood Emily Silverman, Ruth Lupton and Alex Fenton Mixed tenure features strongly in current policy yet there have This important report presents a challenging mix of debate and been no studies of long-established estates which were originally findings about how mixed income new communities (MINCs) built on these principles. This study fills that gap, looking at three are working for families. This has a number of implications for estates designed with tenure mix in mind and which are now government, local authorities and RSLs, housebuilders and the providers of local public services. ‘mature’ and can show whether the benefits are real or illusory. In particular, it poses policy and practice questions regarding: Case studies of mixed tenure also often focus on adults’ attitudes and miss those of children and young people – yet the ■ The mix of housing types needed to ensure that families can benefits of mixed schooling (for example) are acknowledged by be attracted to – and then retained in – MINCs. educationalists. ■ The costs of achieving income mix. By looking at established estates from younger as well as older ■ The importance of an attractive and safe physical environment residents’ perspectives, this topical study fills two important gaps and social infrastructure of schools, community facilities and in our knowledge and makes an important contribution to the services. debate on how to achieve more sustainable communities. ■ How can social mixing be achieved? Amongst the conclusions reached in this report are: The research team focused on four MINCs, where an income and ■ There is a clear case to be made for mixed tenure. Areas with social mix of market-rate families together with families living a limited social range of residents, housing design similarities in affordable housing was part of the vision for a sustainable community. and a comprehensively-planned environment help to produce civilised communities and a relative absence of tenure ■ Two of them, Hulme in Manchester and New Gorbals in prejudice. Mixed tenure might therefore be a useful policy Glasgow, remodelled existing social housing areas. tool to prevent anti-social behaviour. ■ The other two, Greenwich Millennium Village and Britannia ■ Well-planned mixed tenure developments are better able Village in London were wholly new, and built on brownfield sites. to offer support to extended family networks and this is important both for divorced and separated people who form There is currently great enthusiasm for planning for income new families and for inter-generational support. mix in new housing developments in order to achieve more sustainable communities. The study is an important addition to the evidence about mixed tenure and should be considered by all those planning Key messages from the report include: ‘sustainable’ communities – for whom the long-term outcomes ■ MINCs lack affordable and/or well-designed family-sized should be as important as any immediate results. homes.

ISBN 1 905018 04 5 £15.95 ■ MINCs could be made to work better for family households and, in so doing, could have a valuable part to play in the revitalisation of Britain’s inner cities. ■ Place-making rather than housebuilding needs to be part of the vision.

ISBN 1 905018 11 8 £16.95

110 ALSO PUBLISHED BY THE CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF HOUSING AND JOSEPH ROWNTREE FOUNDATION

More than tenure mix These publications can be ordered from the Chartered Institute Developer and purchaser attitudes to new housing estates of Housing, Octavia House, Westwood Way, Coventry CV4 8JP, Rob Rowlands, Alan Murie and Andrew Tice Telephone: 024 7685 1700. They can also be downloaded As social mix has become central to government policy, this report from the CIH website (www.cih.org.uk) and the JRF website examines the delivery of mix through housing tenure on new (www.jrf.org.uk). housing estates. It particularly focuses on developer attitudes to producing mix and to the experiences of purchasers in living on these estates. The report poses a number of policy and practice questions regarding:

■ What is tenure mix and what is its connection to social and income mix.

■ The attitudes of private house builders to developing mixed tenure estates.

■ The experiences of households in non-social housing on mixed tenure estates.

■ The extent to which mixing tenure affects property prices.

■ The ingredients which contribute to successful and sustainable new housing estates. The research utilised interviews with national house builders, seven case study estates and a social survey of non-social residents in ﬁve estates. In all of the estates, a form of tenure mix had been employed to meet wider objectives including the provision of affordable housing, rebalancing of the local housing market and to create social mix. Mixed tenure aims not only to achieve social mix, but also to promote interaction within communities. It depends on the planning system, which determines numbers and outputs, but the desired outcome is a qualitative improvement in community life. Against this background, the key messages in the report include:

■ Mixing tenure cannot deliver social or income mix on its own.

■ Developers accept that mixed tenure is unavoidable and many want to work towards a better solution.

■ Purchasers accept that mixed tenure is inevitable in all neighbourhoods.

■ The role of the private rented sector is misunderstood by policy makers.

■ Qualitative approaches must be adopted if estates are to be successful.

ISBN-10: 1 905018 11 8 ISBN-13: 978 1 905018 17 8 £15.95

111 Picture credits

All photos by the authors except pages: 16, 46, 64, 66 (bottom) 86, 89 HTA; 20 Chris Steele-Perkins/Magnum; 25 www.johnbirdsall.co.uk; 48, 59 (top right) Page\Park Architects; 50 Albyn Housing Society; 56, 57 Budhi Mulyawan; 59 (bottom right), 63 and 66 (top) Cadell2 LLP; 70 Edinburgh City Council; 92 Photofusion.