Int. J. Sport Health Sci. Paper : Philosophy The Problem of “Losing Games on Purpose”: With Reference to Discussions Concerning “Failed Athletic Contests”* Mitsuharu Omine

Faculty of Human Health Sciences, Meio University 1220-1, Biimata, Nago, Okinawa 905-8585 [email protected] [Received August 30, 2020; Accepted December 9, 2020; Published online December 22, 2020]

*Original article published in J. Phys. Educ. Hlth. Sport Sci. 63(2): 539-546, 2018 (in Japanese)

The purpose of this study was to present a new perspective on the problem of attempting to lose a game on purpose through a consideration of whether doing so threatens the existence of sport. We began by hypothesizing the concept of “failed athletic contests”, which has been discussed in the field of sport philosophy, as jeopardizing the existence of this activity. We then examined the concept of “losing games on purpose” with reference to the “failed athletic contests” theory of Kawatani (2013). We examined 2 broad categories of “losing games on purpose”: one where defeat is clearly the goal, and the other where players deceive referees and spectators by behaving as though they want to win, while in fact actually trying to lose. Kawatani claims that games where an ethos (internal purpose) is not achieved, even though the contest is based on athletes playing according to the rules, constitute “failed athletic con- tests”. He found that player commitment to winning is necessary as a condition in achieving the ethos of the game, suggesting that “losing games on purpose” in either category consti- tutes a “failed athletic contest” in that athletes are not committed to victory and the ethos is not established. On the other hand, it was also clarified that there is a dilemma for players in athletic meets when a commitment to winning is called for, but when this is occasionally in conflict with the ethos of individual games. For the second category, it was also revealed that referees and spectators were not aware of the nature of such a defeat when it was concealed. This suggests that the second category of “losing games on purpose” is more problematic than the first.

Keywords: excellence, ethos, judging error, , sport ethics

1. Introduction could not break the sportsmanship (Sankei Shimbun, 2016). The winner, Takahashi, said it was difficult to Reika Takahashi and , who won play, but he had no choice but to play. In response to the gold medal in the badminton women’s doubles at a question at the press conference, “Did you not think the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics, also won the Asian about losing on purpose?”, Matsutomo replied: “We Championship held before the Olympics (Sankei are fighting for the gold medal at the Olympics. No Shimbun, 2016). The final of the Asian Championship one should lose intentionally as that is not good was a game against and Kurumi sportsmanship” (Asahi Shimbun, 2016). This game Yonao in Japan, and if Reika Takahashi and Misaki was similar to “losing games on purpose,” which was Matsutomo were defeated, they would acquire the the case with the badminton women’s doubles at the right to participate in the Rio de Janeiro Olympics*1. 2012 London Olympics. Reika Takahashi and Misaki Matsutomo had the right Women’s badminton games at the London Olym- to participate in the Olympics. pics were divided into pool play and final tournament Coach Nakajima in the Japanese team said that he (Ikarugi, 2015, p.19). In doubles, A, B, C, and D, wanted the two teams to go to the Olympics, but he each consisting of 4 pairs, fought in pool play, and 1st

International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.18, 261-267, 2020 261 http://taiiku-gakkai.or.jp/ Mitsuharu Omine

and 2nd were able to advance to the final tournament. activities. In addition, the Niigata Prefectural Board of The final tournament combinations were pre- Education decided to impose disciplinary action determined according to the group of pool play and against the coach in terms of a wage reduction for a their ranking. The starting point of the “losing games month as the coach’s act conflicted with the Local on purpose” was the defeat of the world’s second- Public Service Act (Asahi Shimbun, 2009b). The Act ranked Chinese pair to the fifth-ranked Danish pair in aimed at defeat in sport has provisions for sanctions pool play group D. In the subsequent pool play group such as suspension of activities and wage reduction. A, the game between the world’s first-ranked Chinese Critics were given to saying that women’s badmin- pair and the eighth-ranked Korean pair was one in ton players who were “losing games on purpose” in which both sides were unwilling to win (Ikarugi, the London Olympics had no respect for their oppo- 2015, p.19-21). As a result, the world’s first-ranked nents and their surroundings and hurt all players Chinese pair was defeated. If the world’s first-ranked (Mainichi Newspapers, 2012b). “Losing games on Chinese pair passed the pool play group A in the first purpose” was condemned as a foolish act that aroused place, it was influenced by the semifinal rather than spectators and viewers, and that hurt the dignity of the final tournament with the ’world s second-ranked sport (Asahi Shimbun, 2012). In addition, critics felt Chinese pair. The world’s eighth-ranked Korean pair that “losing games on purpose” could shake the exis- also wanted to avoid the world’s second-ranked tence of sport (Sankei Shimbun, 2012). Some believe Chinese pair. In pool play Group C, both the world’s that “losing games on purpose” exists in competitions third-ranked Korean pair and the world’s twelfth- other than badminton (Yomiuri Shimbun, 2012), and ranked Indonesian pair played a game in which they that it is different from a fixed game (Mainichi News- were unwilling to win, and they were warned by the papers, 2012a). Furthermore, some believe that it is a referee. After passing pool play group C in the first battle to preserve power for the next game, and to place, it was decided to play against the second place choose a defeat makes the combination advantageous. of group A, and these actions were carried out to It is crucial, therefore, to discuss whether “losing avoid a game with the world’s first-ranked Chinese games on purpose” shakes the very existence of sport. pair. The audience booed the game between the The problem of “losing games on purpose” is less Chinese and Korean pairs, and the game between the discussed in the academic world than in the journalis- Korean and Indonesian pairs (Yomiuri Shimbun, tic world. As far as narrow insights are concerned, 2012). The Badminton World Federation disqualified only Ikarugi (2015). Ikarugi described the details of the four pairs. how the “losing games on purpose” of women’s bad- In the final of the Asian Championship, coach minton occurred, and pointed out the strictness of the Nakajima and Takahashi/Matsutomo team did not rule that ruled “losing games on purpose”. On the choose deliberate defeat to join the two teams from other hand, as mentioned above, “losing games on Japan in the Rio de Janeiro Olympics. purpose” is not a phenomenon that can only occur in Aiming for a defeat in sport is not an action that women’s badminton. A further point to be discussed is occurs only in badminton and top athlete games. In the problem of “losing games on purpose” that can pool play for the junior high school student futsal occur in sport. championship held in Niigata in 2009, the team coach The purpose of this study is to examine whether directed the players to their own goal to avoid a game “losing games on purpose” is an action that shakes the against a strong school in the final tournament (Asahi existence of sport, and to present a new perspective Shimbun, 2009a). The team went from kickoff to its on the problem of aiming for defeat in the game. own goal six times and lost 0-7. In the game, the ref- However, there are conflicting views on the nature of eree paid attention to the team, and the opponent team the acts that shake the existence of sport. In addition, requested a forfeited game. However, the game was it is not clear whether the existence of sport fluctuates continued because there was no provision (Yomiuri when “losing games on purpose” occurs with different Shimbun, 2009). The coach was the second master of games and competitions. In this study, I will assume the school where the team players attended. The Japan that the existence of sport fluctuates, assuming “failed Football Association decided that the act was signifi- athletic contests,” as discussed in the field of sport cantly different from the spirit of fair play, and the philosophy. Conversely, the situation that the existence coach was suspended for 12 months related to soccer of sport does not fluctuate is not assumed to be in

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sync with “failed athletic contests”. In the field of tion, I first review Pakaslahti’s argument about “failed sport philosophy, there is a significant volume of re- athletic contests”, and state that there is a problem as search that has been conducted on “failed athletic con- a viewpoint for analyzing “losing games on purpose” tests,” and all the studies have revealed that “failed Next, I provide an overview of Kawatani’s argument athletic contests” lead to undesirable results. Interest- regarding “failed athletic contests”. ingly, in the field of sport philosophy, scholars have different views on “failed athletic contests.” The next 2.1. Pakaslahti’s argument about “failed athletic section provides an overview of the discussion on contests” “failed athletic contests” in the field of sport philoso- phy. Based on this, the analysis viewpoint of this re- Pakaslahti first mentions the built-in ideals and cen- search is set. tral goals of sport when considering “failed athletic In addition, since the term “failed athletic contests” contests” (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.281). They are to pro- is an ambiguous concept, it can be interpreted as a duce an official result that accurately reflects the “bet- game in which players do not do their best while aim- terness” shown by the athletes and the teams in the ing for victory. However, this study does not interpret game. Pakaslahti refers to these built-in ideals in sport “losing games on purpose” as players not doing their as “the Athletic Superiority Ideal”. Pakaslahti also ar- best. In this study, the expression is limited to games gues that the essential ideal that differs from “the Ath- in which the player loses deliberately. Therefore, in letic Superiority Ideal” is that the game produces an competitions where games are played continually, a official result that is just or fair (Pakaslahti, 2016, game in which a player does not make every effort to p.282). Pakaslahti calls this ideal “the Just Results reduce fatigue is not considered “losing games on pur- Ideal”. pose” in this study. Given the risk of losing the game, Based on the above assumptions, Pakaslahti pro- the act of aiming for a draw instead of a victory as a vides examples in which “best” athletes and teams*3 tactical choice is also not included in the risk of “los- fail to win the game (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.284). One ing games on purpose.” Furthermore, in a game with example is a boxing match between Riddick Bowe a large score difference, the act of cutting corners to and Andrew Golota in 1996. In the match, Golota vio- avoid embarrassing the opponent, or the act of not at- lated the rules by head-and-head and a low blow and tempting an aggressive attack to end the game early is lost by committing the foul. Golota had taken down not included in “losing games on purpose”. Bowe twice until disqualified, and Golota was leading in scoring. 2. The discussion on “failed athletic contests” Pakaslahti argues that Golota showed more athletic in the field of sport philosophy superiority than Bowe until disqualification, and it is not enough to make Golota an inferior boxer because In the field of sport philosophy, research on “failed of the violation by low blow (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.284). athletic contests” has been conducted, centering on According to Pakaslahti, the decision that Golota was The Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, and the jour- disqualified is not wrong, but the better boxer disap- nal of The International Association for the Philoso- peared in this match. Pakaslahti concludes that the phy of Sport (Dixon, 1999; Hämäläinen, 2014; match failed in terms of “the Athletic Superiority Kawatani, 2012, 2013; Kreider, 2011; Pakaslahti, Ideal,” but did not fail in terms of “the Just Results 2016). Omine (2015) clarified the point that trash Ideal” (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.285)*4. talk*2 creates “failed athletic contests” by referring to Pakaslahti also gives an example of a virtual foot- Kawatani (2012, 2013) as a viewpoint to analyze the ball game that fails in terms of “the Just Results game where trash talk occurred in a soccer game. Ideal” without failing in terms of “the Athletic Superi- Omine compared studies on “failed athletic contests” ority Ideal” (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.287). In that game, a by Dixon (1999), Hämäläinen (2014), Kawatani (2012, ball shot by a team A player hit the crossbar, bounced 2013), and Kreider (2011), and gave an advantage to off, and fell on the goal line. The assistant referee was Kawatani’s argument. Later, Pakaslahti (2016) pub- determined that the ball was completely over the goal lished a study on “failed athletic contests” in The line, but the ball actually only partially crossed the Journal of the Philosophy of Sport. However, the ar- goal line. Since the referee was poorly positioned, he gument by Pakaslahti is logically invalid. In this sec- relied on the assistant referee and recognized Team A’s

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goal. As a result, Team A won 1-0. in considering “failed athletic contests.” Kawatani ar- Pakaslahti considered that Team A was better than gues that the purpose of sport is to determine excel- Team B (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.287). According to Pa- lence, or who excels in each game (Kawatani, 2013, kaslahti, team A’s superiority is evident from the shots p.35). This point is similar to Pakaslahti’s built-in ide- that almost cross the goal line. On the other hand, Pa- als and central goals of sport, in which excellence is kaslahti points out that Team A did not deserve victo- determined by the outcome of the game. Kawatani ry because the goal should not have been recognized calls such an intrinsic purpose in sport as an ethos in (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.288). Therefore, it is claimed that sport*6. the game did not fail in terms of “the Athletic Superi- Kawatani argues that a player’s foul will not de- ority Ideal” but failed in terms of “the Just Results stroy the game, but the misjudgment of a referee who Ideal.” misses the foul or makes a mistake will jeopardize the The above-mentioned claims by Pakaslahti have the institutional identity of the game (Kawatani, 2013, following problems. First, Pakaslahti does not elabo- p.36). On the other hand, minor misjudgment can be rate on concepts such as just or fair. What is just or considered as not affecting the institutional identity of fair is arbitrary, and it unclear what reasoning was the game, but if there is a definitive misjudgment that used to derive the “the Just Results Ideal.” There is reverses the win or loss, the institutional identity of also a problem in the logic of the argument that the the game is suspect (Kawatani, 2013, p.41). According boxing match between Bowe and Golota failed in to Kawatani, a misjudgment that would reverse the terms of “the Athletic Superiority Ideal.” Even though win or loss would result in “failed athletic contests.” Golota had shown athletic superiority in the match un- In addition, Kawatani mentions that “failed athletic til he was disqualified by a low blow, it does not nec- contests” occur from the perspective of ethos in sport essarily mean that superiority was inaccurately deter- (Kawatani, 2013, p.37-38). According to Kawatani, mined by the results of the match. There is a even if there is no misjudgment by the referee, and possibility that Golota’s stamina had run out, and that the game is established by the player playing accord- Bowe’s skillful tactics forced him to commit a low ing to the rules, the game where the ethos was not blow. In a boxing match, the goal is to determine ath- achieved is a “failed athletic contest” (Kawatani, letic superiority, including the existence of violations. 2013, p.37)*7. For a match to be truly a match, it is In the football case, Pakaslahti’s claim that team important that the player is committed to the rules, superiority was only demonstrated by shots that al- and that the rules are functioning effectively most crossed the goal line would be problematic. In (Kawatani, 2013, p.38). However, Kawatani states that football, the superiority of the game is determined by to achieve the ethos, the player must be committed to the team that gets more points. In scoring, whether a victory. shot is more brutal or not is unimportant. If Pakasla- In the next section, I will consider the loss of hti’s assertion is adopted, it is necessary to consider games on purpose with reference to Kawatani’s argu- the criterion of whether the ball is almost crossing the ment. goal line, how many shots hit the posts and bars, how many shots are taken, and the ball possession rate. 3. Consideration of “losing games on purpose” From the above points, there is a problem in using Pakaslahti’s argument about “failed athletic contests” 3.1. The confrontation between the game ethos and as a viewpoint for analyzing “losing games on the competition ethos purpose.” In this study, based on Omine (2015) among the studies on “failed athletic contests,” I give an In this section, “losing games on purpose” is divid- advantage to Kawatani’s argument and discuss “losing ed into two categories and examined. Each of the games on purpose.” The next section provides an broadly divided categories of “losing games on pur- overview of Kawatani’s argument*5. pose” has different ethical evaluations. In one category of “losing games on purpose,” players explicitly seek 2.2. Kawatani’s argument about “failed athletic defeat, as in the case of the women’s badminton contests” games at the London Olympics, and the junior high school student futsal championship. The other catego- Kawatani (2013) also discusses the purpose of sport ry of “losing games on purpose” is one in which the

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player seeks defeat and tries to deceive referees and loyal to ethos in one game and wins, then it is inevi- spectators by pretending to win. This “losing games table that they will play against a team that is expect- on purpose” is not only for the competitive advantage ed to be superior, and this will be an obstacle to win- with the opponent, but it may also be prevalent in ning medals and advancement in competition. The spot-fixing as seen in “losing sumo on purpose.” women’s badminton games at the London Olympics Kawatani pointed out that a game in which ethos and the junior high school student futsal championship was not achieved is a “failed athletic contests” even if are examples that highlight the point at which ethos in the game was completed by playing according to the one game and “ethos of competitions” sometimes con- rules. In addition, to achieve the ethos of the game, it flict. The conflict between the two ethos creates a di- is a necessary condition that the player is committed lemma of whether the player seeks victory in one to victory. Both categories of “losing games on pur- game. pose” are “failed athletic contests,” in which the play- ers are not committed to victory, and the ethos is not 3.2. “Losing games on purpose” category in which achieved. Women’s badminton games at the London “failed athletic contests” is hidden Olympics and the junior high school student futsal championship were also “failed athletic contests,” in In the second category of “losing games on pur- which players did not commit to victory and the ethos pose,” it is often difficult for a referee to determine was not achieved. On the other hand, in the case of the act of trying to lose. This applies not only to inter- women’s badminton, the player’s commitment to active sporting competitions such as soccer, tennis, “winning in competitions” was stronger than winning and basketball, but also to parallel sporting competi- one game, such as winning medals at the Olympics. tions such as athletics, archery, and golf*8. Players do Even in the case of the futsal championship, coaches not always play their best in any game. Even if play- and players were more committed to winning the ers have a strong will to win, there are cases in which championship than to winning one game. their mental condition is bad, and normal performance Not only the game’s ethos, but also the game’s cannot be demonstrated. It is extremely difficult to “ethos of competitions” is an issue in discussing “los- discriminate between such cases and the act of defeat- ing games on purpose.” Kawatani said that the pur- ing by pretending to win. The intention to lose in the pose of sport was to determine who is superior in second category of “losing games on purpose” is like- each game, and such an intrinsic purpose of sport was ly to be hidden from referees and spectators. It is pos- called sport ethos. With reference to Kawatani’s com- sible that the games will be considered as a pursuit of ments, the purpose of competition is to determine ex- excellence with all efforts. The second category of cellence, or who is superior in the competition. “losing games on purpose” is the act of creating a ref- Kawatani pointed out that a player’s commitment to eree’s misjudgment. victory was necessary to achieve sport ethos. Howev- On the other hand, the fact that the referee did not er, Kawatani’s point is only for the ethos in one game, see the act that the player tried to lose was not a deci- not for the “ethos of competitions.” The “ethos of sive misjudgment that would reverse the victory or competitions” is achieved by the player committing to defeat. Therefore, the game is not regarded as “failed victory in the competition. First, there is no need to athletic contests” from the viewpoint of misjudgment. hold a competition if the player is only interested in The game is not considered “failed athletic contests” winning one game. Competition is an attempt to de- by referees or spectators in the form, even though it is termine which player or team is excellent, and, ac- actually “failed athletic contests.” cordingly, the order of excellence among the players In the first category of “losing games on purpose,” and the teams is determined. The spirit of competition the player’s attempt at defeat is recognized by referees is established by players and teams aiming for victory and spectators. Referees may be embarrassed and an- and commitment to the top, else the games can be re- gry with the player trying to lose, but they can also garded as “failed athletic contests.” declare warnings and disqualifications based on offi- The women’s badminton games at the London cial rules. In other words, misjudgment is not induced. Olympics and the junior high school student futsal In addition, it is not formally regarded as a “failed championship occurred because they were too faithful athletic contest” by referees and spectators, and a to the “ethos of competitions.” If a player becomes “failed athletic contest” is not concealed.

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In the women’s badminton games at the London game with a large score difference, it is the act of cut- Olympics and the junior high school student futsal ting corners that is resorted to in order to avoid em- championship, players were not only accused but also barrassing the opponent. Pros and cons are often sanctioned. However, the second category of “losing found in such actions. Discussion on these issues is a games on purpose” is even more problematic based on topic for future studies. the above points. This is because the second category creates “failed athletic contests” without achieving the Notes game’s ethos, but induces a misjudgment regarding *1 Participation in the Rio de Janeiro Olympics is determined by a world ranking based on the results of the international com- that point and hides the “failed athletic contest.” petition (Asahi Shimbun, 2016). 2016). The Asian Champion- ship was the last tournament that required Olympic participa- 4. Conclusion tion. In doubles, where 16 teams can participate, up to 2 teams will be given to countries that have more than 2 teams in the 8th place. The 9th place Naoko Fukuman and The purpose of this study is to present a new per- could reverse the 8th place Korean pair if they won the Asian spective on the problem of attempting to lose a game Championship. on purpose through consideration of whether doing so *2 Trash talking is player’s verbal barbs directed at opponents to gain a competitive edge (Dixon, 2007, p.96). threatens the existence of sport. We proceeded with *3 Pakaslahti uses the term “best” when either athlete or team is study by hypothesizing “failed athletic contests”, better than the other athlete or team (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.291). which is discussed in the field of sport philosophy, as *4 Pakaslahti also shows an example of virtual tennis that failed jeopardizing the existence of this sport. Then, I ana- in “the Athletic Superiority Ideal” but did not fail in “the Just Results Ideal” (Pakaslahti, 2016, p.286). It is a single match lyzed “losing games on purpose” referencing “failed between player A and player B. Player A has earned 190 points athletic contests” theory of Kawatani. This study was in the entire game, and Player B has earned 145 points. On the conducted using the two broad categories of “losing other hand, the result is a setting in which player A is lost in games on purpose” where defeat is clearly the goal 6-7, 6-0, 6-7, 6-0, 6-8. Pakaslahti believes that it is plausible to believe that player A was the best player because player A and “losing games on purpose” where players deceive gained 45 points more than Player B. Pakaslahti concluded referees and spectators in behaving as if they want to that the game failed in terms of “the Athletic Superiority Ide- win while they are actually trying to lose. al” but did not result in injustice. *5 Kawatani’s argument has been reviewed in Omine (2015), but Kawatani claims that games where an ethos (internal in this study as well. purpose) was not achieved even though the contest *6 There are various definitions of ethos in sport by researchers was based upon athletes playing according to the rules other than Kawatani (D’ Agostino, 1981; Kondo, 2011; Loland, are “failed athletic contests”. He found that player 2002; Tamburrini, 2010). This is an ambiguous concept. In this study “losing games on purpose” is discussed from the view- commitment to winning is necessary as a condition in point of Kawatani, which is the limitation of this research. achieving the ethos of the game, which suggests that *7 A fixed game is listed as an example of a game in which ethos “losing games on purpose” in either category are is not achieved despite the fact that the game has been com- “failed athletic contests” in which the athletes are not pleted by playing according to the rules without any misjudg- ment (Kawatani, 2013, p.37). committed to victory and the ethos is not established. *8 I refer to Hardman et al. (1996) for the classification of inter- On the other hand, it also became clear that there is a active and parallel sporting competitions. dilemma for players in athletic meets in that an ethos of such contests where there is a commitment to win- References Asahi Shimbun (2009a). 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