INDEX

A agribusiness investors in oil palm Aarhus Oliefabrik, 26 industry, 106 ABERDI. See A. Brown Energy and agricultural sector, 83 Resources Development, Inc. Agriculture and Maritime Affairs, 55 (ABERDI) agrochemicals, 61, 110 A. Brown Energy and Resources agroforestry systems, 165, 247 Development, Inc. (ABERDI), Agrofuel, demand of, 49 112 Agrofuel Network in Europe, 185 ADANI Group, 111 agrofuels adat community, 169 in European Union, 196 leaders, 172, 173 mandatory targets for, 193 adat culture, instrumentalization of, moratorium campaign, 193, 194 173 plantations for, 192 adat institutions, 183 Agrofuel targets, campaign coalition, adat land, 169 190–91 adat law, 183 agro-industrial sites, zonification of, adat norms, 173 115 adat regulations for land acquisition, Agumil and Filipinas Palm Plantation 172 Inc., 103 adat rights, 172 Agumil Inc., 102, 103, 104, 108 Advertising Standards Authority Agusan del Norte, oil palm in, 111 (ASA), British, 228 Agusan del Sur, oil palm plantation Africa in, 107 forest fire in, 20 Agusan Plantation Inc., 102 in, 1, 35 Aidenvironment agrarian cultures, 169 in RETRAC, 224, 225, 227, agrarian reform beneficiaries (ARBs), 233–34 100, 104, 112 in RETRAC visioning, 239 agrarian transition, 170, 174 Alliance of Indigenous Peoples of agribusiness companies, 100, 102, 104 Indonesia, 184

259

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Alliance of Indigenous Peoples of the bad biofuels, 204 Archipelago (AMAN), 245, 252 Bali, 51 Alonto, Abdul Khayr, 106 Bangladesh, oil palm in, 123 Alpha and Firsha Properties BankTrack, 235 Development Corporation, 109 Barisan Nasional, coalition, 148 Alternate Resource Center, 107 basic agrarian law (BAL), 55 AMAN. See Alliance of Indigenous Basiron, Yusof, 3 Peoples of the Archipelago Batak people, 81 (AMAN) BIMP-EAGA. See Brunei-Indonesia- Amatzin, Daud, 161n3 -Philippines–East AMDAL, 70 ASEAN Growth Area (BIMP- anti-globalization movement, 223 EAGA) anti-palm oil, 3 anti-WTO protests in Seattle, 223 from palm oil, 21, 57 APO. See Asian Productivity production, 190 Organisation (APO) biodiesel market of European Union, ARBs. See Agrarian reform 190 beneficiaries (ARBs) biodiversity, 40, 165, 176, 182, 191, Archer Daniels Midland Asia Pacific, 33 192 Argentina, pro-biofuel policies in, ecosystems and, 217 213n4 loss of, 21, 187, 192 ARMM. See Autonomous Region of bioethanol, 57 Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) biofuel industry in Singapore, 34 Artha Graha Group, 34, 166 biofuels, 101, 190, 195, 199, 214n13, Asian financial crisis, 52, 83–84 217 Asian Productivity Organisation additives, 183 (APO), 39 certification schemes, 203, 205 Asia-Pacific, regional markets in, 100 climate change, 192 Asiatic Development Berhad, 28, 40 companies, 237 Association of Southeast Asian Nations demand for, 200, 202, 210 (ASEAN), 1 in European Union, 179 Austral Enterprises Berhad, 28 imports, 209–10 Australian National University, 69 local and regional advocacy for, Australia, pro-biofuel policies in, 113 213n4 palm oil for, 21, 35 Autonomous Region of Muslim policies, 11, 97, 115, 199–200, Mindanao (ARMM), DAR of, 211, 212 106 production and use of, 201–3 autonomy, 148 sustainability criteria, 204–9, 212, 215n18 B Biofuels Act of 2006, 101 Badan Pertanahan Nasional, 70 biofuels directive, 201–2 Badawi, Abdullah, 135 Biofuels Progress Report, 214n10

13 Palm_Oil.indd 260 10/3/12 2:40:16 PM Index 261

biofuels targets Central Cotabato Oil Palm Growers’ chemical fertilizers used for, 62–64 Association, 111 criticism of, 2–3 Central Kalimantan, oil palm mandatory, 5 plantation development, 61 bioliquids, 203, 214n14, 217 Centre for Environmental Studies in biological oxygen demand (BOD), Leiden, 225 110, 117n11 CERD. See Committee on the Elimination of Racial demand for, 205 Discrimination (CERD) sustainable production of, 204 certificate of land ownership awards Biomass Action Plan, 202 (CLOA), 106, 108 BOD. See biological oxygen demand certification schemes, biofuels, 203, (BOD) 205 Bodok market in Parindu, 170 certified sustainable palm oil (CSPO), Bogor Agricultural University, 86 22 Bohol Islands Plantation Inc., 102 chemical fertilizers for biofuel targets, boomerang effect, 180, 181 62–64 Borneo Orang-utan Survival chemical insecticides, 61 International (BOS chemical pesticides, 61 International), 21 child labour, in oil palm plantations, Brazil, forest fire in, 20 69, 70, 73 Brazilian soybeans trade, 233 children British colonial economy, 121 of migrant workers, 70–71 British plantation companies, 7 of plantation workers, 10, 72 “brown issues” (environmental), 40 China Brunei-Indonesia-Malaysia- palm oil used in, 20, 34 Philippines–East ASEAN Growth pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 Area (BIMP-EAGA), 100–101, Chinese CITIC group, 166 117n8 Chinese Development Bank, 166 Bugis ethnic group, 141, 157 Chinese investments, 166 Bukit Garam, 142 Chin, Peter, 3 Bumiputra Felda schemes, 130 citizenship Bureau of Forest Development, 109 problems of, 140 Bursa Malaysia, 34, 41 rights, 141 civil society, 160, 221 C organizations, 112–15, 233 Canada, pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 reactions and strategies of, 98 capitalism, 137, 138n7 climate change, 5, 192, 195, 202 CARAGA region, oil palm in, 99, 111 climate justice, 192 carbon emissions, 2–3, 49, 61, 206 Climate Justice Now, 185 cari pengalaman, 144 CLOA. See certificate of land Carthagena Protocol, 218 ownership awards (CLOA)

casual labourers, wages for, 71–72 CO2 emissions, 210

13 Palm_Oil.indd 261 10/3/12 2:40:16 PM 262 Index

impacts of palm oil production on, Crabtree & Evelyn Group, 32 21 criminality, 154 reduction, 217 Crossfields, 7 Cognis Oleochemicals Malaysia, 28 crude palm oil (CPO), 1, 5, 28, 49, Cohen, Robin, 159 51, 54 Cohen, Stanley, 145 export earnings from, 164 Colombia imports of, 98 forest fire in, 20 in Indonesia, 56 pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 mills, 64 colonial economy, 120 price fluctuations, 169 plantation labour in, 121–22 CSPO. See certified sustainable palm colonial legal system, 55 oil (CSPO) colonial plantation labour, 120 cultivation of oil palm, 20, 22, 29, 31, Columbio Multisectoral Ecology 61, 98, 110 Movement, 110 cultural alienation, 170 “comitology” procedure, 215n20 “cultural dilution”, 145–48, 160 Commission of the European fear of, 145, 160 Communities, 214n6, 214n7, cultural identity, 250 214n8, 215n22, 215n25 culturstelsel policy, 51 commitment to transparency, RSPO customary culture, 176 Principle 1, 40–41 customary lands, 143, 175, 244, 248 Committee on the Elimination of takeover of, 174–75 Racial Discrimination (CERD), customary laws, 220 254 customary rights, 175, 250, 251 commodities, 221–25, 237 customary social structures, 170 common abuses, 50 customary society, 172 common land, 65 communal land, 168, 169, 173 D communities and NGOs, 50 DAR. See Department of Agrarian community leaders, 248 Reform (DAR) community welfare, 164 Darby, Sime, 130, 138n4 Compliance Advisory Ombudsman, Dayak communities, 165 237 communal lands of, 173 Congo, palm-oil plantation in, 35 culture of, 175 conservation, development versus, ethnic awareness movement in, 165–68 173 consumers, product information to, impoverishment of, 168–74 221, 222, 242 intercommunity conflicts, 173–74 conventional biofuels, 209 in Kalimantan, 179 Coordination of Economic Affairs, 55 land rights of, 165 co-products, 208 Dayak culture, 173 Cotabato River Basin, oil palm in, 99 Dayak customary law, 172 CPO. See crude palm oil Dayak migrants, 196n2

13 Palm_Oil.indd 262 10/3/12 2:40:16 PM Index 263

Dayak society, 172 expected effects of, 209–10 collective identity of, 175–76 social sustainability in, 207–9 decentralization, 90 Directives 2001/77/EC, 213n2 decentralized decision-making, 228 Directorate-General for Energy and decision-making power, 144 Transport (DG TREN), 4 decomposition of organic material, “divide and rule” strategy, 113 117n11 “domein” principle, 55 Decree of Governor of Riau No. drained peatlands in Southeast Asia, 7/2001, 85 21 Defensor, Benjamin, 109 Dunlop Estates, 28 deforestation, 21, 36, 234, 244, 254 Dutch banks, 234 in Mindanao, 109 dynamic labour flexibility, 131–32, in Philippines, 109 134–35, 160 for plantation expansion, 241 in Southeast Asia, 210 E Delft Hydraulics report, 21 East Kalimantan, child labour in, 69 demand for palm oil, 98 East Malaysia, Penan communities in, demonization, 141 223 Department of Agrarian Reform ECC. See environmental compliance (DAR), 100 certificate (ECC) of ARMM, 106 economic agro-industrial model, 110 Department of Environment, 109 economic and social development, Department of Environment and 174–76 Natural Resources, 100 economic improvement, 39, 155–56 Department of Trade and Industry, Economic Planning Unit, 123 99, 100 economic value, forest goods and deportations, 152, 160 services of, 66 Derequito, Derek, 99, 104 economy detergent production, oleochemical colonial. See colonial economy for, 32 of plasma farmers, 169 detractors, 135 ecosystems and biodiversity, 217 Development of Palm Oil Industry, ECP. See environmentally critical policy framework for, 100 projects (ECP) Deyo, Federic, 131, 132, 135, 137 Ecuador, pro-biofuel policies in, DG Agriculture, 209 213n4 DG for Environment (DG ENV), 4 edible oils, acquisition of, 29, 34 dichloride weed killer paraquat, 110 EIA. See environmental impact Directive 2003/30/EC, 201, 213n2, assessments 213n5 guineensis, 1, 35, 51, 122–23 Directive 2009/28/EC, 200, 201, 203, El Niño, 227 213n2 Emerald Archipelago, rainforests of, environmental sustainability in, 227 205–7 “eminent domain”, 54

13 Palm_Oil.indd 263 10/3/12 2:40:16 PM 264 Index

enforcement agencies, 150 European Council, 192, 213n1, Environmental Clearance Certificate, 213n5 100 European energy policy, 195 environmental compliance certificate European governments, 209 (ECC), 117n6 European NGOs, 186–87 Environmental consequences, 59–65 European Parliament, 180, 192, 207, environmental impact assessments 213n2, 213n5 (EIA), 49–50 European policy, 195–96 environmental impact of biofuels European Rainforest Movement production, 201 network, 182 environmental justice movement in European Union (EU), 1, 12, 207, Indonesia, 196n3 213n4, 215n18, 215n22 environmentally critical projects agrofuel targets in, 196 (ECP), 117n6 biodiesel in, 190 Environmental Management Bureau, biofuel in, 179 117 biofuels policies, 56, 199–200 environmental non-governmental economic implications of, 208 organizations (NGOs), 2, 187 mandatory biofuel targets, 2 environmental protection policy, 116 palm oil demand in, 67 environmental rights, 195 palm oil imports, 209 environmental sustainability, 205–7, policymakers, 3 212 to promote the use of biofuels, Environment and Industry 201–3, 212 Committees, 214n15 sustainability criteria, 203, 205, Environment Management 210, 212–13 Committee, 39 trade policy, 202 Environment Management System, European Union directive, 21 38 European Union Parliament, 12 Equator Principles, 254 EU Strategy for Biofuels, 202 ethnic awareness movement, 173 EU Sustainable Development Strategy, ethnic groups, 148 213n1 ethnic identity, 174 evolutionary change, of oil palm ethnic violence, 173 plantation sector, 78–92 ethnographic approach, 143 export crops, oil palm, 111 EU. See European Union (EU) export earnings from CPO, 164 Europe export revenue, 165 Campaign groups in, 223 exposure to migrants palm oil, 1–2, 20 distance, 156–58 supply chain bottleneck in, 232 tolerance, 156–58 Unimills BV in, 31–32 European Commission, 192, 200, 201 F European Commission report on fair trade model, 222 biofuels, 202 fake identity cards, 141

13 Palm_Oil.indd 264 10/3/12 2:40:16 PM Index 265

farmers, 67, 69, 83, 248, 249 Ford Foundation, 251 incomes and living standards of, 84 foreign exchange, 164 farming system, 175 foreign investment, 165 FCI. See Forest Conversion Initiative foreign labour and static flexibility, (FCI) 132–34 federal agenda, 148, 150 foreign labour recruitment system, 159 federal government, 150 foreign nationals, 142 federalism, 146–52 foreign plantation companies, 51 Federal Land Development Agency, 7 formation of, 24–25 Federal Land Development Authority Forest Conversion Initiative (FCI), 21 (Felda) schemes, 123, 130 forest fires, 20, 234 Federal ruling coalition party, 148 in Indonesia, 227 Felda schemes. See Federal Land forest goods and services, 66 Development Authority (Felda) forest lands, state control of, 183 schemes Forest Peoples Programme, 236, 251, fertilizers, 207 254 fertilization, 61 forest resources, 183 FFBs. See fresh fruit bunches (FFBs) loss of, 65 Filipinas Palm Oil Plantations Forestry Act, 55 Incorporated, 102 forestry law, 55 Filipino-American company, 112 forests, large-scale conversion of, 167 Filipino palm oil plantations, 97 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 182 financing investments, in palm oil FPIC. See Free, prior, and informed plantations, 21 consent (FPIC) First Plantations Limited, 52 France, biofuel demand, 209 flexibility, 131 free markets, 221 static, foreign labour and, 132–34 Free, prior, and informed consent flexible labour (FPIC), 245, 250–52, 253, 254 dynamic, 131–32 free trade, 220–21 socio-political ramifications of, fresh fruit bunches (FFBs), 98, 104, 135–37 112 flexible labour regime, 160 Friends of the Earth (FoE), 185–86, effects of, 135 187 in Malaysia, 120, 130–32 biofuel campaign, 192 FoE. See Friends of the Earth (FoE) WALHI, 192 folk devils, migrants as, 148, 149 Friends of the Earth Netherlands, 234, food crisis, 3, 11 235 food security, 208, 219 FSC. See Forest Stewardship Council food sovereignty, 111, 113, 115, (FSC) 117n12, 192 Fuel Quality Directive, 214n11 Food Sovereignty Conference, 118n14 Funding Forest Destruction, 234 forced labour, 69, 73 funds for palm oil industry, 33 forced planting system, 171 fungicides, 61

13 Palm_Oil.indd 265 10/3/12 2:40:17 PM 266 Index

G Guangzhou Keylink Chemical Co. Gatidis, James, 161n5 Ltd., 32 General Agreement on Tariffs and Guthrie, 52, 81 Trade (GATT), 203 generic management systems, 37 H genome sequencing, oil palm, 40 Hap Seng Consolidated Berhad, 28 Genting Plantations Berhad, 38 Harita Group, 31 Germany, 193 Harrisons & Crosfield (H&C) plc, 7, biofuel demand, 209 22, 26 NGOS in, 179 transformation of, 27 palm oil in, 20 Harrisons Malaysian Estates (HME), GHG emissions. See greenhouse gas 26 (GHG) emissions Harrisons Malaysian Plantations gitu gitu sahaja, 157 Berhad (HMPB), 26 global commodity prices, 208 harvesting season, 143 globalization, 120, 130, 220–21, 223 H&C. See Harrisons & Crosfield globalized investment, 221 (H&C) globalized market, 221 HCV. See high conservation value globalized trade, 221, 228 (HCV) global market, 170 Heart of Borneo, 11 palm oil, 164 Heart of Borneo Agreement, 167 price fluctuations in, 169 “Heart of Borneo” conservation global trade, 225 project, 165 global warming, 221 declaration of, 166–67 palm oil production on, 21 development versus. conservation, problem of, 5 165–68 Golden Hope, 7, 8, 22, 25, 26, 28, government support for, 168 29, 32, 37, 52, 81, 187 Henkel Oleochemicals, 28 Government of Indonesia, 49, 50 herbicides, 61 Government Regulation No. 10/1996, Hevea brasiliensis, 121 81 high biodiversity areas, 206 grains, 29, 33, 34 high carbon stock areas, 206 Gramoxon, 14 high conservation value (HCV), 239, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 3, 250 34, 40, 41, 49, 65, 199, 201, non-conversion of, 36 202, 205, 206, 210, 214n11 HME. See Harrisons Malaysian Estates in Indonesia, 254–55 (HME) reduction, 217 HMPB. See Harrisons Malaysian Greenpeace, 179, 185, 192, 253 Plantations Berhad (HMPB) Greenpeace Netherlands, 20–21 Holdiko Palm Plantations, 31 RETRAC study in, 234 human rights, 160, 184, 195, 218 Greenpeace report, 21 international commitments on, 56 green productivity approach, 39 violations, 67–70 “Greenwash” exercise, 195 human rights body, 136

13 Palm_Oil.indd 266 10/3/12 2:40:17 PM Index 267

I and local communities, 244, 245, IFC. See International Finance 249 Corporation (IFC) and palm oil expansion, 245–47 IJM Plantations Berhad, 28, 38 indirect land-use changes (ILUC), illegal 206, 212, 215n19 foreign workers, 145 Indofood Agri Resources Ltd., 28 migrants, 71, 147, 148 Indonesia, 141, 193 population, 145 archipelago of, 245 workers, 161 biofuels policies in, 211 Illegality, 160 climate change in, 254–55 illipe nuts in West Kalimantan, deforestation emissions, 255 240–41 forest fires in, 20 ILO. See International Labour Friends of the Earth group, 192 Organisation (ILO) government of, 228, 244, 246 ILUC. See indirect land-use changes greenhouse gas emissions in, 254–55 (ILUC) H&C in, 26 immigrant Muslim groups, 148 human rights groups in, 245 immigrants, 152 indigenous peoples, 245–47 Immigration Act, 136 industry in, 244, 256 “immigration industry”, 141, 150, 151 investment in oil palm plantations, imports 228, 235 biofuels, 209–10 media of, 227 of crude palm oil, 98 national economy of, 81 of palm oil, 20 national parks in, 165 of tropical timber, 180, 182 NGOs in, 184–85 impoverishment of Dayak oil palm plantation groups in, 53 communities, 168–74 oil palm plantations in, 1, 21, 34, inactive plantation companies, 82, 83 123, 166 income from oil palm, 99 palm oil boom and local conflicts Independent oil palm estates, 85 in, 182–84 development of, 78 palm oil business in, 21, 26, 33, 51, workers of, 81 81, 97, 99, 244 independent recourse mechanism, 252 palm oil controversy in, 20 India palm oil expansion, 164, 245–47 H&C in, 26 palm oil mills in, 7 palm oil used in, 20 palm oil production, 20, 164 pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 PIR farmers in, 94n8 Indian plantation labour, 132 plantation activities on, 83–84 indigenization of oil palm plantation pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 sector, 89–91 Riau province oil palm acreage, 76 indigenous peoples, 244 social and ecological environments environmental destruction, 253 in, 78 impact of oil palm plantations on, social and political environments 247–50 of, 78

13 Palm_Oil.indd 267 10/3/12 2:40:17 PM 268 Index

wages for casual labourers in, 71–72 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 8 in, 31 international nongovernmental Indonesia-Malaysia border, oil palm organizations (INGOs), 6, 11, plantation on, 166 12, 185–86, 190, 195, 196 Indonesian Agricultural Ministry, 3 International Palm Oil Sustainability Indonesian fires, 227 Conference, 3 Indonesian Forestry Department, 167 International Tropical Timber Indonesian Government, 50, 56, 73, Organisation, 180 245, 246, 254, 255 International Union for Conservation Indonesian law, 248 of Nature (IUCN), 20 Indonesian Ministry of Women’s International voluntary standards, 244 Empowerment, 69 inti-plasma system, 183 Indonesian Oil Palm Growers Investment Act, 52 Association (GAPKI), 53 investments Indonesian palm oil industry, 48–49, in Indonesian oil palm plantations, 51 228, 235 environmental consequences, 59–65 in oil palm production, 100 expansion, 56–59 palm oil, 116 key players in, 51–54 investors negative social impacts, 65–67 agribusiness, 106 state policies and enabling incentives to, 100 conditions, 54–56 IOI Corporation Berhad, 28, 31, 32, transnational character of, 50 38 Indonesian Sustainable Palm Oil oil yield of, 40 System, 56 oleochemicals, 28–29 informal transport, 142 Irianto, Gatot, 3 informants, 143, 157 irrigation methods, 207 INGOs. See international Italy, biofuel demand, 209 nongovernmental organizations IUCN. See International Union for (INGOs) Conservation of Nature (IUCN) initial investment for Palm Oil Mega Project, 166 J insecticides, 61 Jakarta Post, 227 Institute of Social Analysis, 180 Jakarta, private plantation companies Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in, 81 (ISEAS), 10 Janoub Philipines, Inc., 106 intercommunity conflicts, 173–74 Java, 51, 85 international commitments on human dirt farmers on, 170 rights, 56 Muslim migrants from, 81 International Finance Corporation job opportunities, 164 (IFC), 236, 251, 252, 253 joint-venture agreement, 101, 103 International Labour Organisation joint venture company, 31, 33 (ILO), 207, 218 jurisdictional (state) borders, 140

13 Palm_Oil.indd 268 10/3/12 2:40:17 PM Index 269

K rights, 218 Kadazan Dusun, 160 rural, 208 Kalimantan, 76, 84 labour conditions in palm oil Dayak communities in, 179 plantations, 70–72 oil palm plantations in, 246 labour migration and transnational peatlands in, 60 social spaces, 9–11 plantation company in, 225 labour recruiting agents, 152 Kalimantan Border Oil Palm Mega Lahad Datu, 142 Project, 11, 164–65 Lanao del Sur Province case, 106 Kangany system, 122 land, 175 Kenram Philippines Incorporated, 102 conflicts in, 183 Keynes, John Maynard, 121 cultural claims on, 172 KGB. See Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad for estates, 82 (KGB) in Germany, 220 kieserite, 61 in Kalimantan, 168 KLK Berhad, 31, 32 loss of, 165 Korean War of 1951, 123 for oil palm plantation Kota Kinabalu, 3 development, 92 Kota Kinabatangan, commercial centre for plantation, 83 of, 142 proposed by active plantation Krisnamurthi, Bayu, 55 companies, 82, 83, 86 Kuala Lumpur Kepong Amalgamated, proposed by inactive plantation 26 companies, 82, 83 Kuala Lumpur Kepong Berhad, 22, rights of Dayak communities, 165 24, 26, 38 used by Dayak communities, 165 Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange. See use in Riau province, 92 Bursa Malaysia land acquisition, adat regulations for, Kulim (Malaysia) Berhad, 25, 28, 37 172 sustainability in, 39 Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP), Kulim Sustainable Palm Oil 100, 104 Production, 38 land expropriation for plantations, 172 Kumpulan Fima Berhad, 26 land holdings, size of, 169 Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad (KGB), 22, landowners, 175 24, 29, 31 land rights, 187, 219 Kuok Group, 28, 29 lands acquisition of, 33, 34 palm plantations, conflicts in, 49 plantation of, 33 social conflicts over, 67–70 land use change, 199, 205, 206, 217 L Large-scale plantations, 168–74 labour Latin America, palm oil plantations flexible. See flexible labour in, 1 migrant, 132, 137 law enforcement officials, 141 plantation, 121–22 laws and regulations, 49

13 Palm_Oil.indd 269 10/3/12 2:40:17 PM 270 Index

LBP. See Land Bank of the Philippines palm oil production, 20 (LBP) palm oil sector in, 103 leadership, 37 plantation industry in, 22, 23 lease agreement, 248 pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 legal workers, 144 third industrial plan in, 134 limited transparency, 221 transnational investment from, 97 livelihood diversification, 65 Wilmar International in, 31 livelihood security, 143 Malaysian Local Governance Law No. 22/1999, identity card, 150 85 palm oil industry, 186 local government unit (LGU), 101, timber imports of, 180 106 workers, 144 promotion for palm oil, 102 Malaysian Agricultural Producers role of, 105 Association, 122, 130 Loders Crocklaan, 32 Malaysian corporations, 52, 103 London Stock Exchange, 26 palm oil plantations by, 21 Loreto municipality, 107 strategic roles of, 20, 35–43 Lumad communities, 108 Malaysian human rights organization, 136 M Malaysian Kuok Group, 7, 52 Macapagal-Arroyo, Gloria, 98, 99, 103 Malaysian Palm Oil Association Madurese migrants, 196n2 (MPOA), 8, 35, 36, 53, 161n3, Malawi, pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 187 Malayan (Malaysian) plantation (MPOB), economy, 121 20, 35 Malaysia, 146, 174 Malaysian Palm Oil Council (MPOC), biofuels policies in, 211 3, 8, 21–22, 35, 36, 228 farmers in, 94n8 Malaysian palm oil plantations, 3, 9 flexible labour regime in, 120, Malaysian Palm Oil Promotion 130–32 Council, 186 governments of, 228 Malaysian plantation corporations, industrializing economy of, 120 32 migrant labour in, 132, 137 Malaysian transnational corporations, national parks in, 165 107 oil palm estates in, 81 Malaysia’s federalism, 146, 148 oil palm in, 31, 123 Mandau estate, 86 palm oil business in, 97 mandor, 144, 158 palm oil controversy in, 20 markets palm oil import from, 98 and countervailing powers, 222–23 palm oil industry, 21, 70, 99, 130 emergence of, 222–23 palm oil mills in, 7 maroon communities, 176n1 palm oil plantations, 1, 51, 76, 120, M&As. See mergers and acquisitions 141, 164–65 (M&As)

13 Palm_Oil.indd 270 10/3/12 2:40:17 PM Index 271

MEDCo. See Mindanao Economic Mindanao Economic Development Development Council (MEDCo) Council (MEDCo), 99 media, 141, 143, 159, 221 Mindanao Palm Oil Industry of Indonesia, 227 Development Coordinating Mega Palm Oil Project, 165 Council, 99 Mendes, Chico, 182 minimum proportion of biofuels, 201 Merchant capital, 121 Mining Act, 55 mergers and acquisitions (M&As), 33 Ministerial Decree of Agriculture No. metaphoric borders and borderlands, 357/2002, 85, 86, 87 140–41 Ministerial Decree of Agriculture No. Mexico, pro-biofuel policies in, 786/1996, 84 213n4 Ministerial Decree of Forestry and migrant labour Plantation No. 107/1999, 84, in Malaysia, 132, 137 87 and oil palm, 144–45 Ministerial Regulation of Agriculture migrants No. 26/2007, 86 construction of, 149 Ministerial Regulation of Agriculture demonization of, 152 No. 33/2006, 89 economic improvement of, 155–56 Ministry of Plantation Industries and exposure to, 156–58 Commodities (MPIC), 35–36 groups, 141 MNLF. See Moro National Liberation as legitimate seekers, 155–56 Front (MNLF) plantation workers, 142, 152, 157, Mohamad, Mahathir, 99, 136, 138n4 159, 176 monocultural farming, 169 population, 147 monoculture oil palm plantations, 110 process of demonizing, 141 moral economy, 171 migration, 140 moral entrepreneurs, 145 labour, 9–11 moral indignation, 146 method, 141–43 moral panic, 141, 145–46, 146–52 politicization of, 160 moratorium, 253, 255 scope, 146 Moro, 117n5 Migros, 187 Moro National Liberation Front milling plants, 102 (MNLF), 106, 108, 117n3 Minamas Plantation, 31 Moro secessionist groups, 97, 99 Minangkabau community, 184 Mozambique, pro-biofuel policies in, Mina Oil Corporation, 102–3 213n4 Mindanao MPIC. See Ministry of Plantation deforestation in, 109 Industries and Commodities oil palm in, 99, 111 (MPIC) palm oil expansion in, 97 MPOA. See Malaysian Palm Oil palm oil planting in, 103 Association (MPOA) reforestation in, 109 MPOB. See Malaysian Palm Oil Board SPDA for, 98 (MPOB)

13 Palm_Oil.indd 271 10/3/12 2:40:18 PM 272 Index

MPOC. See Malaysian Palm Oil National Statistics Office, 111 Council (MPOC) National Union of Plantation Workers multicultural economic system, 169 (NUPW), 122 Musim Mas corporation, 184 Native Title provisions, 144 Muslim political leaders, 148, 160 natural ecosystems, plantation Muslim migrants from Java, 81 expansion impacts on, 59 natural resource management, 172 N natural resources, social conflicts, Nabunturan Agrarian Reform 67–70 Community Integrated NBPOL. See New Britain Palm Oil Cooperative (NARCICO), 104 Limited (NBPOL) naik kepala, 158 negative social impacts of plantation NARCICO. See Nabunturan Agrarian expansion, 65–67 Reform Community Integrated neo-Fordist elements, 134 Cooperative (NARCICO) neo-liberalism, 223 national association of oil palm NEP. See National Economic Policy companies, 245 (NEP) national biofuel policy, 57 Oil, 34, 190 national container state, 4–5, 50 Netherlands, 182 National Development Company, 107 oil palm industry in, 234 National Development Corporation– Wilmar report in, 236 Guthrie Plantations, Inc. New Britain Palm Oil Limited (NGPI), 107 (NBPOL), 26 National Economic Policy (NEP), 130 Papua New Guinea, 39, 41 implementation of, 132 New Economic Policy, 7, 24 national economy New Order, 81 of Indonesia, 81 New Right, 145 palm oil sector for, 164 NExBTL brand, 34 National Forest Estate, 246, 247 NGOs. See non-governmental national forestry department, 255 organizations (NGOs) National Forestry Ministry, 246 NGO Sawit Watch, 183 national interest, 246 NGPI. See National Development nationalism, 146–52, 160 Corporation–Guthrie Plantations, National Land Agency, 70 Inc. (NGPI) 2nd National Palm Oil Industry niche markets, 222 Congress, 103 Ninth Malaysian Development Plan, 6th National Palm Oil Industry 134–35 Congress, 102 nitrogen, 61

National Police Headquarters, 70 N2O emissions, 215n21 National Renewable Energy Action non-governmental organizations Plans (NREAPs), 200, 209 (NGOs), 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, 13, 20, national renewable energy regulation, 43, 48, 112, 113, 166, 179, 223, 192 224, 225, 228, 234, 236

13 Palm_Oil.indd 272 10/3/12 2:40:18 PM Index 273

communities and, 50 oil palm acreage cross-border activities of, 179–80 development of, 86 in Indonesia, 184–85, 249, 254 estate sector in 2007, 87 membership of RSPO, 189 expansion of, 90 non-organic fertilizers, 61 growth of, 78 Non-Timber Forest Product-Exchange limitation of, 87 Program, 109, 117n10 plantation in Riau Province, Northern Sweden, local activists in, 223 78–79 North Sumatra, 76 of plasma smallholding, 85 wages for casual labourers in, 71 of self-supporting smallholding, 81, noxious effects of pesticide, 110 89 nucleus company, 182 oil palm companies, 248 nucleus oil palm estate, 85 in Philippines, 103 development of, 78–80 oil palm cultivation, 20, 22, 29, 167 in PIR-KKPA project, 87 in Kalimantan, 31 workers of, 81 in Palawan, 98 nucleus plantation company, 86, 184 oil palm development, 175 nucleus plasma production, 171 Oil Palm Development Council, 102 nucleus-plasma system, 169 oil palm development project, 98 Nunukan, 135, 136 oil palm economy, rise of, 123 NUPW. See National Union of oil palm estates Plantation Workers (NUPW) acquisition of, 28, 31 location of, 76 O in Malaysia, 78–80 off-farm work, 142 nucleus estate development, 78–80 oil mills, 98 size of, 84–85 establishment of, 100 oil palm expansion, 109, 113, 174 in Sultan Kudarat, 108 in Philippines, 116 oil modification technologies, 32 oil palm farmers, 175 oil palm oil palm fruit, 249 in Africa, 35 oil palm hectarage, 128 in Bangladesh, 123 oil palm industry, 137 in CARAGA region, 99, 111 in agribusiness investors, 106 expansion of, 236 BIMP-EAGA, 101 export crops, 111 migration of foreign labour, 121 FFBs of, 112 opportunities for local workers in, genome, 40 143–44 income from, 99 in Philippines, 102 in Indonesia, 123 rise of, 122–30 in Malaysia, 123 oil palm ingredients, 237–38 and migrant labour, 144–45 oil palm nursery, 102 in Mindanao, 99, 111 oil palm plantation development, land in Philippines, 98–101, 115 for, 92

13 Palm_Oil.indd 273 10/3/12 2:40:18 PM 274 Index

Oil Palm Plantation Groups in social and political environments Indonesia, 53 of, 83 oil palm plantations, 141, 169, 183, state-owned companies in, 80 187 static flexibility in, 160 agreements, 252 from 1980s to 1990s, 78–84 in Agusan del Sur, 107 from 1990s to 2000s, 84–89 conflict, 249 structure and dynamics of, 90 cultivation of, 110 oil palm planters, SRT of, 105 development of, 28, 100, 174 oil palm plasma farmers, 170 effect on women, 68–69 oil palm production, 81, 93 expansion of, 108, 109, 164, 191 campaign for, 101 impact of, 107–12, 247–50 in Derequito, 99 in Indonesia, 31, 164 invest in, 100 Indonesia investments in, 233, 235 in Mindanao, 99 investments in, 168 in Philippines, 98 in Malaysia, 120 plantation character of, 113 Malaysian investments for, 29, 30 programme of expanding, 101 monoculture, 110 promotion of, 99 on Indonesia-Malaysia border, 166 self-supporting smallholders in, permits, 250 89–90 process of, 247 in Visayas regions, 98 on rural communities, 107–12, 113 oil palm products, secondary Wilmar International in, 29, 31 processing of, 77, 91 oil palm plantation sector oil palm sector, 244 development of, 78, 80, 89 training, 251 development projects, 85–86, 90 oil palm smallholders, 66–67, 182 evolutionary change of, 78–92 oil palm smallholding, 80, 85, 89, expansion of, 91 92 external to internal expansion of, oil palm tree, 51 91–92 oil palm workers, 129 indigenization of, 89–91 oilseeds, direct imports of, 209 in Indonesia, 81, 95n12 oil trade, 99 in Indonesian national economy, 81 Olam International Limited, 31 laws and regulations, 84 oleochemical industry, 130 in Malaysia, 76 oleochemicals, 28, 29 national economy, 81 for detergent production, 32 operational agents of estates, 87 manufacturing, 34 PIR-KKPA, 80 Oleo Fats Incorporated, 103 policy and institutional framework, Oplan Bantay Laya, 109 86 “Oplan Gordian Knot”, 107, 109 private plantation companies, 80 Ops Bersepadu, 150 in Riau province, 78, 86, 89, 90, Ops Nyah, 150 91 Ops Pasir, 150

13 Palm_Oil.indd 274 10/3/12 2:40:18 PM Index 275

Orang-utan, 2, 11 users of, 20 organic material, decomposition of, Vorley model, 232 117n11 palm oil advocacy, 112–15 Othering, process of, 158, 159 “Palm Oil as the Primary Industry of Oxfam, 4, 185 the Philippines”, 102 Oxley, Alan, 228 palm oil border project, 167 palm oil business, 51 P in Philippines, 97 Pacific Oil Products, 103 palm oil buyers, 187 Palawan, oil palm cultivation in, 98 palm oil campaigns, 184–85 Palawan Palm Mills Inc., palm oil companies, 35, 41, 101, 102, 102 167 Palm fresh fruit bunches, 64 growth of, 28 Palm Inc., 102 small-scale farmers conflicts with, meal, 1 183 (PKO), 1, 54, 130 palm oil controversy, 20–22, 180 prices of, 104 implications for, 182 palm oil, 1 Malaysian strategic role of, 35–43 biodiesel from, 57 triggers of, 227–28 boom and local conflicts in palm oil development, 97, 164 Indonesia, 182–84 community-based, 176 in China, 35 cultural aspects of, 173 conflicts in West Kalimantan, 183 impact of, 65–66 consumers of, 34 reality of, 97 controversies surrounding, 2–4 strategies, 101 criticism of, 3 palm oil economy, 175 crude, 98 palm oil expansion, 97, 164, 183, 184 demand, 67 in Indonesia, 56–59 development versus conservation, in Philippines, 107 165–68 political ecology of, 49 export markets for, 54 palm oil exports, Indonesian, 57 farmers of, 221 Palm Oil Green Development on global market, 164 Campaign, 231 importer of, 98 palm oil industry, 3–4, 99, 117n2, LGU promotion for, 102 186 overlapping peatlands in improvement in, 39–40 Kalimantan, 60, 62 in Indonesia, 33 prices of, 104 in Malaysia, 29, 103, 130 production of, 20, 29, 61, 110 policy for, 115 promotion of, 101, 112, 116 RETRAC applied to, 233–39 transnational environmental rise of, 123 activism, 11–13 Singapore role in, 33–34 transnational perspective of, 4–7 transnational nature of, 231–33

13 Palm_Oil.indd 275 10/3/12 2:40:19 PM 276 Index

transnational perspective of, 22–33 palm oil sector transnational turn of, 7–9, 19, conflicts in, 183 34–35 in Malaysia, 103 palm oil investments, 97, 116, 183 for national economy, 164 and policy framework, 97 palm oil smallholders, 184 Palm Oil Mega Project palm seeds, 171 development versus. conservation, Pamol Plantations Sdn, 28 165–68 Pan Century Edible Oils, 29 initial investment for, 166 Pan Century Oleochemical, 29 palm oil mill effluent (POME), 49, 110 Papua, 57, 220 anaerobic decomposition of, 64 Papua New Guinea palm oil mills in Malaysia and forest fire in, 20 Indonesia, 7 H&C in, 26 palm oil operations, 52 New Britain Palm Oil Ltd., 39, 41 palm oil plantations, 66 palm oil plantations in, 1 agrochemicals application in, 51 paraquat, 110 child labour in, 69 Parindu area, wages for casual common system of, 169 labourers in, 71 development, 59 PCA. See Philippine Coconut expansion of, 2, 13 Authority (PCA) Filipino, 97 peatlands, 3 fire hotspots areas and, 63 drainage of, 206–7 in Indonesia, 11, 56, 58, 166 in Kalimantan, 60 labour conditions in, 70–72 loss in Southeast Asia, 210 large-scale commercial, 51 oil palm developing in, 60 Malaysian, 9 Penan campaign, 180, 181 potential areas for, 103 in Europe, 180 Southeast Asia, 6 road blockades, 180 transnational expansion of, 8 Penan communities in Sarawak and in West Kalimantan, 168 East Malaysia, 223 palm oil processors, 188 pendatang, 155 palm oil producers, 130, 188 Perbadnan Nasional Berhad, 26 palm oil production, 107, 110, 116 Permodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB), 24 in CARAGA Region, 99, 111 Perusahaan inti rakyat (PIR) projects in Indonesia, 164 oil palm plantation development, palm oil products, European 78–80 consumption of, 195 partnership in plantation sector, 83 Palm Oil Promotion Fund, 35 policy and institutional framework, Palm Oil Refiners’ Association of 85 Malaysia, 130 in Riau province, 80 palm oil refining, 32, 130 pesticides, 207 Palm Oil Research Institute of application of, 61 Malaysia (PORIM), 135 noxious effects of, 110

13 Palm_Oil.indd 276 10/3/12 2:40:19 PM Index 277

Philippine Civil Society Organizations, plantation agriculture, 76–77, 88 114 in Riau province, 76–77 Philippine Coconut Authority (PCA), plantation companies 98–100, 102 acquisition of, 31 Philippine Network of Rural conflict with peoples, 81, 85, 86 Development Institutes, 9 government policy, 83 Philippine Palm Oil Development inactive, 80, 81 Council Inc. (PPDCI), 102 plasma smallholdings, 80, 81, 86 Philippines, 141 in Riau province, 81 Armed Forces of, 99, 109 plantation crops, 88 biofuels policies in, 211 rehabilitation of, 89 deforestation in, 109 in Riau province, 78–79 oil palm in, 98–101, 102, 103, 116 plantation development palm oil business in, 97 land use in Riau province, 92 palm oil expansion in, 107 methods of, 89 palm oil plantations in, 1 plantation development projects, pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 78–80 reforestation in, 109 by local governments, 89 phosphate, 61 PIR-KKPA project, 90 Pigsalabuha Subanen Lakewood PIR method, 80, 85 Association, Inc., 109 plantation economy, 91 Pilgrims Fund Board, 81 evolution of, 120–21 PIR-BUN project, 87, 90 Malayan (Malaysian), 121 and PIR-TRANS, 85 plantation industry plasma smallholdings of, 79–80, 90, growth of, 28 91, 95n14 largest, 26 piret, 10, 142, 143, 152, 156, 158 in Malaysia, 22, 23 piret views plantation labour in colonial economy, about migrants, 153 121–22 and livelihood, 152–55 plantation land in Indonesia, 56 PIR-KKPA project, 85, 90 Plantation Law No. 18/2004, 86 nucleus oil palm estate in, 87 plantation management, 192 plasma smallholdings, 86 Plantation Revitalization Program, 89, promotion of, 92 92 PIR projects. See Perusahaan inti plantation workers, 143–44, 158, 182 rakyat projects Plant Now Pay Later Program, 102 PIR-TRANS project, 87 plasma farmers, 11, 170 PIR-BUN and, 85 economy, 169 plasma smallholdings of, 80, 90, 91, poverty of, 170, 171 95n14 plasma land, 168 projects in, 83 plasma projects, 169 transmigration programme, 83 plasma smallholders, 182 Plantation Act 18/2004, 55 plasma smallholding, 85, 87

13 Palm_Oil.indd 277 10/3/12 2:40:19 PM 278 Index

development of estates and, 86 Project Siak, 89, 91 of PIR-BUN/PIR-TRANS, 80–81, collaboration with PTPNV, 85–86 89, 90, 92, 95n14 pro-palm oil policy, 97 of PIR-KKPA, 85, 86, 90 PSA approach. See problem situation by plantation companies, 80, 81 analysis (PSA) approach realized and unrealized land, 82 PT Austindo Nusantara Jaya Agri, 52 PNB. See Permodalan Nasional Berhad PT Bakrie Sumatera Plantation, 72 (PNB) PT BW Plantation Tbk, 52 political debates around palm oil, 6–7 PT Cahaya Kalbar, 227 POME. See palm oil mill effluent in Pontianak, 241 (POME) PT Guthrie Pecconina Indonesia, 31 Pontianak, PT Cahaya Kalbar in, 241 PT Mirza Pratama Putra, 31 population, 175 PT Perkebunan Nusantara (PTPN of Riau province, 76–77 I–XIII), 51–52, 166 PORIM. See Palm Oil Research PT Perkebunan Nusantara V Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) (PTPNV), 81, 90, 94n3, 94n9 post-harvest production process, 171 Siak project collaboration with, potash, 61 85–86 poverty, 174, 175, 176 PTPNV. See PT Perkebunan of plasma farmers, 170, 171 Nusantara V PPB Oil Palm Berhad, 28, 34, 38 PT Socfindo plantation, 71, 72 PPDCI. See Philippine Palm Oil PT Surya Sawit Sejati, 31 Development Council Inc. PT Tri Bakti Sarimas, 70 (PPDCI) PT Tunas Baru Lampung Tbk, 52 PPT Tanjung Rhu Plantation Group, PT Waringin Agro Jaya, 52 52 Pribumi, 148 Q prices of palm kernel oil, 104 quality management methodology, 37 pricing scheme, NARCICO and QUEDANCOR, 105, 106 Agumil, 105 private investors, 84–85, 164, 166 R private plantation companies, 80, 81, Rabobank, 33, 234 89 Rabobank Duta Indonesia, 227 in Jakarta, 81 Rainforest Action Network, 237 pro-biofuels policies, 202, 213n4 rainforests problem situation analysis (PSA) destruction of, 193 approach, 225 of Emerald Archipelago, 227 producer countries, 224 Rambong Sialang estates in Sumatra, production 26 palm oil. See palm oil production REDD. See Reducing emissions of palm oil, 20, 29 from deforestation and forest Profundo BV, 224 degradation (REDD) in Netherlands, 233 red meranti, 240

13 Palm_Oil.indd 278 10/3/12 2:40:19 PM Index 279

Reducing emissions from deforestation projects of PIR-KKPA, 85 and forest degradation (REDD), realized and unrealized land for 255 plantation, 82–83 reforestation social and ecological environments in Mindanao, 109 of, 77, 78, 86, 91 in Philippines, 109 transmigration into, 81, 82 regional markets in Asia-Pacific, 100 road tax, 142 renewable energy, 21 rooted rainforest cosmopolitan, 179 Renewable Energy Directive (RED), constituency of, 182 12–13, 200, 203, 217–19, 231 definition, 179–80 Repong Damar Farmers Union in transnational activists, 185 Lampung, 183 Rosario municipality, 107 Republic Act 9367. See Biofuels Act Roundtable on Responsible Soy, 232 of 2006 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil Resource Trade Cycle (RETRAC), 13, (RSPO), 2, 4, 12, 13, 20, 22, 70, 224–27, 226, 239–41 110, 179, 182, 195, 210, 232, retailers, 221, 237 237, 245, 253, 256n1 retailing sectors, 142 certification system, 190 RETRAC. See Resource Trade Cycle consumer-based branding campaign (RETRAC) strategies, 187–88 RFM Corporation, 102 framing of, 179, 187–88 RGA History of the Plantation Industry global supply chains, 187 in the Malay Peninsula, The Malaysian industry in, 36 (Tate), 24 moratorium on agrofuel targets, 196 Riau province, 236 NGOs in, 187, 189 distribution of estates, 88 Principle 1, 40–41 economy and society of, 91 Principle 3, 39 Estate Crops Services of, 94n9 Principle 8, 39 land use in, 92 Sawit Watch in, 50 main plantation crops in, 78–79 social and environmental oil palm acreage of, 78–79 responsibility, 187 oil palm plantation development, standards of, 72 61 for sustainable palm oil, 36, 39 oil palm plantation sector in, Royal Commission, 148 77–78, 94n4 Royal Oil Products, 103 PIR-BUN and PIR-TRANS in, 90, RSPO. See Roundtable on Sustainable 91 Palm Oil (RSPO) PIR projects, 80 RSPO certification, 36, 37, 38 in plantation agriculture, 76–77 rubber plantation companies in, 81 estates, 86, 126 plantation development by projects, farmers of, 221 85 industry, 121, 122 population of, 76 International demand for, 121

13 Palm_Oil.indd 279 10/3/12 2:40:19 PM 280 Index

plant, 121 Sawit Watch, 21, 48, 50, 61, 192, plantations, 122 249, 253 synthetic, 123 forced labour, 69 “rubber boom,” 123 scale of plantations, 51 rubber tree plantations, 175 Scandinavian timbers, 223 rural communities, oil palm Seattle, anti-WTO protests in, 223 plantations, 107–12, 113 self-reliance team (SRT) rural development, 219 members, 105, 106 rural labour, 208 of oil palm planters, 105 self-supporting smallholding, 81, S 89–90 Sabah, 141 semi-skilled jobs, 144 agricultural land in, 142 Senegal, pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 “cultural dilution” in, 146 Serikat Petani Kepala Sawit (SPKS), economic conditions of, 146 253 ethnic groups in, 148 Shorea, 240, 241 foreign workers in, 145 Siak project, 89, 91 illegal migrants, 144 collaboration with PTPNV, 85–86 migrant groups in, 159 SIFCA Group of Africa, 31 nationalism, 148 Berhad, 7, 8, 22, 24, 26, oil palm in, 141 29, 38, 40, 43, 52, 138n4 palm oil operations, 52 Sinar Mas, 34, 81, 166 plantation/agricultural sector in, Singapore Exchange Securities, 33 144 small-scale farmers, 68, 208, 253 plantation sector, 144, 160 conflicts with palm oil companies, political leadership, 158 183 Sabahan-owned company, 142 Socfin group, 71 Sabahan plantation workers, 142 social action, 140 Sabah east coast, 142 social conflicts over lands, 49, 67–70 Sabah Land Development Board, 144 social control, 143 Sabah Land Ordinance, 144 effort of, 147 Sahabat Alam Malaysia, 180 factors in, 145–46 Sainsburys, 187 forms of, 145, 146 Salim Group, 52 mechanisms on, 146 Sandakan, urban centres of, 142 social development, 219 Sanggau District, wages for casual social distance, 159 labourers in, 71 social impacts of oil palm industry, Sarawak 253 palm oil operations, 52 social rights, 184 Penan communities in, 223 social sustainability, 207–9, 212 SATGAS, 59 socio-political ramifications of flexible SATLAK, 59 labour, 135–37

13 Palm_Oil.indd 280 10/3/12 2:40:20 PM Index 281

Soeharto, 166, 184 Sulag, 160 soil, 169 Sulawesi, Indonesian island of, 157 conservation, 217 Sultan Kudarat, oil mill in, 108 degradation, 217 Sumatra, 76 Solidarity for Riau Farmers, 70 oil palm plantations in, 246 solidarity groups, 253 peatlands in, 62 SOS. See Sumatran Orang-utan Sumatran Orang-utan Society (SOS), Society (SOS) 21 South Africa, pro-biofuel policies in, sustainability, 233 213n4 corporate communications on, 42 Southeast Asia, 19 criteria, 204, 212–13, 215n18 biofuels policies in, 211 environmental, 205–7, 212 Directive 2009/28/EC effects, managing for, 37–39 209–10 problems of, 229–30 drained peatlands in, 21 social, 207–9, 212 palm oil cultivation in, 201 sustainability systems, for biofuels, 204 palm oil expansion, 3 sustainable palm oil, 190 palm oil industry in, 7, 50 certification for, 36 palm oil plantations in, 2, 6 criteria for, 2 peatlands in, 206 production of, 35 Southern Philippines Development use of, 22 Authority (SPDA), 99, 117n3 “sustainable palm oil” paradigm, 196 for Mindanao, 98 swiddening, 170 soybeans, 3 syabu, 148 in Brazil, 200 synthetic rubber production, 123 Spain, biofuel demand, 209 SPDA. See Southern Philippines T Development Authority (SPDA) Inc., 106 Special Cabinet Committee, 148 Taiko Palm-oleo Co. Ltd., 32 SPKS. See Serikat Petani Kepala Sawit tamu, 155 (SPKS) TANs. See transnational advocacy SRT. See self-reliance team (SRT) networks (TANs) stakeholders, 166 task force, 247 engagement of, 41–43 Tawau, cottage industry in, 150 “state of emergency,” 146 Thailand state plantation companies, 51 biofuels policies in, 211 static flexibility, 160 palm oil plantations in, 1 foreign labour and, 132–34 pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 structural poverty, 175 TH Plantations Berhad, 28 SUARAM, 136 timber Sukarnoputri, Megawati, 166 controversy, 220, 223, 225, 240 Sukau, 142, 143, 144 imports of, 180, 182

13 Palm_Oil.indd 281 10/3/12 2:40:20 PM 282 Index

Tim Pembina dan Pengembangan transport sector, 212 Perkebunan Kabupaten (TP3K), use of biofuels, 202 70 Tribal Filipino Program, 110 palm oil development, 59 Triple Bottom Line, 4, 8 TNCs. See transnational corporations improvement in, 39–40 (TNCs) Triputra Agro Persada (TAP), 52 Total Quality and Environment tropical forests, logging of, 180 Management System (TQEMS), tropical oils in United States, 186 38 trust, 155, 159 trade in palm oil, 231, 237 TSMO. See transnational social traders, 222 movement organization (TSMO) Tradewinds (M) Berhad, 28 trading agencies, 121 U trading company, 22, 29 UMNO. See United Malays National transformation plan for economic and Organisation (UMNO) cultural society, 174 UN General Assembly, 246 transmigration BV, 31, 187 PIR-TRANS, 83 sustainable development in, 43 programmes, 173 Unimills BV in Europe, 31–32 into Riau province, 81, 82 Unipamol Malaysia Sdn, 28 transnational activism, rise of, 19 United Kingdom, biofuel demand, transnational activists, types of, 209 185–86 United Kingdom–domiciled company, transnational advocacy networks 26 (TANs), 6, 11, 185–86, 190–91, United Malays National Organisation 195, 196 (UMNO), 148 transnational campaign coalition, 190 United Nations Declaration on rights transnational corporations (TNCs), 5, of indigenous peoples, 244 6, 11 United Nations Environment transnational environmental activism, Programme, 21 11–13 United Pasokmomogun Kadazandusun transnational environmental campaign, Murut Organisation (UPKO), 179 148 transnationalism, 6 United Plantations Berhad (UPB), 25, transnational organizations, types of, 26, 31, 37, 38 185–86 United States, pro-biofuel policies in, transnational social movement 213n4 organization (TSMO), 180, Universal Robina Corporation, 102 185–86, 190–91, 193, 195, 196 Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), 10 transnational social movement Universiti Sains Malaysia, 10 organizations (TSMOs), 6, 11 unrealized land, 82, 83 transnational social spaces, labour UPB. See United Plantations Berhad migration and, 9–11 (UPB)

13 Palm_Oil.indd 282 10/3/12 2:40:20 PM Index 283

UPKO. See United Pasokmomogun plasma farmer communities in, 171 Kadazandusun Murut wages for casual labourers in, 71 Organisation (UPKO) Wetlands International, 2–3 Wilmar International Ltd., 7–8, 28, V 33, 241, 252, 254 vegetable oils, direct imports of, 209 in China, 34 Vertical integration, 231 land bank of, 29, 31 Vietnam, biofuels policies in, 211 oil palm of, 34 violence, 196n2 Wilmar report in Netherland, 236 ethnic, 173–74 Wilmar’s Arawana, 34 Visayas regions, oil palm production World Bank, 50, 253, 254, 255 for, 98 report, 3 Vorley, Bill. Food, Inc., 232–33 World Rainforest Movement (WRM), vulnerable groups, 49 180, 185 World Trade Organization (WTO), 3, W 203, 204, 221, 223 wages for casual labourers, 71–72 WRM. See World Rainforest Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia Movement (WRM) (WALHI), 183, 195, 196 WTO. See World Trade Organization WALHI. See Wahana Lingkungan (WTO) Hidup Indonesia (WALHI) WWF, 4, 179, 185–86, 187 water, 218 WWF Forest Conversion Initiative, 21 West Kalimantan, 11, 13, 227 WWF Germany, 20 civil society and local communities WWF Netherlands, 20 in, 167 DPD Patri Province of, 176n2 Y land expropriation for plantations Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang, 164, 167 in, 172 land in, 168 Z local communities in, 192 Zambia, pro-biofuel policies in, 213n4 oil palm plantation areas in, 167 zero-burning policy, 2, 4 oil palm plantation development, zero-deforestation, 237 61 zonification of agro-industrial sites, palm oil in, 169, 183 115

13 Palm_Oil.indd 283 10/3/12 2:40:20 PM