DOCSLIB.ORG

The Role of Imagery in Information Processing: Review and Extensions

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Role of Imagery in Information Processing: Review and Extensions The Role of Imagery in Information Processing: Review and Extensions DEBORAH J. MACINNIS LINDA L. PRICE* Mental imagery is receiving increased attention in consumer behavior theory and research. This article describes imagery, characterizing it as a processing mode in which multisensory information is represented in a gestalt form in working memory and discusses research on the unique effects of imagery at low levels of cognitive elaboration. It specifies researchable propositions for the relationship between high elaboration imagery processing and consumer choice and consumption behaviors Finally, it reviews specific methods for studying imagery. nformation processing research has traditionally fo- 1978; Cohen 1982; Greenwald and Leavitt 1984; Ros- I cused on discursive or descriptive information pro- siter and Percy 1978, 1983; Smith et al. 1984). cessing (Bettman 1979; Greenwald 1968; Olson, Toy, This article addresses the meaning of imagery pro- and Dover 1982; Swasy and Munch 1985; Wright 1974,' cessing, how it differs from discursive processing—par- 1980).' As such, researchers have examined how sym- ticularly under varying degrees of cognitive elaboration, bols (most commonly words and numbers) are com- and what unique effects it has on processing outcomes! bined in working memory to represent and solve prob- It also reviews research on the unique effects of imagery lems. Discursive (symbolic, language-like) information under conditions of low elaboration and explores the processing encompasses a broad range of strategies. potentially unique effects of imagery at higher levels of Compositional choice strategies, counterarguments, elaboration. The article gives specific attention to the attributions, and formulations of choice rules are illus- role of imagery in problem framing, assessing proba- trations of discursive information processing. Increas- bilities, forming intentions, and generating affect. In ingly, however, attention has been given to the role of addition, it considers the use of imagery in consumer mental imagery in information processing (Childers and settings throughout the phases of consumption and de- Houston 1982, 1984; Childers, Houston, and Heckler velops researchable propositions to guide future re- 1985; Lutz and Lutz 1977, 1978; Rethans and Hastak search on elaborated imagery. Finally, it explores issues 1981; Rossiter 1982; Rossiter and Percy 1983; Smith, related to the conduct of research on imagery. Houston, and Childers 1984). Imagery is a conceptually distinct way of representing information, a way that is "very like picturing and very unlike describing" (Fodor THE MEANING OF IMAGERY 1981, p. 76).^ To date, this emergent research stream Imagery is defined here as (1) a process (not a struc- has focused predominantly on imagery processing at ture) by which (2) sensory information is represented low levels of cognitive elaboration—for example, men- in working memory. Imagery processing, and infor- tally picturing a stimulus object. More recently, there mation processing in general, fall on an elaboration have been discussions that refer to imagery processing continuum that ranges from processes limited to the at higher levels of elaboration. These discussions suggest simple retrieval or evocation of a cognitive concept to that elaborated imagery plays a role in influencing (1) affective responses to stimuli, and (2) behavior (Calder As used here, discursive means passing from premises to conclu- sions; proceeding by reasoning or argument (Oxford dictionary). De- scriptive processing is a somewhat broader term suggesting any •Deborah J. Maclnnis is Assistant Professor, Department of Mar- meaningful combination of verbal or other symbolic units. Although keting, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721. Linda L. Price is the two terms have a slightly different connotation, they will be used Assistant Professor, Department of Marketing. University of Pitts- interchangeably here for ease of presentation. burgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260. Authors are listed in alphabetical order •This is not to say that the debate of what imagery is and what it to reflect equal contributions. The authors would like to acknowledge is not has been resolved (cf Block 1981). Processing probably often the many helpful comments of C. Whan Park and three anonymous occurs on a continuum between "pictures" and "symbols." For ex- reviewers on earlier versions of this article. ample, maps and stick figures (as mental images) would have features of both (Fodor 1981). 473 © JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH • Vol. 13 • March 1987 THE JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH 474 processes involving multiple concepts and constructions an individual may draw upon a script of a "romantic (e;g., problem solving, creative thinking, and day- evening" in imagining such an evening. Information dreaming). The following section will describe each of from schemas or scripts can also be processed in a dis- these issues in greater detail, and will serve to (1) dis- cursive mode. Hence, the information structure is viewed as distinct from processing mode. tinguish imagery processing from schemas and scripts, Since imagery processing relies on stored knowledge, (2) distinguish imagery processing from discursive pro- the evocation and vividness of the image is likely to cessing, and (3) describe the elaboration continuum for depend on the level of knowledge development. Con- imagery processing. sistent with this notion. Smith et al. (1984) found that individuals who possessed a script for a given event re- Imagery as a Process, Not a Structure ported evoking imagery experiences when they instan- While the idea of imagery processing is widely ac- tiated that script. Moreover, inclividuals with well-de- cepted, the assumption that knowledge is stored or rep- veloped scripts reported that their imagery experiences resented as images has been hotly debated (Pinker and were significantly more vivid than did individuals with- Kosslyn 1983). Propositional theorists (e.g., Anderson out well-developed scripts. :1978; Anderson and Bower 1973; Lang 1979; Pylyshyn 1973, 1981) argue that knowledge is represented only Imagery as a Sensory Process as a set of verbal propositional networks composed of nodes (representing concepts) and connected by links Imagery processing has several qualities that distin- (representing relationships between concepts; see also guish it from discursive processing. Most fundamen- Kieras 1978). Others have argued that knowledge can tally, imagery processes are evoked as sensory experi- be stored as images. In support of their argument they ences in working memory. Imagery processing includes note that studies on mental rotation of objects, image perceptual or sensory representations in working mem- size, and parallel processing are more consistent with ory that are used in much the same way as perceptions an imagery' perspective than a propositional one (Bug- of external stimuli. Thus, imagery involves concrete elski 1983'; Kieras 1978; Kolers 1983; Kosslyn 1975; sensory representations of ideas, feelings, and memo- Kosslyn and Pomerantz 1977; Kosslyn et al. 1981). ries, and it permits a direct recovery of past experiences These researchers contend that images have emergent (Yuille and Catchpole 1977). The evocation of iniagery properties that cannot be explained by propositjonal may be multi-sensory—involving images that incor- network theories. porate, for example, smell, taste, sight, and tactile sen- sations—or may involve a single sensory dimension, While the debate between propositional theorists and imagery theorists is far from resolved, Yuille and such as sight. In contrast, discursive processing (such Catchpole (1977) have developed a compromise posi- as verbal retrieval, cognitive responding, and verbal en- tion based on the work of Piaget and Inhelder (1973). coding) is more detached from internal sensor>- expe- They propose that the ability to generate images does riences. The absence of sensory dimensions of infor- not necessarily imply that knowledge is stored as images. mation in working memory- makes these discursive They argue that knowledge is stored in an abstract (but processes less concrete (more abstract) than imagery not necessarily verbal) operational code. The well-sub- processes. Moreover, unlike discursive processing, im- stantiated ability to move from words to pictures and agery can be described along several unique sensory- pictures to words suggests that there is a representation related dimensions. For example, vividness refers to the in memory that encompasses both. Once a knowledge clarity of images. And controllability reflects the extent structure has been activated, imagery can be generated to which images can be held in mind and/or altered in from information contained in that structure. For ex- specific ways at will (Marks 1972). ample, after activating the knowledge structure for That imagery involves internal sensory experiences birds, an individual may imagine a prototypical bird has both intuitive and empirical support. Early research such as a sparrow (see Mervis and Rosch 1981 for a suggested that people can confuse imaging with per- review). ceiving (Perky 1910). Even before research on imagery Consistent with the views of Yuille and Catchpole existed, people talked naturally about the "pictures" in (1977), imagery is conceptualized here as a mode of their heads. Research has since indicated that imagery processing information. In other words, imagery pro- and perceiving (or sensing) share the same
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Relaxation Techniques? a Substantial Amount of Research Has Been Done on Relaxation Techniques
    U.S. Department of Health & Human Services National Institutes of Health Relaxation Techniques © Thinkstock What’s the Bottom Line? How much do we know about relaxation techniques? A substantial amount of research has been done on relaxation techniques. However, for many health conditions, the number or size of the studies has been small, and some studies have been of poor quality. What do we know about the effectiveness of relaxation techniques? Relaxation techniques may be helpful in managing a variety of health conditions, including anxiety associated with illnesses or medical procedures, insomnia, labor pain, chemotherapy-induced nausea, and temporomandibular joint dysfunction. Psychological therapies, which may include relaxation techniques, can help manage chronic headaches and other types of chronic pain in children and adolescents. Relaxation techniques have also been studied for other conditions, but either they haven’t been shown to be useful, research results have been inconsistent, or the evidence is limited. What do we know about the safety of relaxation techniques? Relaxation techniques are generally considered safe for healthy people, although there have been a few reports of negative experiences, such as increased anxiety. People with serious physical or mental health problems should discuss relaxation techniques with their health care providers. What Are Relaxation Techniques? Relaxation techniques include a number of practices such as progressive relaxation, guided imagery, biofeedback, self-hypnosis, and deep breathing exercises. The goal is similar in all: to produce the body’s natural relaxation response, characterized by slower breathing, lower blood pressure, and a feeling of increased well-being. Meditation and practices that include meditation with movement, such as yoga and tai chi, can also promote relaxation.
    [Show full text]
  • UC Irvine UC Irvine Previously Published Works
    UC Irvine UC Irvine Previously Published Works Title Why errors in alibis are not necessarily evidence of guilt Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4gk847zk Journal Zeitschrift fur Psychologie / Journal of Psychology, 222(2) ISSN 2190-8370 Authors Strange, D Dysart, J Loftus, EF Publication Date 2014 DOI 10.1027/2151-2604/a000169 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Author’s personal copy (e-offprint) Original Article Why Errors in Alibis Are Not Necessarily Evidence of Guilt Deryn Strange,1 Jennifer Dysart,1 and Elizabeth F. Loftus2 1John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY, New York, NY, USA, 2School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA Abstract. Laypeople, police, and prosecutors tend to believe that a suspect’s alibi, if truthful, should remain consistent over time (see Burke, Turtle, & Olson, 2007; Culhane & Hosch 2012; Dysart & Strange, 2012). However, there is no empirical evidence to support this assumption. We investigated (a) whether some features of an alibi – such as what was happening, who with, where, and for how long – are more likely to produce errors than others; and (b) whether consistency in alibi stories is correlated with particular phenomenological characteristics of the alibi such as a person’s confidence and sense of reliving the event. We asked participants to imagine they were suspected of a crime and to provide their truthful alibi for an afternoon 3 weeks prior and to complete questions regarding the phenomenological characteristics of their memory. We also asked participants to locate evidence of their actual whereabouts for the critical period.
    [Show full text]
  • Trauma-Focused Group Music and Imagery with Women Suffering From
    Approaches: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Music Therapy | Special Issue 9 (2) 2017 SPECIAL ISSUE Guided Imagery and Music: Contemporary European perspectives and developments Article Trauma-focused group music and imagery with women suffering from PTSD/complex PTSD: A feasibility study Gabriella Rudstam, Ulf Elofsson, Hans Peter Søndergaard, Lars Ole Bonde & Bolette Daniels Beck ABSTRACT Women who have been exposed to physical, psychological and/or sexual abuse, often with a history of childhood abuse and neglect, frequently suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or complex post- traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD). However, the evidence-based treatments recommended for this population help only 50%, so there is a need to investigate complementary methods. In this study one such promising method has been explored: trauma-focused Group Music and Imagery (GrpMI). In a non- randomised clinical setting the feasibility of GrpMI and the suitability of chosen measurements were explored. Ten participants with PTSD/CPTSD were enrolled in the pilot study, five in each group. All participants completed the treatment. The primary outcome was symptoms of PTSD measured at pre-, post- and follow-up. The secondary outcomes were dissociation and quality of life. The results showed a decrease in PTSD and dissociative symptoms, and an increase in quality of life following treatment. This tendency was maintained at follow-up. An analysis of individual, semi-structured interviews with the participants after the termination of the treatment showed that the participants found the group treatment helpful and acceptable. Since the findings indicate that trauma-focused GrpMI has a positive effect on the psychological health of the women, a larger randomised controlled study is needed.
    [Show full text]
  • Proprietary Aspects of Commercial Remote-Sensing Imagery, 13 Nw
    Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business Volume 13 Issue 2 Fall Fall 1992 Proprietary Aspects of Commercial Remote- Sensing Imagery Patrick A. Salin Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njilb Part of the Science and Technology Commons Recommended Citation Patrick A. Salin, Proprietary Aspects of Commercial Remote-Sensing Imagery, 13 Nw. J. Int'l L. & Bus. 349 (1992-1993) This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business by an authorized administrator of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. Proprietary Aspects of Commercial Remote-Sensing Imagery PatrickA. Salin * I. INTRODUCTION Remote-sensing is performed by sensors on board a satellite which is usually placed on a low polar orbit so that it may vertically scan the Earth while the Earth is revolving around its axis. Remote-sensing en- ables a very high altitude view of the areas which are covered and since it always follows the same path in a circular movement which is perpendic- ular to the rotation of the Earth, it covers the whole Earth after a few rotations. For example, US Landsat satellites, the initiator in the field, circle the globe fourteen times a day at a 920 km circular and sun-synchronous orbit,1 with a 200 km wide swath.' Their repeat coverage at the Equator is 18 days.3 Resolution of Landsat imagery is 30 m. (i.e. the size of the smallest object which can be identifiable on the basis of picture elements or "pixels"), within a standard image of 185 km by 170 km.
    [Show full text]
  • DOCUMENT RESUME ED 392 081 CS 509 175 TITLE Proceedings Of
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 392 081 CS 509 175 TITLE Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (78th, Washington, DC, August 9-12, 1995). Advertising Division. INSTITUTION Association for Edpcation in Journalism and Mass Communication. PUB DATE Aug 95 NOTE 322p.; For other sections of these proceedings, see CS 509 173-187 and CS 509 196. PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC13 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Advertising; Computer Mediated Communication; *Educational Development; Ethnic Groups; Higher Education; Information Networks; *Internet; Journalism Education; Mass Media Effects; *Mass Media Role; Newspapers; *Online Systems; Periodicals; Persua'%re Discourse; Public Relations IDENTIFIERS *Advertisements ABSTRACT The advertising section of the Proceedings contains the following 14 papers: "Advertising versus Product Publicity: The Effects on Credibility and Purchase Intent" (M. Catherine Chew and others); "Introducing Introductory Advertising Students to the World Wide Web" (Beth E. Barnes); "In Defense of Puffery" (John H. Crowley); "Merging the Teaching of Advertising and Public Relations Campaigns onto the Information Superhighway" (Robert L. Gustafson and Steven R. Thomsen); "Breaking New Ground in the Virtual Marketplace: A Search for New Metaphors of Form and Structure Shaping Persuasive Communication in the New Media" (Tracy A. Irani); "Trends in the Use and Abuse of Advertorial Advertising in Magazines" (Bong-Hyun Kim and others); "Media Usage Patterns and Preferences of Hispanics in a Texas Market" (Wayne W. Melanson and Jerry C. Hudson); "Rankings of Advertising Programs by Advertising Educators" (Jef I. Richards and Elizabeth Gigi Taylor); "Information Source for Shopping Decisions and Idvertising Content Preferences of Malaysian Youth" (Jyotika Ramaprasad); "A Survey of Faculty Evaluation Practices in Journalism and Mass Communication" (Robert C.
    [Show full text]
  • Durham Research Online
    Durham Research Online Deposited in DRO: 11 April 2019 Version of attached le: Accepted Version Peer-review status of attached le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Sunderland, Luke (2020) 'Visualizing elemental ontology in the Livre des propri¡et¡esdes choses.', Romanic review., 111 (1). pp. 106-127. Further information on publisher's website: https://doi.org/10.1215/00358118-8007978 Publisher's copyright statement: Additional information: Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full DRO policy for further details. Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 https://dro.dur.ac.uk Visualizing Elemental Ontology in the Livre des propriétés des choses Luke Sunderland Durham University A major challenge for the humanities and social sciences, according to Bruno Latour, is the need to supersede the model of cultural diversity, which he does not see (as we might expect) as a positive, open-minded stance that valorizes difference. Instead, he holds that to speak of cultural diversity is to suggest that difference is only possible on the level of concepts and vocabulary, stories and beliefs, and to assume that there are objectively knowable truths about the material world that are immune to variation (Inquiry 20).
    [Show full text]
  • Healing Factors in Guided Affective Imagery: a Qualitative Meta-Analysis
    Healing Factors in Guided Affective Imagery: A Qualitative Meta-Analysis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a concentration in Psychology and a specialization in Counseling and Psychotherapy at the Union Institute & University Cincinnati, Ohio Elaine Sue Kramer April 3, 2010 Core Faculty: Lawrence J. Ryan, PhD i Abstract This qualitative meta-analysis compares and contrasts European and American approaches to Guided Affective Imagery (GAI). From a comparative review of literature of the European and American approaches, it is observed that there are noteworthy differences in how GAI is understood in theory and applied in practice. In the United States, GAI is not perceived as a method of deep psychotherapeutic intervention for neurotic disorders by most practitioners. In Europe, GAI is one of the more prevalent intervention techniques that has been reported to be effective in many disorders. Secondly, this meta-analysis seeks to identify the essential healing elements of GAI as they are implemented in psychotherapy. Twelve factors are identified from the literature. Of fundamental clinical importance is the activation of a patient’s “resources,” the positive characteristics of an individual that can be accessed to reinforce the patient’s ability to deal with a past traumatic experience. GAI provides the imagery context by which the patient may re-experience the trauma. The therapist assists by encouraging the patient to repeatedly utilize internal resources to confront the fearful event. Lasting relief may be conceptualized as repeated resource activation leading to a biochemically-induced remapping at synaptic sites away from the limbic-centered, emotion-based neural path associated with the traumatic event toward the prefrontal cortex-centered, cognitive-based path of appropriate behavior.
    [Show full text]
  • ELEMENTS of FICTION – NARRATOR / NARRATIVE VOICE Fundamental Literary Terms That Indentify Components of Narratives “Fiction
    Dr. Hallett ELEMENTS OF FICTION – NARRATOR / NARRATIVE VOICE Fundamental Literary Terms that Indentify Components of Narratives “Fiction” is defined as any imaginative re-creation of life in prose narrative form. All fiction is a falsehood of sorts because it relates events that never actually happened to people (characters) who never existed, at least not in the manner portrayed in the stories. However, fiction writers aim at creating “legitimate untruths,” since they seek to demonstrate meaningful insights into the human condition. Therefore, fiction is “untrue” in the absolute sense, but true in the universal sense. Critical Thinking – analysis of any work of literature – requires a thorough investigation of the “who, where, when, what, why, etc.” of the work. Narrator / Narrative Voice Guiding Question: Who is telling the story? …What is the … Narrative Point of View is the perspective from which the events in the story are observed and recounted. To determine the point of view, identify who is telling the story, that is, the viewer through whose eyes the readers see the action (the narrator). Consider these aspects: A. Pronoun p-o-v: First (I, We)/Second (You)/Third Person narrator (He, She, It, They] B. Narrator’s degree of Omniscience [Full, Limited, Partial, None]* C. Narrator’s degree of Objectivity [Complete, None, Some (Editorial?), Ironic]* D. Narrator’s “Un/Reliability” * The Third Person (therefore, apparently Objective) Totally Omniscient (fly-on-the-wall) Narrator is the classic narrative point of view through which a disembodied narrative voice (not that of a participant in the events) knows everything (omniscient) recounts the events, introduces the characters, reports dialogue and thoughts, and all details.
    [Show full text]
  • Investigating the Limits of How Expectation Can Shape Affective Judgement
    INVESTIGATING THE LIMITS OF HOW EXPECTATION CAN SHAPE AFFECTIVE JUDGEMENT A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences 2016 ADAM LAWRENCE SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2 CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... 8 LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... 10 ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 11 ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................................. 12 DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................................ 13 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ........................................................................................................................ 13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 14 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 15 1.1 Preface .......................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • List of Psycho Therapy Spirits for MD 12 Steps Programs, 100 Years Of
    List of Psycho Therapy Spirits for MD 12 steps programs, 100 Years of Psychotherapy – And the World's Getting Worse, abnormal Psychotherapy, Abreaction, Academy at Dundee Ranch, Academy at Ivy Ridge, Academy at Swift River, Academy of Cognitive Therapy, Accelerated experiential dynamic therapy, Acceptance and commitment therapy, Ackerman Institute for the Family, Active listening, Activity theory, Adaptive psychotherapy, Addiction psychiatry, Addictions Anonymous, Adlerian therapy, Adventure therapy, Affect logic, Affect theory, Afterburn, Aggression Replacement Training, Alcoholics Anonymous, altered emotions, altered mind, altered soul, altered state of consciousness, altered will, Alternative new age therapies, Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities, alters, Amplification, Analytical psychology, Anger management, Animal-assisted therapy, Anomalistic psychology, anti-christ, Anti-psychiatry, Anti-psychology, Anxiety Management Training, anxiety reduction technique, Anything Anonymous, Apex effect, Applied Behavioral Analysis, Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, Arbitrary inference, Art therapy, Asian psychology, Aspen Achievement Academy, Assertive community treatment, Atavistic regression, Attachment in adults, Attachment in children, Attachment measures, Attachment theory, Attachment therapy, Attachment-based psychotherapy, Attachment-based therapy for children, Attack therapy, Audio–visual entrainment, Auditing, Autogenic training, Autosuggestion, Auxiliary ego, Aversion therapy, Aylan School, Bad
    [Show full text]
  • Imagery in the Journals Written by the Writing I Students of the English Department of Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya
    Imagery in the Journals Written by the Writing I Students Of the English Department Of Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya Nonce Trisnawaty Abstract. Many students think that writing is a daunting task and, therefore, they cannot write a good composition and journal writing is assigned for writing improvement. One of the aspects in writing a journal is imagery. Imagery is the use of concrete words to replace the abstract ones in order to enable the readers to imagine in everything experienced by the author. This study explored the kinds of imagery which are found in the journals written by the Writing I students of Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya. The subjects were eleven students of Writing I. Each student submitted 4 journals. A checklist was used to organize the imagery in the journals. Not all writing journals that were analyzed exposed imagery. Visual and auditory imagery were found. There were forty seven examples of visual imagery and six examples of auditory imagery. The olfactory, gustatory and tactile imagery were not found. Key words: imagery, journal, writing I class Introduction Writing is a way in which people can communicate thoughts and feelings with others graphemically. It is a complex process of language communication and also a creative thinking process (Zuo Huangqi, 2002, p. 197). Hansen (2006) states that writing skills can be the ticket to better college grades and greater academic achievement, even if the students do not study harder and know the material better than others do. Writing allows students to keep permanent records such as journals, and it lets students demonstrate their knowledge on an examination.
    [Show full text]
  • UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Domestic
    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO Domestic Dispatches: The Moral Imperative of Modernity, Writing, and the Evolving Role of Female Missionaries A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in Anthropology by Emily Frances King Committee in Charge: Professor Suzanne Brenner, Chair Professor Joseph Hankins Professor Saiba Varma 2017 The thesis of Emily Frances King is approved and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Chair University of California, San Diego 2017 iii Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my family. Thank you for telling me family stories, and constantly finding new articles and photographs in old boxes that made this thesis longer than I anticipated. Thank you for always making me laugh at horrible puns. Thank you for your unwavering support and love. This thesis wouldn’t have been possible without you. iv Table of Contents Signature Page……………………………………………………………………………iii Dedication……………………………………………………………………...................iv Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………….v List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….vi Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………vii Abstract of the Thesis..………………………………………………………………….viii I-Introduction……………………………………...………………………………………1 II-The Myth of Teleological Progress…………………………………………………......6
    [Show full text]