References 1. Bronstein JL, 1994. Our current understanding of mutualism. Quarterly Review of Biology 69: 31–51. 2. Bronstein JL, Alarcón R, Geber M, 2006. The evolution of plant–insect mutualisms. New Phytologist 172: 412–428. 3. Crepet WL, 2008. The fossil record of angiosperms: requiem or renaissance? Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 95: 3–33. 4. Darwin CD, 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: John Murray. 5. Davidson DW, 1997. The role of resource imbalances in the evolutionary ecology of tropical arboreal ants. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 61: 153–181. 6. Ehrlich PR, Raven PH, 1964. Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution 18: 586–608. 7. Hu S, Dilcher DL, Jarzen DM, Taylor DW, 2008. Early steps of angiosperm-pollinator coevolution. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105: 240–245. 8. Labandeira CC, 1998. Early history of arthropod and vascular plant associations. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26: 329–377. 9. Landry C, 2012. Mighty mutualisms: The nature of plant-pollinator interactions. Nature Education Knowledge 3: 37. 10. Mithofer A, Boland W, 2012. Plant defense against herbivores: Chemical aspects. Annual Reviews of Plant Biology 63: 431–50. 11. Stone GN, van der Ham RWJM, Brewer JG, 2008. Fossil oak galls preserve ancient multitrophic interactions. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 275: 2213–2219. 12. Van der Heijden MGA, Horton TR, 2009. Socialism in soil? The importance of mycorrhizal fungal networks for facilitation in natural ecosystems. Journal of Ecology 97: 1139–1150. Plant interactions with insects, nematodes, symbionts and Botany other plants Plants and Insects: Co-existence and Mutualism Learn More / Supporting Materials / Source of Further Reading Glossary Starting Term Defination Related Term Character coevolution Coevolution The change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object is called coevolution in biology. Galling Galling Some insects can make plants produce galls,abnormal tissue growths, in which the insect can then live and lay its eggs, as well as eat. Pollination Pollination Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred in the reproduction of plants, thereby enabling fertilization and sexual reproduction. Myrmecophyte Myrmecophyte Myrmecophyte is a plant that lives in a mutualistic association with a colony of ants. Microevolution Microevolution Microevolution is the changes in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population. Plant interactions with insects, nematodes, symbionts and Botany other plants Plants and Insects: Co-existence and Mutualism Time-Line Image Description Timeline of plant evolution and the beginnings of different modes of insect herbivory. The earliest land plants evolved from aquatic plants around 450 million years ago (Ma) in the Ordovician period. Did you know? Discription Animals fed on the spores of early Devonian plants, and the Rhynie chert also provides evidence that organisms fed on plants using a "pierce and suck" technique. Some orchid species deceive their male wasp pollinators by producing flowers that look and smell like female wasps Many plants like venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) or bladderworts (Utricularia spp.) inhabiting the freshwater bogs where nitrogen is not present in available form, exhibit a type of interaction called as ‘insectivory’, by capturing the insects and using them as nitrogen source. Diverse plants are known to engage instead (or in addition) in ‘biological warfare’: they attract and reward other animals, most commonly ants, which in turn deter or kill the herbivores Plant interactions with insects, nematodes, symbionts and Botany other plants Plants and Insects: Co-existence and Mutualism WebLinks Web links http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory http://vega.org.uk/video/programme/323 http://nsmn1.uh.edu/nholland/foodweb.html http://www.babelsdawn.com http://animals.about.com/od/evolution/ss/evolution_9.htm Interesting Facts Interesting Facts Male euglossine bees use volatile compounds from orchid flowers as "perfume" to attract mates Yucca moths lay their eggs within the yucca flowers they pollinate, and some, but not all, of the seeds produced are consumed by the developing moth larvae Some orchid species deceive their male wasp pollinators by producing flowers that look and smell like female wasps Plants can sense being touched Acacia tree species have developed thorns that are swollen at the base, forming a hollowing structure that acts as housing Plant interactions with insects, nematodes, symbionts and Botany other plants Plants and Insects: Co-existence and Mutualism .