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Política Y Estética Del Fruade En El Modernismo Latinoamericano: Escultura, Canibalismo Y Pedrería En Azul… De Rubén Darío

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Política Y Estética Del Fruade En El Modernismo Latinoamericano: Escultura, Canibalismo Y Pedrería En Azul… De Rubén Darío UC Berkeley UC Berkeley Electronic Theses and Dissertations Title Política y estética del fraude en el modernismo latinoamericano: escritura, canibalismo y pedrería en Azul...de Rubén Darío Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/16b070t4 Author Salvatierra, Leon Publication Date 2014 Peer reviewed|Thesis/dissertation eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California POLÍTICA Y ESTÉTICA DEL FRUADE EN EL MODERNISMO LATINOAMERICANO: ESCULTURA, CANIBALISMO Y PEDRERÍA EN AZUL… DE RUBÉN DARÍO By León Alberto Salvatierra A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the Requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Hispanic Languages and Literatures in the GRADUATE DIVISION of the UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORINIA, BERKELEY Committee in charge: Professor Ivonne del Valle, Co-chair Professor Richard Rosa, Co-chair Professor Laura Pérez Spring 2014 Política y estética del fraude en el modernismo latinoamericano: escritura, canibalismo y pedrería en Azul…de Rubén Darío Copyright 2014 By León Alberto Salvatierra ABSTRACT Política y estética del fraude en el modernismo latinoamericano: escritura, canibalismo y pedrería en Azul…de Rubén Darío by León Alberto Salvatierra University of California, Berkeley Doctor of Philosophy in Hispanic Languages & Literatures Professor Ivonne del Valle, Co-chair Professor Richard Rosa, Co-chair This dissertation draws on colonial texts in order to expand the critical corpus of Azul, beyond its conventional binary readings, either exclusively aesthetic or primarily Marxist, to render a vision of Rubén Darío that includes an account of Latin America as a space of criticism and transgression that challenges fixed notions of national identity, historical contexts, and authenticity in art. Expanding on definitions of fraud, this project develops the concept of fraude as a theoretical framework to show how Darío aesthetically constructs a writing which is deceptively apolitical. By fraude, I illustrate the form in which Darío appropriates and inhabits European identities and their spaces in order to invert the colonial violence historically inflicted in Latin America. Far from l’art pour l’art figure that is still so prevalent in the criticism of Azul, the fraude, once decoded, reveals Darío as a poet whose writing opposes the empires of Spain, England, and the United States. By reexamining the colonial discourse— in relation to sculpture, cannibalism and precious stones—, my research exposes the colonial texts, designed to appropriate and exploit the “other,” as an act of fraud in and of itself. Thus, Darío’s writing, in reversing the colonial fraud, acquires a “hidden” political significance. To engage the colonial discourse within a modern nineteenth-century perspective also establishes new ground for reinterpreting the politics behind the works of Modernismo authors, such as José Martí and José Enrique Rodó with whom this dissertation is in conversation. From this viewpoint, the literary texts are to be understood as socially symbolic acts that aesthetically question and undermine dominant narratives. Even in the twenty-first century, when the global markets more than ever mediate and displace historical occurrences through the use of technology in visual mass media, blurring the boundaries between falseness and authenticity, an evaluation of fraude as a strategy for analyzing and questioning our social “reality” is necessary. This project places Modernismo in conversation with Transnational American and Postcolonial Studies by investigating how people, through shared colonial histories (still relevant in our present time), aesthetically negotiate their legacy. 1 A mi hijo Dylan Gael Salvatierra Herrera i ÍNDICE AGRADECIMIENTOS iii INTRODUCCIÓN iv CAPITULO I: 1 ESCULTURA EN EL MODERNISMO, RUBÉN DARÍO Y NICANOR PLAZA: DUALIDAD Y DES-ARTICULACIÓN DE ‘CAUPOLICÁN’ EN EL IMAGINARIO DE LA NACIÓN. CAPITULO II: 30 RUBÉN DARÍO Y CRITOBAL COLÓN: SIGNOS Y DESIGNIOS CANÍBALES CAPITULO III: 61 FALSIFICACIÓN EN ‘EL RUBÍ’: ORIGEN DEL ARTE MODERNOS EN AMÉRICA LATINA CONCLUSÓN: 90 BIBLOGRAFÍA 95 ii AGRADECIMIENTOS Agradezco a mi comité de tesis: Ivonne del Valle quien fue paciente con mis errores y digresiones; Laura Pérez, por su sensibilidad poética y el sacudimiento crítico que le dio a mis argumentos; Richard Rosa, sus clases fueron claves para el desarrollo teórico del fraude en Darío. A mi gran amigo, Javier O. Huerta, mi broder de otra mader, gracias por el apoyo de varios años, y por la poesía También agradezco a Eduardo Ruiz y Arturo Dávila, quienes me leyeron y criticaron de forma constructiva cada uno de mis capítulos, sugiriendo bibliografía y profundidad teórica. Mil gracias: A Noe Jitrik, por haberme enseñado en pocos minutos —en su despacho de Buenos Aires— la política del ritmo en el poema. A Carlos Delgado, bibliotecario de la sección de América Latina en la Universidad de Berkeley; fue mi guía en los buscadores electrónicos. También por haberme recomendado con Pedro Pablo Zegers, jefe del archivo de Escritor en la Biblioteca Nacional de Chile, con quien también estoy profundamente agradecido por su gran disponibilidad y ayuda con todo lo relacionado a mi investigación—cuando llegué a Chile en junio 2011— sobre el “verdadero” origen de la estatua “Caupolicán” de Nicanor Plaza. A todos mis amigos poetas. A Nelson Ramírez, el gran Garcín, por las largas lecturas y conversaciones sobre Darío y Vallejo. Y a mi familia, gracias por el amor. iii INTRODUCCIÓN The problem lies not in the forgeries but in the originals, in their absence. --C.D. Blanton, “Impostures: Robert Browning and the Poetics of Forgery” Rubén Darío cometió “fraude” en Azul—libro que, según muchos críticos, representa un hito fundacional en la literatura moderna de América Latina—; sin embargo, como sugiere el título de esta disertación, el fraude que comete Darío en su escritura implica cierta estética, y por consiguiente, una política. Antes de todo, advertimos que el fraude en Darío es un procedimiento literario que tematiza a nivel formal conceptos tales como encubrimiento, apropiación, engaño, falsificación y desplazamiento. Su diseño reconfigura una visión de América Latina donde se subvierten, de modo crítico, nociones sobre identidad nacional, contexto histórico y autenticidad en el arte. Un ejemplo concreto de ello es el soneto “Caupolicán”, que analizamos de forma detallada en el primer capítulo. En los procedimientos de la representación estatuaria del héroe mapuche, Darío toma como modelo el monumento nacional hecho por el escultor chileno Nicanor Plaza, en cuya obra representa a un Caupolicán falso. Inicialmente Plaza esculpió la estatua (durante la década 1860-70) para representar a un mohicano del norte y no a un indígena mapuche de Chile. Esta dualidad en el soneto “Caupolicán” se comprueba por la manera en que Darío emplea formas retóricas como la metáfora y la metonimia para desplazar la identidad de Caupolicán, fusionándola con los héroes de la biblioteca europea: Hércules, Atlas, Sansón y Nemrod. El “fraude”, define el Diccionario de la Real Academia Española, es una “acción contraria a la verdad y a la rectitud, que perjudica a la persona contra quien se comete”. La segunda acepción registra lo siguiente: “acto tendente a eludir una disposición legal en perjuicio del Estado o de terceros”. Estas definiciones apuntan hacia una transgresión moral y social respectivamente. Ahora bien, en el estrato social, el fraude es un delito, y como tal, es un excelente marco teórico, porque, como teoriza Josefina Ludmer, el delito es “una frontera cultural que separa la cultura de la no cultura, que funda culturas”, y por medio del delito “se construyen conciencias culpables y fábulas de fundación y de identidad cultural” (14). Uno de los delitos fundacionales que explica Ludmer es el de Eva al comerse la fruta prohibida por Dios. En este ejemplo se transgrede la ley divina en la que tanto Eva como Adán caen de un estado de gracia divina (el edén) a un estado real (mundano). Este delito, sugiere Ludmer, ha sido empleado como punto de partida para trazar modelos culturales en la tradición judeocristiana, por medio de los cuales se ha establecido el adentro/afuera de las identidades. Ahora bien, Azul, para construir la idea de un “origen” de la identidad cultural de América Latina, también se fundamenta en el delito. Pero, contrario a la iv función formativa que asume el delito bíblico en la visión de Ludmer, en Darío el delito desestabiliza la cultura dominante; y por consiguiente, como procedimiento estético, el fraude en su función delictiva es inherentemente político, porque cuestiona la formas retóricas del discurso colonial y los relatos de fundación que iniciaron en las Américas desde la llegada de Colón en 1492, y que continuaron operando después de las independencias, al mando de los “letrados artificiales” y los “políticos exóticos”, denunciados por José Martí en Nuestra América. Al referirse a ellos Martí escribe: “[Después de las independencias] [n]os quedó el oidor, y el general, y el letrado, y el prebendado”. En dicho contexto postcolonial, el fraude dariano opera bajo la lógica de la paradoja, porque en su fascinación con lo falso, nos revela una visión profunda que se opone a la “verdad” histórica que ha construido el poder (los imperios europeos y el Estado-nación), poniendo en evidencia el fraude político, económico, jurídico y social del que fueron víctimas los pueblos de América Latina, primero con la colonización española, y luego con los procesos modernizadores de
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