142 WINKWORTH strated. Weather conditions dur- soil remains moist for from two banks. Soil moisture increments ing and after rain were typical. to five days after rain. On the were obtained from rain falls of The furrows were aligned east- average it remains above the 15 only one inch. From heavier falls west with the banks on the atm tension for two days longer increases in storage under fur- southern side, and thus dl!ring than the soil above which is act- rows reached the equivalent of summer shading of the bottom ing as a mulch. This strongly sug- five inches of rain. The results was negligible. In situations gests that deeper sowing will en- indicate the possibility of in- where the slope is east-west it is hance emergence provided cole- creasing the moisture supply to possible that shading would be optile extension is not retarded. perennial pasture plants with more effective, but it seems un- Humphreys,” using seed of deep root systems by growing likely that orientation will give Cenchrus ciliaris (buffel grass) them in furrows. any practical reduction of either in well-watered pots found only The time taken for soil to dry radiation or advective effect. slight retardation of germination to 15 atm moisture tension was Steep sided trenches along the rate at a sowing depth of two the same at the bottom of fur- bottom of furrows were expected inches. Sowing at this depth may rows as between furrows. The to create a shaded, more humid also allow germination after top one inch of soil reached this and cooler micro-climate but shorter rain periods which occur tension just over one day after they were eliminated by sheer more frequently. rain ceased. Seed has usually mechanical instability. Summary been sown in this layer in range The top one inch of soil, where seeding trials. The one to three seed has usually been sown, re- Furrows were formed on a inch layer remains moist from mains below 15 atm moisture ten- gently sloping spinif ex sand- two to five days after rain. As- sion for the duration of the wet plain in central Australia. Fur- suming that germination is period plus one day. Assuming rows three, six and 12 inches severely limited at tensions ex- that germination is severely deep were spaced two, five and ceeding 15 atm it is suggested limited at tensions exceeding 15 ten yards apart across the slope. that deeper sowing may be atm then rain periods of at least During five rainy periods in two necessary for satisfactory seed- four to five days duration would years surface flow water accu- ling emergence. seem necessary to ensure seed- mulated in the furrows resulting in increased depth of penetration ling emergence. This may ac- LITERATURE CITED count for poor results in previous in the soil profile under them. Spacing effects were inconclu- JACKSON, E. A. 1962. Soil studies in range seeding trials. Observa- central Australia. C.S.I.R.O. Aust. tions during them indicate the sive and greater accumulation in Soil Publ. No. 19. minimum time for emergence at the deeper furrows is possibly PERRY, R. A. 1960. Pasture lands of about five days. due to their larger and steeper the Northern Territory, Australia. C.S.I.R.O. Aust. Land Research The one to three-inch layer of 2Unpublished M. SC. Ag. Thesis. Series No. 5.

Grazing Use Checks on The Wichitas turesquely set in the Wichita mountains, a chain of igneous CLARENCE E. KINGERY’ hills surrounded by the permean Range Conservationist, Soil Conservation Service, OkZa- redbed plain locally impregnated with granite mountain outwash homa City, Oklahoma. material. Elevations range up to 2,479 feet above sea level. The The basic objective of the agement objective, the Bureau highest point is on Mount Wichita Mountains Wildlife Ref- of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Pinchot in the western part of uge is to maintain an ecological of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife the area. Over a fifty-year pe- balance between the animals on Service has preserved in the riod precipitation at the refuge the range and the forage re- Wichita mountains near Lawton has averaged 30.42 inches. Only source. A definite effort is being in southwestern Oklahoma an made to upgrade the range to- outstanding, 59,020-acre example 1The author acknowledges the help- ward an optimum condition for of natural grassland populated ful suggestions provided by Julian wildlife use and to serve as a with native wild game and long- A. Howard, Manager, Wichita prime example of range man- horn cattle. This important na- Mountains Wildlife Refuge, and Arthur F. Halloran, Biologist, who agement in the southern Great tional refuge lies along the east- serves this and other refuges of the Plains area. ern edge of the Rolling Red Bureau of Sport Fisheries and With this stated range man- Plains of Oklahoma. It is pic- Wildlife, THE WICHITAS 143

7.31 inches of this occurs during proximately one million visitors classes are made where signifi- the five winter months, Novem- annually. The trend is upward. cant changes in use occur. ber through March. Snowfall is Visitors cause local game dis- The first day of the survey is negligible. tribution problems. the “tooling-up” or training Vegeiafion The present grazing animal period. Quantitative data are ob- population on the refuge includes tained from 36-square-foot ex- The vegetation is varied and approximately 900 b i s o n, 300 closures strategically located in representative of the ecotone be- longhorn cattle, 350 elk, and each pasture. The cages are tween the true prairie of central about 2,000 deer. Pastures with moved to n e w locations each and eastern Oklahoma and the acreages under management are: year. The square exclosures are mixed prairie farther west Mt. Pinchot, 13,286; North Moun- made by fastening together four (Clements, 1949). Little bluestem tain, 8,198; Graham Flat, 10,483; steel framed and braced panels, (Andropogon scoparius) along Mt. Scott, 7,581; Quanah-Elk Mt., each four by six feet and covered with big bluestem (A. gerardi) 16,207; small pastures, 2,622. Area with woven wire. These are se- and Indiangrass (Sorghastrum in lakes is 643 acres. curely fastened at the corners nutans) dominate much of the and anchored (Figure 4). Herbage prairie with some of the gramas Plans clippings from plots inside and (Bouteloua spp.) and buffalo- During 1947 a soil and water outside the cages are obtained to grass (Buchloe dactyloides) conservation plan for the refuge playing an important role on the appraise total herbage removal. and a cooperative agreement be- more droughty sites. There are While the cages are not numer- tween the Wichita Mountains many wooded and Savannah ous enough for a reliable sample, Wildlife Refuge and the Coman- areas along footslopes, streams, they do serve as a guide for judg- and geological fault lines. Repre- che County Soil Conservation ment. In addition, individual key sentative woody species are post District w e r e developed. The species are clipped and weighed oak (Quercus stellata), Ameri- agreement called for a range site to sharpen judgment on degree can elm (Ulmus americana), and and condition class map. This of use (Pechanec and Pickford, little walnut (Juglans micro- formed the basis for long-range 1937). carpa). This mixed woodland basic soil and water conservation To supplement these quantita- and grassland vegetation pro- plans for the refuge. Since 1957 tive appraisals, each surveyor vides excellent cover and forage annual grazing use checks have makes step estimates of use on for the game population. been made to provide guidelines key forage species along selected for management. These use transects. Estimates are checked Wildlife checks are done cooperatively by and compared to obtain uniform- Management to keep the graz- representatives of the Fish and ity. The survey party then maps ing game population in balance Wildlife and Soil Conservation grazing use on key areas until with the current year’s growth Services. satisfactory uniformity of judg- of vegetation is not easy. The ment is attained. Use is recorded The Survey foraging animals include bison in the field on blue line carto- (Bison bison bison), longhorn The range use survey is usu- graphic reproductions from cattle (Bos taurus), elk (Cervus ally made by three, two-man aerial photo mosaics scaled at canadensis), and white-tail deer teams. It takes about four days two inches per mile. The com- (Odocoileus virginianus). Species to cover the entire refuge and to pleted map is colored to reflect differences in needs for forage summarize findings. The study is areas of light use and overuse. and cover require that each im- made usually the first or second A brief report is developed for portant kind of grazing animal week of April. This is the end of the refuge manager. It includes be taken into account. Other the grazing year_ and the begin- calculated percentages of each complexities of management in- ning of “green-up” for the domi- use class for all major pastures. clude the need for adequate nant warm season vegetation. This analysis is made only when cover and feed to support ex- Grazing u s e is determined there is need for a detailed eval- cellent wild turkey (Meleagris through ocular appraisal, supple- uation of progress. Current pho- gallopavo intermedia) and bob- mented by quantitative d at a tographs of selected sites make white quail (Colinus virginiana) collected at the inception and up an important part of the re- populations as well as other na- during progress of the survey. port. These photographs provide tive small game. The heavy con- Degree of use is based on percen- an excellent visual record of ve- centration of human visitors in tage of forage removed from key getation changes. some segments of the refuge species on each range site and for Percentages of use are divided creates another pressing prob- each condition class. Subdivi- into four adjective groups; light lem. Refuge records show ap- sions of sites and condition use, less than 25 percent removal 144 KINGERY

creasingly important on some of the loamy bottomland areas. This highly productive climax grass is particularly relished by bison. Only grasses are recognized as key forage species but field notes are made on grazing use of forbs, legumes and browse species. The principal browse species are elm, oak, a n d greenbriar (Smilux bonunox).

Results These annual range use checks have aided in many management decisions. The flourishing deer population has b e e n reduced FIGURE1. Light use, less than 25 percent removal of forage from key species. through trapping. As an exam- ple, almost 1,400 deer were live trapped during the 1960-61 and 1961-62 trapping seasons for re- stocking other areas in Okla- homa. A surplus animal disposal program is used to reduce num- bers of bison, elk and longhorns. This is accomplished through do- nations and sales. The need for reductions is determined from survey results. The study has also aided de- cisions on the movement of ani- mals between pastures. Recently, based on study results, the for- mer 30,000-acre Big Game pas- ture was divided into three units to obtain better distribution of FIGURE 2. Moderate use, 25 to 50 percent of the key forage removed. grazing. Water developments and of key forage species (Figure 1) ; moderate use, 25 to 50 percent removal (Figure 2) ; close use, 50 to 75 percent removal (Figure 3) and severe use, more than 75 percent removal (Figure 4).

Key Species The m o s t prevalent forage species found is little bluestem. Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) is the key grass on the hardland sites (Figure 3) and on some other range sites in low condi- tion. Other key forage grasses in- clude switchgrass (Panicurn vir- guturn) and big bluestem. Eastern gamagrass (Tripsucum ducty- Zoides), while not the major for- age producer, is becoming in- FIGURE 3. Close use, 50 to 75 percent of the key forage removed. THE WICHITAS 145

salting have also played an im- portant part in improving the distribution of range grazing.

Summary Cooperative grazing use checks on the Wichita Mountains Wild- life Refuge are made annually by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the U.S. Soil Con- servation Service. Degree of use is determined by ocular appraisal supplemented b y quantitative measurements. Results of these checks are playing an important role in refuge management.

LITERATURE CITED CLEMENTS, F. E. AND EDITH S. CLEMENTS. 1949. Dynamics of Ve- getation. New York, H. W. Wilson Co., 296 pp. PECHANEC,J. F. AND G. D. PICKFORD. 1937. A Comparison of Some Methods Used in Determining Per- FIGURE4. Annual exclosure showing growth April, 1958 to April, 1959. Surround- centage Utilization of Range ing area represents severe use. Only a minor part of the refuge is used to this degree Grasses. Jour. Agric. Res. 54: 753- in any year. 765.

TECHNICAL NOTES

A POCKET HERBARIUM and shape and do not fall apart, FOR RANGE MEN even after several years use. The DONALD L. NEAL mounts can be used in wind or rain without damage. Plants Range Conservationist, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experi- mounted at any stage of growth ment Station, Susanville, California stay together and appear natural. Mounts can be punched and It is often valuable to have placed in a small loose-leaf mounted plant specimens avail- binder, Figure 1. Range research- able in the field. Standard ers and administrators will find mounting techniques are not that one of these “pocket her- satisfactory: the mounts are too baria”, when supplied to seasonal large and fragile. Range men help, will cut training time and have tried several methods with reduce mistakes in plant iden- only partial success, but mount- tification. ing the plants with sheets of Only two or three minutes are self-laminating plastic will pro- required to prepare each mount vide a rugged field reference. since only woody plants need to Mounts can be made small be pressed. The self-laminating . enough to carry in a pocket. No plastic is placed on a flat surface, pressing is necessary for most FIGURE1. A pocket herbarium being used adhesive side up. The plant and range plants. They retain color to check the identification of a grass plant. a label are placed face down on