Contents

- - -:'le return of the British, 1806 42 :..5 The Albany Settlement of 1820 and its cultural impact 44 3.6 The emancipation of the slaves and the Cape Coloured people 46 3.7 The start of the 49

SECTION 11 CHIEFDOMS, REPUBLICS AND COLONIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Chapter 4 African Chiefdoms 57 4.1 Tswana chiefdoms of the Kalahari borderland 57 4.2 Chiefdoms of the Eastern Transvaal: Pedi, Lovedu, and Ndzundza 59 4.3 The southern Sotho 60 4.4 The southern Nguni peoples: Xhosa, Thembu, Mpondo 61 4.5 The Mfengu (Fingo) people 65 4.6 The northern Nguni peoples: Zulu, Gaza, Ngoni and Swazi 65 4.7 The Khumalo Ndebele 69 4.8 The bonds of African society in the nineteenth century 70 4.9 New concentrations of power after the 75

Chapter 5 77 5.1 Voortrekker tribulations 77 5.2 The Republic Natalia 80 5.3 Potgieter and Pretorius on the highveld 81 5.4 The Republic 84 5.5 The , the civil war, and the rise of 86 5.6 Ideological rifts under Pretorius and Burgers 91 5.7 Kruger's Republic and the challenge 95

Chapter 6 British Colonies 101 6.1 Cape political and constitutional growth, 1820-72, and the politics of separatism 101 6.2 Cape politics in the era of diamonds, and the Rhodes-Hofmeyr alliance, 1870-99· 107 6.3 Black politics in the nineteenth-century III 6.4 The founding and settlement of colonial 113 6.5 Shepstone and African administration in Natal 116 6.6 Political developments in Natal to responsible government, 1893 118 6.7 The arrival of Natal's Indians 120 Published in Great Britain 2000 by MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndrnills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-333-79222-X hardcover ISBN 0-333-79223-8 paperback

Published in the United States of America 2000 by ST. MARTIN'S PRESS, INC., Scholarly and Reference Division, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 0-312-23376-D CIP information is available from the Library of Congress

©T. R. H. Davenport 1977, 1978, 1987, 1991 © T. R. H. Davenport and Christopher Saunders 2000 Foreword © Desmond Tutu 2000

First edition 1977 Second edition 1978 Reprinted four times Third edition 1987 Reprinted once Fourth edition 1991 Fifth edition 2000 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P OLP.

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.

The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources.

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne Contents

List of Figures xv

List of Maps XVll

List of Tables and Graphs XVlll

Foreword by Archbishop Desmond Tutu XIX Acknowledgements xxi

Preface XXlll

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms XXVll

PART ONE: THE PRELUDE TO WHITE DOMINATION

SECTION I THE SETTING OF THE HUMAN PROBLEM

Chapter 1 From the Dawn of History to the Time of Troubles 3 1.1 The earliest South Africans 3 1.2 The Khoisan peoples 6 1.3 The emergence of Bantu-speaking chiefdoms 8 1.4 The upheavals of the early nineteenth century 13

Chapter 2 The Birth of a Plural Society 21 2.1 The early years of European settlement 21 2.2 The Khoikoi and the Dutch 23 2.3 Cape slavery 25 2.4 The vac and the Cape station 27 2.5 The evolution of the Cape frontier in the eighteenth century 29 2.6 The creation of a stratified society 33 Chapter 3 The Enlightenment and the Great Trek 36 3.1 The eighteenth-century revolution and Cape Colonial '' 36 3.2 The first British occupation, 1795 40 3.3 Batavian rule, 1803-6 41 Contents IX

6.8 The Cape, Natal, and the debate about liberalism 122

SECTION III THE STRUGGLE FOR POSSESSION

Chapter 7 White and Black: The Struggle for the Land 129 7.1 The territorial confrontation: preliminary observations 129 7.2 Conflicts on the Cape's northern borders 130 7.3 The eastern frontier of the Cape Colony 132 The beginnings of contact between the Xhosa and the colonists 132 The sixth frontier war and the treaty system 136 The conflicts of 1846-53 139 Sir George Grey and the cattle-killing of 1857 141 The Thembu experience 143 The Gcaleka in exile: the war and rebellions of 1877-80 144 The incorporation of Pondoland 147 7.4 Griqua conflicts with Settler States 149 The Cape-Kora wars 149 The Griqua and their exile to Kokstad 149 The Griqua of Nicholas Waterboer, the land court and the rebellion of 1878 153 Moshweshwe's Sotho, the Free State and the British, 1833-84 155 The Rolong of Thaba'Nchu and the 161 7.5 Conflict on the eastern and northern frontiers of the Transvaal 163 The Pedi, the and the British, 1845-83 163 The Ndzundza, or Transvaal Ndebele 169 The Lovedu and the Venda 169 7.6 The Swazi and their 'documents' 171 7.7 The survival and overthrow of the Zulu monarchy, 1838-1906 173 7.8 The frontier conflicts of the Tswana on the 'Road to the North' 179 The Tlhaping and Rolong 179 The northern Tswana kingdoms 180 7.9 The Khumalo Ndebele and the British Company 182 7.10 The role of the missionaries 186 7.11 The changing ownership of the land 190 7.12 The role of trade in colonial expansion 192 Re,::1Cl>lics: The Breaking of Boer 194 194 195 . . er and 197

."1 =-< ships of ir George Gre;~ 1854-61, Philip HOdeJwuse, 1862-70 199 .5 Sir Henry Barkly and the diamond fields, 1870-7 202 8.6 Federal strategies, 1874-80: Carnarvon, Frere, Shepstone and the of the Transvaal 203 8.7 Republican independence again, 1881-4:the and London Conventions; conflict over Basutoland and the 'Road to the North: 1880-5 209 8.8 The scramble for southern Africa: , railways and rival , 1880-95 213 8.9 Chamberlain, Rhodes, Milner and Kruger, 1895-9 217 8.10 The Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 223

Chapter 9 The Shaping of a White 233 9.1 The Treaty ofVereeniging, 31 May 1902 233 9.2 The Cape and Natal in the post-war era 234 9.3 Milner and reconstruction 236 9.4 The Milner regime and South African blacks: the Lagden Commission, segregation and the Zulu rebellion of 1906 240 9.5 Independent churches and the growth of African and Coloured political movements 242 9.6 Gandhi 244 9.7 The revival of Afrikanerdom 245 9.8 The Transvaal British 248 9.9 The move towards responsible government in the Transvaal and 251 9.10 The formation of the , 1908-10 255 9.11 Black protest 262 Contents Xl

PART TWO: THE CONSOLIDATION OF A WHITE STATE

SECTION I THE ROAD TO AFRIKANER DOMINANCE

Chapter 10 Union under Stress: Botha and Smuts, 1910-24 267 10.1 's accession to power and quarrel with Hertzog 267 10.2 The segregation strategy of the Botha-Smuts regime 270 10.3 The growth of African political opposition: the SANNC and the ICU 273 10.4 Indian affairs: the climax of the Gandhi-Smuts encounter and the defiance of Sapru 276 10.5 White worker resistance, 1913-14 280 10.6 The invasion of German South West Africa and the Afrikaner rebellion of 1914 283 10.7 South Africa in the Great War 285 10.8 Party realignments, 1915-21 286 10.9 Smuts at Versailles, the South West African mandate and the bid to incorporate Southern Rhodesia and the Protectorates 288 10.10 Shadows over the Smuts regime, 1921-2:Bondelswarts, Bulhoek and the 292 10.11 The Nationalist-Labour Pact and the 1924general election 297 Chapter 11 The Afrikaner's Road to Parity: Hertzog, 1924-33 300 11.1 1924- a turning-point? 300 11.2 Dominion status, the flag crisis, and the Protectorates 302 11.3 Hertzog's policies for Asians and Africans 306 11.4 The general election of 1929 311 11.5 The ICU and the ANC in the 1920s 313 11.6 The Great Depression and the politics of coalition and fusion 317 Chapter 12 White Unity, BlackDivision, 1933-9 324 12.1 The Fusion Government and the 'native bills' 324 12.2 The black reaction to Hertzog's 1936legislation 329 12.3 The party split of 1934and the rise of 'purified' 333 12.4 The foreign policy of the Fusion era 340 XII Contents

Chapter 13 Smuts and the Liberal-Nationalist Confrontation, 1939-48 344 13.1 South Africa and the Second World War 344 13.2 The Afrikaner Opposition, 1939-43 346 13.3 Liberal reform initiatives and a polarised response, 1942-3 353 13.4 The mineworkers' strike of 1946 and the Fagan Report 356 13.5 Xuma's ANC and the rise of the Youth League 361 13.6 'CAD; 'Anti-CAD' and the Non-European Unity Movement 365 13.7 Durban's Indians and the 'Pegging' and 'Ghetto' Acts 366 13.8 The Nationalist victory in 1948 369

SECTION II THE AGE OF THE SOCIAL ENGINEERS

Chapter 14 Trek into the Wilderness, 1948-60 377 14.1 The first purely Afrikaner government 377 14.2 The Coloured vote issue and new Opposition groups 379 14.3 The politics of the 383 14.4 Tomlinson, Verwoerd, and the ideology of 388 14.5 The Strijdom interlude 394 14.6 The defeat of the Coloured parliamentary struggle 395 14.7 Residential and cultural apartheid 396

Chapter 15 Internal Combustion, 1956-64 399 15.1 Rural resistance to the apartheid regime 399 15.2 The Congress of the People and the , 1955 403 15.3 The first of the major apartheid political trials 405 15.4 Verwoerd's 'new vision' and Macmillan's 'winds of change; 1959-60 406

15.5 The ANC, the PAG, and Sharpeville, 1960 411 15.6 The first republican referendum, October 1960 416 15.7 Post-Sharpeville resistance: B. f. Vorster and the political underground 418 15.8 The murder of Dr Verwoerd 424

Chapter 16 Modification and Backfire, 1964--78 425 16.1 Living with the Tomlinson Report: industrial licensing and rural resettlement 425 16.2 The extension of Homeland self-government: the first reactions of Homeland leaders and liberal whites 431 16.3 Black Consciousness 436 Contents xiit

16.4 The end of indirect representation for Coloured people, and the failure of the Coloured Representative Council 437 16.5 The Theron Report and Vorster's constitutional plans 439 16.6 The extrusion of the Hertzogites and the harrying of the Liberals 442 16.7 African movements in exile and the start of the liberation struggle 447 16.8 'Soweto': the crisis of 1976-7 449 16.9 The information scandal and the fall of Vorster 454

Chapter 17 At the Crossroads, 1978-90 460 17.1 P W Botha's political style and aims 460 17.2 The rigid application of population resettlement 466 17.3 The 'conspiracy' of gold and maize 471 17.4 Signs of a white backlash 474 17.5 Reactions to denationalisation in the Homelands 478 17.6 School boycotts, resurgent trade unionism, and the revival of Black Consciousness and ANC related activities 488 17.7 Confrontation about consensus: the constitutional debate, 1978-90 496 17.8 The emergency of 1985-90, the rise of F W de Klerk and the release of Nelson Mandela 506

Chapter 18 Salesmanship: Ethnasia contra mundum, 1945-90 516 18.1 South Africa and the birth of the United Nations 516 18.2 The Malan-Strijdom era in foreign policy, 1948-58 517 18.3 Dr Verwoerd and the outside world 521 18.4 Continuing confrontation in South West Africa and Angola, 1952-79 523 18.5 South Africa and Rhodesian independence 530 18.6 Vorster: dialogue and detente 532 18.7 Economic sanctions, employment codes, disinvestment and boycotts 533 18.8 The Cape route, strategic minerals and oil 540 18.9 P W Botha, the 'constellation' concept and the SADCC: through destabilisation to the independence of Namibia, 1979-90 547

PART THREE: CHALLENGE AND RESPONSE

SECTION III A SEARCH FOR A PROMISED LAND Chapter 19 Towards the Sharing of Power 559 19.1 A Convention for a Democratic South Africa 559 19.2 Rolling mass action and a 'messy miracle' 564 I 1 Contents

___ ~ Democratic outh Africa is born: constitutional changes, 1993-6 569 9.-= _ .' approach to right and justice 580 19.5 Bad.: to parrying, 1995-9 583 19.6 Foreign relations; 1990-9 592

Chapter 20 Towards the Sharing of South Africa 597 20.1 Land: the long road to accommodation 597 20.2 Changes in the mining of diamonds and gold 607 20.3 The delayed emergence of a nation of traders 617 20.4 The saga of the workers 632 20.5 The tortuous route to shared cities 644 Chapter 21 Body, Mind and Spirit: A Quest for Humane Values 659 21.1 Health, welfare and physical pursuits 659 21.2 The difficult road to better education 673 21.3 A microcosm of cultures: faith communities and the transition to a democratic order 681 21.4 Truth and Reconciliation 690

Appendixes 704 Heads of State, 1652-1999 704 Party Representation in the House of Assembly, 1910-99 710

Bibliographical Notes 712

Index 780 Foreword

This work is a remarkable tour de force - to have managed to deal so brilliantly within the compass of a few hundred pages with the fascinating from prehistoric times right up to the second democratic elections of that beloved country. It is a very long way indeed from the days when as primary school pupils we were puzzled to read in a history of South Africa by a certain missionary that the colonists always captured cattle from the Xhosas who equally invariably stole cattle from the white farmers. And we were not as politicised as our successors in the 1970s turned out to be. History it seems is told from the perspective of the historian. Thus it was that the freedom fighter of the one was the terrorist of the other. So it is not to call in question the integrity and academic ability of anyone to say that we await histories of South Africa written by black historians. It is right to point out the good things that the Nationalist Governments did so as to have a rounded picture. But I have to say that ultimately it is irrelevant whether racism or apartheid sometimes produced good results. Because the tree was bad the fruit also had to be bad. For me this is an article of faith. Perhaps convention precludes historians from passing moral judge- ments. My vocation places on me no such inhibitions. The unnecessary and untold suffering that apartheid inflicted on many of God's children was not because a potentially good policy went awry, or that black family life was systematically undermined by the migratory labour system because of a 'mistake'. They flowed from a basic premise that those at the receiving end of policy were not quite as human as those who made laws for them, pushing them beyond their frontiers, into homelands or locations, into inferior schools and hospitals, unskilled jobs and segregated teams. It is important that we should look the beast in the eye in all its awfulness, o that we can deal with it realistically and effectively. Otherwise we will fall Yery badly short of the goal of healing a traumatised and deeply wounded people. If we are to experience genuine reconciliation, then it will have to be on the basis of the truth, however shattering. xx Foreword

The history of South Africa from 1652 is really the story of how the lawmakers first denied our significance and then contradicted that assump- tion by their actions. A lie cannot use the truth to sustain itself. Thus we should not have been shocked to discover that those who were meant to uphold the rule of law used their considerable power to subvert it, or that they could admit to the ghastly atrocities that have been revealed in applica- tions for amnesty to the Truth and Reconciliation Committee (TRC) by state employees. In the TRC we came to realise the importance of people being able to tell their stories, for their identity was linked so inseparably with their stories. It cannot be different for a society or a nation which is an aggrega- tion of individuals. In this way we need to learn the story of our nation, its horrors and injustices as well as its triumphs, if we are to experience genuine reconcilia- tion. Then we will avoid the damage of sectional histories that help to nurture resentments and hurts and grievances, which might otherwise end up in genocide. Let this be our starting point as we seek after such an unpropitious beginning and such a hazardous journeying to celebrate the wonder of being the of God.

DESMOND TUTU

Emeritus Archbishop of Preface

The study of South African history, so dependent in the early part of the twentieth century on the work of George McCall Theal, has undergone two significant changes in this century and is now involved in a third. The first resulted from the work of what may be termed the 'Macmillan School' after W. M. Macmillan, who began to question the validity of earlier received versions above all their presumption in favour of the 'colonial' as against the 'missionary' point of view in the inter-racial conflicts of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century. The second major change was a consequence of the revolution in the study of African history which accompanied the decolo- nisation of tropical Africa in the 1950s and 1960s. This brought a new emphasis on the indigenous peoples of Africa, and the discovery that the history of the peoples of Africa could be written in greater depth by a reflective correlation, in the writing of historians, of the findings of anthro- pologists, ethnologists, archaeologists and linguists. Though African writers entered the field in growing numbers across the continent from the 1960s onwards, south of the Limpopo this process was sorely hindered by restraints imposed on the training of blacks and other apartheid restric- tions-an obstruction which happily no longer applies. The Oxford History of South Africa, the pioneer Africanist interpretation, of which the first volume appeared in 1969, was noticed by traditionalists as well as by Africanists, and started a debate among historians, the keenness of which stemmed from the fact that the rival interpretations of historians seemed to touch directly on the public issues of the day. The assumptions of the liberal Africanist school soon came under attack from Marxist historians who criticised the liberals for what they termed their inadequate conceptual framework, especially their reluctance to use class as a key category of analysis. But as time passed, liberal and Marxist historians set in motion a dialectic of scholarly discourse which exposed the limitation of both approaches and lifted the quality of debate to a new level. This was reflected, to take just one topical example, in their encounters over the origins and character of the Anglo- Boer War of 1899-1902, which revealed not only that XXIV Preface

the subject was capable of better understanding, but also that aspects of the story could well provide material for continuing controversy. Conflicting versions of the historical story were pressed into the service of rival political power groups at a time of major confrontation in the country's history. On the one hand, the dogmatism of a white establishment assumed a perpetuation of racial differences to be part of a divinely inspired order, or at any rate a fixed point from which all policy calculations had to start. At the other extreme, a predominantly expatriate element saw as inevitable the revolutionary overthrow of the existing order, on the ground that the inherent logic of the situation ruled out the possibility of a peaceful transi- tion to an acceptable social system. It was important that readers of South African history should learn to appreciate the limitations of historical knowledge - not in the way under- stood by the likes of Alvin Toffler, in his insistence that the pace of change is now so fast that historical knowledge is in any case irrelevant, or for the reasons attractive to those post-modernists who insist that history is useful only as a way into the mind of the historian; but because of the need for mature circumspection if we are to avoid being tricked into false perspect- ives by dishonest manipulators of the truth. It has often been said that the basis of knowledge is either historical or mathematical: mathematical, in so far as it depends on an understanding of the inner connectedness of logical relationships; historical in those instances where a phenomenon can only be understood in terms of its origin and development. Historical change, by being largely unpredictable, holds the element of surprise, thus warning against the over-confident acceptance of social, economic or psychological theory. It should be helpful to mention some of the more important ways in which it has been necessary to revise conclusions reached in earlier editions of this work. In the third edition (1987) the main changes were: (1) a revision of the chapters on African chiefdoms and Boer republics to achieve a better balance between structural and narrative approaches in both, by taking advantage of new work on the history of African polities and on the sociology of the ZAR, mainly from London; (2) the history of diamond mining in Kimberley and the politics of gold-mining in the ZAR and its relationship to the origins of the Anglo- Boer War of 1899, in the light of new hypotheses about the role of the Bank of England; (3) the analysis of changes in land ownership based on the economic implications of share-cropping in a capitalising rural economy; (4) the politics of 1902-10 in relation to the actions of mining houses and the coming together of African political movements across internal frontiers; (5) the emergence of formal policies Preface xxv of segregation; (6) the analysis and timing of early-twentieth-century Afri- kaner nationalism; (7) new insights in published works and unpublished theses on the history of South African Indians; (8) the developments in Black politics during the apartheid era to 1976; and (9) domestic and external politics down to the era of P. W. Botha. The fourth edition (1991) took the narrative down to the release of Nelson Mandela and the independence of Namibia - an obvious stopping point. Most of the changes related to new work on (1) the archaeological background, especially in the interpretation of rock art; (2) the start of the mfecane controversy, as a result of a new interpretation which invited debate; (3) Kimberley again, following the publication of new work on De Beers and on labour in the diamond mines; (4) the developing debate on the origins of the Anglo-Boer War at a more sophisticated level; (5) fresh insights into developments in African politics at a number of points between the Cattle- killing of 1857 and the revolt of 1976-7. The earlier editions of this book all attempted a final thematic cross-weave to bring together aspects of the narrative in its socio-economic and ideo- logical dimensions, focused on the character of the apartheid society. The present edition begins, like its predecessors, by attempting to catch up with a past which continued to 'change'. It attempts to assimilate new writing on (1) the interactions in the Dutch period (1652-1795) between settlers and Khoisan, and the image and incorporation of the latter; (2) the mfecane again, in the light of an important conference at Wits University which led to Carolyn Hamilton's edition of The Mfecane Aftermath; (3) the reworking by scholars at the Cape and in America of the whole question of slavery and emancipation; (4) the related problem of Khoikhoi emancipa- tion, involving new approaches to Settler liberalism and Settler capitalism; (5) a further round in the debate on the origins of the Anglo-Boer War, the centenary of which will assuredly bring new phenomena to light for the attention of historians; (6) some new writing on Gandhi, which counter- balances work done in the 1970s; (7) some major work on the analysis of Afrikaner nationalism in the 1930s and 1940s, especially in exploring the extent of its relationship to European fascism; (8) writings which have brought the events surrounding the Freedom Charter, the , Bram Fischer and the Liberal Party more into focus; (9) a much fuller piecing together of the activities of the ANC in exile and its links with developments inside South Africa in the 1960s to 1980s. In the present edition, the last two chapters, entirely rewritten, have been spread across three, to take in, first, the political and constitutional break- through of the Mandela decade (1990-99), with a heavy dependence on the xxvi Preface flow of secondary works, including several key biographies, which have appeared in the last few years. second, the changes which began to take place in the relations of production and exchange, on the land and in the towns, as a consequence of the political changes of the 1990s, seen in their historical context; and third, the ideological and emotional impact of the change-over as it has been reflected in public policies for health, welfare and physical development; an attempt to create a new educational system; the roles played in the transition by organised religion; and - as an appropriate end -piece of which it is certainly too early to foresee the consequences before its work is further developed - the role of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. We wish to conclude by paying tribute to research historians who have done so much to shed new light on South Africa's past over several decades, during which time the discipline has reached a new level of maturity. The past continues to 'change', and South Africa will need to be kept in touch with the continuing debate about what happened, lest myth-makers take over again.

T. R. H. DAVENPORT CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS List of Abbreviations and Acronyms used in the Text

AAC All African Congress ACF Active Citizen Force ADP African Democratic Party AHI Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut AMEC African Methodist Episcopal Church ANC African National Congress Anti CAD Anti-Coloured Affairs Department AP APO African People's [Political] Organisation ASB Afrikaanse Studentebond ASSOCOM Association of Chambers of Commerce AWB Afrikaner Weerstands Beweging AZAPO Azanian People's Organisation BBV Boeren Beschermings Vereeniging BPC Black People's Convention BSA Black Students Association B AC British South Africa Company C\C Coloured Advisory Council CCB Civilian Cooperation Bureau OILIA Chamber of Mines Labour Importation Agency -0 Christelike Nasionale Onderwys COD Congress of Democrats CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa CO_~RALESA Congress of Traditional Leaders of South Africa CO AG Concerned South Africans Group CO _\TU Congress of South African Trade Unions CP.~ Coloured People's National Union :RJC Coloured Peoples' [Representative] Council - _-\ Council of Unions of South Africa Democratic Party Democratic Turnhalle Alliance of Abbreviations and Acronyms

East Rand Provident Mines Electricity Supply Commission Foundation in African Business and Consumer Services Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge ::0 Federated Chamber of Industries Freedom Front -~ Front for the National Liberation of Angola FOSATU Federation of Trade Unions of South Africa FRELIMO Front for the Liberation of Mozambique GEAR Growth Employment and Redistribution GK Gereformeerde Kerk GNP Gesuiwerde Nasionale Party/ Gross National Product GNU Government of National Unity GWU Garment / General Workers Union HNP Hervormde / Herstigte Nasionale Party IC[W]U Industrial and Commercial [Workers'] Union IDASA Institute for a Democratic Alternative for South Africa IEC Independent Electoral Commission IFP ISCOR Iron and Steel Corporation of South Africa KP Konserwatiewe Party LMS London Missionary Society LP Labour Party LPSA Liberal Party of South Africa MACWUSA Motor Assembly Component Workers Union of S.Africa MDM Mass Democratic Movement MERG Macro- Economic Research Group MJC Muslim Judicial Council MK Mkhonto we Sizwe MPLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola MWU Metalworkers Union MYM Muslim Youth Movement NAFCOC National African Federated Chamber of Commerce NAM Non-Aligned Movement NCOP National Council of Provinces NECC National Education Crisis Committee NEDLAC National Economic Development and Labour Council NEPI New Economic Policy Initiative NEUM Non-European Unity Movement NGK Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kewrk List of Abbreviations and Acronyms XXIX

NHK Nederduits Hervormde Kerk NIC NIO Natal Indian Organisation NLL National Labour League NNP New National Party NP Nasionale Party NRC Native Representative Council NRP New Republic Party NUM National Union of Mineworkers NUSAS National Union of South African Students OAU Organisation of African Unity OB Ossewa Brandwag OFS Orange Free State ORC Orange River Colony ORS Orange River Sovereignty PAC Pan-Africanist Congress PGAD People against Gangsters and Drugs PEBCO Port Elizabeth Black Civic Association PFP Progressive Federal Party pp Progressive Party PUTCO Public Utility Transport Corporation RDB Reddingsdaadbond RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme

4 C Regional Service Council -:\BC South African Broadcasting Corporation -_-\BRA South African Bureau for Racial Affairs -:\CC South African Council of Churches ':::"-\CCOLA South African Consultative Committee on Labour Affairs - COB South African Chamber of Business - :\CO South African Council on Sport ':::";.CP South Party ':::"-,.CPO South African Coloured People's Organisation --'-.I)CC Southern African Development Coordinating Conference -= :\DC Southern African Development Community -=_illTU South African Democratic Teachers' Union - '=COL South African Forestry Corporation Ltd --::::L South African Federation of Trade Unions - C South African Indian Congress South African Industrial Federation South African Institute of Race Relations xxx List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

SAMWU South African Mineworkers' Union SA[N]DF South African [National] Defence Force SANLAM Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Lewensassuransie Maatskappy SANNC South African Native National Congress SANROC South African Non-Racial Olympics Committee SAP /South African Police SAPS South African Police Service SARB South African Reserve Bank SARHWU South African Railways and Harbours Workers' Union SASO South African Students' Organisation SASOL South African Synthetic Oil Ltd SATLC South African Trades and Labour Council SATS South African Transport Services SPROCAS Study Project on Christianity in South Africa SSC SWANU South West African National Union SWAPO South West African People's Organisation TBVC States , , Venda and TEC Transitional Executive Council TIC Transvaal Indian Congress TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission TUCSA Trade Union Congress of South Africa UCM University Christian Movement UDF Union Defence Force/United Democratic Front UDM United Democratic Movement UNITA National Union for the Total Independence of Angola UP United Party UWUSA Union of Workers of South Africa VOC Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie WCC World Council of Churches WHO World Health Organisation ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZAPU Zimbabwe African People's Union ZAR Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek