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EXTRAGALACTIC NOVAE AND THEIR PROGENITORS Steven Charles Williams A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Liverpool John Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. April 2014 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged °c Steven Charles Williams (2014). ii Declaration The work presented in this thesis was carried out at the Astrophysics Research Institute, Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University. Unless otherwise stated, it is the original work of the author. While registered as a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, for which submission is now made, the author has not been registered as a candidate for any other award. This thesis has not been submitted in whole, or in part, for any other degree. Steven Charles Williams Astrophysics Research Institute Liverpool John Moores University IC2, Liverpool Science Park 146 Brownlow Hill Liverpool L3 5RF UK April 2014 iii Abstract Novae are binary systems containing a white dwarf (WD) and a less-evolved compan- ion star, either a main-sequence, sub-giant or red giant star. The WD accretes matter from the companion through Roche lobe overflow or via a stellar wind. As material is accreted, the pressure and temperature at the base of the accreted envelope increase until a thermonuclear runaway occurs. This causes a sudden increase in brightness (the outburst), which ranks among the most luminous stellar astrophysical phenomena. Following the outburst, some novae form detectable dust in the ejecta. Observationally, there is a correlation between the dust-formation timescale and the time it takes the nova to fade optically by two magnitudes, which was emphasised in a study of infrared emission from novae in the Andromeda Galaxy (M31). In the first part of this thesis, a simple theoretical model is presented, which considers the higher-energy photons produced by the nova being absorbed by neutral hydrogen in the ejecta, before they can reach the potential dust-formation sites. This new model successfully replicates the observed trend between these two parameters and agrees well with the observational data. The majority of novae are thought to consist of a WD and a main-sequence star, al- though some systems harbour a sub-giant (SG-novae) or red giant (RG-novae) com- panion instead. In the Milky Way galaxy, relatively few RG-novae have been con- firmed, although in many systems, the evolutionary state of the secondary is simply not known. There is evidence that the progenitors of some Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) may be RG-nova systems (e.g. SN PTF11kx), therefore it is important to under- stand the population of such systems. In this thesis, archival Hubble Space Telescope iv (HST) data are used to search for RG-novae in M31. Many more novae are discovered in M31 each year (∼30) than in the Milky Way (∼10). Distance determination is a major complication when studying Galactic novae. However, at the distance of M31 all the novae may be considered to be at the same distance, making M31 an excellent environment for studying nova populations. We conducted a survey of 38 spectroscopically confirmed M31 novae in quiescence. We determined that 11 of these systems had a coincident progenitor candidate whose probability of being a chance alignment with a resolved source in the HST data was ≤ 5%. As the main sequence and the majority of the sub-giant branch are not resolvable in the HST data, this implies that a significant proportion of these systems contain red giant secondaries. The light curves of several M31 novae are also presented here, some of which use HST data to extend the light curves far deeper than is typically possible for extragalactic systems. A statistical study was then carried out to test the results of the survey and derive an estimate of the proportion of M31 novae associated with a resolved source in the HST data. This includes, for example, models of the spatial distribution, speed class and peak magnitude of the M31 nova population, as well as considering biases introduced +0.16 by the HST coverage of M31. The initial results suggest 0.38−0.12 of M31 novae are associated with a source in the HST data, a class of objects expected to be dominated by RG-novae. This is a much greater proportion than that observed so far in our Galaxy, and will be important when considering such systems as potential SN Ia candidates. The spatial distribution of novae that have resolved progenitor candidates is consistent with these systems being associated with the M31 disk, rather than the bulge. The method used to locate the progenitors of M31 novae was also used to study three additional systems. The M31 nova, M31N 2008-12a, which appears to be a recurrent nova (RN) with a very short inter-outburst period, produced an outburst in November 2013. This outburst was studied and a candidate progenitor system was found in HST data when it was apparently in quiescence, supporting its classification as a RN with a high accretion rate. The method was also used to explore upper limits on the brightness of the progenitor of SN 2014J, a SN Ia in M82, although no progenitor was found, a v RG-nova (or in-fact any type of system) could not be ruled out due to the limitations of the data. For the M31 transient TCP J00403295+4034387, which showed an unusual spectrum, archival HST data were used to show the object was probably a blend of two objects with a very small apparent separation. Finally, the thesis is summarised, and future work on both dust formation and the progenitor search are discussed. vi Publications Refereed Journals: Williams, S. C., Bode, M. F., Darnley, M. J., Evans, A., Zubko, V. and Shafter, A. W., 2013, ApJ, 777, L32 – Rapid Dust Formation in Novae: The Speed Class−Formation Timescale Correlation Explained Henze, M., Ness, J.-U., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F., Williams, S. C., Shafter, A. W., Kato, M. and Hachisu, I., 2014, A&A, 563, L8 – A remarkable recurrent nova in M31: The X-ray observations Darnley, M. J., Williams, S. C., Bode, M. F., Henze, M., Ness, J.-U., Shafter, A. W., Hornoch, K. and Votruba, V., 2014, A&A, 563, L9 – A remarkable recurrent nova in M31: The optical observations Williams, S. C., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F., Keen, A. and Shafter A. W., 2014, ApJS, accepted (arXiv:1405.4874) – On the Progenitors of Local Group Novae - I. The M31 Catalog Williams, S. C., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F. and Shafter, A. W., ApJ, in preparation – On the Progenitors of Local Group Novae - II. vii Telegrams: Shafter, A. W., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F., Williams, S. C., Hornoch, K. and Ciar- dullo, R., 2011, ATel, 3806 – Spectroscopic observations of the M31 optical transient, TCP J00403295+4034387 Williams, S. C., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F. and Shafter, A. W., 2013, ATel, 5611 – A Candidate Recurrent Nova in M31: The Progenitor System? Henze, M., Ness, J.-U., Bode, M. F., Darnley, M. J. and Williams, S. C., 2013, ATel, 5627 – A Candidate Recurrent Nova in M31: A fast supersoft X-ray counterpart found with Swift XRT Henze, M., Ness, J.-U., Bode, M. F., Darnley, M. J., Williams, S. C. and Shafter, A. W., 2013, ATel, 5633 – A Candidate Recurrent Nova in M31: X-ray and UV short- term variability with Swift Henze, M., Ness, J.-U., Bode, M. F., Darnley, M. J., Williams, S. C. and Shafter, A. W., 2013, ATel, 5687 – A recent M 31 nova found as a supersoft X-ray source with Swift Williams, S. C., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F., Shafter, A. W., Zhang, J. J., Mazzali, P. and Pian, E., 2014, ATel, 5723 – Spectroscopic Classification of the M31 Nova Candidate PNV J00425172+4118142 Williams, S. C., Darnley, M. J., Bersier, D. F., Bode, M. F., James, P. A. and Mazzali, P., 2014, ATel, 5824 – SN 2014J: HST archival observations do not preclude Recurrent or Classical Nova progenitor system Conference Proceedings: Darnley, M. J., Bode, M. F., Harman, D. J., Hounsell, R. A., Munari, U., Ribeiro, V. A. R. M., Surina, F., Williams, R. P. and Williams, S. C., 2013, in Stella Novae: Future and Past Decades, P. A. Woudt & V. A. R. M. Ribeiro (eds), ASPCS, in press viii (arXiv:1303.2711) – On the Galactic Nova Progenitor Population Williams, S. C., Darnley, M. J., Bode, M .F., Shafter, A. W., 2013, in Stella Novae: Future and Past Decades, P. A. Woudt & V. A. R. M. Ribeiro (eds), ASPCS, in press (arXiv:1303.1980) – On the M31 Nova Progenitor Population Williams, S. C., Bode, M .F., Darnley, M. J., Zubko, V., Evans, A. and Shafter, A. W., 2013, in Stella Novae: Future and Past Decades, P. A. Woudt & V. A. R. M. Ribeiro (eds), ASPCS, in press – Rapid Dust Formation in Novae: Speed Class and Grain Formation Timescale ix Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Matt Darnley and Prof. Mike Bode for their help, support and guidance throughout these last three and a half years. I would like to extend these thanks to everyone at the ARI, past and present, that made my time here enjoyable. I would particularly like to thank fellow students Matt Prescott, Rob Barnsley, Dave Eden, Rich Harrison and Joe Lyman. The many pub trips, and the laughs and adventures we’ve had along the way, is what has made my stay in Liverpool really enjoyable.
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  • Binary Orbits As the Driver of Gamma

    Binary Orbits As the Driver of Gamma

    LETTER doi:10.1038/nature13773 Binary orbits as the driver of c-ray emission and mass ejection in classical novae Laura Chomiuk1, Justin D. Linford1, Jun Yang2,3,4, T. J. O’Brien5, Zsolt Paragi3, Amy J. Mioduszewski6, R. J. Beswick5, C. C. Cheung7, Koji Mukai8,9, Thomas Nelson10, Vale´rio A. R. M. Ribeiro11, Michael P. Rupen6,12, J. L. Sokoloski13, Jennifer Weston13, Yong Zheng13, Michael F. Bode14, Stewart Eyres15, Nirupam Roy16 & Gregory B. Taylor17 Classical novae are the most common astrophysical thermonuclear These observations span a frequency range of 1–6 GHz and show a flat a explosions, occurring on the surfaces of white dwarf stars accreting radio spectrum (a < 20.1, where Sn / n ; n is the observing frequency 1 gas from companions in binary star systems . Novae typically expel and Sn is the flux density at this frequency). This spectral index is much about 1024 solar masses of material atvelocitiesexceeding 1,000 kilo- more consistent with synchrotron radiation than the expected optic- metres per second. However, the mechanism of mass ejection in novae ally thick emission from warm nova ejecta13,14 (a < 2 is predicted and is poorly understood, and could be dominated by the impulsive flash observed in V959 Mon at later times; Fig. 1 and Extended Data Fig. 1). of thermonuclear energy2, prolonged optically thick winds3 or bin- Like gigaelectronvolt c-rays, synchrotron emission requires a popu- ary interaction with the nova envelope4. Classical novae are now lation of relativistic particles, and so we can use this radio emission as a routinely detected at gigaelectronvolt c-ray wavelengths5, suggest- tracer of c-ray production that lasts longer and enables much higher ing that relativistic particles are accelerated by strong shocks in the spatial resolution than do the c-rays themselves.