C21 Resources a service of boston college fall 2008 Encountering Jesus in the Scriptures

daniel j. harrington, s.j. & ability to undertake serious technical re- four Gospels are the products of a fairly author of the very well received Jesus of christopher r. matthews search and to communicate the results of long and complex development from Nazareth (2007), in which he attempts to modern scholarship to nonspecialists. Jesus through the oral and written trad- bring together modern historical-critical mong the various significant itions of the early church to the Gospel study and the insights of the Christian issues addressed by the twenty- The most authoritative Catholic writers (Evangelists), while insisting that theological tradition, while insisting that A seven writings that make up document on biblical study is Vatican II’s they tell us the honest truth about Jesus. Jesus’ divinity is the key to understand-ing the New Testament, two fundamental 1965 Constitution on Divine Revelation the Gospels. questions are, Who is Jesus? and Why (Dei verbum). This document describes This October, bishops from all over is he important? The four Gospels look the Scriptures as the word of God in hu- the world will convene in Rome for a syn- Next to Jesus, Paul is the most impor- like biographies (at least in the ancient man language and as the soul of theology, od on “The Word of God in the Life and tant figure in the New Testament, and his sense) and provide much information and insists that the church’s preaching Mission of the Church” to examine the understanding of Jesus has shaped Chris- about Jesus’ life, teachings, activities, be nourished and ruled by Scripture. It practical pastoral effects of Dei verbum tian theology throughout the centuries. and death. However, none of them tells encourages interpreters to be sensitive to and to explore how biblical study and Pope Benedict XVI has proclaimed the the whole story about Jesus. In fact, they the literary forms and cultural assump- spirituality can be better encouraged period from June 29, 2008 to June 29, 2009 all draw us back to the haunting question tions of the societies in which the biblical among ordinary Catholics. Pope Benedict as the “Year of St. Paul.” Intended to mark that Jesus posed to Peter and the other authors wrote. It recognizes that the himself (Joseph Ratzinger) is also the the 2000th anniversary of Paul’s birth, disciples, “But who do you say that I the goal is to promote among Catholics as am?” (Mark 8:29). well as Protestants and Jews an increased appreciation of Paul’s life and writings. In recent years, that question has occasioned thousands of scholarly books This issue of C21 Resources also marks and articles. This development from 1985 the return of New Testament Abstracts to to the present is sometimes called the sponsorship by Boston College. This jour- “Third Quest of the Historical Jesus.” The nal provides an objective report of cur- “First Quest” took place from the late 18th rent scholarship published in many to the early 20th century, and was bril- different languages. In recent years, it liantly catalogued by Albert Schweitzer. has covered 2,100 articles and 800 books The “Second Quest” refers to a brief per annum. It was founded in 1956 period in the mid-1900s when some when Weston College was the School students of Rudolf Bultmann rejected his of Theology of Boston College. Since skepticism about Jesus and contended 1968, it has resided with Weston Jesuit that we can know a good deal about Jesus’ School of Theology in Cambridge. Now teachings. The first two quests were carried with Weston’s reaffiliation with Boston on almost entirely by liberal German College, it has become part of the new Protestant historians and theologians. The School of Theology and Ministry. The Third Quest, by contrast, has been both editors of this issue have worked together international and confessionally diverse, for many years on New Testament Abstracts. and has given special attention to the Jewishness of Jesus. We believe that the essays that follow provide a sample of some positive and con- This issue of C21 Resources seeks to structive research on Jesus today. The art- make accessible some of the best modern icles first appeared in journals intended scholarship on encountering Jesus in the for the general public and so represent Scriptures. Its focus is wider than the his- popularizations of more technical mate- torians’ quest. These essays try to explain rial. We hope that they may serve as a not only who Jesus was in the 1st century good introduction to one area of modern but also what he might mean in the 21st biblical scholarship and as a help for The Empress Zoe mosaics on the eastern wall of the southern gallery of Hagia Sophia date from century. Most of the contributors are the 11th century. Christ Pantocrator, clad in the dark blue robe, is seated in the middle against a readers in answering Jesus’ own question, Catholic scholars who have proved their golden background, giving his blessing with the right hand and holding the Bible in his left hand. “But who do you say that I am?”

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Jesus: What’s Fact? What’s Fiction? C21 Resources

by daniel j. harrington, s.j. Major Sources introduces different characters, and focuses more on Jesus as the revealer and Daniel J. Harrington, S.J. he question of Jesus’ identity The four Gospels are the major revelation of God than on the kingdom. Christopher R. Matthews is central to us as Christians. sources for what we know about Jesus. T Because Christianity is an Nevertheless, they do not allow us to write These four Gospels became part of incarnational faith—centered on Jesus, a full biography about him. Rather, the the church’s list of approved books the Word of God who became flesh and Gospel writers (Evangelists) were primarily (canon) because of their wide use, ortho- J.A. Appleyard dwelt among us—it is important to learn interested in Jesus’ religious significance dox theological content, and association as much as we can about the Jesus of and his impact as a moral figure. with the apostles. Jonas Barciauskal history. He lived in the land of Israel Ben Birnbaum during what we now call the first century. Mark’s Gospel, written around a.d. 70, Other Sources Cynthia Dobrzynski The question of his identity still has great perhaps at Rome, tells the story of Jesus’ relevance for us in the early 21st century. public ministry in Galilee, his journey The noncanonical Gospels attributed Robert Imbelli Just consider the recent media attention with his disciples to Jerusalem, and his to Thomas, Peter, Mary Magdalene, Barbara Radtke received by Mel Gibson’s The Passion of short ministry there, as well as his passion, Philip, and others did not become part the Christ and Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci death, and resurrection. Mark gave special of the church’s New Testament canon. Code. When Jesus asked his disciples, attention to Jesus as the suffering Messiah This was due in part to their lack of wide “Who do people say that I am?” he and to the mystery of the cross. usage, sometimes unorthodox theologi- Progressive Print Solutions got several different answers: John the cal content, and relatively late dates Erinkate O’Donnell Baptist, Elijah, one of the prophets. Even of composition. when Peter identified Jesus correctly as the Messiah, Jesus felt the need to Christians believe These sources now often serve as the redefine messiahship in terms of his basis for works like The Da Vinci Code and C21 Resources is published by the coming passion, death, and resurrection. that there is a close other, often sensationalist, interpretations of early Christianity—some even by Church in the 21st Century Center A Difficult Question continuity between the well-known scholars. They may contain at Boston College, in partnership some early authentic traditions, though with the publications from which While important, the question about earthly Jesus and the it is often difficult to isolate these from these articles have been selected. Jesus’ identity is difficult to answer. It is their less credible content. Likewise, while there are stray sayings attributed C21 Resources is a compilation of hard to know the whole story about any Christ of faith and that person, even someone who has lived in to Jesus in other early Christian writings, the best analyses and essays on key our own time, let alone someone who the two cannot be it is almost impossible to prove they challenges facing the Church to- lived 2,000 years ago. originated with Jesus. day. They are published with the totally separated. The only substantial ancient des- intent of stimulating discussion and The major sources about Jesus—the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and cription of Jesus apart from Christian thought among bishops, priests, John—were written in light of the authors’ sources appears in Jewish Antiquities by deacons, religious, and lay mem- convictions about Jesus’ resurrection and Between a.d. 85 and 90, Matthew and Flavius Josephus, a Jewish historian in bers of the Catholic community. continued existence with the one whom Luke independently produced their own the late first century a.d. But the explicit he called Father. The claims that these revised and expanded versions of Mark’s statements about Jesus’ identity as the authors made about Jesus (such as “Jesus is Gospel. They added a large amount of Messiah and about his resurrection Lord”) go beyond what is said about even teaching material from other sources suggest that Christian scribes may have the greatest human heroes. and traditions. Matthew emphasized the inserted their own convictions about Jewishness of Jesus and his fulfillment Jesus into Josephus’ work. Here I want to tell as best as I can the of Israel’s Scriptures, the books of the “honest truth” about what we can know Bible Christians commonly call the The key text reads: “About this time about Jesus of Nazareth and thus provide Old Testament. Luke stressed Jesus’ arose Jesus, a wise man, if indeed it be a reasonably objective account against significance not only for Israel but also for lawful to call him a man. For he was a which the claims of Mel Gibson, Dan the other peoples of the world. Because the doer of wonderful deeds, and a teacher Brown, and others can be measured. first three Gospels offer a common outline of men who...drew to himself many, both Keep track of lectures, panel and vision of Jesus, they are often called of the Jews and the Gentiles. He was discussions, and all events I write as a Roman Catholic priest, a the “Synoptic” Gospels, which means the Christ” (18:63-64, Loeb Classical Jesuit, and a professor of New Testament Library translation). sponsored by The “taking the same or common view.” since 1971. In my academic research, I Church in the 21st Century have taken special interest in the Dead While John’s Gospel has much in Gospel Development Center at our Web site Sea scrolls and other Jewish texts from the common with the Synoptic Gospels and www.bc.edu/church21 time of Jesus. As editor of New Testament contains many pieces of solid historical The early Christians were more Abstracts, I see all the books and articles information, it spreads the public ministry concerned with experiencing the risen published in the field. of Jesus over three years instead of one, Jesus and the Holy Spirit than with

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 writing books about Jesus. Jesus died in Galilee, Jesus accepted baptism from and the Christ of faith and that the two around a.d. 30, and the first complete John and may have been a member of cannot be totally separated. Gospel (Mark’s) appeared forty years John’s movement. clifford later. In those intervening decades, there The quest for the historical Jesus, was a lively process in which traditions When Jesus went out on his own to however, refers to the project of from and about Jesus, whether in oral continue and adapt John’s mission, he separating the earthly Jesus from the As a biblical scholar who focuses or written form, were handed on among gathered disciples near the Sea of Galilee Christ of faith. It began among liberal on the Old Testament (Hebrew Christians. These traditions were often at Capernaum, including some of John’s German Protestants in the late 18th Scriptures), I begin the story of Jesus shaped and reshaped in response to the followers. He spent much of his public century in an effort to peel away the with the creation of the world and pastoral needs of the communities. life preaching about the kingdom of wrappings given to Jesus in church with the nature of God revealed in God and how to prepare for it. He also tradition and to recover the simple figure that loving and self-communicating Understanding the process by which healed the sick as a sign of the presence of of the “real” Jesus. Many of the early act. The act of creation poses the the Gospels were formed requires keeping God’s kingdom. seekers discarded the miracles of Jesus question, How could God remain three realities in mind: the focus of the and rejected his virginal conception aloof and mute after bringing Evangelist, the development of the early Before Passover in the spring of a.d. 30, and resurrection as “unhistorical.” One the beautiful world and its lively church, and who Jesus was. The Gospel Jesus and his followers made a long journ- positive development was the recognition inhabitants into being? In the writers composed the final forms of their ey to Jerusalem. There he continued his of the kingdom of God as the focus of Christian view, key events in the works with an eye toward their signifi- ministry of teaching and healing, but ran Jesus’ teaching and its roots in Jewish story lead to Jesus Christ: God’s cance for particular communities. The into intense opposition from some other hopes about God’s future actions on generous creation, human unwill- gathered materials had been formulated Jews and from the Roman authorities. behalf of his people (sometimes called ingness to live gracefully in it, and and adapted in various settings over forty Under the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, eschatology or apocalyptic). God’s decision to stay with humans or more years. And, of course, they all Jesus was executed by crucifixion as a no matter what and to covenant sought to tell us the “honest truth” about rebel and a religious troublemaker. And The quest in the 20th century focused with a single family (Abraham’s) in Jesus, as best they could. he was said to have appeared alive again on the parables of Jesus as a way of order to be in relationship to all the to some of his followers. recovering the “voice” of Jesus about the nations. Out of respect for human Getting Back to Jesus kingdom, developing criteria for iden- freedom, God drew near in ways Careful study of the Gospels also tifying material from Jesus, and situating that elicited free response in word Are there ways of going behind the allows us to reconstruct the major themes Jesus within Judaism. Recent presenta- and authoritative teaching (Torah), Gospel texts and the traditions of the in Jesus’ teaching. At the center was the tions of Jesus have depicted him as a wind (spirit), wisdom, a strong hand early church and getting back to Jesus Reign or Kingdom of God in both its prophet sent to speak of the end times, a and outstretched arm, Temple, and himself? Biblical scholars have developed present and future dimensions. Jesus’ wisdom teacher, a philosopher, and a poet king. These modes of presence are several tools to isolate material in the relationship to God was so close that he skilled in his use of parables and images. found in the Old Testament and Gospels that most likely goes back to dared to address God as Father and invited transposed in the New Testament. Jesus. If a teaching is unlike anything in others to do the same. He proclaimed the Meaning for Today All of them are embodiments of Jewish and early Christian traditions, possibility of the forgiveness of sins and of God’s desire to reach out to the holy then it probably can be assigned directly reconciliation with God. While charged with frustration, the community and to all human beings. to Jesus. An example would be Jesus’ quest for the historical Jesus has been a Christians believe that the definitive absolute prohibition of taking oaths: “Do Jesus challenged his followers to love fascinating and even irresistible topic. It embodiment of word, spirit, and not swear at all” (Matthew 5:34). their enemies and told them how to act reminds us that there is no uninterpreted wisdom was Jesus of Nazareth. in anticipation of the coming kingdom Jesus and that we are dependent on Early on, they learned to offer him Other such criteria include: when of God. He showed special concern for sources that historians find challenging. worship without compromising a tradition appears in several different marginal persons—the poor, the lame, their Old Testament belief in the sources (Last Supper); local Palestinian “sinners and tax collectors,” prostitutes, For people of faith, the witness of one powerful creator and sustainer coloring (Aramaic words, farming and so on—and manifested a free attitude the Gospels is more important than the of the universe. And they sense him methods); embarrassment at what might toward the traditions associated with the historian’s Jesus. Nevertheless, historical working now in the church and reflect badly on Jesus (his reception of Jewish Law and the Jerusalem Temple. methods can help us to see the basic world as they await his final coming John’s “baptism of repentance for the Most of these themes appear in the Lord’s reliability of the tradition about Jesus to bring creation to its completion. forgiveness of sins”); what led to Jesus’ Prayer that Jesus taught to his disciples. and to encounter Jesus as the strong death (the “cleansing” of the Temple); personality behind the Gospels and the Richard J. Clifford, S.J., Dean and and coherence (what fits with what can be Historical Quest traditions and truths contained in them. Professor of Old Testament, Boston College established by other criteria). School of Theology and Ministry The Jesus whom modern historians Reprinted with permission from St. Anthony — These historical methods do not tell us can recover and investigate by using the Messenger 114/1 (2006): 13-16. everything we would like to know about tools of historical research is sometimes — Jesus. Nor do they necessarily establish called the “historical Jesus.” A more what was most important about him. But accurate term would be the “historian’s they do tell us something. Jesus.” This Jesus is not the whole person of Jesus, nor is he the traditional Jesus’ Ministry object of Christian faith. The one whom Learn all about the latest volumes Christians worship is not only the earthly in the C21 book series at: Study of the Gospels and application of Jesus but also—and especially—the risen these historical criteria make it possible to Jesus who will come again in glory. www.bc.edu/church21 develop at least an outline of Jesus’ public Christians believe that there is a close career. Having been raised in Nazareth continuity between the earthly Jesus

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Conceived by the Holy Spirit, Born of the Virgin Mary

by barbara e. bowe, r.s.c.j. and in the stories of Jesus contained in baptism God proclaimed Jesus as his power of the Spirit. Four centuries later, our Scriptures. beloved son (Mark 1:11). after continued discussion and reflection, he birth of every human being is the great church council of Chalcedon in some real sense a miraculous One Jesus, Four Gospel Stories The Infancy Narratives of (a.d. 451) would provide a more precise T event. Biologically, the joining Matthew and Luke philosophical grounding for this claim of egg and sperm, the combination of X The earliest written witness to the life, about Jesus’ oneness with God. But for and Y chromosomes, the slow process of words, and deeds of Jesus is, in fact, not any But as the Christian movement Matthew, it was enough to say simply that development in the mother’s womb, and one of the four Gospels but the letters of matured during the first century, its it was so. finally the mystery of birth itself produces the apostle Paul. When you think about it, understanding of Jesus’ identity deepened awe and wonder in even the most hardened however, if we only had the letters of Paul, and increased. We find therefore that the Luke’s infancy story makes similar and stoic person. The gift of new life in the how much would we know about Jesus? Gospels of Matthew and Luke preserve claims, although his account is told birth of a child draws all of us who witness The answer is: precious little. Paul’s central stories (albeit very different stories) about entirely through the perspective of Mary’s it close to God. No wonder then that fascination and claim about Jesus is that his the extraordinary circumstances of Jesus’ experience and not through Joseph’s as in the psalmist turns to this image to speak death and resurrection, what we call the conception and birth. It is important Matthew. With vivid and dramatic detail, about the mystery of human life and God’s paschal mystery, have ushered in a new age to recognize that the infancy narratives Luke describes the appearance of the angel creative shaping of the human person: and opened up the promise of salvation to in these two Gospels are primarily to Mary. The angel’s words are perhaps Jew and Gentile alike. Though he surely theologically motivated and they do not the best known part of our Christmas You have formed my inmost must have known them, he shows no pretend to describe with medical precision story celebrated each year: “Do not be being; you knit me in my mother’s interest in telling the details of the stories and scientific accuracy (nor could they) afraid, Mary, for you have found favor womb. I praise you, so wonderfully of Jesus’ life and public ministry, and says the exact biology of Jesus’ birth. Our with God. Behold, you will conceive in you made me; wonderful are your nothing specific about Jesus’ entry into our creedal faith points toward a mystery that your womb and bear a son, and you shall works (Ps 139:13-14). world. But one thing that Paul does affirm cannot be fully explained or reduced to name him Jesus” (Luke 1:30-31). Mary at about Jesus is the fact of his being “born medical analysis. first questions the message: “How can this But how much more astonishing is the be?” (Luke 1:34). She is no passive agent in birth of the Son of God! this momentous event. She is a discerning He was indeed truly God and truly a human collaborator with God’s plans. So the angel “We Believe” explains: “The Holy Spirit will come upon being...humanity and divinity coalesce in you, and the power of the Most High will By the creedal affirmation that Jesus overshadow you. Therefore the child to was “conceived by the Holy Spirit, born the birth of Jesus. be born will be called holy, the Son of of the virgin Mary,” we profess our belief God” (Luke 1:35). Like Matthew, Luke in the extraordinary miracle of the birth of does not give us a biological or scientific the Son of God. Two truths are contained explanation. He speaks in theological here. The first phrase attests that Jesus’ of a woman, born under the law” (Gal For Matthew’s Gospel, the essential terms. The Spirit of God, that same Spirit birth was “by the impulse of the Spirit of 4:4). For Paul, the human birth of Jesus of affirmations about Jesus are his Davidic that had hovered over the chaos waters at the Holy,” as Sr. Joan Chittister, O.S.B., Nazareth was an obvious fact. Therefore, descent, accomplished through Joseph’s the beginning of time (Gen 1:2) and had has said so well.1 It was not an ordinary Paul emphasized that Jesus shared with adoption of the child, and his birth through inspired the prophets of old (for example conception like yours and mine. It was every one of us the condition of being truly the Holy Spirit: “Now this is how the birth Isa 61:1-3) now will rest on this woman of brought about by the mysterious power human by virtue of our common human of Jesus Christ came about. When his Nazareth. Mary’s fiat, “yes,” signals her of God’s Spirit. birth “of a woman.” mother Mary was betrothed to Joseph, but full cooperation with God in the mystery before they lived together, she was found of the child’s birth—a truly human birth, The second phrase claims that Jesus The earliest of our four Gospels— with child through the Holy Spirit” (Matt and at the same time a birth made possible was born of Mary; that is, he came into the Gospel of Mark—also begins its 1:18). A few verses later, Matthew records by God’s Holy Spirit. the human world the way every one of us story of Jesus not with the story of the the angel’s message to Joseph that explains came into it—from the body of a woman. circumstances of his birth, but with the further how this extraordinary birth will “The Word Became Flesh” And he received from his mother the opening of Jesus’ adult public ministry happen: “Joseph, son of David, do not be fullness of humanity. He was indeed truly in Galilee. Mark, like Paul, holds a firm afraid to take Mary your wife into your The latest of the Gospels, the Gospel God and truly a human being. These conviction of Jesus’ humanness and takes home. For it is through the Holy Spirit of John, does not take up and expand the affirmations, however, stand in tension— every opportunity in the Gospel to call that this child has been conceived in her” birth and infancy narratives of Matthew humanity and divinity coalesce in the birth the readers’ attention to Jesus’ human (Matt 1:20). The essential theological point and Luke. The author surely knows of the of Jesus. But these creedal statements are emotions, to his human family and that Matthew affirms is the conviction central role of Jesus’ mother and she indeed not so much about the biology of Jesus’ relatives, and to his agonizing experience that Jesus did not slowly develop a oneness is present at the “birth” of his ministry conception and birth but about the fact of human death. And yet Mark, like with God during his lifetime, or become when the water became wine at Cana of his birth coming about through the Paul, is convinced that God raised Jesus one with God at his death, resurrection, (John 2:2-5). She is there too at the end, awesome cooperation of God and the from the dead and that he is truly, as the and ascension to God, but that from the as the symbolic presence of his new family woman, Mary. They do not tell us how centurion acclaimed, “the Son of God” very moment of his conception Jesus was at the close of his human life (John 19:25- this happened; they only affirm that it (Mark 15:39). Mark seems to suggest that one with God through the power of the 27). John identifies Jesus also as a “son of happened. These creedal affirmations rely this sonship was the result of his death Holy Spirit. Matthew stresses Mary’s Joseph” (John 1:45; 6:42), claiming his on and are grounded in the witness of the and resurrection when he was taken up to virginity to affirm this truth about Jesus: human family ties. But the Fourth Gospel faith experience of the earliest Christians God as true son, although already at his that his conception happened through the says nothing at all of Jesus’ human birth.

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Instead, the Gospel of John opens with ment writers found formal expression and ness is holy, that Jesus shared all that we salvation and the possibility of fullness of a poetic affirmation of the preexistence philosophical precision in the creeds. What are. In his birth from Mary, he shows us life with God forever. of the Logos, the Word of God, who do we really believe by our affirmations of that our flesh is not evil, that our bodiliness “became flesh and made his dwelling Jesus’ conception by the Holy Spirit and is good and leads us to God. By confessing This article of our creed, finally, says among us” (John 1:14). John’s story of birth from the body of Mary of Nazareth? that Jesus’ birth happened through the something very significant about our salva- Jesus begins not with his human birth, but tion. Luke Johnson puts it this way: “If, with his life as Logos-with-God before all as Christians believe, the salvation brought time. Like Matthew and Luke, however, by Jesus Christ fundamentally altered the John’s claim about Jesus’ preexistent life All four Evangelists prepare the way for the structures of human existence itself, the and his “becoming flesh” is not about moments of conception and birth are the biology of his birth, but about the creedal confession that “he was conceived by deservedly singled out by the creed, for certainty that here we have encountered the full sharing of the human condition a person in whom the human and divine the Holy Spirit and born of the virgin Mary” by by God’s Son is fundamental (Heb 2:14- have mingled. All four Evangelists prepare 18).”2 So we repeat our age-old confession the way for the creedal confession that “he their insistence that in Jesus people encountered of faith that he “was conceived by the Holy was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born Spirit, born of the virgin Mary.” And to that of the virgin Mary” by their insistence that a man who was like them in his humanness, we say “Amen.” in Jesus people encountered a man who was like them in his humanness, but at the but at the same time a man who was suffused Reprinted with permission from The Bible Today same time a man who was suffused with 43 (2005): 309-13. the very Spirit and presence of God. with the very Spirit and presence of God. Endnotes What Do “We Believe”? 1 Joan Chittister, In Search of Belief (Liguori, MO: Liguori Publications, 1999). The church’s faith grew and deepened Our faith is a testimony to the power of mysterious power of the divine Spirit, we 2 Luke T. Johnson, The Creed: What Christians in the early centuries that led finally to the Spirit working through the very ordi- acknowledge at the same time that he is Believe and Why It Matters (New York: Doubleday, the great church councils of Nicea (a.d. nariness of our humanity. Jesus, the holy one with God, that his life offers us a way 2003), 160. 325) and Chalcedon (a.d. 451), when the one of God, has become one with us. This to God. Our faith tells us that Jesus’ life, — intuitions and hunches of the New Testa- claim of our faith means that our human- death, and resurrection have won for us Jesus and the Kingdom of God

by john r. donahue, s.j. are three principal groups of sayings. Evidence for both positions is ample. hearers. Human experience is the path The first stresses the presence of the Jesus inaugurates his public ministry by toward the transcendent. he kingdom of God assumes a kingdom; the second, its future coming; proclaiming that the kingdom of God is central place in contemporary the third, its demands on people who at hand and summoning people to reform Future expectation is also strong. T New Testament scholarship. A wish to accept or enter it. A seemingly and renewal (metanoia, Mark 1:16‑17). Disciples are to pray that the kingdom wide spectrum of New Testament scholars will come, just as they pray for God’s will of all denominations significantly agrees to be done on earth as in heaven (Matt that the central theme of the public pro- 6:10). Other sayings of Jesus reflect Jewish clamation of Jesus was the arrival of God’s apocalyptic thought, with its emphasis on powerful reign. Beyond this consensus the end of the world, when the exalted is a virtual storm of scholarly discussion Son of Man will reign as king to judge and debate. The kingdom is a major topic evildoers and restore justice to the elect in three recent scholarly tomes: Jesus: A (the sheep and the goats, Matt 25:31- Marginal Jew, vol. 2, by John P. Meier;1 46). According to Paul, eschatological Jesus and the Victory of God, by N. T. fulfillment of the reign of God will come Wright;2 and Jesus Remembered, by James when at the end time the risen Jesus will D. G. Dunn.3 The Greek term itself, endless debate centers on which sayings Jesus also proclaims that the king­dom is hand over his kingdom to “his God and basileia tou theou (literally, “kingdom of are closest to the actual statements of “among you” (Luke 17:21), not “within Father” (1 Cor 15:24). God”), expresses the power of God active Jesus (his ipsissima vox). Advocates of the you,” a translation that spawns many inac- in the ministry of Jesus, but it also implies presence of the kingdom interpret Jesus curate appropria­tions. His mighty works The radical challenge of the kingdom a spatial or local dimension, as in “United primarily as a prophet of reform (John of healing, confrontation with demons, is crystallized in a series of sayings on Kingdom.” The expression is a tensive Dominic Crossan), while the future and his power over nature are the signs conditions for “entering” the kingdom. symbol, evoking a host of associations sayings form the basis of interpreting of God’s power now at work in his life Rather than scandalize a child or commit rather than a single referent. The pro- Jesus as an apocalyptic preacher (Albert and teaching. The kingdom is “of God,” other sins, one should be willing to enter clamation has a clear eschatological Schweitzer). Current exegesis leans both as gift and challenge; despite the kingdom of God blind (Mark 9:47). dimension—the final and definitive rule toward some version of the thesis of common parlance, nowhere does the Those who wish to enter the kingdom of God is at hand. Joachim Jeremias, that Jesus proclaims New Testament speak of “building the should be powerless like children (Matt God’s reign as already at work in his kingdom of God.” For his part, Jesus 19:14); riches provide an overwhelming A host of problems accompany inter- ministry, while anticipating its fullest speaks often of the kingdom in parables obstacle to entering (Matt 19:23-25). pretation of this proclamation. There realization in the future. drawn from the ordinary lives of his Disciples who seek the prestige of sitting

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 5 Jesus and the The Sermon on the Mount Kingdom of God What Is It? Continued from Page 5 by daniel j. harrington, s.j. supplemented this foundational piece with We know that Jesus burst on the public at the right hand of Jesus in the kingdom other sayings that either are concerned scene proclaiming the coming kingdom are urged instead to become servants and he Sermon on the Mount in with Jewish life or breathe the air of of heaven (4:17) and summoning disciples slaves (Matt 20:21-25). Matthew 5–7 is arguably the best Jewish Wisdom literature. Since Matthew (4:18-22). The audience for the sermon T known part of the Bible. If people assembled and edited these traditions, it includes not only his small circle of The powerful reign of God is not today know any Bible passages at all, they is fair to call the composition Matthew’s disciples but also the crowds gathered otherworldly, but embodied in history. probably know the beatitudes (Matt 5:3- Sermon on the Mount. from all the surrounding regions (see Its arrival brings special hope to the poor, 12), the Lord’s Prayer (6:9-13), the “lilies 4:24–5:2; 7:28-29). the suffering, and the marginal. When of the field” (6:28-30), and the Golden Nevertheless, Matthew lets us hear the Jesus calls the poor happy because “the Rule (7:12). All these are from the Sermon voice of Jesus, even though it is unlikely The Sermon and Jesus kingdom of God is yours” (Luke 6:26), on the Mount. Great Christian (Martin that Jesus delivered this sermon word he is declaring that God’s reign is on their Luther King) and non-Christian (Gandhi) for word. Jesus taught in Aramaic, and The sermon is followed in Matthew behalf. After the rich young man fails to leaders of the twentieth century appealed to Matthew wrote in Greek on the basis of 8–9 by a series of miracle stories in which heed Jesus’ call to give his wealth to the its principles in their campaigns for justice Greek sources. Moreover, the content Jesus appears as a healer, exorcist, and poor, Jesus comments to his disciples and freedom. Its influence on Christian of the sermon is so rich that no audience miracle worker. The one who is powerful about the young man’s reluctance, “How ethics/moral theology has been enormous. could absorb it at one hearing. And yet in word (as shown in the Sermon on the hard it is for the rich to enter the kingdom The Sermon on the Mount is widely the Sermon on the Mount contains Mount) is also powerful in deed (as shown of God” (Mark 10:23). admired and loved, and its importance is teachings that modern scholars attribute in his mighty acts). Then in the second beyond measure. with confidence to the historical Jesus: great discourse (Matthew 10), Jesus invites Jesus’ personal consciousness of the the beatitudes, the prohibitions of divorce his disciples to do what he does—to teach, reign of God constitutes an enduring But what is it? This article answers that and oaths, love of enemies, the Lord’s to proclaim the kingdom of God, and to problem. Though, apart from John 18, question first descriptively by looking at Prayer, and so on. In that sense, Matthew’s heal the sick (see 4:23; 9:35; and 10:1, 7- Jesus never refers to “his kingdom” the sermon’s origin, context, and content. Sermon on the Mount allows us to hear 8). Thus the sermon is part of the story of and does not accept the title “king,” he Then it takes up the more difficult Jesus’ voice. Jesus, not a self-standing ethical treatise. has a unique relationship to God’s questions of genre and theological reign. For decades, scholars have called significance. Although it is relatively easy Matthew’s Sermon on the Mount attention to Origen’s description of Jesus to describe the sermon, it is much more consists of five major sections. The as autobasileia (literally “himself the king- difficult to say how it should be understood The Sermon on the introductory part (5:3-16) presents in 5:3- dom”). Recent magisterial statements have and used as a guide to Christian life. 12 the beatitudes (“Blessed are the poor frequently appealed to this text. While Mount (5–7) serves as in spirit...”), which set forth the personal reflecting on Matt 18:23-35, Origen says Origin, Context, and Content characteristics, values, attitudes, and that “king” refers to the Son of God. He a summary or actions that will be rewarded in the fullness goes on to ask: Since Jesus is “wisdom itself” The Sermon on the Mount was of God’s kingdom and are therefore to be (autosophia), “justice itself” (autodikaiosyne), composed by Matthew the Evangelist compendium of Jesus’ cultivated in the present. The importance and “truth itself” (autoasphaleia), is he not (though Hans Dieter Betz, who has writ- of those who follow Jesus’ teaching and also autobasileia, “the kingdom itself”? ten a major commentary on the Sermon, most important and the service that they perform for the world (Comm. in Matt. 14:7). claims that it existed as a unit even before is expressed with the help of three images the Gospel’s composition). Matthew wrote distinctive teachings. in 5:13-16: the salt of the earth, the light Origen prefers the spiritual sense in the late first century a.d. for a largely of the world, and the city built on a hill. over the literal, and his commentary is Jewish Christian community, possibly at allegorical and christological. The phrase Antioch in Syria. His work was a revised The second part (5:17-48) concerns “the kingdom itself,” therefore, is a and expanded version of Mark’s Gospel The Sermon on the Mount is the first Jesus and the Jewish Law. The theological expression on the trajectory in which he integrated material from of five great speeches by Jesus in Matthew’s fundamental assertions in 5:17-20 are that leads to the councils of Ephesus and the Sayings Source “Q” and from a Gospel. The other discourses deal with that Jesus came “not to abolish but to Chalcedon. It is an interpretation, rather special tradition (or traditions) found discipleship (Matthew 10), the kingdom fulfill” the Law and the Prophets and that than a description of the historical Jesus. only in Matthew’s Gospel and commonly of heaven (13), community life (18), and his approach is superior to that of the referred to as “M.” Matthew sought to preparation for the full coming of the scribes and Pharisees. That Jesus offers Reprinted with permission from America 197/7 give a larger sample of Jesus’ teaching kingdom (24–25). Placed first in the series, deepening and an intensification rather (2007): 16-17. than was in Mark and to present Jesus the Sermon on the Mount (5–7) serves as than abolition is then illustrated by the as the authoritative representative and a summary or compendium of Jesus’ most six “antitheses” about murder and anger Endnotes interpreter of the Jewish tradition in the important and distinctive teachings. (5:21-26), adultery and lust (5:27-30), 1 (New York: Doubleday, 1994); reviewed in crisis facing all Jews after the destruction marriage and divorce (5:31-32), oaths America, April 8, 1995. of the Jerusalem Temple in a.d. 70. The sermon appears in the context of (5:33-37), retaliation and nonviolence 2 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996); reviewed in Matthew’s narrative of Jesus’ birth and (5:38-42), and love of enemies (5:43-48). America, March 8, 1997. In composing the Sermon on the his emergence from the circle of John the 3 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003); reviewed Mount, Matthew used the block of Jesus’ Baptist (1:1–4:16). As readers, we know The third part (6:1-18) deals with acts in America, December 3, 2003. teaching in Q that appears in Luke as the that Jesus is not only the son of Abraham of piety: almsgiving (6:2-4), prayer (6:5-6), — Sermon on the Plain (Luke 6:20-49). He and son of David but also the Son of God. and fasting (6:16-18). The wrong way to 6 b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 perform acts of piety is to make a public understand it? What significance does it commitment to certain ways of acting. spectacle in the hope of getting a good have for us? What are we to do with it? Rather than providing a complete code of reputation for holiness. The right way is to conduct, the Sermon on the Mount shapes leahy seek to serve and please God alone. Also It is probably easier to say what the Christians to discern wisely and to act included are teachings about brevity in Sermon on the Mount is not than what it correctly. The sermon presupposes life in prayer (6:7-8), how to pray—the Lord’s is. It is not an elitist or perfectionist ethics, community and its positive impact for the Like so many Christians and Prayer—(6:9-13), and forgiveness (6:14-15). intended only for a few individuals or a common good as the salt of the earth, the members of the Catholic Church, small group. Rather, it addresses not only light of the world, and the city on a hill. I find inspiration and challenge in The fourth part (6:19–7:12) provides Jesus’ inner circle but also the crowds. It is Scripture. My faith, relationship wise advice about various topics: treasures not an impossible ethics (as Martin Luther The sermon makes no sharp distinction with Christ, and Jesuit vocation (6:19-21), eyes (6:22-23), masters (6:24), proposed), designed to make us recognize between law and love. Rather, they work have been especially shaped by New anxiety (6:25-34), judgments (7:1-5), dogs our sinfulness and our need for God’s together. The body of the sermon begins Testament passages about Jesus— and pigs (7:6), prayer (7:7-11), and the grace. Rather, it is presented as something with Jesus’ claim that he came “not to his words and actions as well as Golden Rule (7:12). that people can put into practice (see 7:13- abolish but to fulfill” the Law and the responses to him. Throughout his 27). And it is not an interim ethics (at least Prophets (5:17). It ends with the Golden ministry, Jesus maintained his focus The concluding exhortation (7:13- in the narrow sense suggested by Albert Rule: “In everything, do to others as you and broader mission. His words 27) uses short parables about gates and Schweitzer) put forward by Jesus who would have them do to you; for this is the invite all who profess to follow him ways (7:13-14), trees and fruits (7:15-20), mistakenly imagined that God’s kingdom Law and the Prophets” (7:12). to consider the goals and aspira- and houses and foundations (7:24-27) would come in a very short time. Matthew tions that animate their lives, and to highlight the challenges involved in wrote some sixty years after Jesus’ death. Various motives are offered for why I have always found them a model practicing Jesus’ teachings and the need one should act wisely and do good: response and attitude for Jesuits and for integrity and spiritual depth. It is not Neither is the Sermon on the Mount a entering the kingdom of heaven, imitating the mission of the Society of Jesus. enough to know Jesus’ teachings and to law code. Instead, it freely mixes general the example of God, going to the root of In the New Testament, Jesus calls call him “Lord” (7:21-23). One must also principles such as love of enemies (5:43-48) a divine commandment, behaving in a for decisions and makes demands do what he says. His wisdom is practical and the Golden Rule (7:12) with parables, wise and appropriate manner, avoiding on people, just as life does. He has a rather than purely speculative. exhortations, examples, declarations, and punishment in the present or in the world claim on us and on what we do. For so on. Nor is it the new Torah. Instead, to come, and so on. There is no single me, this claim is like an unwavering Genre and Theological Significance it presents Jesus as the authoritative motive to the exclusion of all others. gaze, silent but intense. He invites interpreter of the Law of Moses and puts us to surrender ourselves to him The Sermon on the Mount is a forward as his basic principle “not to Another way to approach the present and to live for others. I believe summary of Jesus’ wise teachings. Some abolish but to fulfill” (5:17). significance of the Sermon on the Mount I am free to respond and I do not scholars compare it to the epitomes or is to compare it with the American feel coerced. Yet there would be compendia that were used in antiquity to But what is it? The Sermon on the Declaration of Independence and the Bill an incompleteness in me without summarize the doctrines of philosophers. Mount presents the wisdom of Jesus. In of Rights. These foundational documents fidelity to Christ and his message. However, given Jesus’ (and Matthew’s) his initial wisdom instruction according to express the vision of the Founding Fathers I draw deep and abiding hope from roots in Judaism and the Jewish character Matthew, Jesus lays out his teachings on and the commonly accepted principles on reading and studying Scripture, and of his teachings, a better analogy can be true happiness, the interpretation of the which the United States is built. They then praying about it. One of my found among the wisdom instructions in Law and the Prophets, the service of God, contain the basic attitudes, ideals, and favorite passages is Luke 18:1, “pray Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Sirach, and the and wise attitudes and actions in various stances that serve as norms for legislation and not lose heart.” I also find much Wisdom of Solomon. spheres of human life. He concludes with a and behavior. They also set limits or strength in Christ’s words that “I reminder about the practical nature of his parameters. And yet these documents, will not leave you orphans” (John In a wisdom instruction, the sage wisdom. In form and content, Matthew since they are well over two hundred 14:18) and his desire expressed in addresses those in search of wisdom. The 5–7 is a Jewish wisdom instruction. years old, reflect a very different social and the following chapter “that my joy sage uses various literary forms: beatitudes, historical situation from our own. And may be in you, and that your joy proverbs, commands, and prohibitions Christian Character and Conduct they do not address issues that either were may be full” (John 15:11). Years ago, often accompanied by reasons (“for...”), not regarded as imperative or practical in I heard a retreat director declare general principles, parables, and so on. What significance does the Sermon on the late eighteenth century (abolition of that when asked about how to know While there is often an architecture or the Mount have for us? What do we do slavery, women’s suffrage, and so on) or that God, he recommended prayerfully external framework in wisdom instruc- with it? The sermon is best understood have been raised by modern technology reading one of the Synoptic Gospels tions, there is no extended argument or today as part of an ethics of Christian (cloning, surrogate motherhood, weap- to gain a sense of Jesus and his logical development of an idea. Instead, character or Christian virtue ethics. The ons of mass destruction, and so on), message, and after that exploring the sage moves rapidly from topic to topic, horizon and goal is the kingdom of God. while devoting great energy to matters the rest of Scripture and theolog- sometimes only on the basis of keywords or The sermon tells how to prepare to enjoy that we now happily regard as resolved ical writings about the Christian catchwords. The content embraces general its fullness and to act appropriately in (freedom of assembly, of the press, of understanding of God. Based on principles, attitudes, and actions. All these the present. The search for “perfection” religion, and so on). Like the Sermon personal experience and the features appear in Matthew 5–7, and to takes God as its model and criterion: “Be on the Mount, these documents need evolution of my own faith and that extent it is fair to call the Sermon on perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father continuing interpretation, adaptation, vocation, that approach is full of the Mount a wisdom instruction. is perfect” (5:48). Its ethical teachings and application. And yet they remain grace and possibilities. appear as part of a narrative in which Jesus foundational, normative, and meaningful. What is the Sermon on the Mount? To is not only the master teacher but also the William P. Leahy, S.J., President of Boston College describe the origin, context, content, and best example of his own teaching. Reprinted with permission from The Bible Today — literary genre of this text still does not fully 36 (1998): 280-86. answer the question. In fact, it generates Being a student in Jesus’ wisdom — another set of questions. How are we to school involves formation in character and

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 The Miracles of Jesus mahoney

by eugene hensell, o.s.b. Miracle workers were special people healed. Fifth, the people witnessing who were understood to have the ability to the healing are amazed. Note, too, that In the Scriptures, I encounter ll four Gospels attest that Jesus mediate power, both for good and for evil. miracles are not something that Jesus Jesus in word and deed, as teacher worked miracles. In the Gospel of The ancients never raised the question does spontaneously or impulsively. As and poet. The poetic Jesus counsels A Mark, the first nine chapters are whether or not a miracle worker really the Gospel of Mark makes clear, when those anxious about “food and structured around the miracles of Jesus. could perform miracles. The question Jesus is rejected by his own hometown, drink,” about things of the world Obviously, these actions of Jesus were raised was what kind of power is behind there is a need for a faith response on (Matt 6:24-33). Far from an abstract very important to the Evangelists and to this miracle. Miracles were based on what the part of the recipients before he will sermon, he draws an image from the sources from which they received their was considered ordinary or beyond human mediate the power of God and bring “how the lilies grow in the fields; material. Quite often, the stories of Jesus capacity. Of course, how one defines about a miracle. “And he could do no they do not work, they do not that people today find themselves most “ordinary” is influenced very much by deed of power there.... And he was spin; yet I tell you, even Solomon drawn to come from his miracles. There one’s social and cultural environment. No amazed at their unbelief” (Mark 6:5-6). in all his splendor was not attired can be no doubt that miracles play a very one ever tried to deny that Jesus worked like one of them.” Likewise, “do significant role in the life and ministry of miracles. What they did do was accuse The context for understanding the not be anxious,” “set your mind Jesus as portrayed in the Gospels. What is him of using the power of Satan because miracles of Jesus is most often the Old on God’s kingdom…and all the not so clear, however, is how these actions he did miracles of healing on the Sabbath Testament. Jesus’ miracles are rooted in rest come to you as well.” Also in of Jesus are to be understood. What are and thus, according to his opponents, Old Testament imagery. This imagery Matthew, he warns against quick they and what do they mean? broke the Law. Their argument was that helps connect the actions of Jesus with and rash judgment of others, against no one could use the power of God to the primordial plan of God, showing hypocrisy: “Why do you look at the Traditionally, the interpretation of break the Law. Jesus, however, claimed how Jesus fulfills that plan. Jesus brings speck of sawdust in your brother’s miracles has been undertaken from that the Law must be understood anew order out of chaos by healing the sick, eye, with never a thought for the one of two extremes. The first extreme and from the perspective of the advent of expelling demons, and controlling the plank in your own?” (7:1-5). To comes from the literalists. This ap- the kingdom of God. forces of nature. Jesus miraculously the rich young man feeling that he proach claims that the miracles describe feeds the hungry not only with bread but qualifies for eternal life by following actions that Jesus literally did in the with his very self. He rejects the social the commandments, Jesus reminds exact manner the biblical text narrates and religious taboos which marginal- him that he must do more: “Go, them. They are literal factual events ized women, ostracized the so-called sell everything you have, and give which must be taken at face value. The The real meaning unclean, and excluded people from God’s to the poor, then come and follow second extreme comes from the ration- salvation. Jesus proclaims the advent me.” His response in Mark’s Gospel alists. This approach stems from an of Jesus’ miracles can of the kingdom of God, which offers calls for the skill of a great actor: understanding of truth being based believers the hope of new life both in the “At these words his face fell and he solely on reason. Here it is said that the never be attained by present age and in the age to come. went away with a heavy heart; for he miracles of Jesus cannot be understood was a man of great wealth” (10:17- at face value because as such they are merely substantiating The real value and richness of the 22). Jesus requires our utmost and unreasonable. Instead, the interpreter Gospel miracle stories are to be found in our best. One of my most moving must look at them through the eyes their historicity. their inner meaning. Those who choose scriptural encounters with Jesus is of reason and show how they can be to understand these stories from the in Paul to the Corinthians (1 Cor explained through natural reasonable question of what really happened will 11:23-26). It seems almost like a causes. Whatever cannot be explained in always remain on the outside. They will response to the powerful question this way must be dismissed as false and The Gospel writers intended the stress the external wonder, but always at of the Psalmist: “How can I repay untenable. The problem with both of miracles of Jesus to be understood the price of the internal meaning. It is the Lord for all his benefits to me?” these approaches is that they attempt to theologically and spiritually, not precisely the internal meaning of these (Ps 116:12). Paul’s answer is direct, answer the wrong question. That wrong historically and factually. In other miracle stories that can and does relate clear, and stirring—Eucharist and question is, What really happened? words, the real meaning of Jesus’ to our own real-life experiences. We do prayer. Eucharist brings the assur- miracles can never be attained by not need more religious entertainment, ance of salvation; prayer is the There is no way that we can ever merely substantiating their historicity. strange wonder-causing events, or tales continuing conversation with the reconstruct historically what really Their real meaning lies below the from the beyond. What most humans Lord about my joys and sorrows, happened when Jesus did a miracle. surface of the action and can only be desire is to be made whole in all ways. hopes and disappointments. My That was never the intent of the Gospel explained theologically. Because of this, Time and again we experience that, on discovery of Jesus continues as I writers. Some like to think that, if one the Gospel writers never focus on the our own resources, human wholeness read the inspired words of Scripture could prove that Jesus really did miracles, event itself. We get to see what leads up is an impossibility. The miracles of and learn more about myself. then that would also prove that he was to the action and what follows from the Jesus are stories designed to inspire us God. Nothing could be further from the action, but there is no dwelling on the with the hope and the good news that John L. Mahoney, Rattigan Professor of truth. At the time of Jesus, many holy action itself. The literary structure of through faith and the power of God English Emeritus, Boston College men and women were believed to be able miracle stories can be seen in miracles working through Jesus we can indeed — to do miracles. While this was considered of healing. First, a sickness is described. be made whole. to be a manifestation of holiness, it was Second, the sick person and Jesus never understood to manifest divinity. encounter one another. Third, Jesus Reprinted with permission from Review for What was at stake in a miracle was not effects a healing. Fourth, the one healed Religious 65 (2006): 202-5. divinity but power. demonstrates that he or she has been — b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Up Against Caesar: Jesus and Paul versus Empire

by john dart news” of joy “to all the people,” be- In October 2004, about two hundred ed Roman imperial terms as its own. “We cause of the birth of a “Savior, who is Christian ethicists issued a state­ment were not quite listening in the 1990s” he “kingdom” of God and the Messiah, the Lord.” A heavenly mul- “about the erroneous use of Christian when scholars like Horsley and Crossan, “gospel” are usually thought of titude joins the angels in proclaiming “on rhetoric to support the policies of two speakers at the Union conference, as terms unique to Christianity. earth peace among those whom he empire,” as it was put by one signer,­ Glen were proposing that Jesus was crucified T ­ And who else but Jesus was called not only favors.” For the Romans, peace was the Stassen, who holds an endowed chair at primarily for his political opposition to “the Son of God” but also “Lord” and militarily imposed Pax Romana, and it was Fuller Theological Seminary. The state- Roman rule. “It has taken us too long “Savior”? In fact, say biblical experts, these already guaranteed by Rome. Horsley ment declared that “a time comes when to get here.” Taussig credited another terms and concepts were already familiar has been a pioneer among biblical silence is betrayal.” The Christian call speaker, Elisa­beth Schüssler Fiorenza, to residents of the Roman Empire who scholars who have emphasized the anti- to peacemaking has been co-opted, the with breaking new ground in 1985 knew them as references to the authority imperial, political strategies­ of the Jesus group said, “when a ‘theology of war’ is with her commentary on the Book of and divinity­ of the emperors, beginning movement. He has been joined in recent emanating from the highest circles of Revelation. “She made it clear that it was notably with Caesar Augustus before the years by a growing number of col- American government; the language of a message of oppressed people” against dawn of the first century. leagues, including prolific authors N. T. ‘righteous em­pire’ is employed...[and] Rome, he said. Those Revelation themes Wright and John Dominic Crossan. the roles of God, church, and nation were also treated in Unveiling Empire, a Julius Caesar was assassinated on the The latter’s latest book, coauthored with are confused by talk of an American 1999 book by Wes Howard-Brook and Ides of March in 44 b.c. When a comet Jonathan L. Reed, In Search of Paul, ‘mission’ and ‘divine appointment’ to Anthony Gwyther.5 They suggested was later visible on July nights, Octavius, is subtitled: How Jesus’ Apostle Opposed ‘rid the world of evil.’” that the author of Revelation, John of the adopted son and heir of Julius Cae­ Rome’s Empire with God’s Kingdom.2 Patmos, wrote his visionary text to shake sar, promoted the idea that it was a sign the complacency of the churches in Asia that the divine Caesar was on his way to about the cult of Caesar as well as about heaven. When Roman law in 42 b.c. dei­ Rome’s economic exploitation, violence, fied Julius Caesar, the status of Octavius, and arrogance. “For him, Rome was who took the name Augustus, was not an order with which one could strengthened by adding the phrase “son cooperate,” they wrote. “It was, instead, of God.” Poets celebrated the divinity an incarnation of ‘Satan.’ It was both a as­sociated with Augustus, and across the ferocious Beast and a seductive Whore.” empire coins, monuments, temples, and artwork promoted the cult of Augustus Biblical scholar Walter Brueggemann, and other emperors who adopted Caesar About ten years ago, Horsley edited Also in October 2004, Brazos Press in a blurb for Unveiling Empire, praised as an honorific title. an influential book, Paul and Empire,3 published a collection of essays, Anxious the writers for their critique of the and started a “Paul and Politics Group” About Empire, edited by Wesley Avram “contemporary preoccupation with apoc- To many in the empire, Roman that met at annual sessions of the Society of Yale Divinity School.4 Interviewed by alyptic” themes. “Howard-Brook and civilization brought sta­bility and wealth. of Biblical Literature. “We launched a the school’s Reflec­tions magazine, Avram Gwyther understand that the Book of And the people were urged to have “faith” seri­ous consideration of Paul as [being] likened the Republican convention to a Revelation is an exercise in ecclesiology. in their “Lord,” the emperor, who would opposed to the Roman Empire,” he said. megachurch where President Bush spoke That is, how to be the church in the face preserve peace and increase wealth. “In “But I think it was 9/11 and the Bush from a pul­pit. “You realize that he is using of a powerful and seductive empire.” the Roman imperial world, the ‘gospel’ administration’s invasion of Iraq that a kind of language that’s so infused with was the good news of Caesar’s having really provoked interest.” At the 2004 religious symbols that one wonders how Some years before Revelation was estab­lished peace and security for the SBL annual meeting, a new program the church can speak, when its language written, Paul was sending letters to world,” wrote Richard A. Horsley in unit on Jesus and the Roman imperial is so taken over by the culture.” churches in Asia Minor and Greece to Jesus and Empire.1 Christians gave secular world attracted ten speakers and required build up the Christ-rooted societies words associated with the em­pire a new overflow rooms. Only days before the November 2004 with an egalitar­ian credo, recognizing meaning. The Greek word parousia elections, Union Theological Seminary in believers whether they were Greek referred to the triumphant arrivals of The escalating attention to the New York held a two-day conference on or Jew, male or female, slave or free. emperors into cities. In churches, it biblical-era empire has been amplified analogies between the Roman Empire and These as­semblies stood “in contrast meant the expected return, or second by the open lament of some ethicists, the American one. “This conference will to the hierarchical social relations”­ in coming, of the heavenly exalted Christ. church leaders, and politicians that the explore how the imperial presumptions of the empire, Horsley wrote in Paul and Churches, literally “assemblies,” were U.S. has assumed aspects of an empire— American power today can find resonance Em­pire, a book deemed significant by the Christian counterparts to the complete with religious imagery to with early Christian resistance to the Wright, a New Tes­tament scholar and Roman ekklesiai where Caesar was assure skeptics of its benevolent mo- Roman Em­pire,” said organizer Brigitte the Anglican bishop of Durham. “Tom celebrated, according to Horsley, an tives. Despite the many differences Kahl, profes­sor of New Testament. Wright was one of the first to pick up emeritus pro­fessor at the University of between ancient Rome and present- Fewer than one hundred attendees­ were on that theme, and he has run with it,” Massachusetts at Boston. “Cae­sar was day Washington, a growing number of expected; three hundred showed up. Horsley said in an interview. the ‘Savior’ who had brought ‘salvation’ critics are eager to draw comparisons to the whole world.” and note the historical irony—whereas In opening remarks, Hal Taussig, a In a lecture at Princeton’s Center the early church reconceptualized the visit­ing professor at Union and a pastor of Theological In­quiry, Wright, like In that context, the Christmas passage meaning of empire, current leaders have of a United Methodist congregation in Horsley, tried to anticipate the objec­ in the Gospel of Luke has a subversive invoked Christian language to support Philadelphia, said he found it “stunning” tions of those who doubt there is political tone, says Horsley. Angels bring “good the American empire. to consider how early Christianity adopt- protest in Paul’s message.

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Up Against Caesar: Jesus and Paul versus Empire... Continued from Page 9 “It is important to stress, as Paul would belongs to God and nothing to Caesar, crucified by the Roman governor­ in Judea political,” said Reed. “However, this is do himself were he not so muzzled by his said Horsley in Hearing the Whole Story: and why another attention-getting figure one of the few books on Paul that takes interpreters, that when he re­ferred to the The Politics of Plot in Mark’s Gospel.6 in the mid-first century named Jesus (ben his ecstatic experiences seriously; there is ‘gospel’ he was not talking about a scheme Hananiah) got off easy, Horsley said. a spiritual com­ponent to Paul.” Crossan of soteriology. Nor was he offering people One evident slap at Roman rule in This other Jesus also predicted doom added, “People have no problem with a new way of being what we would call Mark is the story of Jesus healing the for Jerusalem, but was deemed simply the statement, ‘Not Caesar, but Christ, ‘religious,’” said Wright. “For Paul, ‘the demoniac that no one had the strength crazy and was beaten and then released. is Lord.’ That’s fine. But then we say, gospel’ is the announcement that the to subdue. Jesus asks the man’s unclean Hors­ley suggests that the accusation that ‘Here’s Caesar’s program and here’s crucified­ and risen Jesus of Nazareth is spirit for its name. “My name is Legion; Jesus of Nazareth pretended to be “king Christ’s program.’ Now we are getting Israel’s Messiah and the world’s Lord. It is, for we are many,” replies the man, using of the Jews” in Mark’s passion story into politics.” Asked what will happen if in other words, the thoroughly Jewish… the Latin word for a large unit of Roman indicates that the Romans believed he they relate their historical work to 21st- message which challenges the royal and troops. The demons beg Jesus not to send deserved “the tortuous death reserved century politics, Crossan replied, “Then imperial messages in Paul’s world.” them out of the country, but instead into for provincial rebels as well as slaves.” it will be called partisan politics.” a herd of swine; when he obliges, they Though the Lord’s Prayer seeks Rome regarded itself as the fount of promptly rush down a steep bank into forgiveness of sins, the petition also Nonetheless, in both their book and the justice that flowed to all its conquered the sea. Horsley be­lieves the symbolism asks for God’s kingdom to come and interview, the coauthors emphasized that nations. A temple to the Roman goddess is unmistakable: Jesus takes control of “focuses on the people’s economic needs, they think neither the Roman Empire nor Justice was established in Rome in 13 b.c. the Roman forces who have brutalized concretely sufficient food, and mutual the U.S. empire can be called “evil.” The and “justice” had already been celebrated people and foretells the army’s demise. cancellation of debts,” said Horsley, early Christian conflict­ with Rome came as one of the virtues of Caesar Augustus, explaining how the sociopolitical side of because Rome “represented what we call Wright noted. To be successful, he said, The Gospel episodes of exorcisms Jesus’ message is downplayed. ‘the nor­malcy of civilization,’” said Crossan, the gospel of the Christians had to be depict a power struggle “at three levels— noting that civilizations can be bene­ficial positive, not merely subversive: “It claims the individual possessed, the spirit world Crossan, an emeritus professor at as well as unjust and oppressive. “So Paul’s to be the reality of which Caesar’s empire where God is battling Satan, and by DePaul University, published ex­tensively language about a ‘new creation’—starting is the parody; it claims to be modeling the implication the political level,” said on the “historical Jesus” from 1991 to all over again—has to be taken seriously, genuine humanness, not least the justice Horsley at Union Seminary. “If God/ 1994 and summarized his conclusions because we’re trying to get to a nonviolent and peace, and the unity across traditional Jesus is winning the battle at the spirit in Who Killed Jesus?7 “The kingdom of civilization, and we don’t have a clue what racial and cultural barriers, of which level, as manifest in his exorcisms, then God movement was Jesus’ program of that looks like.” Caesar’s empire boasted.” Roman rule is about to be terminated.” empowerment for a peasantry becoming Roman rulers are the doomed “rulers of more steadily hard-pressed…through The Roman Empire, they wrote, In his Letter to the Romans, however, this age” in 1 Cor 2:2-8, but Paul may insistent taxation, attendant­ indebted- was based on faith in achieving peace Paul counseled believers to be subject to also have allud­ed to malevolent cosmic ness, and eventual land expropriation, through military victory. Opposing and pay taxes to the governing author- powers, scholars say. Paul lauds God’s all within increasing commercialization the Roman philosophy, Paul the ities, which he said were instituted by power and secret wisdom “decreed before in the booming colonial economy of a Jew followed in Jesus’ footsteps by God (13:1-7). Wright and Crossan the ages for our glory” over against the Roman Empire under Augustan peace,” proclaiming a covenant of nonviolent both think that such passages reflect “wisdom of this age or of the rulers of he wrote. Jesus lived an alternative life justice and true peace. Crossan and Paul’s strategic decision not to invite this age, who are doomed to perish.... of shared meals, itin­erancy, and human Reed were asked to what extent punishment with open defiance of the None of the rulers of this age understood contact without discrimination. “That America can embody those Christian empire. Pauline scholar Neil Elliott, this; for if they had, they would not have was how God’s will was to be done on ideals. They agreed that inasmuch as chaplain at the University Episcopal crucified the Lord of glory.” earth as in heaven,”­ Crossan said. Rome was the greatest preindustrial Center in Minneapolis, wrote in Paul empire and the U.S. is the greatest and Empire that within the rhetorical If more scholars come to accept the Crossan and recent coauthor Reed, postindustri­al one, “Paul’s challenge is structure of Romans “these remarks have thesis that many of the New Testament interviewed to­gether at the University as forceful­ now as it was then.” an important function: to encourage writ­ers were arguing with Roman rulers of La Verne in California, where Reed submission, for now, to the authorities, and their collabora­tors, that does not teaches, agreed that “kingdom of God” Copyright © 2005 by the Christian Century. rather than desperate resistance” that necessarily mean they will conclude that was a phrase chosen by Jesus to confront Reprinted by permission from the Feb. 8, 2005, would endanger Christian Jews in Jesus was primarily a political reformer or the divine Roman Empire. “Jesus could issue of Christian Century. Rome who were recovering from earlier social revolutionary. Such theo­ries, when have talked about the community of God imperial violence. broached in the past, have tended to be or the people of God,” said Crossan. “Or Endnotes discounted for lack of evidence. However, the family of God, the synagogue of God,” 1 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003). But didn’t Jesus, himself, on the Horsley and Crossan, as well as Wright, inter­jected Reed. “But as soon as you say 2 (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2004). question of paying taxes, advise inquirers argue that the longstanding desire in the kingdom of God, you’re taking over 3 (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press Interna- to give to Caesar what was Caesar’s and to western countries to separate politics from Roman terminology,” added Crossan. tional, 1997). God what was God’s? For some scholars, religion has inhibited the view that Middle “Jesus picked the one term that was really 4 (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2004). Jesus’ an­swer indicates that the kingdom Eastern and Mediterranean religion and going to raise eyebrows.” 5 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1999). of God can coexist with the Roman power politics were as tightly enmeshed 2,000 6 (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001). structure. But Horsley and some others years ago as they are today. Their book may in turn raise the 7 (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995). view Jesus’ response as a clever, indirect eyebrows of some scholars. “I know — way to foil his foes’ attempt to entrap “Depoliticized views of Jesus have we will get the accusation that it lacks him. In Israelite tradition, everything trouble explaining why” Jesus was spiritual content because it is too

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 The Study of Women in the Early Church

by carolyn osiek, r.s.c.j. themselves but also about their relation- public structures. Yet investigation of that men talk about and enjoy doing ships, are funerary inscriptions left on residential quarters has yielded enormous together are usually quite different from n popular view, it is probably the sarcophagi, marble tablets, and other amounts of information about daily life, what women talk about and do together. success of the bestseller The Da Vinci forms of commemoration. Sometimes such as arrangement of rooms in a house If this is true today in our society, it was I Code that has raised new questions the language is conventional; for example, and their distinctive uses, sources of no less true two thousand years ago in from millions of avid readers about when a husband states that he lived so water, cooking utensils, diet, and personal the lands of the Mediterranean. What women in the early church, especially many years with his wife sine ulla querella, objects like combs, locks, and coins. is preserved for us in the official record Mary Magdalene. Its fast-moving sleuth “without a quarrel,” one suspects this is Once gathered, this data must then be is public culture that is essentially male. tale continues to sell and, unfortunately, its not literally true! But the depth of loving carefully interpreted. The lives, joys, sorrows, and pastimes of wildly inaccurate historical interludes are relationships is also felt in a husband’s women are largely inaccessible to us, ex- included. But for historians, theologians, commemoration of a young mother who During the past generation, there has cept in furtive glances: personal objects and biblical scholars, the real story is died in childbirth, or that of grieving been rapidly increasing interest in Roman and sometimes the details of stories. even more exciting and more complex. parents of a deceased child. social history, which forms the backdrop Comparison with present-day traditional What follows is a brief recap of what is for the social history of New Testament societies, through the tools of cultural being discovered, and the questions and Social History people and those who immediately anthropology, often proves enlightening problems that remain, in the study of succeeded them. Thus, more information about what social structures and expec- women in the early church. It is often said that when men recount has been available, and more interest has tations were likely to have been current in history, it is the story of wars. How many been stimulated, to pursue study of the similar societies thousands of years ago. Material Evidence of us remember our history books of Jewish and early Christian family. modern Europe or the United States as Social historians speak of “gendered Let’s start with the things we can accounts of a series of wars with brief All of this new interest in social history space,” delineating those areas of public see and touch, what archaeologists and intervals of scientific and social progress? has meant more evidence for the lives of space and private house that are pre- historians call “material culture.” Though With few exceptions, in the past, women women, and more interest in those lives. dominantly occupied by either men or much visual art (such as paintings) has not have not waged war, but they have always Inevitably, charting family life means women. In the lands of the New survived, still some of it has. For example, been its victims, even as they still are charting women’s lives and women’s chief Testament, it was generally understood in places like Pompeii and Herculaneum, today. One of the recent developments concerns. Because nearly all history and that the marketplace and law courts were the catastrophic eruption of Mount that has spread across the disciplines literature in the past, including the Bible, men’s space, while the house was the Vesuvius on August 24 in the year 79 of history and archaeology is greater was written by men, men’s perspectives world of women. This does not mean that preserved many houses with furniture interest in what is called “social history,” and accounts of their experience prevail in women were never in the marketplace and artwork intact. Here we not only see that is, not the story of politics and armed the written record. Even stories told about or that men were never at home, but it women depicted in both mythological does set certain areas apart conceptually and everyday scenes, but also what as belonging to one gender or the other. women wanted painted on their walls One of the consequences of assigning and how they decorated their homes. The task of reconstructing the history of women the house to women is that they were Women’s jewelry has been preserved expected to take complete control of its especially in burial contexts throughout involves finding those lost voices that could have management. Thus, people of both sexes the Mediterranean world. Both objects of arriving in a house that hosted the meeting adornment and of practical use were often spoken to us of lives lived in heroic silence or in of a house church, such as that of Prisca buried with the deceased; for example, and Aquila (Rom 16:5), were setting foot weapons with men, perfume bottles with active participation in public life. in a space that was nominally controlled women, dolls with children. As we gaze by the “master of the house,” but was upon these items, we seem to have some really the domain of his wife. kind of direct contact with their owners. conflict, but of civic and family life. Those women who are active in public life, such In the New Testament, perhaps we Sculpture gives us images of the people involved in social history are interested as Miriam’s triumphant song (Exod 15:20- catch a glimpse of the life of a group of themselves, often idealized, but Roman art not so much in politics and wars as in 21) or the heroic actions of great women widows living in their own space in the quite often renders realistic portraits, even social structures. How were families like Esther or Judith, have been filtered story of Tabitha/Dorcas (Acts 9:36-41), in down to skin blemishes and the effects organized? How did they educate their through the thoughts and expectations of which the deceased Tabitha is lamented by of aging. There are also the so-called children? How did they understand and male writers. In the New Testament, stories the whole group, who show Peter the gar- “mummy portraits” from Lower Egypt, celebrate birth, marriage, and death? of faithful women disciples and those who ments she used to make for them. In this paintings of real people that adorned What part did women play in public life encounter Jesus and go away cured hold brief reference, we see the common plight their sarcophagi when they died. Here we and decision-making? our attention, but we realize again that of widows who band together for mutual see men, women, and children, Egyptian these are not stories told by women, but by support. Tabitha may well have been their elites of mostly Greek descent, and we are In archaeology, too, it is no longer men about women. patron, a wealthier woman, probably then better able to visualize what other sufficient to excavate the large public herself a widow, who provided what the Eastern Mediterranean people, such as buildings of an ancient city and ignore Gendered Space others in their poverty could not afford. biblical characters, may have looked like. residential areas as of no interest. The excavation of housing is usually more In most cultures, including our own, In the story of the Syro-Phoenician or The elements of material culture difficult because building materials there are definite differences in the sub- Canaanite woman narrated by Mark and that reveal most, not only about people were not as sturdy as those used for cultures of men and women. The things Matthew (Mark 7:24-30; Matt 15:21-

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 The Study of Women in the Early Church... perkins Continued from Page 11 28), we see the characteristically fierce voices of men, we will know where to look In the early church, women leaders determination of a mother to do all that to find women’s voices. Thus, the task of like Mary, mother of John Mark, and “Finding Jesus” evokes a she can for her sick daughter, even to reconstructing the history of women Nympha hosted a house church (Acts spirituality of pious Bible reading, the point of putting up with the insults involves finding those lost voices that 12:12; Col 4:15), while the traveling projecting one’s own psycho- she receives from this foreigner Jesus, could have spoken to us of lives lived in deacon Phoebe functioned as patron for cultural world onto the text. Having who nevertheless is able to help her. heroic silence or in active participation in many, including Paul (Rom 16:1-2). In been allergic to that approach The accounts of the various women at public life. We look between the cracks of later years, women deacons and even a few since learning Latin and Greek the tomb of Jesus on Easter morning, history to find them, necessarily calling presbyters assisted at baptisms, gave pre- in middle school, I would answer always led by Mary Magdalene, may on our own experience to help guide and post-baptismal instruction to women, the “finding Jesus” question as a have developed from stories the women the way. Thus, for example, the scholar went on pilgrimage, and represented the student of ancient cultures. By the told to other women at home about who is also a wife and mother will more church in business transactions. time I could read Greek, it was easy their experience there. In narratives like readily raise the questions surrounding to see that from a literary point of these, even though they have come the issues of birthing and raising children A Brave New World view, the four canonical Gospels down to us through men’s eyes and in the world of antiquity and in the first provide distinctive portraits of pens, still we can see something of the Christian house churches. Research on women in Mediterra- Jesus. So the “Jesus” in question is lives of women on their own terms. nean antiquity and thus in the biblical a mystery in his own time as much Women in Public Life world and the Bible itself is just as ours. But there is another way Finding the Voices of Women beginning. We can look forward to many to parse the question as I learned All this talk about the private and years of new discoveries to supplement on first meeting the late Krister Previously we have been talking silent lives of women should not lead to the immense and growing pool of Stendahl when I was in college. about the use of the material and social a conclusion that ancient Mediterranean knowledge, most of which has been For Jesus—and the Evangelists— sciences to “reconstruct” women’s lives. women never participated in public life. acquired in the past forty years. It is in the “Scriptures” are Jewish sacred Once that process has begun, it is open to Careful study of letters of the elite of this context that the elusive figure of books, not the Christian appendix. interpretation from many angles. What Rome has shown the active participation Mary Magdalene has emerged in recent Is there a sense in which one can we discover is only as good as the ques- of upper-class women in politics, even years as disciple and apostle. While The find Jesus in those Scriptures? tions we ask. We need to ask new questions though they could neither vote nor be Da Vinci Code may titillate with its story Historical study teaches us to in order to find new answers. “Women elected to office. Yet a careful reading of of secret loves, the love she demonstrat- appreciate the Torah, Prophets, should keep silent in the churches” (1 Cor the public inscriptions of some of the ed in the biblical texts about her and the and Writings as witnesses of faith 14:34) has become not only a prescription cities of Asia Minor (today’s west coast role she played in the proclamation of to their own circumstances, not as for church behavior but for all of life, as of Turkey) reveals that elite women held the resurrection of Jesus are far more real. an elaborate code only unlocked by the voices of women are silenced in the priestly and civic offices that in most She speaks to us across the ages as what the Jesus story. The Christian creed telling of history. places were held only by men. Wealthy she was: a woman of courage and faith. affirms a unique manifestation women all over the Mediterranean world (incarnation) of the God who is If we begin from the assumption that participated actively in the patronage Reprinted with permission from The Bible the one source of all that is living the past story of women has been subject system as well, providing public monu- Today 43 (2005): 277-82. and cherished by its Creator. So not only to neglect, but to deliberate sup- ments, buildings, meals for the needy, and ­— there are two senses in which Jesus pression in favor of the socially stronger personal help to those who asked. is sought (and found) in Jewish Scriptures. The first, historical— those Scriptures as inspiration and Contributing Publications hope firing the imagination of Jewish piety and of those drawn to America, the national Catholic weekly magazine, in parish ministry. It is edited by priests of the life, history, theology, and biography, as well as the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth. has been published since 1909 by Jesuits in the United Archdiocese of Chicago and the faculty of Saint Jesuit spirituality and spiritual direction. It is based The second, mystical—the God of States for thinking Catholics and those who want to Mary of the Lake/Mundelein Seminary. Subscrip- at 3441 North Ashland Ave., Chicago, IL 60657. know what Catholics are thinking. Based at 106 West tions are available from Chicago Studies, Liturgy Phone: 1-800-621-1008; web: www.loyolapress.com. those Scriptures refracted through 56 St., New York, NY 10019-3803, the current issue Training Publications, 1800 North Heritage Ave., the image of the crucified and risen is available online at www.americamagazine.org. Chicago, IL 60622-1101. Subscriptions: $17.50/ Published four times a year, Review for Religious Son. It is that Jesus who lays claim Subscriptions: $48/year print; $12 web edition. Call year. Phone: 1-800-933-1800. provides articles on prayer and ministry, pastoral to the divine name itself: “Before 1-800-627-9533, or visit the web site. approaches to living and working with others, Abraham was I AM” (John 8:58). Christian Century believes that Christian faith poetry, and book reviews. Its editorial offices are Appearing six times a year, The Bible Today calls Christians to a profound engagement with the at 3601 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Pheme Perkins, Professor of New explores Scripture through illustrated articles and world, and so it examines issues of politics and culture Subscriptions: $30/year. Call 1-314-633-4610, or Testament, Boston College commentary that focus on a biblical theme or book as well as theology and church life. This biweekly’s visit www.reviewforreligious.org. — in light of the best recent scholarship. It is published home office is at 104 S. Michigan Ave., Suite 700, by the Liturgical Press, St. John’s Abbey, P.O. Box Chicago, IL 60603. Subscriptions: $49/year from St. Anthony Messenger is a monthly magazine 7500, Collegeville, MN 56321-7500. Subscriptions: P.O. Box 378, Mt. Morris, IL 61054; by phone at of Catholic spirituality and church life published $32/year. Call 1-800-858-5450, or visit www.litpress. 1-800-208-4097; or at www.christiancentury.org. by the Franciscan Friars of St. John the Baptist org/journals. Province, 28 W. Liberty St., Cincinnati, OH 45202- Loyola Press publishes religious books for the 6498. Subscriptions: $28/year. Call 1-513-241-5615, Chicago Studies is a theological journal ap- general reader. Subjects include spirituality and or visit www.americancatholic.org. pearing three times per year for those serving prayer, education and faith formation, Catholic

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Misusing Jesus How the Church Divorces Jesus from Judaism

by amy-jill levine the bravery of Esther and the fidelity of preclude or overshadow Jesus’ role in the Jesus’ connection to Judaism can be Ruth. To understand Jesus, one must have divine plan. He must, in the Christian seen not only in his general comments he fact that Jesus was a Jew familiarity with the Scriptures that shaped tradition, be more than just a really fine about Torah but also in his practice of has not gone un­recognized. him (or, as a few of my students will insist, Jewish teacher. But he must be that Jewish its com­mandments. For example, Jesus T Libraries and bookstores are that he wrote). teacher as well. dresses like a Jew. Specifically, he wears replete with volumes bearing such titles tzitzit, “fringes,” which the book of as Jesus the Jew, The Galilean Jewishness Second, the insistence on Jesus’ Jewish Further, Jesus had to have made sense Numbers enjoins upon all Israelite men, of Jesus, Jesus and the World of Judaism, identity reinforces the belief that he was in his own context, and his context is that which a num­ber of Orthodox Jewish The Religion of Jesus the Jew, Jesus in His fully human, anchored in historical time of Galilee and Judea. Jesus cannot be men still wear, and which can be seen Jewish Context, The Jewish Reclamation of and place. This connection is known as understood fully unless he is understood today most readily in the tallit, or “prayer Jesus, and three volumes (and counting) the “scandal of particularity”: not only through first-century Jewish eyes and shawl,” worn in the syna­gogue during of A Marginal Jew. The point is more does the church proclaim that the divine heard through first-century Jewish ears. worship. Numbers 15:37-40 reads: than simply a historical observation. took on human form, it also proclaims The parables are products of first-century “The Lord said to Moses, ‘Speak to the Numer­ous churches today acknowledge that it took on this form in a particular Jewish culture, not ours; the healings were Israelites, and tell them to make fringes on their intimate connection to Judaism: setting among a particular people. The assessed according to that worldview, the corners of their garments throughout connections born from Scripture, history, church claims that divinity took on not ours; the debates over how to follow their generations and to put a blue cord theology, and, as Paul puts it, Christ human flesh—was “incarnated”—in Jesus Torah took place within that set of legal on the fringe at each corner. You have the “according to the flesh” (Rom 9:5). of Nazareth. Therefore the time and the parame­ters and forms of discourse, not fringe so that, when you see it, you will place matter. Christianity follows Jesus of ours. To understand Jesus’ impact in remember all the commandments of the Nevertheless, when it comes to the pew, Nazareth, not Jesus of Cleveland or Jesus his own setting—why some chose to Lord and do them, and not follow the the pulpit, and often the classroom, even of Mexico City; the incarnation dates to follow him, others to dismiss him, and lust of your own heart and your own eyes. when Christian congregants, ministers, the first century, not the twenty-first. still others to seek his death—requires So you shall remember and do all my and professors do acknowledge that Jesus commandments, and you shall be holy to was Jewish, they often provide no content your God.’” for the label. The claim that “Jesus was a Jew” may be historically true, but it is The divorcing of Jesus from Judaism does These tzitzit may be compared to not central to the teaching of the church. WWJD bracelets. Just as the bracelets The problem is more than one of silence. a disservice to each textually, theologically, remind their Christian wearers to In the popular Christian imagination, ask, “What would Jesus do?” so the Jesus still remains defined, incorrectly historically, and ethically. fringes remind Jewish wearers of all 613 and unfortunately, as “against” the Law, commandments, or mitzvot (Hebrew; or at least against how it was understood singular, mitzvah). The Gospels do not at the time; as “against” the Temple as an shy away from the fact that Jesus wore institution and not simply against its first- Further, the Jewish tradition into an understanding of that setting. If we these fringes: it was these fringes that the century leadership; as “against” the people which Jesus was born and the Christian today have difficulty fathoming how our woman with the twelve-year hemorrhage of Israel but in favor of the Gentiles. Jesus tradition that developed in his name grandparents could function without the affliction touched in hopes of being becomes the rebel who, unlike every other were “historical religions,” that is, their Internet and cell phones, let alone without healed, according to the account in Matt Jew, practices social jus­tice. He is the only foundational events took place in history television, how can we possibly presume 9:20-22. one to speak with women; he is the only and on earth, rather than in some mythic to understand the worldview of Jesus and one who teaches nonviolent responses time and mythic place; they have a starting his contemporaries without asking a few Similarly, Mark 6:56 says: “And to oppression; he is the only one who point and a vision for the future. To historical questions? wherever he went, into villages or cares about the “poor and the marginal­ disregard history, to disregard time and cities or farms, they laid the sick in the ized” (that phrase has become a litany in place, is to be unfaithful to both Judaism When Jesus is located within the world marketplaces, and begged him that they some Christian circles). Judaism becomes and Christianity. of Ju­daism, the ethical implications of his might touch even the fringe of his cloak, in such discourse a negative foil: whatever teachings take on renewed and heightened and all who touched it were healed.” Jesus stands for, Judaism isn’t it; whatever Historically, Jesus should be seen meaning; their power is restored and The fact that Jesus, according to Matt Jesus is against, Judaism epitomizes as continuous­ with the line of Jewish their challenge sharpened. Jews as well 23:5, criticized the Pharisees and scribes the category. teachers and prophets, for he shares as Christians should be able to agree on because “they make their phy­lacteries with them a particular view of the world a number of these teachings today, just broad and their fringes long” suggests This divorcing of Jesus from Judaism and a particular­ manner of expressing as in the first century Jesus’ followers that his phylacteries were narrow and his does a disser­vice to each textually, that view. Like Amos and Isaiah, Hosea and even those Jews who chose not to fringes shorter. Jesus does not dismiss theologically, historically, and ethi­cally. and Jeremiah, he used arresting speech, follow him would have agreed with such Torah; to use modern idiom, he wears it First, the separation severs the church’s risked polit­ical persecution, and turned basic assertions as that God is our father, on his sleeve. connections­ to the Scriptures of Israel— traditional family values upside down in that God’s name should be hallowed, and what it calls the Old Testament. Because order to proclaim what he believed God that the divine kingdom is something The reminder of the fringes has a Jesus and his earliest followers were all wants, the Torah teaches, and Israel must ardently to be desired. Jesus does not practical payoff for Chris­tians. The Jews, they held the Torah and the Prophets do. This historical anchoring need not have to be unique in all cases in order to Gospels’ preservation of this detail sa­cred, prayed the Psalms, and celebrated and should not, in Christian teaching, be profound. indicates that the Old Testament must

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Misusing Jesus... wilt Continued from Page 13 be acknowledged as more than just anti-Semitism that tends to arise when As a child, I thrilled to the poetry walk?” (Luke 5:13, 20-23). This Jesus an anticipation of the coming of the the history is not known. The concern to of the Scriptures I heard each is wearied by our insistence on signs: messiah—as more than a book that can recover Jesus’ Jewishness is particularly Sunday, but as for encountering Jesus this evil generation, they seek a sign. now be discarded or, more respectfully, urgent these days. In churches and in himself—it was the confessional. I (Luke 11:29). But he gives us our put on the shelf next to the other antiques, the academy, in pronouncements made imagined him on the other side of the signs, for among the many ways he to be admired but not used. By preserving by Mexican Americans and Palestinians, screen, taking in the Bad News from knows himself is as a sign. I love the the fact that Jesus wore fringes, the New women from Benin and men from Korea, one after another of us, his human many Gospel passages in which he Testament mandates that respect for the World Council of Churches and head bowed in weariness (and even, I refers to the Jewish scriptural signs of Jewish custom be main­tained and that Catholic liberation theologians, Jesus’ ventured, boredom) while his mighty himself or where he defines himself as Jesus’ own Jewish practices be honored, Jewishness is fre­quently erased. As Jesus heart expanded to encompass the the Father’s sign. In this last respect, even by the Gentile church, which does continues to be the symbol for all that Bad News. Kind of like, I thought particularly, I meet in the Scriptures not follow those customs. is socially good, many Christians depict twenty years later, “Hill Street Blues” the Jesus of excess—take no thought his Jewish background as the epitome of chief of detectives Frank Furillo, his for the morrow, love your enemies, I Not only did Jesus dress like a Jew, all that is wrong with the world. If Jesus erect spine carrying his slumping come not to bring peace but a sword he ate like a Jew as well. He kept kosher; preaches good news to the poor, so the flesh as one after another, criminal (Matthew 6:34; 5:44; 10:34), pointing that is, he kept the dietary requirements common impression goes, “the Jews” stupidity, puerile tragedy, banal in this very excess to the Unnamable, established in Torah. Leviticus 11:3 is must be preaching good news to the rich. enormity manifested on city streets. I the light the darkness can never grasp explicit about what animals are permit­ted If Jesus welcomes sinners, “the Jews” must meet this Jesus in the Scriptures: “Be (John 1:5). for human consumption: “any animal that have pushed them away. If Jesus speaks to thou clean….Thy sins are forgiven has divided hoofs and is cleft-footed and or heals women, “the Jews” must have set thee. What does your reason tell Judith Wilt, Professor of English, Boston chews the cud”; thus the pig, the camel, up a patriarchal society that makes the you—is it easier to say thy sins be College the rock badger, and the hare are not Taliban look progressive. forgiven thee, or to say rise up and — kosher. Jesus would never have consumed a ham sandwich. Nor, by the way, would In the academy, certain schools of the occasion often have presented itself— thought have managed to distinguish archaeological investi­gation finds few pig Jesus, whether implicitly or explicitly, bones in Galilee. from any sort of “Judaism.” The popular push to depict Jesus as a Galilean and The only contact Jesus had with pigs see Galilee as religiously and ethnically is described in its most complete form in distinct from Judea winds up conveying Mark 5:1-20. Following their expulsion the impression that “Ju­daism,” with from a severely possessed man, a group its Temple and its leadership, is quite of demons so numerous that their former distinct from the Galilean Jesus. The host identified himself as “Legion, for we popular image of Jesus as a peasant often are many,” requested that Jesus send them serves not to connect him to his fellow into a herd of swine. Jesus agreed, “and Jews but to distinguish him from them, the unclean spirits came out and en­tered since “the Jews” remain in the popular the swine; and the herd, numbering about imagination not peasants but Pharisees 2,000, rushed down the steep bank into and Sad­ducees or, in academic terms, the sea, and were drowned in the sea.” members of the retainer and elite classes. Mark’s narrative anticipates the mis­sion Worse, the lingering view that Jesus to the Gentiles, for the city of Gerasa, dismissed basic Jewish practices, such as where the story is set, was part of the De­ the laws concerning Sabbath observance capolis, a league of ten predominantly and ritual purity, turns Jesus away from Gentile cities, and the presence of the pigs his Jew­ish identity and makes him into is a less than subtle clue to the non-Jewish a liberal Protestant. My point is that any composition of the population. The story prejudicial commentary that divorces also allows a political dig against Rome, Jesus from Judaism and then uses the given that the “unclean spirits” identify story of Jesus to condemn all Jews is not a themselves as Legion, the Latin term Christian message. for an army cohort. But as for Jesus’ Jewish identity, neither he nor his Jewish Copyright © 2006 by the Christian Century. associates would have mourned the loss Reprinted by permission from the Dec. 26, 2006, of a herd of hogs—animals that are not issue of the Christian Century. kosher and that represent conspicuous — consumption in that they cost more to raise than they produce in meat.

A critically aware, historically informed study of Jesus is also crucial to prevent the

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 The Bible, the Jews, and the Passion

by eugene j. fisher centered around the unjust and unjustifi­ was, rather, a devout adherent throughout 5. The role of Pilate needs to be able idea that “the Jews” (as opposed to his life. Indeed, Jesus submitted himself approached with great care. week or so before Ash Wednesday some individual Jewish leaders) were and to the Law (Gal 4:4), extolled respect for in 2004, the Committee for remained in subsequent­ generations col- it (Matt 5:17-20), and invited obedience Matthew and John, among the A Ecumenical Affairs of the U.S. lectively guilty for the death of Jesus. The to it (Matt 8:4). Gospels, seem to portray Pilate as a Conference of Catholic Bishops released Holy Father asserts that as embroidered vacillating administrator who would a 150-page resource book for use by over the centuries, theological tomes, 3. The presentation of Judaism must have freed Jesus but for the manipula- Catholic preachers, teachers, inter­ested popular preaching, and passion plays be nuanced. tions of Caiaphas, the chief priest. laity, and Catholic-Jewish dialogue groups. contributed to the passive acquiescence While not exonerating Caiaphas (who is Entitled The Bible, the Jews and the Death and active participation of far too many There were many different groups remembered in Jewish history negatively of Jesus: A Collection of Catholic Documents, Christians during the Holocaust. What, and movements in first-century Judaism, as a collaborator with Rome), other data the publica­tion brings together excerpts then, are some concerns raised by these as there are today: Sadducees (sup- from the Gospels and ancient secular and in some cases entire documents from documents that preachers, teachers, and porters of the Temple priesthood), sources such as Philo and Josephus various levels of Catholic teaching (the those involved in creative presentations of Zealots (revolutionaries against Rome), portray Pilate as a ruthless tyrant. Second Vatican Council, Pope John Paul the passion need to take into account? apocalypticists, Herodians, Hellenists, The Roman governor held absolute II, the Pontifical Biblical Commission, scribes, sages, miracle workers, and power over the chief priest, whom he the Pontifical Commission for Religious 1. Theologically, responsibility for Jesus’ Pharisees of various schools of inter- appointed. When Pilate was called back Relations with the Jews, and the death lies with the sins of all humanity, pretation of the Law, ranging from the to Rome, likely because his extreme U.S.C.C.B. itself) pertinent to how the not just the particular Jews or Romans strict (for example, Shammai) to the cruelty (e.g., cru­cifying hundreds of Jews church reads its Scriptures, understands who were historically involved. more lenient (Hillel). Jesus is often at a time without trial; see Luke 13:1-4) its relationship with Jews and Judaism, depicted in the Bible in dialogue with the was stirring rebellion, Pilate’s successor and understands and presents its ever- The Roman Catechism (1566) of Pharisees, whose views on many things, immediately deposed and replaced the deepening reflections on the saving the Council of Trent is cited by the such as a final divine judgment and the chief priest. The Gospels agree that mysteries of the passion and death of recent Catechism of the Catholic Church resurrection of the dead, Jesus shared. in Roman eyes, Jesus’ crime was that Christ, the one savior of humanity. to underscore that “we cannot lay Many of his teachings on the Law were of political sedition against Rome, responsibility for the trial of Jesus on the quite similar to those of Hillel, for crucifixion being the Roman form of In his introduction to this collection, Jews in Jerusalem as a whole...still less can example, whose followers would scorn the punishment for treason, a charge made Bishop Stephen E. Blaine of Stockton, we extend respon­sibility to other Jews of Shammaites as hypocrites and legalists, explicit by the mocking sign “King of chairman of the committee, quotes from different times and places” (§ 597). The as did Jesus. In Luke, Pharisees try to the Jews” nailed to the cross. an address given by Pope John Paul II in Roman Catechism stated: “Since our sins warn Jesus against going to Jerusalem 1997 to a group of Catholic, Protestant, made the Lord Christ suffer the torment because of a plot against his life by the and Orthodox Christian scholars assem­ of the cross, those who plunge themselves followers of Herod. It is likely that the bled by the Holy See to study together into disorders and crimes crucify the sympathy for Jesus represented by Joseph Theologically, “The Roots of Anti-Judaism in the Son of God anew in their hearts.... Our and Nicodemus would have been shared Christian Milieu.” crime in this case is greater in us than in by other Pharisees as well. The Synoptic responsibility for Jesus’ the Jews. As for them, according to the Gospels (even Matthew, whose polemic Erroneous and unjust inter- witness of the Apostle, ‘None of the rulers against the Pharisees is the strongest), death lies with the sins pretations of the New Testament of this age understood this; for if they had, do not have them playing a role in Jesus’ regarding the Jewish people and their they would not have crucified the Lord of arrest or trial, only the chief priests and of all humanity, not just alleged culpability have circulated glory.’ We, however, profess to know him. various “scribes and elders.” [in the Christian world] for too long, And when we deny him by our deed, we the particular Jews or engendering feelings of hostility in some way seem to lay violent hands on 4. Positive images of Jews and Judaism toward this people. They contributed him.” Of all the historical actors, we are from Scripture should be as or more Romans who to the lulling of consciences, so that reminded, only Pilate is mentioned in the plentiful than negative ones. when the wave of persecutions swept ancient creeds of the church. were historically across Europe...the spiritual re­ Jews should not be portrayed as money- sistance of many was not what 2. There must be an “overriding pre- greedy or blood-thirsty, for example, by involved. humanity rightfully expected from occupation to bring out explicitly the changing the small “crowd” in Pilate’s the disciples of Christ. Your exam­ meaning of the Gospel text while tak- courtyard into a teeming mob. The ination of the past, in view of a ing scriptural studies into account.” Gospels clearly describe Jesus as being purification of memory, is particularly arrested at night because he was popular 6. There is, then, room for more than appropri­ate for clearly showing that This means that it is not enough to say with the Jews, and in Luke, the women one dramatic style in depicting the anti-Semitism has no justification that a given passage is “in the Bible.” Any of Jerusalem weep as he is carrying his role of Pilate and the chief priests and is absolutely­ reprehensible. single depiction will inevitably involve a cross. Scenes of Jesus praying with his while being faithful to the biblical selection from the four Gospels mixed fellow Jews in synagogues, sharing the and historical records. Note the carefulness and clarity of with historical and artistic, creative Passover Seder with them, and so on, the pope’s words: “erroneous and unjust elements. It is here that the old passion will be helpful. Staging and costuming It needs to be made clear that Christ interpretations of the New Testament.” plays tended to create the illusion of likewise need careful scrutiny. Are Jewish went freely to his death to save us all These ancient errors in the interpretation collective guilt, for example by depicting characters made to look dark and ominous from the death of our sins, and that of the passion narratives of the Gospels Jesus as opposed to Judaism, of which he over against Jesus and his followers? while some “authorities of the Jews and

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 The Bible,... Telling the Terror of the Crucifixion Continued from Page 15 those who followed their lead pressed by barbara e. reid, o.p. on Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) in to be humble and not self-centered. for the death of Christ; still, what hap­ which the mercy seat, the top part of the We sacrifice especially for our pened in his Passion cannot be blamed f all the “texts of terror” in the ark of the covenant, was sprinkled with children, for our husbands, for our upon all the Jews then living, without Bible, the one that stands out blood to atone for the sins of the people families. When there is not enough distinction, nor upon the Jews of O most vividly is the crucifixion (Lev 16:14-16). Just as the blood of temple food, we give the best portions to today. Although the church is the new of Jesus. It is at the very center of the sacrifices cleansed impurity from the our children and husbands. We people of God, the Jews should not be Christian story and is told over and Israelites, so Jesus’ sacrifice freed human sacrifice so our children can go to presented as rejected by God or cursed, over in our liturgies, our classrooms, beings from sin and death. Paul also speaks school, selling whatever we can in as if such views follow from Sacred and our faith sharing. The Evangelists of Jesus’ death as “redemption” (apolytrosis,¯ the market. We do not follow our Scripture. All should take pains, then, narrate Jesus’ execution in the sparsest Rom 3:24), a word that refers to the buying own desires, but offer up our lives lest in catechetical instruction and in language. They provide very few details, back of the freedom of a slave or captive. in service for theirs...I get up at the preaching of God’s word they teach stating simply: “and they crucified him” Jesus’ death, then, purchases freedom from four o’clock every morning to get anything not in harmony with the truth (Mark 15:24). We do not know whether sin for humanity. Similarly, there is a saying water and gather wood and start of the Gospel and the spir­it of Christ” the Evangelists thought there was no in Mark 10:45 in which Jesus explains that the fire for breakfast. I do all the (Nostra Aetate, § 4). need to give the details since everyone he came “not to be served, but to serve, housework and I work in the fields in those days knew what was involved in and to give his life as a ransom (apolytrosis¯ ) alongside my husband as well, with It is impossible to overstate the for many.” my youngest baby strapped to my importance of the church’s call to back. I get no pay for any of my Catholic preachers and teachers to exer- In other texts (Gal 3:13; 2 Cor 5:21; work; we women are completely cise an “overriding preoccupation” with The notion of a life John 11:50), Jesus is likened to the dependent on what our husbands getting the Gospel accounts of Jesus’ scapegoat onto which the sins of the give us. At the end of the day, I arrest, passion, and death just right. The sacrificed for others people were symbolically transferred keep tending the children and fix condemnation of the charge of collec- on Yom Kippur before it was driven out dinner. Afterward, there is more tive guilt against the Jews was one of can be a terrorizing into the wilderness (Lev 16:10). Just as work to prepare for the next day. the most dramatic and theologically sig­ the guilt of the people is transferred to I don’t ever rest or have a day nificant moments of the Second Vatican interpretation of the the innocent goat and the purity of the off. Who would carry out my re- Council. Making it clear that it is our scapegoat is transmitted to the people, so sponsibilities? God has made it sins, not those of the individual actors cross for persons Christ exchanges status with sinners. Also this way; we have to be humble in the events themselves, that bear the in this vein, Paul casts Jesus as a martyr or and sacrifice for others. All the responsibility for Jesus’ death, lies at the who are in oppressive model of heroic death. He says, “Indeed, suffering we endure we accept as very heart of the Christian proclamation rarely will anyone die for a righteous our way of carrying the cross. of the Gospel. Both Christians and situations. person—though perhaps for a good Jews involved in the dialogue rightly person someone might actually dare to We do not have to travel to Chiapas to understand that removing once and for die. But God proves his love for us in that hear such a disturbing description; many all the ancient charge of “deicide” is the crucifixion or whether it was too terrible while we were still sinners Christ died for women throughout the world understand litmus test for the integrity of all our to describe, or too gruesome to be spoken us” (Rom 5:7-8). Another related image is their lives in this way. The notion of a life efforts, on both sides, since the council of in polite assemblies. What we do know that of a silent lamb led to the slaughter. sacrificed for others can be a terrorizing to bring about the reconciliation of the is that the Gospel writers are not so much Mark particularly portrays Jesus as similar interpretation of the cross for persons church with God’s people, the Jews. interested in telling what happened as to the Servant in Isaiah 40-55 who endures who are in oppressive situations. Rather what it means. Each Evangelist, along beating, buffets, spitting, and humiliation, than freeing persons who are weighed Reprinted with permission from America 190/5 with Paul and the other New Testament on whom the guilt of the whole people down, such a theology can enmesh people (2004): 7-9. writers, gives theological explanations to was laid. Unjustly persecuted, he utters who are abused in even deeper cycles of — help faith communities understand what nary a word in protest, standing silent violence and victimization. It can lull God was doing in the life, death, and before his accusers. persons who are victimized into a passive resurrection of Jesus. These explanations acceptance of every kind of suffering are meant to instill hope, but under Terrorizing Interpretations rather than helping them take action to certain conditions some of them can turn stop abuse where possible. An alternate For Information the passion story into one that terrorizes. Each of the above metaphors explains image from the Gospel of John is of help. This article will explore briefly some Jesus’ death as a life sacrificed for In the Gospel of John, rather than stand from prior issues of the theological explanations for the others. While there is potential for this silently before his abusers, Jesus, when death of Jesus, examining their potential interpretation to be freeing, it can also be struck on the face by the temple guard for terror or for hope. one that terrorizes when it functions to and rebuked for answering back to the of C21 Resources, keep people who are servile in positions high priest, confronts him: “If I have A Life Sacrificed for Others of subservience. Consider the story of spoken wrongly, testify to the wrong. But please visit: a woman from rural Chiapas who tells if I have spoken rightly, why do you strike The most prevalent interpretation in how most of the women she knows have me?” (John 18:23). This image of a truth- the New Testament is that Jesus’ death appropriated the Christian story: teller confronting injustice could be a www.bc.edu/church21 was a sacrifice for us. Paul speaks of Jesus’ powerful antidote to the silent sufferer to “sacrifice of atonement” (Rom 3:24), Jesus taught us how to sacrifice, aid persons in abusive situations to take alluding to the ritual performed each year how to give our lives for others, how action toward their well-being.

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 A Specific Kind of Suffering freely offered self-gift by washing the feet abuse that never ends. When forgiveness Nobel prize-winning Guatemalan poet of his disciples, and he instructs them to is accompanied by repentance on the Julia Esquivel says, we live “threatened Another important aspect to consider do the same for one another (13:1-20). part of the perpetrator and the removal with resurrection!” She describes the is what kind of suffering Jesus was of the conditions for the violence, then paradoxes of our Christian life: referring to when he gave the directive One example of how this played out true reconciliation is possible. to his disciples, “Any who want to be my in a village in Chiapas is told by a woman To dream awake, followers must take up their cross” (Mark whose husband would frequently beat A Story of Hope to keep watch asleep, 8:34). In the Gospel context, “cross” has her after getting drunk. One morning to live while dying a very specific meaning: it refers to the when her friends saw her bruised face Most important is that when and to already know oneself suffering that comes as a consequence of they decided to act. Some thirty women Christians tell the terrible story of resurrected!1 proclaiming and living the gospel. Not came together to the house to confront the death of Jesus, we do so from a every kind of suffering inflicted unjustly the husband. These women had moved resurrection faith that takes us beyond Reprinted with permission from The Bible Today is the cross. As some of the women in away from emulating the silent, suffering the terror into new life, hope, and 44 (2006): 225-30. Chiapas have recounted, this insight has Jesus of Mark, and had become a joy—which we taste even now! When brought about a dramatic shift in their community of friends who were ready our interpretations of the execution of Endnotes understanding and praxis. Through to lay down their lives for their friend. Jesus function to take crucified peoples 1 Julia Esquivel, Threatened with Resurrection: reflection on the Bible in groups with In this particular instance, the result was of today down from their crosses, rather Prayers and Poems from an Exiled Guatemalan (Elgin, other women, many have come to a happy one, as the husband stopped than drive the nails in deeper, then we IL: Brethren Press, 1982), 63. identify with Mary Magdalene and the drinking and ceased beating his wife. are living in resurrection faith. As the ­— other Galilean women disciples. They ­­ reasoned: If these women could find Obedient Son other ways to care for their traditional what the second vatican council said duties and leave their homes to preach Another popular interpretation of about the bible and its interpretation the Gospel, then why not us? The cross, Jesus’ death is that “the Father sent him as they understand it now, is not submit- to die.” While this particular formulation ting to verbal and physical abuse, but is not found in the New Testament, it The following are quotations himself the flesh of human weakness, it is the hardship of walking for hours has been extrapolated from texts such as taken from Vatican II’s Dogmatic became like unto human beings” (§ 13). through the jungle to reach the women’s the parable of the vineyard owner, who Constitution on Divine Revelation meetings, or enduring slander and sends his own beloved son after all the (Dei verbum). The full document and The Gospels and Their Interpretation suspicion when they exercise their new- other servants are killed (Mark 12:1-12), many other official Roman Catholic found ecclesial ministries. or from the scene in Gethsemane where statements can be found in Dean “It is common knowledge that Jesus prays to God to let the cup pass Béchard (ed.), The Scripture Documents: among all the Scriptures, even those him by, “yet not what I want but what An Anthology of Official Catholic of the New Testament, the Gospels you want” (Mark 14:36). Such an image Teachings (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical have a special preeminence, for they of obedience and submission easily Press, 2002). are the principal witness to the life and When Christians tell translates into husbands demanding teaching of the incarnate Word, our submission from wives, masters from Interpreting the Bible as Both Savior” (§ 18). the terrible story of the slaves, etc. (Col 3:18–4:1; Eph 5:21–6:9). Divine and Human To break through the potential terror “In composing the four Gospels, the death of Jesus, we do so of this image, it is important to keep in “Now since in Sacred Scripture sacred writers selected certain of the mind that God did not send the Son to God has spoken through human many traditions that had been handed from a resurrection faith die, nor did God will Jesus to die. God agents and in human fashion, the on either orally or already in written sent Jesus in human form to gain fullness interpreter of Sacred Scripture, in form; others they summarized or that takes us beyond of life for everyone for all eternity (John order to ascertain what God himself explicated with an eye to the situation 3:16; 6:39-40; 10:10). Jesus, ever attuned wished to communicate to us, should of the church. Moreover, they retained the terror into new life, to God’s will, was obedient to this mission carefully search out what the sacred the form and style of proclamation for life, which culminated in his death. writers truly intended to express and but always in such a fashion that they hope, and joy. what God thought well to manifest by related to us an honest and true account Forgiving Victim their word” (§ 12). of Jesus” (§ 19).

In the Gospel of Luke, there is a “The interpreter must search for The Bible in Church Life Free Choice particularly powerful image of Jesus what meaning the sacred writer in as the forgiving victim, who even in his own historical situation, and in “Let the study of the sacred page Another element that is extremely the moment of excruciating pain prays accordance with the conditions of his be, as it were, the soul of Sacred important is that of free choice. When “Father, forgive them” (Luke 23:34). time and culture, intended to express Theology. Likewise, the ministry women and other abused persons have There is a liberating dimension to this and did in fact express with the help of of the Word—namely, pastoral suffering imposed on them, this is image. The willingness of a victim to literary forms that were in use during preaching, catechetics, and all forms not properly “the cross.” Again, the forgive is a key part of any process of that time” (§ 12). of Christian instruction, among Johannine Jesus offers a different image: reconciliation. But a too-hasty or oft- which the liturgical homily is to a friend who freely lays down his life repeated forgiveness can also perpetuate “For the words of God, expressed hold pride of place—takes whole- for his friends out of love (15:13). Jesus cycles of violence. For example, when a in human language, have become like some nourishment and thrives in asserts that no one takes his life from him; woman who is consistently beaten by her unto human speech, just as the Word holiness through this same Word of he lays it down of his own accord (John husband forgives him again and again, of the eternal Father, when he took on Scripture” (§ 22). 10:17-18). He symbolically acts out this the forgiveness can feed a deadly cycle of

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 The Empty Tomb

by gerald o’collins, s.j. In the first place, Mark’s text contrasts proclaims, first, the great truth that But is such an explanation rooted in not only the nighttime darkness (between concerns everyone and will change the Mark’s narrative? Does it miss something s Easter comes round, many the Saturday and the Sunday of the universe forever: “He has been raised.” very important about divine revelation?­ wonder how to understand the resurrection) but also the darkness that Then he turns to the setting in which Does it gloss over the difference between A resurrection of Jesus Christ and enveloped the earth at the crucifixion he is addressing the women: “He is not the “track record” of the male disciples its message for us. His empty tomb can (15:33) with the light of the sun, just here.” Finally, he points to the specific from chapters 6 to 15 and the women’s make believers hesitant and even mildly risen when the women visit the tomb spot in the tomb where the body of Jesus “track record” in chapters 14, 15, and 16? embar­rassed. Are they being innocently (16:2). The three women go to the tomb had been buried: “See the place where orthodox or even naively realistic in with light streaming into the sky and they laid him.” Both the words of the Beyond question, the conduct of male accepting that several women found the with something they never imagined interpreting angel and the silent flight of disciples of Jesus starts deteriorating tomb of Jesus open and empty on the first about to be revealed: God has definitively the women highlight the dramatic and from Mark 6:52, where the Evangelist Easter day? Is the sign of the empty tomb overcome darkness and death. numinous­ moment of revelation. states that they do not understand the so crudely physical that it has no place in an feeding of the 5,000 and that their hearts adult faith content to talk in more general A preliminary hint of what will be Let us consider further some of the are “hardened.” Their lack of faith leads terms of Jesus’ victory­ over death? revealed comes when the women “raise details. When the three women enter the Jesus himself to reproach them with their eyes and see” that the enormous tomb, they do not find the body of Jesus their failure to understand and believe I wonder whether the real prob­lem stone, which blocked the entrance to but a “young man, dressed in a white (8:14-21). A little later, he reproaches here is not with the historical case for the tomb and their access to the body of robe, and sitting on the right” (16:5). His Peter sharply for perpetuating Satan’s the empty tomb but with its meaning. Jesus that they intend to anoint, “has been shining apparel is the traditional dress temptations by refusing to accept the As such scholars as Raymond Brown, rolled away” (16:4). From the form of the of heavenly messengers. Like the Old destiny of suffering that awaits his S.S., and others have shown, a reasonable verb, the so-called theological passive, Testament figures who remain seated master: “Get behind me, Satan” (8:31- argument can be mounted for the basic the attentive reader knows that God, while to deliver a judgment, the angel does 33). James, John, and the other male reliability of the empty tomb story. But not explicitly named, has brought about not rise to greet the women but speaks disciples soon prove just as thickheaded the difficulty for many people may be (9:32; 10:35-40). Judas betrays Jesus with “What does it mean?” rather than into the hands of his enemies. When with “Did it happen?” Until we appreciate their master is arrested in the Garden of the meaning of the empty tomb, merely In dramatically reversing the situation of Gethsemane, all the male disciples desert historical arguments may seem somewhat him (14:50). Peter creeps back and goes fruitless and beside the point. What might Jesus’ death, God has transformed the human into the courtyard of the high priest the empty tomb of Jesus reveal about God while Jesus is being interrogated. But and the divine activity on our behalf? condition and led us into the light of a new under pressure, he twice denies being a How could the empty tomb trigger and follower of Jesus and then swears that he shape human faith? In proposing some day that will never end. does not even know Jesus (14:66-72). No answers to these large questions, let me male disciple shows up at the crucifixion, limit myself to the oldest account of the and it is left to a devout outsider, Joseph of empty tomb, Mark 16:1-8. Arimathea, to give Jesus a dignified burial what is humanly impossible—opening the with authority to deliver an astonishing (15:42-47). The progressive failure of At first glance, the spare eight verses tomb and raising the dead to new life. The message. At the sight of the angel, Jesus’ male disciples—and, in particular, that conclude Mark’s Gospel do not look women see the first glimpse of what God the women respond by being “greatly of the core group of the Twelve—begins promising for any reflections on the has done in the unexpected reversal of the amazed”—a reaction that matches the at Mark 6:52 and reaches its lowest point divine self-revelation and the response dark situa­tion of death and the vindication normal biblical response to a theophany. in the passion story. it evokes, human faith. But these laconic of the dead Jesus. Without yet being aware After countering their startled reaction lines do in fact prove rich for those of it, the women find themselves confront­ with a word of comfort (“Do not be Meanwhile, women have entered seeking to understand how God is made ed with the first disclosure of God’s action amazed”) and revealing the resurrec- Mark’s narrative (14:3-9; 15:40-41, 47). known in the whole story of the death in the resurrection.­ tion, the angel commissions them: “Tell They function faithfully, as the men and resurrection of Jesus. These verses his disciples and Peter that he is going should have done but failed to do. The report a pair of elements that persistently A second contrast emerges once before you into Galilee. There you will women remain true to Jesus to the end, shape God’s self-manifestation: events the women enter the tomb itself. The see him.” But the women “fled from the and are prepared to play their role in (in this case, the divine action that has absence of Jesus’ body is set over against tomb. For trembling and astonishment complet­ing the burial rites. The women transformed the situation before the his personal presence, mediated through had seized them, and they said nothing have “followed” Jesus and “ministered” arrival of the three women) and words an interpreting angel in the form of a to anyone, for they were afraid.” Some to him in life and in death (15:41). Does (the angelic proclamation). As the Second white-robed “young man.” commentators explain the silent flight then the frightened silence with which Vatican Council taught, revelation occurs of the three women as a disobedient they react to the angel’s message express “sacramentally,” through the interplay of A third contrast pits the confident failure. First the male disciples of Jesus a sudden, unexpected collapse on their words and deeds (“Constitution on Divine words of the heaven­ly figure (“He has failed, and now also the women prove part? Those who endorse such a dismal Revelation,” §§ 2, 4, 14, 17). Moreover, been raised. He is not here. See the to be disobedient failures. They break explanation might reread Mark’s Gospel three contrasts are built into the story: place where they laid him.”) against down and disobey the commission they and notice how from the very start (1:22, dark­ness/light, absence/presence, and the silence of the women as they flee have received from the angel. So Mark’s 27), people over and over respond to what silence/speech. They enhance the telling from the tomb. Its tripartite shape adds Gospel is alleged to close with total Jesus does and reveals with amazement, of the story. force to the announcement. The angel human collapse. silence, fear, and even terror (e.g., 4:40-

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 41; 6:50-51). His teaching and miracles result from a divine encounter. The silence In Mark’s Gospel, the crucifixion and at least hinting at, some major aspects of manifest the awesome mystery of God of the three women is best understood as resurrection stand over against each other. God’s revealing activity and the fitting come personally among us. provisional; in due time they will speak But they also interpret and “reveal” each human response. Yes, the discovery of to the disciples. The women remained other and may never be separated. Mark the open and empty tomb did happen, In a detailed study, The Motif of Wonder silent with inappropriate persons, “until exemplifies this mutual “illumination” and Mark takes us some distance in in the Gospel of Mark,1 Timothy Dwyer their message could be passed on to the through two juxtaposed­ statements which giving an account of “what that means.” shows how “wonder” is a characteristic appropriate audience, the disciples.” the interpreting angel makes to the three In dramatically reversing the situation motif in Mark’s Gospel, occurring at women: “You are looking for Jesus of of Jesus’ death, God has transformed least 32 times. Covering “elements which To sum up: It is with flight, trembling, Nazareth who was crucified,” and “He the human condition and led us into express astonishment, fear, terror, and astonishment, silence, and fear that the has been raised.” To that message about the light of a new day that will never amazement,” it is the proper reaction of women initially receive the angel’s mes­ the resurrection of the crucified one, the end. It is only to be expected that the human beings to the awesome presence sage about God’s action in raising Jesus women react appropriately. three women in Mark’s story react with and power of God revealed in the teaching, from the dead (16:6) and about Jesus’ hushed astonishment. There is a time miracles, death, and resurrection of Jesus. appearance(s) to take place in Galilee Read this way, Mark’s concluding to fall silent, as those friends of Gandalf Apropos of the three key terms in Mark (16:7). But these are proper reactions to eight verses yield a rich commentary on do in The Lord of the Rings when the 16:8—flight, fear, and silence—Dwyer the climax of divine revelation that has the divine self-revelation conveyed by old wizard quite unexpectedly returns: appeals to earlier passages in Mark and occurred in the resurrection. God’s action the numinous wonder of the resurrec- “Between wonder, joy and fear they other relevant texts to conclude that has transformed the whole situation. The tion. The later Gospels of Luke and John stood and found no words to say.” With the terms do not always bear negative women have experienced the death of were to fill out the picture of the divine the holy women, we also need to pay connotations. Far from being always Jesus and his burial; they expect to find a revelation at the open and empty tomb silent homage to the awesome wonder defective and the antithesis of faith, “flight crucified corpse when they visit the tomb. by highlighting the outpouring of the of Christ’s resurrection from the dead: is a common response to confrontation Their intense response to the angel’s word Holy Spirit. They will press beyond the the beginning of God’s new creation. with the supernatural.” The reactions of matches the awesome power of God, now Easter revelation of the Father and the trembling, astonishment, and fear in Mark disclosed in the greatest divine act in the Son (found in Mark 16) to acknowledge Reprinted with permission from America 16:8, as Dwyer shows, “are consistent with Gospel of Mark. God has triumphed over the full, “trinitarian” disclosure of 188/14 (2003): 13-15. reactions to divine interventions early in evil, the divine kingdom is breaking into Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. the Gospel,” reactions that “co-exist with the world, and the victimized Jesus is Endnotes faith.” As for silence, he illustrates how known to have been finally vindicated as But Mark’s empty-tomb narrative has 1 (Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996). in biblical stories tem­porary silence can the Son of God. already done its work by presenting, or —

THOSE OTHER GOSPELS ... AND MORE • CHRISTOPHER R. MATTHEWS

In the first centuries of early texts that represent a particular strain of antics recounted in the Infancy Gospel of an epiphany story found in this scene Christianity, in addition to the writings second-century “gnostic” Christianity that of Thomas (e.g., the five-year-old Jesus of the Gospel of Peter, once stripped of that became part of the New Testament, followed a different theological path from makes clay sparrows that fly away, strikes novelistic features, bears some relation numerous other documents were that taken by Christians who ultimately other children dead, and instructs his to Matthew’s (28:1-4) and Mark’s (16:1- composed that made claims about the formed the mainstream church. teacher), which are flagrantly legendary. 8) narratives of the empty tomb as well identity of Jesus and his importance. as to the accounts of the transfiguration Such noncanonical or “apocryphal” Dozens and dozens of apocryphal What has survived of the Gospel of of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels (Mark texts present many sayings of Jesus and writings, gnostic and otherwise, are Peter purports to be Peter’s firsthand 9:2-8 parr.). stories about him that are not found in known from the early Christian centuries. report of the events surrounding Jesus’ the Bible. While some of the content They bear names like Gospel of Thomas, passion. Its fantastic depiction of the While little-known apocryphal docu- found in these writings strikes a familiar Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Philip, Gospel of resurrection of Jesus is a clear example ments about Jesus and other biblical chord with what the canonical Gospels the Hebrews, Gospel of Truth, Questions of of imaginative Christian literature that figures are used today to bolster the and other New Testament writings tell Mary, Protevangelium of James, Infancy sought to fill out the story of Jesus plotline of books like The Da Vinci Code, us about Jesus, one also finds significant Gospel of Thomas, Acts of John, Acts of Paul, known from other sources. Here, Jesus’ in the ancient period they provided a new subject matter as well as radical and so on. While these documents were tomb is under guard when the soldiers forum to record and express convictions additions to and departures from the composed long after the time of Jesus, see two angelic figures descend from about Jesus. They offered a way for New Testament portrait of Jesus. in a few cases (e.g., Gospel of Thomas), heaven. The stone blocking entrance to Jesus seemingly to provide additional some scholars have suggested that the tomb rolls away on its own accord (sometimes “secret”) teaching, for dif- Just several years ago, a recently valuable traditions reaching back into and the two angels enter the tomb. ferent groups to legitimate their own discovered manuscript of such an the first Christian century have been Subsequently, they emerge supporting a special beliefs or practices, and for apocryphal Gospel, the Gospel of Judas, preserved within them. Gospel of Thomas third figure, whose head reaches beyond Christian believers in general to express was introduced to the general public 82, for example, records a saying of Jesus the heavens. These three are followed and share their faith and piety in the with sensational claims about what it unattested by our canonical Gospels: by the cross! When a voice from heaven form of popular literature. would reveal about the true nature “Jesus said, ‘He who is near me is near the inquires whether proclamation has been of early Christianity. It turns out fire, and he who is far from me is far from made to the dead, the cross answers, For more information on such non- that the excitement generated by the the kingdom.’” Could this be a saying of “Yes.” Analogous popular material is canonical texts, see J. K. Elliott, ed. The announcement had more to do with the historical Jesus? While some might not entirely absent from the canonical Apocryphal Jesus: Legends of the Early marketing than scholarship. Indeed, the entertain such a possibility, no one will be passion narrative (e.g., Matt 27:51b- Church (Oxford: Oxford University Gospel of Judas can be located with similar misled by the stories of Jesus’ childhood 53). Indeed, the formal characteristics Press, 1996).

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Lectio Divina Bridging the Gap between God’s Heart and Ours by john belmonte, s.j. ing.” Within the monastic tradition, and suggested schema that follows be realized templation tastes it. Reading, in a in Saint Benedict’s rule in particular, its as a fixed program; lectio divina is a way certain way, brings solid food to the alk show host Jay Leno has a very meaning is obvious. Lectio divina is an to encounter God, and we should always mouth, meditation chews and breaks funny segment on his “Tonight attentive and in-depth reading of the feel free to utilize it according to our own it up, prayer obtains its seasoning, Show” where he interviews the sacred Scriptures intended not simply rhythms, gifts, and desires. contemplation is the same sweet­ness T 2 “man on the street,” testing people’s to satisfy one’s curiosity but to nourish which refreshes and brings joy. knowledge in a given subject matter. Rare one’s faith. Benedict’s monks were to Having pointed out the importance of is the person who does well. On one occa- nourish themselves with the divine food some prerequisites to lectio divina, such as Guigo sets down a four-part method, sion, he asked questions about a topic that of Scripture in order to have sufficient balance, openness, and flexibility, a word but for our purposes we will reduce that keenly interests me: the Bible. While the resources for the journey of faith. In is in order about the structure or steps structure to three: lectio, meditatio, and survey was hardly scientific, the questions the Rule of Saint Benedict, the monk is that this ancient practice usually takes. oratio. The reason for collapsing the final were very basic. No historical-critical exhorted to listen carefully and willingly Much has been written about these steps, two steps into one is simple. Prayer is at method here. “Name one of the Ten Com- to holy readings, the lectiones sanctae. The but the most exhaustive and perhaps the core of the way the two final steps mandments,” Jay asked. “Freedom of reading is holy because its object is the best-known example comes from Guigo are conceived. By collapsing them into a speech,” a man unhesitatingly responded. word of God. Scripture is approached not II (1115-1198), the Cistercian prior third phase, we respect the progression “Name the four Gospels,” Jay asked. With for scientific or technical reasons but in at Chartres from 1173 to 1180. In his that naturally develops from the first a befuddled look, a woman was unable to order to deepen one’s personal commit­ “Letter on the Contemplative Life,” also two steps. However, we leave open the answer. “Name the four Beatles,” Jay asked. ment to God and God’s Son. known as Scala Claustralium, Guigo gives possibility­ of expanding on the process Without any hesitation and a relieved the classic four-part expression to the of prayer by adding three more steps: smile, the woman responded, “John, Paul, Lectio Divina from the Monastery lectio divina: lectio, meditatio,­ oratio, and discretio, deliberatio, and actio. Some critics George, and Ringo.” My per­sonal favorite to the Marketplace contemplatio. Since Guigo’s text has become object to any tinkering with the traditional was the man whom he asked, “In the Old a nearly obligatory point of reference structure of lectio divina. Even so, a brief Testament, who was swallowed by the All quarters of the church, from official for someone considering lectio divina, it look at the historical development of the whale?” He looked directly into the camera pronouncements to informal movements, seems appropriate to reproduce here a method over the centuries shows that one and, as serious as death, said, “Pinocchio.” have in recent times repeatedly affirmed the brief summary citation from the letter: can understand Guigo’s four steps as an need for and effectiveness of lectio divina. expression of the monastic world of his As someone who has taught Scripture There are many ways in which one can One day during manual labor, time. Our minor change should be viewed to high school students, these answers encounter God through the biblical word. as I was beginning to reflect on the in the same light. did not surprise me. Religious educators Yet, the rich history, significant connection spiritual exercise of man, suddenly and biblical scholars regularly decry a to tradition, genuine spirituality, and pas- four spiritual steps appeared to my The Practice of Lectio Divina growing lack of familiarity with Scripture. toral applicability of lectio divina make it a mind: reading, meditation, prayer, Catholic ignorance of the Bible is particularly attractive method. and contemplation. This is the The first thing necessary to practice proverbial. A study of 508 teenagers by ladder of the monks by which they lectio divina should be obvious: time. the Princeton Religion Research Center Lectio divina is one instrument of grace are elevated from the earth to heaven As with anything worth doing or any confirmed that Catholic young people by which we encounter Christ in the and even though it may be formed relationship worth main­taining, the are much less familiar with Scripture Scriptures. When practiced every day, by only a few steps, nevertheless it practice of lectio divina must be worth than their Protestant counterparts. Even lectio divina fosters the kind of contact appears in immense and incredible spending time doing. While we should more distressing is the finding that with God’s word that, over the course of a greatness. The lower part rests on avoid the kind of rigidity described above, thirty percent said that they never even lifetime, promises a life of prayer lived out the earth; however, the higher part the spiritual life does demand a certain opened the Bible. If Saint Jerome’s axiom, in faithful love. To sug­gest that a specific penetrates the clouds and scrutinizes amount of healthy discipline. Whether we “Ignorance of the Scriptures is igno­rance method for lectio divina might be necessary the secrets of the heavens. want to fix a regular time, a certain period, of Christ,” is true, then those of us who carries with it a risk. In our practice of this or the most effective time, regularity is are full members of the Catholic Christian method, we might be tempted to follow Now the reading consists in the at- important. Our time is a precious thing, community have a serious situation on rigidly the proposals offered as rules and tentive observation of the Scriptures and offering it to God is a very simple and our hands. Isn’t it incumbent upon us to not as suggestions. To do so would be with one’s spirit applied. The medi­ concrete first step toward our meeting pass on the tradition, to introduce others a mistake. What lectio divina demands tation is the studious action of the God in prayer. to the living God, to dispel ignorance of in the first place is an openness to the mind, which seeks the discovery of the Word of God? If not us, then who? Spirit, which any master of the spiritual hidden truth by means of one’s own Equally obvious but also quite necessary life would see as a prerequisite to prayer. intelli­gence. The prayer consists in to consider is which text to use for lectio Even amid the decline in elementary Ignatius of Loyola’s instruction in his a religious application of the heart divina. Our emphasis in lectio divina remains biblical knowledge, help is on the way. Spiritual Exercises to those who intend to of God in order to dispel evil and squarely with the biblical text. It is possible Vatican II did much to help revive interest pray is a good example. He suggests that obtain favors. The contemplation is to substitute other texts for biblical texts; in Scripture, and one method that may believers must always pray “with great an elevation into God, from the mind however, we should not lightly forfeit the help bridge the gap Mr. Leno so cleverly spirit and generosity toward their Creator attracted beyond itself, savoring the surpass­ing value of reading, meditating, pointed out is the ancient monastic and Lord.”1 Balance and flexibility are joys of eternal sweetness…. and praying with what the Fathers called method of reading the Bible called lectio very important as one begins to practice the sacra pagina. Jerome himself reminds divina. The Latin expression lectio divina lectio divina. We should always avoid Reading seeks the sweetness of us that “the text presents itself simply and does not translate into English with great rigidity, excessive formalism, or forcing the blessed life, while meditation easily in words, but in the greatness of its accuracy. Literally, it means “holy read­ things. My intention is not that the finds it. Prayer asks for it and con- meaning,­ its depth is unfathomable.”3 b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Related to our emphasis on the biblical be especially helpful as we attempt to theless, the passage from meditatio to represents—in a word, discipleship. If the text itself is the presupposition­ that lectio expand our understand­ing about what the oratio is the vital and decisive moment of discretio is described as the capacity of a divina is a continuous reading of the whole text is saying. Paying attention to grammar, Christian experience. The more deeply we person to choose, then the deliberatio is the Bible. In our practice of lectio divina, we the usage of words, and the relationships enter the oratio, the more we move beyond choice itself. should avoid the temptation to select texts of verbs to nouns or of subjects­ to objects the text, beyond words and thoughts. The well suited to topics chosen in advance. By can make the text begin to take on new and lectio is useful and the meditatio is important The final moment is called actio. In attending to the whole of Scripture, as the unexpected­ significance. since they lead us to the oratio, which is this final step, the choice we make in the liturgy does in the lectionary, we preserve life in its fullest sense, the life of Christ deliberatio is given form and substance. the context of biblical revelation, both the The second step, called the meditatio, that he lives in the one who contemplates Prayer becomes something more than Old and New Testa­ment. We must avoid is equally important. We leave behind him. Oratio is the passage from the values simply setting aside time for God or an the risk of allowing the lectio to “overflow the the specifics of the text and focus instead behind the text to adoration of the person attempt to better ourselves. Our lives riverbanks of the tradition and the church,” on what is behind it, on the “interior of Jesus Christ, the one who brings begin to take shape from the choices we as Cardinal Martini has written.4 Practicing intelligence” of the text, as Guigo puts it.5 together and reveals every value. Unlike have made as a result of prayer. The actio lectio divina within the context of the whole The meditatio is a reflection on the values the lectio and meditatio, there is no operant is the integration of a kind of apostolic of biblical revelation emphasizes the unity which one finds behind the text. Here, question in the oratio. At its core, oratio is consciousness that informs our choices so of Scripture and our belief in the Bible’s one must consider the values behind the the silent adoration of the creature before that we have made and lived our choices inspiration by God. Moreover, emphasis actions, the words, the things, and the the Creator, a rare and miraculous gift. from our encounter with the living God. on the unity of Scripture allows us to avoid the temptation of placing Scripture at the Some critics would leave these last steps, service of ideology or subjectivism. particularly the actio, out of any proposed Lectio divina is an attentive and in-depth lectio divina. The addition of an extra step Time set aside for God should take sug­gests perhaps overzealousness or even on a dimension different from the rest reading of the sacred Scriptures intended not the influence of an “ideol­ogy of efficacy” of one’s day. To help mark that moment, regarding one’s prayer. Too often we feel most spiritual­ masters suggest that the simply to satisfy one’s curiosity but to we need to make prayer into something. person who sets out to pray begin by However, in the face of a modern world in making some kind of epiclesis, which is an nourish one’s faith. which the outward signs of the mystery of invocation or “calling down” of the Holy God are ever more difficult to recognize, Spirit to consecrate. In the Eucharist, we where a daily experience of gospel or call down the Spirit upon the bread and even transcendent values becomes harder wine to transform them into the body feelings which one finds in a particular When the person who practices to find, and where choices besiege one’s and blood of Christ. As we begin lectio scriptural passage. Anyone who honestly lectio divina reaches the level of oratio, it conscience and stifle rather than uplift the divina, we should remind ourselves that it seeks God and one’s authentic self in would seem that that moment would Spirit, this criticism is unconvincing. If is through the work of God in the Spirit prayer will hear the echoes of joy, fear, be conclusive. However, the dynamism anything, the connection between prayer that the written word is transformed in hope, and desire coming from the sacred of prayer that began during the epiclesis and our life choices should become more our lives into the living word. page. The operant ques­tion for this stage before the lectio is not interrupted here. To explicit, not less. The faith, hope, and love doesn’t stop at what the text says, but asks, the contrary, it naturally contin­ues and the made manifest in the choices our lives The Four Steps of Lectio Divina: Lectio, What does the text say to me? We seek to oratio, as we are proposing it here following become must be nourished by contact with Meditatio, Oratio, Actio make emerge from history and context the Cardinal Martini’s insight, possesses its the word of God. specific message of the text. The shift from own steps, called discretio, deliberatio, and Having set aside the time, “selected” external forms to internal content makes actio.7 These three steps represent the way Conclusion the text, and invoked the Spirit, we are this stage an important one. lectio divina is lived out in daily life. Given ready to begin the first formal step of the growing dissociation of the faith from Lectio divina is one graced instrument lectio divina, called the lectio. This is the The meditatio is an activity that daily life, these three successive moments to bridge the gap that exists between our moment in which we read and reread a engages our intellect. As we pass from the take on great significance. hearts and God’s. As the faith risks being passage from the Old or New Testament, second to the third stage of lectio divina, further dissociated from daily life, the alert to its most important elements. The we move more into the realm of religious Since the meditatio intends to put one simplicity and potential of a method like operative question is, What does the text emotions. Remaining on an intellectual in contact with the values of Christ, to lectio divina take on greater significance. say? Patient attentiveness to what the text level can be safe and comfortable, but encourage our identification with those Firmly rooted in the church’s tradition, it has to say characterizes our stance before the goal of prayer is not knowledge about things that are important to Christ, we presumes careful attention to what biblical it. We should read the text for itself, not God, but God himself. In the oratio, our naturally come to moments of decision. specialists are thinking and teaching. to get something out of it, like a homily, imagination, will, and desires are engaged The discretio is the capacity that the Rigorous study is complemented by disci- a conference, or a catechism lesson. The as we seek union with God. Oratio in its Christian acquires through grace to make plined meditation and prayerful contem- word of God should be allowed to emerge most fundamental sense is dialogue with the same choices as Christ. Cardinal plation of the word of God. Far from being from the written word. God. Gregory the Great called it “the Martini describes discretio­ like this: “It an objective or rigid technique whereby spontaneous meeting of the heart of God is the discernment of that which, in a one produces religious experience, lectio In lectio, each person’s experiences and with the heart of God’s beloved creature determined historical moment, is best for divina represents daily contact with talents before the text come into play. The through the word of God.”6 oneself, for others, and for the church.”8 God’s word that occurs within a lifetime’s more experience or education one has, engagement with the Living God. The the more one will potentially bring to the When we progress from meditatio to The second moment of the oratio is principal aim of such engagement is to text. Knowledge of biblical lan­guages or an oratio, an immediate experi­ence of infused called the deliberatio. It is an interior act by foster living prayer in faithful love. Lectio understanding of theology can also enrich mysticism is hardly to be expected. which one decides in favor of the values of divina unfolds more than it proceeds; one’s read­ing. Consultation of available Mystical union with God is not necessarily the gospel. One chooses to associate oneself progresses and develops more than it ad- biblical commentaries or dictionaries can an ordinary part of Christian life. Never­ with Christ and everything that association vances. Dedicated practice engages the

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 Lectio Divina... Coming to Know Jesus through Continued from Page 21 whole person—the intellect as well as the imagination, the will as well as the Contemplation of the Gospels affect. It promises contact with God that is the normal fulfillment of prayer. Lectio by william a. barry, s.j. always knew what others were thinking, goes away grieving: he knows that he is divina is open to every person and not the because he could read minds; and that he losing something precious. How do you exclusive property of a select few. Those f you are experiencing the desire to could do anything he wanted to do, because feel as you contemplate this scene? who practice lectio divina reaffirm the belief know Jesus more intimately, you can he was God. In reality, such a view of Jesus that the proper place for the word of God I begin with some contemplation of of Nazareth does not take his humanity You may occasionally find yourself is in the hands of the faithful. the Gospels. Contemplation, as Ignatius seriously; many Christians consider Jesus’ feeling something like what this rich man means it, is a rather simple way of using humanness only when reflecting on his felt. You, too, may want to follow Jesus Wouldn’t Geppetto have been the Gospels for prayer. You begin each horrible suffering at the crucifixion. completely but feel that something is pleased if, instead of his firm response, period of prayer by expressing your desire standing in the way. You know that a total “Pinocchio,” that young man had looked to know Jesus more intimately in order In contemplating the Gospels, take commitment to Jesus means sacrificing into Jay Leno’s TV camera and answered to love him more deeply and follow him this advice to heart. Be sure to take Jesus’ something in your life that you believe you with conviction, “Jonah”? more closely. Then you read a passage humanity seriously even as you reflect on cannot do without. What are you to do? of the Gospels and let it stimulate your his divine attributes. God took humanity After I gave a talk on prayer, a professor Reprinted with permission from Chicago Studies imagination in the way a good novel can. seriously enough to become one of us, engaged me in this dialogue: 39 (2000): 211-19. and we do God no service if we downplay People have different kinds of imag- what God has done in becoming human. “I want a closer relationship with Endnotes inations. Some are able to make something When we use our imagination in the God, but I know that if I do get close 1 “Spiritual Exercises,” in Ignatius of Loyola, ed. like a movie of each scene. They watch contemplative way Ignatius suggests, we to God, I will have to do something I George Ganns (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 1991), 122. and listen as the scene unfolds in their trust that God’s Spirit will use it to reveal do not want to do.” imagination. I do not have that kind of something important for us about Jesus so 2 Quoted by Enzo Bianchi, Pregare la Parola “Why don’t you tell God that you imagination. I don’t see anything, for that we will love him and want to follow (Milan: Piero Gribaudi Editore, 1996), 106-7. don’t want to do it?” 3 Quoted by Mario Masini, La Lectio divina the most part. My imagination is not him. The only way that we can get to know (Milan: Edizioni San Paolo, 1996), 418. pictorial; I seem to intuit the story or another person is through revelation; the “Can I do that?” feel it. I was helped in understanding and other must reveal him- or herself to us. In 4 Carlo Maria Martini, Ritrovare Se Stessi (Casale “We are talking about a friend- trusting my imagination by realizing that I contemplating the Gospels, we are asking Monferrato: Piemme, 1996), 60-61. ship here. You can tell God any- have visceral reactions to stories—I wince Jesus to reveal himself to us. 5 Quoted by Bianchi, Pregare la Parole, 110. thing in your heart and then see when I hear of someone hitting his finger 6 Quoted by Masini, La Lectio divina, 430. how God responds.” 7 Carlo Maria Martini, Lectio divina e pastorale, in with a hammer, and I weep when I hear people’s stories of pain and loss. Each of Ascolto della Parola e Preghiera: La Lectio divina (Vatican That’s the advice I would give you, us needs to be content with and trust the In contemplating the City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1987), 217. too. Anything that comes up in these imagination we have. In contemplating 8 Ibid. contemplations is grist for the mill of the Gospel stories, don’t be afraid to let Gospel stories, don’t your relationship with Jesus. Remem- your imagination go. The Gospels are ber that friendship develops through stories written to engage our imaginations, be afraid to let your mutual transparency. hearts, and minds so that we will come to 1 Barry, William A. Who Do You Say I Am?: Meeting know, love, and follow Jesus. They are imagination go. the Historical Jesus in Prayer. Notre Dame, IN: Ave Does Jesus love the rich man any less meant to elicit reactions and, ultimately, a Maria Press, 1996. when he goes away? Does he love the 2 Borg, Marcus and Wright N. T., The Meaning of faith that shows itself in action. They are professor any less because he’s stuck? If Jesus: Two Visions. San Francisco: Harper, 1998. not biographies or historical documents 3 Brown, Raymond E. Christ in the Gospels of the Litur- Getting to know Jesus can be discomfit- you have gotten to know Jesus, you will or theological discourses. gical Year. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2008. ing, to say the least. Mark’s Gospel (10:17- have an answer, I’m sure. For my part, I 4 Charlesworth, James H. The Historical Jesus: An 22) gives us an example of how discon- do not believe that Jesus loved the rich Essential Guide. Nashville: Abingdon, 2008. As you begin to contemplate the 5 Harrington, Daniel J. Jesus: A Historical Portrait. certed a person can become. A young man man any less, but I do believe that Jesus Cincinnati: St. Anthony Messenger Press, 2007. Gospels with the hope of getting to know runs up to Jesus and asks, “Good teacher, was disappointed. I suspect, however, 6 Hurtado, Larry W. How on Earth Did Jesus Become and love Jesus more, it is important to a God? Historical Questions about Earliest what must I do to inherit eternal life?” that his disappointment stemmed from Devotion to Jesus. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005. remember that Jesus of Nazareth was a the fact that the man would not continue 7 Levine, Amy-Jill. The Misunderstood Jew: The Church historical human being who was born in Jesus, looking at him, loved him the dialogue but walked away. If he had and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus. San Francisco: a small territory in Palestine controlled by Harper, 2006. and said, “You lack one thing; go, sell stayed with Jesus, he might have been able 8 ——, ed. The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton: the Roman Empire. It is difficult for many what you own, and give the money to to say, “I cannot give up my wealth, but I Princeton University Press, 2006. Christians to take seriously that Jesus was the poor, and you will have treasure wish that I could. Help me.” That would 9 Meier, John P. A Marginal Jew. 3 vols. New York: a real human being because of the training Doubleday, 1991, 1994, 2001. in heaven; then come, follow me.” have continued the conversation, and the 10 Ratzinger, Joseph (Pope Benedict XVI). Jesus of and teaching they have had. They can When he heard this, he was shocked friendship would have grown. Nazareth: From the Baptism to the Transfiguration. say that Jesus was fully human, but the New York: Doubleday, 2007. and went away grieving, for he had emphasis of most catechetical training and 11 Wright, N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God. many possessions (10:21-22). Reprinted with permission from A Friendship Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003. preaching has been on his divinity. And, Like No Other: Experiencing God’s Amazing Embrace 12 ——. Surprised by Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the to be truthful, many Christians think that Because of this man’s addiction to his Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church. New (Chicago: Loyola, 2008), 54-57, 63-65. possessions, he could not follow through York: HarperOne, 2008. calling Jesus divine means that he knew — everything, including the future; that he on his desire to do more. Notice that he

b o s t o n c o l l e g e | c 21 r e s o u r c e s | f a l l 2008 FALL 2008 u p d a te september november Friday, September 19, 2008 Symposium Tuesday, November 4, 2008 Conversation Series for Undergraduates Dialogue between Muslims and Christians as Mutually Transformative Speech n Presenter: David Agape Latte n Presenter: Bienvenu Mayemba, SJ, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences Burrell, CSC, Notre Dame n Respondents: Francis Clooney, SJ, Harvard; Joseph Lumbard, n Location: Hillside Café, 8:30-10:00 pm n Sponsor: Campus Ministry and C21 Center Brandeis n Location: Heights Room, 5:00-6:30 pm n Sponsor: Theology Department and C21 n Information: 617-552-6592 n Webcast available: November 18, www.bc.edu/church21 Center* n Information: 617-552-3880 n Webcast available: October 3, www.bc.edu/church21 Wednesday, November 5, 2008 Panel Discussion Wednesday, September 24, 2008 Lecture “Who are you, Lord?” Meeting Jesus Christ in the Gospels n Panelists: Daniel Harrington, SJ, The Jewishness of Jesus n Presenter: Daniel Harrington, SJ, STM** n Location: TBA, STM; Christopher Matthews, STM; Celia Sirois, St. John’s Seminary; Thomas Stegman, SJ, 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: C21 Center n Information: 617-552-0470 n Webcast available: STM n Location: Peterson Hall 024, 5:30-7:00 pm n Sponsor: STM and C21 Center October 8, www.bc.edu/church21 n Information: 617-552-6501 n Webcast available: n November 19, www.bc.edu/church21

Friday, September 26, 2008 Conversation Series for Graduate Students Friday, November 7, 2008 Annual STM Ministry Renewal Day Veritas et Vinum n Presenter: James Keenan, SJ, Theology Department n Location: Fulton Encountering the Risen Christ: The Primary Task of Catechesis and Pastoral Ministry Honors Library, 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: Graduate Student Life and C21 Center Presenters: Jane Regan, STM; Thomas Groome, STM n Location: Gasson 100, n Information: 617-552-1855 n Webcast available: October 10, www.bc.edu/church21 9:00 am-1:30 pm n Sponsor: STM and C21 Center n Information: 617-552-6501 october n Webcast available: November 21, www.bc.edu/church21 Tuesday, November 11, 2008 C21 Women’s Series/Lecture Lecture Thursday, October 2, 2008 Jesus, Prophet of Divine Wisdom n Presenter: Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, Harvard Meeting Christ: Jesus in Tradition and Traditions n Presenter: Francine Cardman, STM n Respondents: Members of the Theology Department n Location: Heights Room, 5:30-7:30 pm n Location: Peterson Hall 024, 7:00-8:30 pm n Sponsor: STM and C21 Center n Sponsor: Women’s Resource Center and C21 Center n Information: 617-552-3489 n Information: 617-552-6501 n Webcast available: October 16, www.bc.edu/church21 n Webcast available: November 25, www.bc.edu/church21

Friday, October 3, 2008 Symposium Wednesday, November 12, 2008 Lecture A Living Faith: Themes of the Catholic Catechism n Presenters: Members of STM Faculty Jesus through the Eyes of Paul n Presenter: Thomas Stegman, SJ, STM n Location: Murray n Location: Peterson Hall 024, 8:30 am-1:00 pm n Sponsor: STM and C21 Center Function Room, 4th floor, Yawkey Athletics Center, 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: C21 Center n Information: 617-552-6501 n Information: 617-552-0470 n Webcast available: November 26, www.bc.edu/church21

Tuesday, October 7, 2008 Conversation Series for Undergraduates Monday, November 24, 2008 C21 Resources Workshops Agape Latte n Presenter: Maria Sannella, Carroll School of Management n Location: Hillside Encountering Jesus in the Scriptures n Advent Online Workshop: December 1-12, 2008; course Café, 8:30-10:00 pm n Sponsor: Campus Ministry and C21 Center n Information: site opens today n Sponsor: C21 Online and C21 Center n Information: 617-552-4075 617-552-3476 n Webcast available: October 21, www.bc.edu/church21

Wednesday, October 15, 2008 Lecture december The Jesus of the Scriptures Mediated Through Art n Presenter: Eileen Daily, Loyola (Chicago) Tuesday, December 2, 2008 Alumni Advent Series n Location: Murray Function Room, 4th floor, Yawkey Athletics Center, 4:30-6:00 pm Jesus Foretold n Presenter: Daniel Harrington, SJ, STM n Location: Boston College Club, n Sponsor: C21 Center n Information: 617-552-0470 n Webcast available: October 29, 5:30-7:00 pm n Sponsor: BC Alumni Association, C21 Center, New England Jesuits www.bc.edu/church21 n Information: 617-552-4700 n Webcast available: December 19, www.bc.edu/church21 Presentation/Discussion Thursday, October 16, 2008 Tuesday, December 2, 2008 Conversation Series for Undergraduates Meeting Jesus in the Voting Booth: Faith and the 2008 Election n Presenter: Kenneth Himes, OFM, The- Agape Latte n Presenter: Sheila McMahon, Women’s Resource Center n Location: Hillside Café, ology Department n Location: Hillside Café, 8:30-10:00 pm n Sponsor: STM, Campus Ministry, 8:30-10:00 pm n Sponsor: Campus Ministry and C21 Center n Information: 617-552-6592 C21 Center n Information: 617-552-6501 n Webcast available: October 30, www.bc.edu/church21 n Webcast available: December 16, www.bc.edu/church21 Lecture/Panel Discussion Tuesday, October 21, 2008 Friday, December 5, 2008 Conversation Series for Graduate Students Where Does the School of Theology and Ministry Belong in the University? n Inaugural Event for Veritas et Vinum n Presenter: Patrick Rombalski, VP of Student Affairs n Location: Fulton STM n Presenter: Richard Clifford, SJ, Dean, STM n Respondents: Cutberto Garza, Provost; Honors Library, 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: Graduate Student Life and C21 Center Jill Ker Conway, MIT n Location: Gasson 100, 4:00-6:30 pm n Sponsor: STM and C21 n Information: 617-552-3482 n Webcast available: December 19, www.bc.edu/church21 Center n Webcast available: November 4, www.bc.edu/church21 Tuesday, December 9, 2008 Alumni Advent Series Wednesday, October 22, 2008 Lecture Jesus Fulfilled n Presenter: Daniel Harrington, SJ, STM n Location: Boston College Club, The Jesus of History n Presenter: Pheme Perkins, Theology Department n Location: TBA, 5:30-7:00 pm n Sponsor: BC Alumni Association, C21 Center, New England Jesuits 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: C21 Center n Information: 617-552-0470 n Webcast available: n Information: 617-552-4700 n Webcast available: December 30, www.bc.edu/church21 November 5, www.bc.edu/church21

Friday, October 24, 2008 Conversation Series for Graduate Students Veritas et Vinum n Presenter: Gilda Morelli, Vice Provost for Graduate Education n Location: two important changes in c21 center operation Fulton Honors Library, 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: Graduate Student Life and C21 Center 1. Beginning with this issue of C21 Resources, C21C on-campus events will emphasize the theme of the C21 n Information: 617-552-3482 n Webcast available: November 7, www.bc.edu/church21 Resources issue published at the start of the semester—in this instance, “Encountering Jesus in the Scriptures”. 2. On-campus events will be videotaped and made available online within two weeks of their occurrence; dates Wednesday, October 29, 2008 Lecture are noted above for each event. “They Recognized Him”: Teaching to Encounter Jesus in the Scriptures n Presenter: Thomas abbreviations Groome, STM n Location: Peterson Hall 024, 4:30-6:00 pm n Sponsor: STM and C21 Center * C21 Center: The Church in the 21st Century Center ** STM: BC School of Theology and Ministry n Information: 617-552-6501 n Webcast available: n November 12, www.bc.edu/church21 Nonprofit Org. US Postage PAID Princeton, MN Permit No. 13

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