Study on
Contributory Methods of the Fields of Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas for Addressing Global Issues:
Reduction of the undernourished population in the rural areas
Japan Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry
March 2008
Study on
Contributory Methods of the Fields of Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas for Addressing Global Issues:
Reduction of the undernourished population in the rural areas
Japan Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry
March 2008
Study on Contributory Methods of the Fields of Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas for Addressing Global Issues: Reduction of the undernourished population in the rural areas
JAPAN ASSOCIATION FOR INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
3F Akasaka KSA Bldg., 8-10-39 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 107-0052 Japan Tel: +81 - 3 - 5772- 7880 Fax: +81 - 3 - 5772 - 7680 Preface
As hunger directly threatens human existence like poverty, its eradication has been given the highest priority in the international community for development. Recognized as a global issue to be tackled, World Food Summit in 1996 set a goal of achieving to halve the undernourished population by 2015, while U.N. Millennium Development Summit in 2000 set the goal of halving the ratio of undernourished population by 2015. However, even now there remain 854 million undernourished people in the world, of which 820 million are in the developing world. Among developing world, Sub-Saharan Africa is the area facing most serious situation, calling for greater effort to solve the problem.
In the Fundamental Principles of Official Development Assistance (ODA) of Japan, it is clearly stated that, the global issues (including issues on food) should be tackled collectively by international community and that Japan would tackle this problem through extending ODA and, play an active role in making an international model. In TICAD IV to be held in Yokohama in 2008, further support to Africa will be called for.
Taking this context into account, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) has selected the theme “Eradication of hunger in rural areas” in 2007, under the program of “Study on Contributory Methods of the Fields of Food, Agriculture and Rural areas for Addressing Global Issues” following the theme “Conservation of Tropical Forest” in 2005 and “Prevention of Desertification” in 2006. Our organization, JAICAF has been entrusted the Study from MAFF, and has conducted this Study by selecting two countries, Ghana and Burkina Faso in West Africa. In the implementation of the Study, Examination committee has been organized within JAICAF consisting of academics and experts in these fields, headed by Dr. K. Itagaki (Professor of Tokyo University of Agriculture) for the smooth implementation of the Study. In addition to the data collection, analysis and discussion in the country, field study in two countries, Ghana and Burkina Faso has also been conducted including discussion with concerned government officials and representatives of the development partners working in these two countries. A number of project sites have been visited.
Taking this opportunity, I would express our sincere gratitude, on behalf of JAICAF to the members of Examination Committee who supported all the way through the Study, and the concerned officers of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Japan International Cooperation Agency for their support to the implementation of Study. In Ghana and Burkina Faso, Embassy of Japan and Resident Representatives of JICA as well as the concerned government agencies and offices of development partners stationed there extended support to the Study team. JICA experts and JOCVs, dispatched to these two countries also provided invaluable support to the Study Team on project sites visits. I wish to express heartfelt thanks to all of them. Lastly but not the least, I wish to extend appreciation to the concerned officials of the International Cooperation Division, International Affairs Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries for their continued support and guidance.
In concluding, I wish to confirm that the report is prepared by the name and responsibility of JAICAF and the contents of the report do not necessarily reflect the ideas of the Ministry of Agriculture，Forestry and Fisheries and/or the Government of Japan.
March 2008 President JAICAF Hidero MAKI
6 Table of Contents
Summary of the Report ...... 1
Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 4 1-1. Objectives and basic policy of the Study...... 4 1-1-1. Objectives ...... 4 1-1-2. Basic policy ...... 4 1-2. Implementation structure and procedure of the Study...... 6
Chapter 2 Trend of Hunger in the World...... 7 2-1. Global and regional trend of hunger...... 7 2-2. Trend of undernourishment in Sub-Saharan Africa...... 8 2-3．Current Situation of undernourishment in the countries of the Study...... 9 2-3-1. Ghana...... 9 2-3-2. Burkina Faso...... 10
Chapter 3 Trend of Hunger and Cooperation in the Field of Food and Agriculture in Ghana ...... 12 3-1. Trend of hunger and undernourishment and their causes...... 12 3-1-1. General information on Ghana ...... 12 3-1-2. Characteristics of agriculture and its recent performance...... 13 3-1-3. Trend of food production and its regional characteristic ...... 16 3-1-4. Poverty reduction and food security ...... 19 3-2. Trend of development cooperation in the fields of food and agriculture for the reduction of hunger and food shortages...... 24 3-2-1. Outline of the cooperation by major development partners...... 24 3-2-2. Major development cooperation in the fields of agriculture and rural development...... 31 3-3. Needs of support related to hunger and food shortages in the future...... 36
Chapter 4 Trend of Hunger and Support by Donors in the Fields of Food and Agriculture in Burkina Faso...... 38 4-1. Trend of hunger and its causes ...... 38 4-1-2. General information on agriculture in Burkina Faso ...... 38 4-1-2. General information on agriculture in Burkina Faso ...... 38 4-1-3. Characteristics of major crops grown and the issues to be addressed...... 42 4-1-4. Trend of hunger and food shortages and their causes...... 46 4.2. Trends of cooperation in the field of food and agriculture for the reduction of hunger and food shortages...... 49 4-2-1. Poverty reduction strategy of Burkina Faso...... 49 4-2-2. Cooperation by major development partners...... 50 4-2-3. Detailed cases of cooperation projects...... 52 4-2-4. Major contribution for the reduction of hunger by development partners...... 54 4-3. Future needs of support for the reduction of hunger and food shortages...... 55
Chapter 5. Agriculture and Rural Development Contributing to the Reduction of Hunger in West Africa...... 59 5-1. Current situation of hunger and food shortages: Ghana and Burkina Faso...... 59 5-2. Hunger and food shortages in West Africa...... 60 5-3. Needs of development support for the reduction of hunger and the expected Japanese roles...... 62 5-4. Considerations to be paid in the implementation of the future support...... 70
Reference Materials ...... 73
8 Summary of the Report
The “Study on Contributory Methods of the Fields of Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas for Addressing Global Issues” started in 2005 with the theme of “Conservation of Tropical Forest” followed by “Prevention of Desertification” in 2006. In 2007, the theme of the Study has been set as “Hunger Eradication in Rural Areas”.
The Study aims to consider the issues related to hunger and measures to solve this problem, and our future direction of cooperation, with particular emphasis on West African countries. The report consists of following 5 Chapters.
Chapter 1 describes the objectives, policy, contents and the schedule of the Study. In this report, as an indicator of hunger, undernourished population is used. Ghana and Burkina Faso have been selected as the countries for field study. For the implementation of the Study, Examination Committee and Working Sub-committee have been organized for the smooth operation of the Study including the collection and analysis of the available data and information in the country and also field study in two countries. Four meetings have been held both for Examination Committee and Working Sub-committee.
In Chapter 2, overview of the world trend of hunger and food security situation is presented. Undernourished population in the world in 2001-03 was reported as at high level of 854 million, with 820million in developing world. FAO warns that, in the past 10 years after the World Food Summit in 1996, little progress has been made to improve the problems of undernourishment in the world, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. West Africa, the target area of the Study is included in sub-Saharan Africa, where the food security is precarious issue, as ratio of undernourished population is highest and, in parallel to population increase, absolute number of the undernourished is also increasing.
In observation of individual countries, Ghana is one of a few countries that achieved the goals of World Food Summit of halving the number of undernourished and Millennium Development Goals of halving the ratio of the undernourished. Burkina Faso, bordering with Ghana, shows no decrease in number of the undernourished, though ratio of undernourished population decreased slightly.
Chapter 3 describes the overview of Ghana’s agriculture and its regional characteristics with particular attention on poverty issues, based on the results of visits to concerned government agencies, offices of the development partners and the field projects currently operational. Collection of data and information on development cooperation programmes/ projects has also been made. In brief, though Ghana has achieved remarkable progress on food security situation at national level, there exists wide regional discrepancy between urban and rural, or northern and southern part. 3 Regions in northern part of the country, namely Northern, Upper-East and Upper-West Regions are the major areas of chronic food shortages. High share of root-tuber crops and plantain in staple food is the notable characteristic of Ghana’s diet pattern. These root-tuber crops and plantain are mostly grown in
1 southern part of the country where favorable rainfall is available. In northern Regions, on the other hand, major staple food crops are such cereals as millet, sorghum and maize grown under scarce and unstable rainfall. Many development support programmes/ projects are focusing to these poverty stricken areas. In response to the shift to market oriented economy, many projects emphasize the value chain approach. Future needs of development cooperation are proposed, in addition to the enhancement of national food safety net for emergency, ①Appraisal of agricultural resources in the region and their development potential, ②Increase in land productivity (soil fertility) and reappraisal of traditional techniques, ③Encouraging the creativity and sense of ownership of farmers, ④Special characteristic of agriculture to require long gestation period, and ⑤Responding to market economy.
Chapter 4, following the preceding chapter on Ghana, describes the case of Burkina Faso on food security situation and related development supports based on the results of visits to concerned government agencies, offices of development partners and ongoing projects sites in the country. In Burkina Faso, different from Ghana, the regional gap on poverty and undernourishment has not clearly been observed. Within a particular region there exist various gaps based on age, gender and income level. Bordering on Ghana, Burkina Faso shares similar natural condition, particularly of scarce rainfall, with northern part of Ghana and thus shares the common challenges for agriculture development. In general, many agricultural development projects have focused on specific regions or crops, and in recent years value chain approach has been taken up.
Small-scale irrigation projects are many for increased rice production, responding to the increased domestic demand and import of rice. As for the future needs of development support, ①Strengthened food safety net at national level, and ②Enhancing countermeasures for undernourishment and malnutrition at local level- from increasing yield to increasing income- are raised. Particularly on ②, Appraisal of the natural resources and formulation of regional development master plan there of, Reappraisal of traditional techniques and their modification and improvement, Importance of human resources development- OJT, Education and Research cooperation and Reciprocal cooperation -and Promotion and activation of the private sector are raised as important issues to be addressed.
Chapter 5 describes, based on the preceding chapters, factors affecting food shortages in West Africa, needs of support to solve the problems and on the future direction of our development support in these fields. Further, particular issues to be paid attention in our future development support are also mentioned.
In comparing Ghana with Burkina Faso, it is noted that Ghana shows much progress than Burkina Faso. Number of undernourished population in Ghana decreased 40 % from 5.8 million in 1990-92 to 2.4 million in 2001-03. Ratio of the undernourished to the total population also declined from 37% to 12% in the same period. Corresponding figures of Burkina Faso are the increase in the number of the undernourished from 1.9 million to 2.1 million but decline on the ratio of the undernourished from 21% to 17%. This shows that in the base year Burkina Faso was in better situation than Ghana, or, Ghana was in far more severe situation. Apart from food production, international market price of
2 export commodities is also an important factor to affect food import capacities.
In addition to population increase, stagnation of agricultural production by civil strife, damages by drought are the major causes of food shortages. In West Africa, a number of countries are facing such constraints as civil wars and/or HIV/AIDS. Toward the hunger reduction in West Africa, following points are raised in our future development support.
① Strengthening food safety net ② Increasing productivity at regional level ・Appraisal of regional agricultural resources and their development potential ・Increasing soil fertility ・Reappraisal of traditional techniques and their improvement/ modification in new technology development ・Development of marketing system responsive to market economy ・Support on human resources development
For future cooperation, ①Further enhanced coordination on development support, ②Clarification of core components I multi-sector approach, ③Encouraging farmers’ initiatives and sense of ownership, and ④Special consideration for long gestation period of agricultural projects, are raised as issues requiring special attention.
3 Chapter 1 Introduction
1-1. Objectives and basic policy of the Study
1-1-1. Objectives Global issues such as environment and food are taken up in the Fundamental Principles of ODA (Overseas Development Assistance) as the important subjects and it is emphasized that [the subjects need to be tackled urgently by international community collectively, and Japan should join this effort through Japanese ODA.].
Therefore, the Study aims at contributing to the effective and efficient future cooperation in the fields of food, agriculture and rural development, through the verification of the development cooperation in these fields and exploring our countermeasures to respond to the cooperation needs in coming future of the target countries mobilizing our own knowledge and experiences on this issue. Basic principles of cooperation for the target areas with particular emphasis on socio-economic development, regional characteristics and environmental issues, are to be considered.
1-1-2. Basic policy (1) Theme of the Study The Study on “Contributory Methods of the Fields of Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas for Addressing Global Issues” started in 2005. In the first year, 2005, Conservation of the Tropical Forest was taken up, followed by Prevention of Desertification in the second year, 2006. In the third year, 2007, Reduction of Hunger in Rural Areas was chosen as the theme of the Study by the Ministry of Agriculture，Forestry and Fisheries，the funding organization of the Study.
(2) Indicators of hunger Regarding hunger, the main issue of the Study, World Food Program (WFP) defines as follows;
① Undernourishment: describes the status of people whose food intake does not include enough calories (energy) to meet minimum physiological needs.
② Malnutrition: defined as a state in which the physical function of an individual is impaired to the point where he or she can no longer maintain natural bodily capacities such as growth, pregnancy, lactation, learning abilities, physical work and resisting and recovering from disease.
World Food Summit in 1996 established the target of halving the number of undernourished population by no later than 2015, using the average of the period 1990-92 as the base year. Undernourished population in the world of the base year was 830million.On the other hand, in the Millennium Development Goals，sets the target to halve the ratio of undernourished population by 2015 from the base year 1990. As the detailed indicators of MDGs, ratios of underweight infant population less than five years old and the undernourished to the total population are used. Therefore,
4 undernourished population above is used as an indicator of the Study.
(3) Selection of the countries for the Study As the Application Guideline of the Study designates that the target countries should be selected from those in West Africa, general trend of undernourishment in this area has been observed (Table1-1).
Table1-1 Prevalence of undernourishment and progress towards the WFS and MDG targets in West African countries
Ratio Ratio Number of people current/baseline Proportion of current/baseline Region/ Country Total population undernourished number of undernourished in prevalence of (undernourishment (millions) (millions) undernourished total population undernourished category*） Ratio for WFS Ratio for MDG 1990-92 2001-03 1990-92 2001-03target = 0.5 1990-92 2001-03 target = 0.5 West Africa 175.1 236.3 37.2 36.5 1.0 21 15 0.7 Benin [3] 4.8 6.6 1.0 0.9 0.9 20 14 0.7 Burkina Faso [3] 9.2 12.6 1.9 2.1 1.1 21 17 0.8 Côte d’Ivoire [3] 12.9 16.4 2.3 2.2 1.0 18 14 0.8 Gambia [4] 1.0 1.4 0.2 0.4 1.8 22 27 1.2 Ghana [3] 15.7 20.5 5.8 2.4 0.4 37 12 0.3 Guinea [4] 6.4 8.4 2.5 2.0 0.8 39 24 0.6 Liberia [5] 2.1 3.2 0.7 1.6 2.2 34 49 1.4 Mali [4] 9.3 12.6 2.7 3.5 1.3 29 28 1.0 Mauritania [3] 2.1 2.8 0.3 0.3 0.8 15 10 0.6 Niger [4] 7.9 11.5 3.2 3.7 1.2 41 32 0.8 Nigeria [2] 88.7 120.9 11.8 11.5 1.0 13 9 0.7 Senegal [4] 7.5 9.9 1.8 2.2 1.3 23 23 1.0 Sierra Leone [5] 4.1 4.8 1.9 2.4 1.3 46 50 1.1 Togo[4] 3.5 4.8 1.2 1.2 1.0 33 25 0.7 * Proportion of the population undernourished in 2001–03: [1]＜5％ [2] 5-9％ [3] 10-19％ [4] 20-34％ [5] ≧35％ Source: The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006, FAO
In the West African countries, decreasing trend of undernourished population are observed in 4 countries, namely, Benin, Ghana, Guinea and Mauritania. In other countries, undernourished population are either increasing or, at best, remain stagnant.
Among all these countries, Ghana has achieved to decrease the undernourished from5.8 million in 990-92 to 2.4 million in 2001-03. In Africa, Ghana is an only country to have achieved the target of World Food Summit to halve the number of the undernourished. As a successful case of hunger reduction, Ghana is therefore selected as one of the target of the Study.
Increase in undernourished population are observed in five countries, namely, Burkina Faso, Gambia， Mali, Niger and Senegal，excluding Liberia and Sierra Leone where civil strife may affect the implementation of the Study. These countries，except Gambia, are located in Sahel，semi-arid zone with severe natural conditions for increasing agricultural production. Among these countries, Burkina Faso shares the same level of poverty index (population below 1 dollar PPP/day) with Ghana at around 45%.In spite of this similar level of poverty index, there exists substantive difference in the number of undernourished population. Burkina Faso is one of the major recipients of WFP’s food aid and many other development partners have also been extending various supports. Therefore, to compare with
5 Ghana, Burkina Faso is chosen as another country for the Study.
Accordingly, Ghana and Burkina Faso are selected as the countries of the Study.
1-2. Implementation structure and procedure of the Study
Within Japan Association for International Collaboration of Agriculture and Forestry (JAICAF) Secretariat was established for the smooth and efficient implementation of the Study, organizing Examination Committee and others.
The Examination committee consisted of the learned persons and academics with broad experiences on ODA activities，particularly those on agriculture and rural development. Under the supervision and advice of/and the consultation with the concerned officials of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Secretariat worked together with Examination Committee for the implementation of the Study. As a subsidiary organ of the Examination Committee, Working sub-committee was organized, for the preparation of agenda, schedule of the study abroad and preparation of the draft report and recommendations to be discussed at Examination Committee. Members of Working Sub-committee included some members of Examination Committee. Field study in two countries, Ghana and Burkina Faso, was conducted by the members of the Working Sub-committee.
1-2-1. Examination committee of the study (Omitted) 1-2-2. Working sub-committee (Omitted) 1-2-3. Field study (Omitted) 1-2-4. Implementation schedule (Omitted)
6 Chapter 2 Trend of Hunger in the World
2-1. Global and regional trend of hunger
FAO estimates the number of undernourished in the world in 2001-03 at 854 million, without any reduction. In the developing world as a whole, although minor reduction was observed in1995-97, absolute number of undernourished in 2001-03 showed increase. On regional basis, number of the undernourished is biggest in Asia Pacific region reflecting the huge number of population. Sub-Saharan African region follows Asia Pacific in number of the undernourished, in parallel to population increase.
The ratio of undernourished population, however, is gradually declining in the developing world as a whole, implying the trend towards the target of Millennium Development Goals. In Sub-Saharan Africa, ratio of undernourished population is the highest, showing serious current situation of this region.
As observed, although the ratio of the undernourished is declining, absolute number of the undernourished did not show any decrease, leaving the hunger reduction as one of the most important global issues to be tackled. Severe current situation Sub-Saharan countries are now facing calls for the enhanced support by international community to achieve the targets of World Food Summit and Millennium Development Goals.
Fig.2-1 Trend of undernourished population in the world Source: The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006, FAO
7 2-2. Trend of undernourishment in Sub-Saharan Africa
FAO reports that, in Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, undernourished population increased from 196 million in 1990-92 to 206 million in 2001-03, with high ratio of the undernourished as mentioned above. Therefore, reduction of hunger remains one of the most important subjects to be tackled in this region. Within the region, East Africa, South Africa and West Africa show some progress in lowering the ratio of undernourished population, but the absolute number of the undernourished remains increasing. Central Africa is the sub-region with most serious situation in Sub-Saharan Africa, where, not only the number but also ratio of the undernourished is increasing.
Observation by country level shows that, Ghana is the only country achieved the target of WFS. Countries moving towards the target of WFS other than Ghana are12 in number, and those countries of either retreating or stagnant are 26.
USDA reports that in Sub-Saharan Africa (37countries are covered) the number of undernourished in 2006 of 372 million will increase in 2016 to 460 million, and estimates that more than half of the total population will not be able to take required nutrition.
Fig. 2-2 Trend of undernourished people in Sub-Saharan Africa Source: The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006, FAO
8 Table 2-1 Food availability and food gaps for Sub-Saharan Africa Grain Root Commercial Food aid Aggregate Year production production imports receipts availability (grain equiv.) (grains) (grain equiv.) of all food
― 1,000トン－ 1997 72,063 38,917 12,539 2,497 139,501 1998 74,606 41,581 15,786 2,837 146,426 1999 76,057 43,653 13,285 2,690 149,746 2000 72,695 44,904 14,650 4,027 154,283 2001 77,373 46,581 18,610 3,722 159,365 2002 75,716 46,184 20,176 3,225 160,026 2003 84,092 47,018 20,126 5,536 165,336 2004 82,512 49,044 22,471 3,901 168,600 2005 92,596 49,659 23,563 4,903 174,679
Projections Food gaps* NR ＤＧ 2006 94,994 51,289 20,662 11,025 17,596 175,528 2011 110,420 55,941 22,999 11,076 18,606 198,461 2016 126,544 60,955 25,973 11,968 20,150 223,740
*Food gaps: NR stands for nutritional requirements and describes the amount of grain equivalent needed to support nutritional standards on a national average level. DG stands for distributional gap and describes that amount of grain equivalent needed to allow each income quintile to reach the nutrional requirement. Source: Food Security Assessment 2006, USDA, 2007
2-3．Current Situation of undernourishment in the countries of the Study
2-3-1. Ghana In Ghana, the number of undernourished population has sharply decreased and per capita calorie intake increased from 2,027 kcal in 1990-92 to 2,690kcal in 2002-04. Dietary pattern in Ghana is characterized by higher share of tuber and root crops rather than cereals. Dependency on imported food is high, such as wheat, rice and sugar. USDA predicts that further improvement on undernourishment will be made and in 2016, national food security will be achieved.
Fig. 2-3 Trend of undernourished people in Ghana Source: FAO Website
9 Table 2-2 Food availability and food gaps for Ghana
Grain Root Commercial Food aid Aggregate Grain production and commercial 1,000 tons Year production production imports receipts availability imports (grain equiv.) (grains) (grain equiv.) of all food 3,000 Grain production Com. imports 2,500 ---1,000 tons --- 2,000 1997 1,578 2,954 407 86 5,086 1,500 1998 1,665 3,099 286 57 5,142 1,000 1999 1,601 3,461 371 32 5,478 500 2000 1,615 3,540 624 101 5,784 0 2001 1,520 3,836 580 74 6,041 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2002 2,044 4,183 563 69 6,867 2003 1,949 4,281 674 87 7,148 1,000 tons Food gap estimates 2004 1,837 4,167 997 75 7,188 Nutritional requirements 2005 1,760 4,167 847 58 7,135 35 30 Distribution gap 25 Projections Food gaps 20 NR DG 15 2006 1,760 4,542 814 0 31 7,534 10 2011 2,362 4,979 914 0 3 8,392 5 2016 2,654 5,447 1,019 0 0 9,272 0 2006 2011 2016 Source: USDA Website
2-3-2. Burkina Faso Though no significant change on the number of undernourished population has been observed in Burkina Faso in recent years, ratio of undernourished population has declined due to the total population increase. Per capita food supply increased from 2350kcal in1990-92. to 2500 in2002-24, however the number of the undernourished did not decrease. This implies the existence of wide range of food distribution gap, or disparity of individual food supply capacity.
USDA predicts that the food distribution gap will continue to widen. This means that, even if the minimum requirement will be met at national level, undernourishment will remain to continue at individual/ household level.
Fig. 2-4 Trend of undernourished people in Burkina Faso Source: FAO Website
10 Table 2-3 Food availability and food gaps for Burkina Faso Grain Root Commercial Food aid Aggregate Grain production and commercial 1,000 tons Year production production imports receipts availability imports
(grain equiv.) (grains) (grain equiv.) of all food 5,000 Grain production Com. imports 4,000 ---1,000 tons --- 3,000 1997 1,959 18 119 48 2,428 1998 2,634 20 211 30 3,170 2,000 1999 2,412 21 104 55 2,886 1,000 2000 2,217 28 133 33 2,732 0 2001 2,722 37 146 42 3,236 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2002 2,824 21 261 49 3,546
2003 3,539 21 148 32 4,103 1,000 tons 2004 2,869 21 135 45 3,539 Food gap estimates 2005 4,016 43 131 44 4,709 300 250 Nutritional requirements Projections Food gaps 200 Distribution gap NR DG 150 2006 3,484 28 125 0 61 4,131 100 2011 3,979 30 125 0 111 4,426 50
2016 4,310 31 123 0 275 4,763 0 2006 2011 2016 Source: USDA Website
11 Chapter 3 Trend of Hunger and Cooperation in the Field of Food and Agriculture in Ghana
3-1. Trend of hunger and undernourishment and their causes
3-1-1. General information on Ghana Ghana is the country located, facing to the Gulf of Guinea at the west, and bordering with Cote d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Togo, with total area of 238.5 km2 and population of 18.9 million (year2000). Ghana is the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to have achieved independence in 1957 from colonial rule.
Since the independence until 1970’s when she faced crisis, Ghana had enjoyed highest per capita GDP among African countries. A series of military intervention on politics and others contributed to the decay of systems and structure of administration for the sound and stable economic development. Support by donors led by World Bank continued nearly two decades and austerity policy has been pursued. In 1999, international price of cocoa, most important export commodity of the country had declined sharply, together with the hanging low price of gold, another important export commodity and high price of oil, for which foreign currency is much needed, caused severe economic crisis of the country. In the following year, 2000, in addition to the external factors mentioned above, failures in fiscal and decrease in disbursement of assistance by donors caused sharp inflation and increase in interest rate. In 2002, however, under the severe austerity policy of the new government, fundamentals of macroeconomic indicators have been improving.
Trend of GDP and the shares of the sectors are shown in Table3-1 and Table3-2.
Table3-1 Trend of GDP Shares by Sectors（%） Sector 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Agriculture 39.4 39.3 39.2 40.2 41.5 41.9 Crops/Livestock 23.9 24.8 25 24.7 24.2 24.2 Cocoa 5.4 5.1 4.9 6.4 8.3 8.9 Forestry 4.3 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.3 Fisheries 5.1 5 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.5 Industry 28.4 28.1 28.2 27.8 27.1 26.9 Mining 5.6 5.3 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.0 Manufacture 10.1 10.0 10.1 9.9 9.6 9.5 Power/Water 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 Construction 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.8 9.6 9.7 Services 32.2 32.5 32.6 32 31.4 31.1 Transportation/ Communication 4.8 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 4.9 Wholesale/ Retail 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.5 7.5 7.5 Finance/Insurance/ Real estate 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.7 Administration 11.2 11.3 11.2 11 10.6 10.5 Regional social services 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.8 Private non-profit social services 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Source：Ghana Statistical Service, 2007
12 Table3-2 Trends of GDP Growth rates by sectors（%） 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007* GDP 4.5 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.4 6.3 １．Agriculture 4.4 6.1 7.0 4.1 4.5 4.3 Crops/Livestock 5.2 5.3 4.3 3.3 3.5 4.0 Cocoa 0.5 16.4 29.9 13.2 2.0 6.5 Forestry 5 6.1 4.2 5.6 2.6 2.5 Fisheries 2.8 3.0 6.2 1.2 15.0 5.0 2．Industry 4.7 5.1 4.8 7.7 9.5 7.4 Mining 4.5 4.7 3.0 6.3 13.3 30 Manufacture 4.8 4.6 4.6 5.0 4.2 2.3 Power/ Water 4.1 4.2 3.7 12.4 24.2 15.0 Construction 5.0 6.1 6.6 10.0 8.2 11.0 ３．Services 4.7 4.7 4.9 6.9 6.5 8.2 Transportation/ communication 5.7 5.8 5.2 7.9 7.2 6.0 Wholesale/ Retail 5.6 5.0 6.0 10.0 7.5 10.0 Source：Ghana Statistical Service, 2007 *: estimate
3-1-2. Characteristics of agriculture and its recent performance Agriculture is the mainstay of Ghanaian economy, with GDP share of 40% and employing 60% of the workforce.
Arable land is estimated at around 13.6 million ha, of which about 6million ha are used for agriculture. Agro-ecologically Ghana can roughly be classified into 3 major zones, namely Forest Vegetation zone, Northern Savannah zone and Coastal Savannah zone. Forest Vegetation zone consists of parts of Western, Eastern, Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and Volta Regions. Northern Savannah Vegetation zone extends to four Regions of Upper-East, Upper-West, Northern and apart of Brong Ahafo. Coastal Savannah Vegetative zone covers mainly central, Greater Accra and a part of Volta Region. In Northern Savannah and Coastal Savannah, rainy season is once a year, while in Forest Vegetation zone can enjoy two rainy seasons in a year with favorable rainfall of 800mmm-1800mm.
In Northern Savannah, development of infrastructure such as irrigation facility, road networks, markets and post harvest facilities far lagged behind. Major crops grown are cereals such as millet, sorghum and rice. Other crops produced include yam, cotton and tomato. Livestock production, namely cattle，sheep and goat raising are also common. In recent years, mango tree planting is expanding.
In Coastal Savannah, in addition to maize and rice, cassava, coconut，vegetables mongo and sugarcane production are common. Livestock production is also popular. In this zone, though annual rainfall is rather limited, there exist a number of low and wetland where, once sugarcane plantation was operational for state sugar factory. It is said that, the resumption sugar factory by private sector investment is being considered. Feasibility of introducing sweet potato and soybean have been confirmed by the study of Agriculture College of Volta Region.
13
< 1,000mm
Northern Savannah Vegetation Zone
1,000-1,250mm
1,250-1,500mm
Forest Vegetation Zone 1,000-1,250mm
1,500-2000mm Coastal Savannah Vegetation Zone
< 1,000mm
2,000mm<
Fig. 3-1 Rainfall distribution in Ghana
In Forest Vegetation zone, as rainfall are relatively abundant，tree crops such as cocoa，coffee, oil palm and cashew nut are widely grown. Much of plantain and citrus are also grown in this zone. In addition to small-scale family farms, there exist cooperative farms and large commercial farms in this zone. Irrigation facilities are not required in this zone, however, improvement of road networks for market access is of urgent importance.
Irrigable area in total in the country is estimated at 500 thousand ha, however, since the establishment of Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA), irrigated area developed remain at 8.7 thousand ha of 22 irrigation projects. Further, actual irrigated area in 2003 was 5.2 thousand ha, 60% of the area developed.
14
Fig.3-2 Administrative Division of Ghana
In Ghana, major staple food will be fully self satisfied in a year of normal rainfall. In case of tuber and root crops，vegetables，fruits and edible oil will be fully satisfied by domestic production. For cereals except rice, 90% will be able to meet demand by domestic production. However, volatile rainfall (start of rainy season, amount and distribution during the season) affects seriously the crop performance. Therefore, seasonal food shortage occurs in some places very frequently.
Small-scale subsistent farmers are dominant in Ghana, with about 90% of total farm households and 80% of food crop farmers cultivating less than 2 ha. In Ghana, farms are classified in 3 categories in general, small scale farms being less than 4 ha, medium scale farms from 4-8 ha and large scale farms
15 more than 8 ha. Share of each category are; small scale 84.2%, medium scale 10.8% and large scale 5%.
Major cropping system is the intercropping of food crops for aversion of harvest risks and maximization of profit for limited family labor and the maintenance of soil fertility. However, in case of large scale farms, mono-cropping is dominant.
Share of crops including cocoa in total agriculture GDP accounts 77%. In recent years, number of medium and large scale farms is said to be increasing, particularly in those growing pineapple, cocoa, oil palm, cassava, rice etc.
Livestock production in Ghana has social and economic importance for the lives of small scale farmers, as well as of livestock traders and processors. Share of livestock in agriculture GDP remains at around 7%, however, livestock plays a role of insurance in time of emergency. In northern region, use of animal power for cultivation is popular, and cattle raising farmers usually cultivate 60% more than those without cattle. Small animals and ruminants are usually raised by female for their cash income. Of the total livestock in the country, about 75% are raised in 3 northern Regions and 15% in the Coastal Savannah. In Forest Vegetation zone where humidity is comparatively high, number of livestock is relatively limited, mainly due to the existence of tsetse flies. Ruminants and poultry are common all over the country but swine raising are popular in the Forest Vegetation zone and areas surrounding of big cities.
Share of fisheries in agriculture GDP is low at 4-5%, however, fisheries are major source of protein for the people, with annual per capita consumption of 29kg, about 60 % of the total animal protein intake. About 80% of the total fish catch, including both of marine and fresh water, are processed by traditional smoking or salting for domestic consumption and remaining 20% are frozen or canned for export. Fisheries provide job opportunity to 500 thousand (including fishermen, processors and traders), or 10% of the total workforce. However, fish catches are declining in recent years in spite of increasing demand. Therefore, import of fisheries products are increasing.
In general, almost all of the agricultural land are under the control of traditional Chiefs, and from whom the rights are given to farmers by lease or purchase. Leasehold is legalized to be renewed until 99 years, but it usually takes several years to realize official registration. During this period there often said that, another person who claim his/ her right appears which leads to court battle. Unstable right to farmland like the above often discourages investment effort of the farmers. Cooperation projects funded by developing partners such as WB, IFAD and others are encouraging the efforts to improve legal system and policy on land issue.
3-1-3. Trend of food production and its regional characteristic As mentioned earlier, major food crops produced in Ghana are quite numerous. Composition of major staple food and cooking methods differ by the region. This seems to be rather unique compared to other regions (for example, diet patterns based on maize in East and Southern Africa) where food and
16 cooking methods are relatively simple. In rural villages, farmers do not manage by their own production, but also they usually purchase from others substantive portion of their daily food. In one case Study in 2000 in average rural family, it is reported that 70% of the total food were purchased while those produced by themselves remained at only 30% (Table 3-3). This clearly shows that farm family needs cash income for buying food in their daily lives.
Cereals: maize, rice, millet, sorghum Root & tuber crops: cassava, yam, cocoyam Plantain Beans, nuts Fruits: citrus, pineapple, papaya, banana Spice: pepper Livestock: cattle sheep, goat, poultry Fisheries: marine, fresh water fishes
Among the above, cereals, root and tuber crops and plantain are staple food crops. Wheat is consumed in large quantities, but as the ecological condition doesn’t allow production, is totally imported from overseas.
Recent trend of food crop production is shown in table 3-4.
Table3-3 Yearly expenditure of farm household share(%) contents US$ purchase self/supp. cereal 126 71% 29% tuber 221 34% 66% bean 41 67% 33% vegetable 70 75% 25% fruit 7 63% 37% oil 28 92% 8% meat 39 76% 24% poultry 21 65% 35% fish 153 94% 6% others 115 100% 0% total 822 70% 30% Source: Republic of Ghana (2000) $1=2,439 Cedi.(March1999)
17 Table 3-4 Trend of food crops production (unit:1000ton） 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Cereal： Maize 1,013 938 1,400 1,289 1,157 1,658 Rice 215 253 280 239 242 307 Sorghum 280 280 316 338 287 278 Millet 169 134 159 176 144 148 Root Crop：Cassava 8,107 8,966 9,731 10,239 9,739 13,808 Yam 3,363 3,547 3,900 3,813 3,892 4,605 Cocoyam 1,625 1,688 1,860 1,805 1,716 1,540 Plantain 1,932 2,074 2,279 2,329 2,380 3,572 Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 2006
As seen in the table above, food crop production is increasing steadily in the past 6 years. It is noted that, among cereal crops, while traditional crops such as millet and sorghum are stagnant in growth of production, maize and rice are increasing. Tuber crops except cocoyam and plantain are increasing. In general, growth of food crop production surpasses population increase. Therefore, food security situation at national level is seen as improving. However, in 3 Regions in the north, Northern, Upper-East and Upper-West, their traditional food crops, millet and sorghum, are not increasing, leaving the problems of food insecurity in these areas
Table 3-5 Major food crops production by Regions (2005) (unit:1000ton） Region Maize Rice Millet Sorghum Cassava Yam Cocoyam Plantain Peanut Cowpea Soya Western 88 24 - - 828 104 219 573 - - - Central 233 18 - - 1,579 14 87 469 - - - Eastern 292 11 - - 4,310 669 122 789 - - - Greater Accra 3 3 - - 61 ------Volta 53 42 - 51,112 266 36 48 - - - Ashanti 229 24 - - 1,614 391 744 - 40 - - Brong Ahafo 535 28 - - 3,481 1,797 332 1,063 - - - Northern 137 80 47 68823 1,033 - 630 84 38 41 Upper West 67 7 43 80 - 330 - - 108 26 - Upper East 21 70 58 125 - - - 105 28 7 Total 1,658 307 148 27813,808 4,604 1,540 3,572 337 92 48 Source：Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2006
As an export commodity, cocoa is the most important crop. In Ghana, the share of agricultural products in export is about 60% and of which cocoa shares 60%. However, in recent years, export of other commodities such as pineapple and mangoes are gradually increasing.
Table 3-6 Trend of Agricultural Export (million $) Commodity 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Traditional Commodities 612 550 646 992 1,283 891 Cocoa 437 381 463 818 1,071 719 Wood/wood products 175 169 183 174 212 172 Nontraditional Commodities 75 82 86 138 160 151 Horticulture products 28 30 34 29 61 50 Fisheries products 19 24 24 27 52 46 Others 28 28 28 82 47 55 Total 687 632 732 1,130 1,443 1,042 Source：Statistical Service Ghana, 2007
18 Major agricultural products imported are cereals, among which rice is outstanding. In response to the increase in demand for rice, import of rice has been increasing in recent years. Imported volume of rice in 2000 was 56,000t, followed by 170,000t in 2001, 180,000t in 2002, further, 260,000t in 2003, 340,000t in 2004 and 260,000t in 2005.
3-1-4. Poverty reduction and food security Supported by the steady growth of agricultural production, food security situation of Ghana has been improving remarkably. FAO reported the recent situation of food insecurity in each region of the world at 34th General Meeting in Nov. 2007 in “ The State of Food and Agriculture”. The report states that the ratio of undernourished population in the developing world has sharply declined from 37% in 1969/71 to 17% in 2002/04, and that declining trend was striking at the first 2decades but warns that thereafter, from 1995/97, ratio has been getting higher. Ratio of undernourished in Sub-Saharan Africa has declined for the first time in several decades and Ghana had achieved the target of WFS, as reported. In spite of the remarkable progress of Ghana on reduction of hunger at national level, there exist a number of regions in the north where undernourishment remains to be solved.
Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) is the comprehensive policy document for national development prepared at first in 2003as GPRS-1 and in 2005 as GPRS-2. In GPRS-1, “Reconstruction and rehabilitation” was emphasized and in GPRS-2, while following the major policy of GPRS-1, “Accelerated economic growth” has been emphasized.
For the overview of poverty issues in Ghana, the report “Pattern and Trends of Poverty in Ghana” (Ghana Statistical Service, April 2007) is very useful. The report analyses poverty issues, using the results of the 3rd, 4th and 5th Living Standard Survey conducted in 1991/92, 1998/99 and in 2005/06 respectively. In this analysis, poverty is considered from 3 dimensions, namely, consumption, asset/ access to services, and human development.
Regarding poverty and hunger, dimension of consumption on poverty will be the major issue. Regarding consumption, expenditure of each family in respective area has been measured separating food and non-food expenditure. As for food, own production, purchase, borrowing and donated are separated.
In counting the cost of living, regional discrepancy has been adjusted, setting the coefficient for each region based on the price at Accra, the metropolitan of Ghana. For example, in case of food, against 1.000 to Accra, 0.7310 is used to Rural Savannah. Poverty line is set, as adopted in many other countries, based on the required calories. In this case, required calorie for male adult is set at 2,900kcal/day. This means the average required calorie for total population to be 2,200kcal/day. Two poverty lines are set, extreme poverty and ordinary poverty lines. Extreme poverty is defined that, required calorie cannot be obtained even if the total income is devoted to food. Ordinary poverty is defined as the minimum income which can afford, after securing the required calorie, to meet non food requirement. Extreme poverty is set at annual income 2,884,700 Cedi (about $318) by the price of
19 Accra in January 2006. Similarly, ordinary poverty is set at 3,708,900 Cedi ($410).
Table3-7 Regional poverty index of Ghana
poverty line=3,708,900Cedi ext. poverty ratio=2,884,700Cedi povert ratio contribution poverty ratio contribution 1991/92 Accra(GAMA) 23.1 3.7 11.3 2.5 Urban Coastal 28.3 4.7 14.2 3.4 Urban Forest 25.8 5.5 12.9 3.9 Urban Savannah 37.8 3.9 27.0 3.9
Rural Coastal 52.5 14.4 32.8 12.7 Rural Forest 61.6 35.3 45.9 37.3 Rural Savannah 73.0 32.6 57.5 36.3
Urban 27.7 17.8 15.1 13.7 Rural 63.6 82.2 47.2 86.3
All Ghana 51.7 100.0 36.5 100.0
1998/99 Accra(GAMA) 4.4 1.3 1.9 0.8 Urban Coastal 31.0 4.6 19.0 4.2 Urban Forest 18.2 5.4 10.9 4.8 Urban Savannah 43.0 5.2 27.1 4.9
Rural Coastal 45.6 16.7 28.5 15.3 Rural Forest 38.0 30.1 21.1 24.6 Rural Savannah 70.0 36.6 59.3 45.5
Urban 19.4 16.6 11.6 14.6 Rural 49.5 83.4 34.6 85.4
All Ghana 39.5 100.0 26.8 100.0
2005/06 Accra(GAMA) 10.6 4.4 5.4 3.5 Urban Coastal 5.5 1.1 2.0 0.6 Urban Forest 6.9 3.5 2.9 2.3 Urban Savannah 27.6 5.2 18.3 5.5
Rural Coastal 24.0 9.2 11.5 6.9 Rural Forest 27.7 27.2 14.6 22.5 Rural Savannah 60.1 49.3 45.4 58.7
Urban 10.8 14.3 5.7 11.9 Rural 39.2 85.7 25.6 88.1
All Ghana 28.5 100.0 18.2 100.0 Source：Pattern and Trends of Poverty in Ghana, Statistical Service Ghana, 2007
As shown in Table 3-7, ratio of poverty population in Ghana has been declining since the 3rd Living Standard Survey (1991/92). In the 3rd Survey, the ratio of poverty population was 51.7% and in the 4th ratio (1998/99) it declined to 39.5%, further in the 5th (2005/06) to 28.5%.The target of MDGs to reduce the ratio of poverty population by 2015 will be achieved without much difficulty.
Though the improvement is remarkable at national level, there exists wide disparity between the urban and the rural areas. In the urban area, the ratio of poverty declined sharply from the 3rd survey (27.7%) to 4th (19.4%) and 5th survey (10.8%), while in the rural area, the ratio remains high, particularly in Rural Savannah (3 northern regions). Share of the urban and the rural for poverty population was 17.8:82.2 in the 3Rd survey followed by the 14.3:85.7 in the 5th survey, worsening the situation for the rural area. Extreme has been decreasing its ratio since the 3rd survey, from 36.5% to 26.8% and 18.2% in 4th and 5th survey respectively. However, share of the rural area in extreme poverty remains high at 88.1% of the total, showing the severe situation of poverty in rural area.
As for the 2nd indicator of poverty, assets and access to the water and electricity, improvement is observed. Increased possession of radio (71%) bicycle (29%) and sewing machine (18%) in rural area
20 are noted. Access to drinking water has been improved particularly in rural area. More than 65% of the rural population secured access to drinking water. The gap between urban and rural on access to drinking water is narrowing. Flush toilet or simple toilet are not well diffused in rural area, remaining less than half compared to the urban area. Diffusion of electricity also lacked behind in the rural area, less than half or 11-40%, compared to 44-88% in urban area.
As the 3rd indicator of poverty, human development, or more precisely health, medical services and education are raised. Regarding medical services, in case of disease or injury, visits to medical doctor or pharmacy were heard by interview. In the 3rd, 4th and 5th survey, visits to medical doctor was higher in urban than rural, however, throughout the 3 surveys, number of visits to medical doctor are not substantively increasing. In contrast, visits to pharmacy are increasing both in urban and rural areas. Regarding education, enrollment to primary and secondary schools are surveyed. Enrollment ratio to primary school in the 3 consecutive GLSSs (Ghana Living Standard Survey 3rd, 4th and 5th) are shown in Table3-8.
In general, enrollment ratio to primary school is increasing. Regional gap is not so big as assumed, although it remains it remains comparatively low in Rural Savannah. National average of enrollment ratio to primary school has increased during the past 15 years from74% to 85%.In Rural Savannah, it increased significantly from48.6% to 61.8%, but far lagged behind to other areas. However, gender disparity is improving.
Table3-8 Trend of primary school enrolment by region (%) Extremely poor Poor Not poor Total 1991/92 Urban Male 80.6 80.7 91.1 87.4 Female 69.2 72.0 86.7 81.6 Sub- Total 75.4 76.5 88.8 84.6 Rural Male 66.1 74.6 80.3 71.7 Female 61.3 67.6 74.9 66.5 Sub- Total 63.8 71.4 77.7 69.3 Total 65.5 72.8 83.4 74.1 1998/99 Urban Male 86.1 95.1 93.9 92.9 Female 83.0 92.4 88.2 88.0 Sub- Total 84.7 93.8 91.0 90.4 Rural Male 73.2 84.3 88.0 81.4 Female 67.4 84.2 86.4 78.9 Sub- Total 70.6 84.3 87.2 80.2 Total 72.6 86.3 88.9 83.4 2005/06 Urban Male 73.0 88.9 97.7 95.0 Female 86.7 96.3 95.5 95.0 Sub- Total 78.8 92.4 96.5 95.0 Rural Male 66.9 80.6 88.1 80.6 Female 67.8 73.9 86.2 79.1 Sub- Total 67.3 77.5 87.2 79.9 Total 68.4 80.0 91.2 84.8 Source：Pattern and Trends of Poverty in Ghana. 1991-2006
21 As shown in Table 3-9, ratio of enrollment to secondary school is lower than that to primary school. During the period of last 3 surveys, little progress have been observed. It was 37.5% in 1991/92, 40.7% in 1998/99 and 40.9% in 2005/06. The gap of the enrollment ratio between urban and rural areas are also widening in case of secondary school, particularly that of extremely poverty and ordinary poverty. The gender disparity is observed to be declining, as seen in the case of primary school.
Table3-9 Trend of secondary school enrolment by region (%) Extremely poor Poor Not poor Total 1991/92 Urban Male 41.9 43.9 50.0 47.3 Female 27.9 41.0 41.9 39.6 Sub-Total 35.6 42.6 45.6 43.4 Rural Male 34.4 41.2 41.9 37.7 Female 27.6 32.1 31.7 29.8 Sub-Total 31.6 37.0 36.8 34.2 Total 32.3 38.8 41.7 37.5 1998/99 Urban Male 43.6 51.7 54.8 52.9 Female 37.3 49.7 48.3 47.2 Sub-Total 40.6 50.8 51.2 49.9 Rural Male 28.2 43.7 42.5 36.9 Female 25.3 34.0 39.4 33.7 Sub-Total 26.9 39.3 40.9 35.4 Total 29.2 42.0 46.1 40.7 2005/06 Urban Male 31.6 48.7 62.0 58.5 Female 27.2 38.3 54.0 51.8 Sub-Total 29.7 44.6 57.7 55.0 Rural Male 18.7 31.8 39.8 32.6 Female 18.5 24.0 38.3 31.3 Sub-Total 19.2 28.1 39.1 32.0 Total 20.7 31.2 48.2 40.9 Source：Pattern and Trends of Poverty in Ghana. 1991-2006
As mentioned above, high prevalence of poverty in Rural Savannah or 3 Northern Regions has been noted. However, detailed quantitative data at the region and district levels on food production and demand/ supply situation are not available. Therefore, to make an overview of the part of the actual situation of the northern part of the country, following FAO report is referred. The report in September 2003 when draught damage occurred, and survey was conducted by FAO/WFP in response to the request of the Government of Ghana. The survey was conducted on Oct.2001, to assess the food shortage caused by drought in northern 3 regions of Ghana. The report of the survey was prepared under the title “Special Report: FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to Northern Ghana” in March 2003. The survey covered 3 regions in northern part of the country, namely, Northern, Upper- East and Upper-West Regions. Major objectives are to assess the impact of drought to the crop and livestock production and food supply in the regions food aids requirement, and formulation of the food balance sheet in the year b2002. Summary of the report includes the following.
Rainfall in 2001 in 3 Regions was almost similar on average to that in 2000, when rainfall was favorable. However, start of rainy season delayed extraordinary and finished comparatively earlier. Case of the rainfall in 2000 and 2001 in Northern Region is shown below.
22
Fig. 3-3 Annual rainfall by district in the Northern Region, 2001 and 2002 Source：FAO Special Report of Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to Northern Ghana (2003)
During the rainy season, serious drought, though short period, occurred in various part of the regions, particularly in later part of June and early part of July in eastern part. In contrast, in northern part, heavy rainfall was witnessed in August and early September when rainy season concluded. As most of the cereal crops mature in September, early closure of rainy season leads to lower yield of crops. In Upper-East Region, millet, the most important food crop usually harvested from later part of July to early part of August has seriously been damaged by drought in June and July. Total production of major food crops in 3 northern regions which include maize, sorghum, millet and rice was 7.9% below the average of 1997-2000. Although rice has increased in production by 6.5%, others showed from 9 to 15% decreases. In case of maize, damage was serious by drought after germination. Often groundnut was replanted in this case. It is also reported that, termination of fertilizer subsidies to maize discouraged farmers on maize planting.
23 Table 3-10 Crop report of all Ghana and 3 Northern Regions (2000and 2001) ①Planted area (1000hａ） Maize Millet Sorghum Rice Cassava Yam Cocoyam Plantain Peanut Cowpea 2000 All 695 208 289 115 660 261 247 244 218 91 3 N. R. 144 208 285 65 33 75 0 0 208 91 2001 All 713 193 329 150 726 287 262 265 254 102 3 N.R. 150 193 324 78 52 94 0 0 254 102 ②Yield （t/ha）
2000 All 1.46 0.81 0.97 2.16 12.28 12.88 6.57 9.17 0.96 0.7 3 N.R. 1.06 0.81 0.97 2.18 6.50 10.4 0 0 0.96 0.7 2001 All 1.31 0.77 0.81 2.03 12.34 12.34 6.43 7.52 1.01 0.62 3 N.R. 0.9 0.77 0.81 1.89 7.34 9.62 0 0 1.01 0.62 ③Prod. 1000 ton 2000 All 1013 169 280 249 8107 3363 1625 1932 209 63 ３N.R. 152 169 275 169 211 781 0 0 209 63 2001 All 938 135 279 310 8966 3547 1688 1995 258 63 3N.R. 136 135 274 147 382 904 0 0 258 63 Source：FAO Special Report of Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to Northern Ghana (2003)
As mentioned earlier, millet and sorghum are almost exclusively produced in the northern 3 Regions. Shares of 3 Regions to national total production on groundnut and cowpea are nearly 100%, followed by rice of 50-60% and maize by 15%. In case of root crops, though share in yam is 20-30%, cassava remains only 2-3% of the national total. Therefore, crop failure caused by drought had serious consequence to the food insecurity in the 3Regions. The report that, since the national total production in that year was rather normal, crop damages caused by drought in the northern 3 Regions, would be compensated by the availability of other food crops, food import by commercial basis and food aid committed in advance. Required food aid to most seriously affected area was estimated at 5000t.
3-2. Trend of development cooperation in the fields of food and agriculture for the reduction of hunger and food shortages
3-2-1. Outline of the cooperation by major development partners Supports extended by bilateral and multilateral development partners, in line with GPRS, include many programs and projects related to agriculture and rural development, reflecting the extremely high incidence of poverty in rural areas (Table3-10). Outline of the development support in the field of agriculture and rural development by major development partners are summarized as follows;
(1) World Bank Supporting the implementation of GPRS, the Bank emphasizes ①sustained economic growth and job creation, ②human development and service delivery, and ③governance and empowerment.
Agricultural Services Sub-sector Investment Programme (AgSSIP 2001-07) is the comprehensive support of lending and non-lending activities with the cooperation of other donors such as IFAD, EU,
24 DANIDA and CIDA. AgSSIP consists of 4 sub-programmes, namely ①development of agricultural technology and strengthening extension system, ②reorganization and strengthening the structure of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and transfer of the authority of extension to local government, ③formation of farmer-based organization, and ④enhancing agricultural education and training. As the programme terminates in 2007, as a follow-up, AgSSIP II is being considered.
West Africa Agricultural Productivity Project (WAAPP), which covers Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso and Ghana, is also scheduled to start, aiming to increase and stabilize the productivity of major crops in these countries.
(2) AfDB In line with GPRS, AfDB strategy aims at strengthening the foundation of sustained economic development. In the agriculture and rural development sector, projects include those focusing to specific areas, sub-sectors and/or commodities such as northern areas, small-scale irrigation, inland valley development, cashew nut. In rural savannah, poverty reduction and food security are emphasized together with environment and gender issues.
(3) Millennium Challenge Account of USA USA support budget prepared aiming at achieving the targets of Millennium Development Goals. Supports are extended to those countries who committed the good governance, human resources development and healthy economic management and Ghana has been acknowledged as one of these countries. As an executing agency in Ghana, Millennium Development Authority (MiDA) was established to initiate the Agriculture Transformation Programme consisting of 4 sub-programmes; ① Commercialization of Agriculture, ②Transportation and Agriculture Infrastructure, ③Community Services, and ④Agricultural Financial Services & Bank Capacity Building). 22 poverty stricken districts are selected for the effort to increase in yield and production of high value crops and food crops and to enhance their competitiveness in both domestic and foreign markets.
(4) Canadian International Development Agency: CIDA Major focus is the support to the food security in the northern part of Ghana. Emphases are also placed on improved governance at central and local levels on basic human needs and poverty reduction.
(5) Department for International Development :DFID In collaboration with World Bank, DFID supports GPRS through Multi-Donor Budget Support, focusing on ①private sector led pro-poor development, ②enhanced accountability through public sector reform and strengthening civil society, ③provision of basic services at local level, and ④ sustainable livelihood and increased production.
(6) Agence Française de Développement: AFD AFD supports the government strategy, GPRS, and focuses on socio-economic development both in urban and rural areas. On rural and agriculture sector, Food Security and Rice Producers Organization Project has been implemented from 2003 to 2007. Following this project, Support to the Rice Sector in
25 Northern Ghana has been initiated. As demand for rice is expected to increase sharply, focuses are enhanced rice production in 4 regions, Northern, Upper-East, Upper-West and Volta, and support to the Ghana Rice Inter-professional Body (GRIB) which integrates producers, traders, processors and others concerned to rice production and marketing.
(7) German Technical Cooperation(GTZ) GTZ has been supporting the Ministry of Food and Agriculture on policy formulation and extension services. Major areas of support in the field of agriculture and rural development include market oriented agriculture, participatory extension, strengthening farmers’ organizations, and natural resources management. Support to the private enterprise (tomato processing) has also been conducted. By program approach called value chain, two projects are now operational, namely, Market Oriented Agriculture (MOAP) and Sustainable Economic Development. Collaboration with Kfw, whose mandate is to carry out financial assistance, has been strengthened in development support implementation.
(8) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) IFAD has been supporting ①strengthening food security at regional level, and ②prevention of environmental degradation and increased productivity. In recent years, more emphases are placed to the northern regions where poverty incidences are prevalent.
(9) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) Technical cooperation covers wide range of projects on crops, livestock, forestry and fisheries. On-going projects are mostly Special Projects on Food Security.
(10) Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) Promotion of small scale irrigation is the focus of cooperation, with particular emphasis on training of farmers and human resource development.
(11) World Food Programme (WFP) Due to the improved food security situation, urgency of food assistance to Ghana has been subsiding in recent years. WFP’s country programme to Ghana (2006-10), therefore, consists of two components, ①Supplementary Feeding and Health and Nutrition, ②Support for Basic Education. These include improved nutrition for the pregnant and child less than 5 years, and for senior girl students of primary school to make them bring back food to encourage their attendance to school.
(12) NGOs In addition, following NGOs are operating in Ghana; Techno-Serve, Action Aid, World Vision, Care International, SG2000, Agriculture & Rural Development Foundation, Africa Anointed Mission Organization, Self-Help Initiative Support Services.
26 Table 3-11 Ongoing projects for agriculture and rural development in Ghana (2Feb.2007) Title Donor Period Objectives/Contents 1 AgSSIP WB/IDA 2001-2006 Objectives: To strengthen the structure and function of (Agricultural MoFA Services Contents: Technology development & extension Sub-sector ・Restructure and Strengthen MoFA Investment ・Establish farmers organization Project） ・Agricultural Education and training Added after midterm review ・Horticulture export promotion ・Rehabilitation of irrigation scheme ・Oil palm industry development ・Agricultural Mechanization Center
2 WAAPP WB/IDA 2007- Regional Project in West Africa：Senegal/Mali/Burkina (West Africa Faso/Ghana Agricultural Objective：Strengthen production technology on priority Productivity crops in the region Project） 3 AgSSIP II WB/IDA 2007-2009 Follow up of the 1. above (Agricultural Financial support to the priority program of MoFA Services Sub-sector Investment Project） 4 Rural Enterprise IFAD 2003-20011 Objectives：Promotion of medium/ small scale industry in Project rural area (Phase II) Contents: Support to start up of M/S industry Technology development and transfer Establish partner ship among industries 5 Northern Region IFAD 2004-2010 Objectives：Improve livelihood of the disadvantaged in Poverty Reduction rural areas of Northern Region Programme Contents ：Capacity building of local governments and private sector Improve access of the poor to resources Improve management system of services provided by local government and private organizations 6 Rural Financial IFAD 2002-2008 Objectives：Expand financial services in rural areas Services Project Contents：Improve access to financial services Improve capacity of concerned personnel Preparation of rules and regulation for improved rural financial system 7 Root and Tubers IFAD 2006-2015 Objectives：Food security and increased income of the Improvement and poor Marketing Project Contents：Establish commodity chain of root crops Increased production Enhanced processing and marketing 8 Food and CIDA 2004-2009 Objectives：Financial support for the implementation of Agriculture Budget FASDEP(Food and agriculture development Support policy)
9 Farmer CIDA 2002-2007 Objectives: Improve access to food and its utilization in 3 Responsive Northern Regions Mechanisms in Extension and Research 10 Farmer Based CIDA 2002-2008 Objectives: Improve access to production resources in 3 Org's Development Northern regions Fund Contents: Research and extension
27 11 Community Driven CIDA 2004-2010 Objectives: Food security in 3 Northern Regions Intiatives in Food Contents: Support to communities and farmers groups Security 12 Rural CIDA 2004-2008 Objectives: Capacity building of educational institution in Enterpreneurs 3 Northern Regions Project (NSAC) Contents: Training of rural enterpreneurs 13 Food Security CIDA 2002-2007 Objectives: Support to FASDEP Advisory Services Contents: Technical support to the staff of MoFA 14 Food Crop AfDB 2000-2007 Objectives : Support to 12,800 farm families in Guinea Development Savannah for improved food security, Project nutrition and livelihood Contents: Technical support on production, preservation, processing and marketing of major crops Support to applied and practical research 15 Cashew AfDB 2002-2008 Contents :Increased cashew nut production and Development processing Project for increased job opportunity and income of the poor Contents: Land development, provision of development fund, human resources development, applied research 16 Inland Valley Rice AfDB 2002-2007 Objectives: Increase production and income of small Develop. Project scale rice farmers Reduction of rice import Contents: Land development, provision of development fund, human resources development, applied research 17 Small Scale AfDB 2000-2006 Objectives: Food security in 26 small scale irrigation Irrigation schemes in the country. Development Contents: Land development, adaptive research, Project provision of fund, extension services, farmers organization, training of GIDA officers and extension officers 18 Nerica Rice AfDB 2004-2010 Objectives: Introduction and diffusion of NERICA rice for Dissemination increased rice production and reduction of rice Project import Contents: Technology transfer, production support, training 19 Tse Tse and AfDB 2006-2011 Objectives: Project covering 6countrie including Ghana Tripanosomiasis for eradication of Tse Tse fly Project Contents: Strengthen system for eradication of Tse Tse fly, Sustainable land management 20 Export Market and AfDB 2006-2011 Objectives: Support to the increased export of Quality Awareness non-traditional commodities Project Contents: Increase productivity of horticulture crops and cassava Export promotion of these commodities Human resources development 21 Livestock AfDB 2002-2008 Objectives: Eradication of poor through livestock Development development- breeding, improved feed and animal Project health Contents: Increased livestock production and improved animal health, human resources development and provision of credit 22 Trade and USAID 2004-2010 Objectives :Increased competitive power of Ghana in the Investment international market Program for Contents: Support to developing rules and legal systems Competitive Export related to investment environment, being suited Economy to the private investors (TIPCEE) Support to the private sector on export 23 Ghana Strategy USAID 2004-2010 Objectives: Increase capacity of MoFA on policy Support Program analysis（executed by IFPRI） (GSSP) 24 Program for USAID 2006-2008 Objectives: Support to the establishment of National Biosafety Systems regulations on Bio-safety
28 25 Title II Food Aid USAID 2005-2010 Objectives: Increased productivity and access to food, Program human resources development in the Northern (Technoserv） Regions. 26 Title II Food Aid USAID 2001-2006 Objectives: Improved production technology, Program （ADRA) Agro-forestry, and improved sanitary condition in Northern Regions 27 Title II Food Aid USAID 2005-2009 Objectives: Eradication of hunger and poverty of Program 130,000 people covering 250 communities of (ENHANCE by 10 districts in the Northern regions OICI) 28 Support to USAID 2006-2008 Objectives: Improved policy framework of the agriculture Agricultural Sector sector Harmonization Financial and technical support to MoFA 29 Market Oriented GTZ 2004-2007 Objectives :Enhanced competitive power in the Agriculture international market of the producers, processors and traders in agriculture sector 30 Food Security and AFD 2003-2007 Objectives: Improved and strengthened organization on Rice Producers rice production, processing and marketing Organization Contents: Support to the producers organization Project(FSRPOP) Support to the credit services operation Support to GRIB(Ghana Rice Inter-professional Body） 31 Programme for the AFD 2007-2011 Objectives: Perennial crops such as rubber and oil palm Promotion of promotion by joint venture of public and private Perennial Crops sector Contents: Rubber plantation by outgrower :7000ha Oil Palm 3000ha、 Support to farmers organization Research, road etc. 32 Community Based AFD 2005-2010 Objectives: Support to the investment in rural areas Rural Development Contents: Infrastructure at district & community Project (CBRDP) levelResource management, Education &health Road construction Human resources development 33 Support to the Rice AFD 2007-2012 Objectives: Support to farmers organization on rice Sector in Northern production, processing and marketing in northern Ghana regions Contents: Development of low and wetland rice cultivation Strengthening farmers organization Access to credit Research Support to GRIB 34 Market Oriented GTZ 2004-2013 Objectives: Increased competitiveness of agriculture in Agriculture domestic and international market Programme Contents: Enhance value chain in agriculture sector (MOAP) Improve public services on agriculture and related sector Improve service delivery of private sector 35 Promotion of GTZ 2006-2009 Objectives: Increase in rubber production and improve Perenial Crops the status of producers and traders (Rubber Outgrower Contents: Supply of seedling Scheme) Extension, credit, and road construction 36 Study on the JICA 2006-2008 Objectives: Study on policy recommendation for the Promotion of improvement of production, processing and Domestic Rice in marketing of rice the Republic of Technology transfer through the Study Ghana Contents: Improve production and processing techniques Improve marketing system Human resources development
37 Strengthening EU 2005-2007 Objective: Increased capacity of the MoFA of quick and Monitoring and accurate information collection and delivery on Evaluation food and agriculture.
29 Capacities in Contents: Training of officials in MoFA and local Decentralized government MoFA 38 Cocoa Sector EU 2007-2011 Objectives: Promotion of sustainable cocoa production Support with due attention to environment Programme Contents: Support on production, framers organization, –Phase II Environmental protection, social development, networking etc. 39 Establishment of FAO 2005-2007 Objectives: Poverty eradication and income generation Tomato Processing in rural areas of Brong Ahafo Region Promotion Center Contents: Support to the processing activity of the (GCP/GHA/029/IT private sector A) 40 Increasing FAO 2005-2008 Objectives: Networking of organic farming covering Incomes of small whole Africa farmers through Contents: Training on production techniques and export of organic marketing crops 41 Telefood FAO 2006-2007 Objectives: Support to forming farmers group(youth) for -TDF-04/GHA/008 sheep raising. Mesidan Youth in Contents: Support to farmers group for sheep raising Agriculture Small consisting of 30members Scale Sheep Production 42 Telefood FAO 2006-2007 Objectives: Support to forming farmers group(women) -TDF-05/GHA/001J for sheep raising. ema Women's Contents: Support to farmers group for sheep raising Small Scale consisting of 25 members Sheep Production 43 Telefood FAO 2006-2007 Objectives: Support to forming farmers group(women) -TFD-05/GHA/002 for sheep raising. Tampion Women's Contents: Support to farmers group for sheep raising Small- Scale consisting of 25 members Sheep Production Group Project 44 Integrated FAO 2006-2009 Objectives: Training on comprehensive soil fertility Community Land management techniques Management and Contents: Training on sorghum, millet, maize and Soil Fertility cotton growing at Farmers' Field School for Improvement in increased yield through soil fertility management Upper West Region of Ghana 45 Enhanced Guinea FAO 2007 Objective: Increased income and improved nutrition Fowl Production in through Guinea Fowl raising in 3 northern the Northern Regions Region of Ghana Contents: 1200 youth and female in 3 northern Regions are targeted 46 Ghana Country WFP 2006-2010 Objectives: Encourage the increased effective demand Programme for domestic products in newly introduced school 2006-2010 luncheon program (Activity 2. Support Contents: Local procurement of maize, soybean, mix for Basic of soy /maize powder palm oil, iodized salt for Education) luncheon program 47 Support to Food WFP 2006-2008 Objectives: Pilot project for early warning system in 3 Security northern Region Monitoring, Early Contents: Data collection and analysis, monthly report Warning System and issue of alert as required in Northern Ghana 48 Promoting WFP 2006-2007 Objectives: Reduction of diseases caused by iodine Efficient Business deficiency and Salt Iodization Contents: Increase capacity of salt manufacturer, Practices among Increase capacity of women group to supply Small and Medium iodized salt and Cottage Scale Salt Production
30 49 Community Based WFP 2006-2007 Objectives: Capacity building on maize processing in 2 Maize Milling and communities in Upper West Region Fortification Contents: Training on maize processing with supply of facilities and equipment in Upper West Region Source：Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA), Republic of Ghana
3-2-2. Major development cooperation in the fields of agriculture and rural development As already mentioned, on the occasion of 34th General Assembly of FAO held at Rome on November 2007, in its report “The State of Food and Agriculture”, it was appreciated that, for the first time in the last several decades Sub-Saharan Africa achieved the decrease of the ratio of undernourished population, and Ghana has achieved the target of WFS to halve the number of undernourished population.
This remarkable progress owes much to the appropriate execution of macro economic policy based on the GPRS with the support of multilateral and bilateral development partners. Macro policy based on GPRS covers all the sectors of economy, thus agricultural production and food security is highly influenced by the management of macro economic policy. As the domestic fund resources are limited, substantive part of the necessary fund for rural and agricultural development depends on support by development partners. Coordinated supports by development partners are thus crucial
In the past, most of the cooperation projects tended to focus the specific crops, sectors and regions. It is noted however, cooperation projects are now shifting to more comprehensive programs and projects following FASDEP (Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy), the basic framework of agricultural policy. In line with the emphasis on economic growth in GPRS-2, a series of components from production to marketing and consumption are considered in many programs and projects, typical one of them being Market Oriented Agricultural Programme (MOAP) by GTZ.
Budgetary support has been adopted by a group of development partners such as World Bank, DFID and others, enabling the programs and projects implementation within the framework of national budget based on the agreement between the government and each development partners.
Various cooperation programs and projects have been implemented in the above context for agriculture and rural development. These efforts contributed much to the increased agricultural production, thereby enabling increase in food supply and foreign exchange for import of necessary food and also reduction of the undernourished.
Among the cooperation programmes/projects to Ghana in the past, support to agricultural research and extension calls for attention for its continued effort by WB. In the field of agricultural research and extension, National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) and National Agricultural Extension Project(NAEP) were implemented from 1992 to 1997. These were followed by Agricultural Services Sub-sector Investment Programme (AgSSIP) from 2001 to 2007 which included research and extension as major components. Second phase of AgSSIP is being considered as a priority programme to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA).
31 Through the implementation of NARP, NAEP and AgSSIP, capacity building, improvement of physical facilities and equipment, provision of grant for priority research projects and private sector participation on extension services were conducted.
Creation of new technologies and their application (extension) are the areas of public services which require long period. Support by WB has been expanded from research and extension in NARP and NAEP to broad components in addition to research and extension. Major components of AgSSIP are as follows.
・Creation of new technologies and strengthening extension system ・Institutional reform-reorganization and strengthening of MoFA ・Formation of farmers’ organizations ・Strengthening agricultural education and training ・Promotion of horticulture export crops ( After mid-term review) ・Rehabilitation of irrigation scheme(After mid-term review) ・Fishery infrastructure at village level(After mid-term review) ・Agricultural Mechanization Service Center(After mid-term review)
In addition to World Bank (IDA) and GoG, budget for AgSSIP was also contributed DFID, EU, CIDA and GTZ.
In the field of research, themes included increased production of non-traditional export crops and high-yielding varieties of food crops such as cassava, maize, plantain and rice. Research facilities and equipment facilitated by the programme included bio-technology laboratory and glass house for nursery of high quality seedlings. In the field of extension, in line with the decentralization, transfer of the front extension agents to local governments (districts), opening the door to private sector to participate in extension services, creation of fund for extension service provision, and gender and
AIDS issues were taken up. Research has been in charge of Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). Actual research works were conducted mainly by 2 research institutions under CSIR, namely, Crops Research Institute (CRI) and Soil Research Institute (SRI). Research priority set earlier in NARP was used and revised by Midterm Review. Efficiency of research and principle of Demand Driven Research were emphasized. Competitive Agricultural Research Grant Scheme (CARGS) was revived, and to coordinate research and extension, Research and Extension Liaison Committee (RELIC) was organized to better reflect the needs of farmers. As the results of the research during the programme period, from 193 themes 67 new technologies were developed and these were publicized by publications. In this period, 26 new promising varieties of maize, cowpea, ground nut, cotton, yam, cassava, soybean and pepper were released by the Directorate for Crop Services of MoFA. In general, research needs considerably long period to achieve certain results. Extension service is under the jurisdiction of the Directorate for Agricultural Extension Service (DAES). In line with the decentralization and transfer of front extension services to district government, roles and functions of
32 DAES are now formulation of extension policies and programmes, coordination and technical support to the Regions and Districts and monitoring and evaluation. As for the concrete extension activities, policy documents and extension manuals on new extension policy and system were prepared and distributed to region and district levels for better understanding of the changing situation on extension by all concerned. Extension Development Fund was created for the promotion of private sector participation in extension services, and by 4 service providers in 8 districts executed extension services as pilot projects by private sector. At more than 20,000 farm plots, demonstrations were conducted with farmers’ participation.
Study tours within the country and field training were conducted in many districts. RELC mentioned earlier have been established in all of 10 regions. In addition to the capacity building effort, facilities and equipment at region and district levels were improved.
For reference: Change in household income and agricultural production Trend of farm household income and production: Base year (2000) Objectives: b. year(2000) Performance(2004) Performance Increased farm income (2005) Maize 1.5t/ha 1.6t/ha(6.6%) 1.72t/ha (18.01%) Indicator Rice 1.87t/ha 2.0t/ha(5.3%) 1.90t/ha (1.63%) 10% increase in yield of major Millet 0.81t/ha 0.79t/ha(-2.5%) 0.84t/ha (3.38%) crops Sorghum 0.97t/ha 0.96t/ha(-1%) 0.96t/ha (-1%) Cassava 12.3t/ha 12.42t/ha(1%) 14.99t/ha 22.04%) Cocoyam 6.6t/ha 6.45t/ha(-2.3%) 7.63t/ha (7.63%) Yam 12.89t/ha 12.52t/ha(-3%) 12.69t/ha (-2%) Objectives： Horticulture $28,082,000 $60,520,000 $65,132,000 Increased output export （2006 estimate） Indicator 10% increase in horticulture output Source：Project Implementation Completion Report Outcome/Impact Indicator, 2007
World Development Report 2008, World Bank reports the following 2 cases as success story of cooperation projects in Ghana.
① Ghana Grain Development Project (Long-term capacity development in Ghana) This is the cooperation project by CIDA implemented for nearly 18 years from 1979 to 1997. Maize was the major crop focused aiming at breeding of improved varieties, recommendation on fertilizer application and appropriate planting space. For breeding, CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) rendered support and during the period from 1984 to1996, 12 new varieties had been released. These varieties are mainly dent variety with maturing period of 95 to 105 days, yielding 3.5t- 6.0t/ha and include resistant one to streak mosaic virus and containing high nutritional value.
For fertilizer application, based on the result of various ecological conditions, standard for fertilizer application had been prepared, taking into account the planting spaces.
Before the project started, total national maize production was 380,000 t but in 1998, it had increased to 1,000,000 t. Yield also increased from 1.1t/ha to 1.4t/ha during this period.
33 In this project, post-graduate level trainings were provided to 50 young researchers and technicians. Most of those participated in the training are said that they have returned to the project after the training. In parallel to this project, SG 2000 provided support to Ghana for the introduction and diffusion of high yielding varieties of maize. I is reported that, until 1998, more than half of the maize growing farmers adopt high yielding varieties, fertilizer application improved growing practices. However, due to abolition of fertilizer subsidy, fertilizer application is said to have declined by around a quarter.
② Sustainable Uptake of Cassava as an Industry Commodity Project (Cassava) This project was supported by DFID for 2 years from January 2003 to December 2004. Though cassava has been considered as a self sufficiency crop of poor farmers, now access to market as material for industrial products are considered. The project aims at improving the livelihood by promoting sustainable industrialization of cassava. Lack of market access for raw cassava, limited access to existing promising market, absence of technical know how on processing responding to market demand, low profit margin with high production cost in general and high unemployment in off season in rural areas are all the problems faced. Political concerns had been limited on promotion of industrial utilization of cassava products and thus political environment was not well matured.
The project, therefore, intended to foster cassava as an industrial product and to this end, supported to establish medium scale processing plants and creating chains of those concerned from raw material to final products. Through this effort, policy makers, market operators, farmers and others were well informed and recognized the importance and feasibility of cassava processing and marketing as an industrial crop.
Production and quality control of high quality cassava flour, molasses and industrial alcohol by establishment of 3 medium scale processing factories which were connected to 10 small existing processing facilities are the major feature of the project ensuring market access by the chain connecting from raw material to final products.
As the continued support to irrigated agriculture, a case of cooperation by JICA will be referred. JICA’s cooperation in the field of agriculture and rural development focused for a long time on promotion of irrigated agriculture. Request from Ghana was summarized in following 4 items. ① Rehabilitation of the function of existing irrigation schemes, ②Promotion of operation, management and maintenance of irrigation systems by farmers, ③Establishment of sustainable farming system for small scale farmers, and ④Strengthening support system for small scale farmers. From 1988, in response to the above request, following technical cooperation by JICA started with GIDA (Ghana Irrigation Development Authority) as counterpart agency.
1988- 92 Dispatch of individual experts: Irrigation technology development and formation of extension base
34 Irrigation Development Center 1992-95 Mini-Project: Irrigation technology development and establishment of extension foundation- 1995-97 Development Study Rehabilitation Plan of Existing Irrigation Schemes 1997-02 Project Type Technical Cooperation Small-scale irrigated agriculture promotion project 1998 Grant Aid Rehabilitation of irrigation facilities in model schemes 2002-04 Follow-up cooperation of the preceding project Small-scale irrigated agriculture promotion project 2004-06 Technical cooperation Project Project for promotion of farmers’ participation in irrigation management
The cooperation concentrated the effort on technology development at the Irrigation Development Center of GIDA and the formation of the model projects. These contributed to the improvement of farming system, increased productivity and farm household income. To spread the successful results at model projects to other areas, technical guidelines for improved farming and strategic papers for each irrigation schemes were prepared in the follow-up cooperation. Participatory irrigation project expanded its focus to institutional aspect, aiming at establishment of operation and management system with participation of farmers, and enhancing the roles and function of GIDA to support farming. Through these efforts, GIDA could conclude Agreement on Joint Operation and Management of Irrigation Facilities with 11 irrigation schemes. GIDA’s capacity to support cultivation technology and water management to irrigation schemes greatly increased. Rice production in model schemes has been steadily increasing, owing in part to the rapid increase in domestic demand.
During the field survey, the Study team had the opportunity to visit two schemes, Ashaiman and Okyereko irrigation projects. Though cooperation has terminated, project activities seemed to continue steadily, expanding their activities to rice mill operated by farmers’ association. A series of cooperation above has contributed to the development of irrigated rice production. However, current production cannot satisfy expanding consumption and demand for rice, increasing import from abroad. On going project by JICA “The Study on the Promotion of Domestic Rice” is hoped to explore the future potential of development.
In 2003, the Government of Ghana requested FAO’s support to formulation of Ghana’s NEPAD- CAADP National Medium-term Investment Programme (NMTIP). In response to the request, “NMTIP: Support to NEPAD-CAADP Implementation” was prepared on September 2005. In this report, based on the review of the past programmes / projects on agriculture and rural development by bilateral and multilateral development partners, a number of lessons learnt are presented, which may be worth mentioning.
35 * Decentralization, beneficiary Ownership & Private Sector Participation Too much dependency on public intervention, with top down planning and implementation are observed. Lack of cost-effectiveness and poor ownership of the project by beneficiary are evident. Participation of beneficiary from the planning stage so as to encourage the sense of ownership is required. Private sector participation needs to be encouraged.
* Cost recovery Projects on research, extension & livestock services have been funded by central government. From now on, cost recovery needs to be considered through voluntary contribution by industry and farmer groups/associations. Full privatization needs to be considered for certain services.
* Delays in Implementation, Slow Disbursement and Inadequate Counterpart funding Inadequate counterpart funding by the government needs to be rectified
*Low Absorptive Capacity In some cases, due to the limited manpower resources, allocated fund cannot be utilized effectively with sizable portion not disbursed.
*Beneficiary Contribution In recent years, many projects are designed that beneficiary contributes a certain portion of the project cost. As many of the beneficiaries are poor, it becomes difficult to achieve target, particularly for those projects of public nature such as road and other infrastructure.
3-3. Needs of support related to hunger and food shortages in the future
As stated already, hunger and food shortages in Ghana in recent years tend to be the problems of specific areas in the country. Needless to say, apart from the Northern Savannah, there exist hunger and food shortages in lower income groups. Therefore, safety net for these groups needs to be prepared. As a long-term development agenda, however, sustainable agriculture in Northern Savannah needs to be considered with concrete ideas for development. In this context, following basic points should be addressed.
(1) Appraisal of agricultural resources in the region and development potentials In exploring agricultural development and promotion for a particular region, to grasp clearly in detail the actual situation of the region first of all. Using long-term meteorological and hydrological data, appraisal of land and water resources need to be made for the development planning including selection of suitable crops and livestock, in full consideration on long-term environment consequences.
In the implementation of irrigation/ land improvement projects in Japan, detailed study on land, soil,
36 water resources and actual situation of concerned rural communities has been conducted as an important initial step of the project formulation. Experiences obtained through these exercises have been contributing to the development study being conducted in many countries as an important mode of technical cooperation of JICA. Taking note of the importance of the basic study, experiences in Japan and other countries need to be fully mobilized.
(2) Improvement of land productivity (soil fertility) and reappraisal of the conventional technology As the level of crop yields remain extremely low compared to international levels. To meet the increasing domestic demand, agricultural production growth needs to be realized by increased yield， particularly for establishing the environment friendly and sustainable production system. To improve the farming system, reappraisal of the conventional technology is very important. In adopting new technology, advantages of conventional technology need to be mobilized. Research on high yielding variety development and efficient farming system should further be enhanced. In the history of our agricultural technology, accumulation of experiences and wisdom of advanced farmers have always been the sources of new technology development. Examples are many such as cold resistant rice varieties, improved farming practices，pest and disease control. In the endeavor of cooperation front, such attitude to reappraise the conventional technology and to utilize effectively leading to expanded production in future would be very important.
(3) Encouraging the creativity and sense of ownership of farmers New approach to agriculture development, together with the fruits of success, requires risk bearing by beneficiary farmers. Therefore, from the initial stage of project planning, farmers should be involved actively, expressing their creative ideas and sense of ownership.
(4) Special characteristic of agriculture to require long gestation period By the special characteristic of agriculture to work together with nature and natural environment, it usually takes considerably long time to achieve the target, as seen in agricultural research and extension projects. Planning and implementation of the rural and agricultural development projects， therefore, should be considered with long-term perspectives.
(5) Responding to market requirement As observed, many projects are now oriented to market economy, recognizing the needs of market. This approach will, not only provide benefit to the producers through assuring sales opportunity, but also enhance linkages among producers, traders，processors and consumers, leading to the overall economic development, without limiting to agriculture sector. Future cooperation would better to pay attention to this aspect.
37 Chapter 4 Trend of Hunger and Support by Donors in the Fields of Food and Agriculture in Burkina Faso
4-1. Trend of hunger and its causes
4-1-2. General information on agriculture in Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is the country is an inland country West Africa，bordering with Mali, Niger, Benin，Togo and Ghana. Total land area is 274,000km ，around 70% of that of Japan. Total population in 2006 was 13,700,000，with annual growth rate at 2.9%. Agriculture, consisting of crop and livestock sub-sectors, is the mainstay of the country. Around 90% are employed in agriculture sector. Around 80% of the total population live in rural areas.
Major export commodity is cotton，sharing 60% of the total export value，followed by animal products (meat，skin & hide) of 25% and gold. Per-capita GDP in2005 was $ 400. Share of agriculture in GDP was 35%, and GDP growth rate was 3.9% in2004.
4-1-2. General information on agriculture in Burkina Faso In rainy season, usually from June to October, millet and sorghum are grown as staple food crops. As cash crops, cotton, groundnut, beans and sesame are also grown in rainy season. In dry season, vegetable growing is observed at the areas where water table are high, or around dams, lakes and ponds.
Cultivated area is about 10% of the total area and about 83% of which are devoted to cereal production. Average annual rainfall in the past 30 years was 430mm in Dori, in the north and 960mm in Nyangoroko, in the south-west. In general，rainfall isohyet is said to be shifting southward.
Table4-1 and Table4-2 show the trend of planting areas and production of major cereal crops and cotton. Millet and sorghum, though annual fluctuations are conspicuous，continue steady increase in both planted area and production. There seems to be attributed to the introduction of new high yielding varieties, improved farming practices and soil fertility by application of manure and others.
1,800,000 Mt 1,600,000 1,400,000 Millet 1,200,000 Sorghum 1,000,000 Maize 800,000 Fonio 600,000 Rice 400,000 Cotton 200,000 -
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Fig.4-1 Trend of major cereal production Source： prepared based on FAOSTAT
38 1,800,000 ha 1,600,000 1,400,000 Millet 1,200,000 Sorghum 1,000,000 Maize 800,000 Fonio 600,000 Rice 400,000 Cotton 200,000 -
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Fig.4-2 Trend of planted area for major cereal crops Source：prepared based on FAOSTAT
As for maize, until the year 2000, production has nearly doubled though the planted area remained stagnant. This seems to owe much to the introduction of new high yielding varieties and improved farming practices. From 2000 onward, planted area has nearly doubled and production has shown higher growth than planted area. In many small-scale irrigation projects, maize has been taken up as a priority crop. In dry season, many small-scale irrigation projects took irrigation water from tanks and tube wells by water lifting pumps or pedal pumps for furrow irrigation. Fruits and vegetables are also grown under this small-scale irrigation project. Effective use of available resources and income generation in dry season were the major contribution of the project.
Rice, of which about 2/3 of total demand depends on import, shows no conspicuous increase in planted area since1984. Production also remained stagnant，but in 2004 and 2005, considerable increase in production are observed. In recent years, the Government of Burkina Faso has been promoting large-scale irrigation and lowland development for the expansion of paddy field. Increased planted area and production of rice will be expected in near future.
In 2004, decrease in production of almost all cereal crops were caused by the scarce rainfall and damages caused by desert locust attacks.
Since the year 2000, both planted area and production of cotton increased considerably. Current level of production at 700,000t/year is the No.1 in Africa.
In 2006, start of rainy season differed very much by districts. Later, moderate rainfall was observed in general, though there were areas affected by drought and heavy rainfall locally. In response to the delay of rainy season, many farmers made effort to avert the damage of drought, such as to increase the ratio of drought resistant varieties and others.
Total production in 2006 rainy season recorded 3,680,000t of cereal production. This was 0.9% higher than that of the previous year and 13% increase to the past 5 years average. Nation wide, food supply
39 situation in rural area were favorable, though in some parts, damages by flood and drought were serious.
Table4-1 Trend of major cereal crops production in 2006
2006 rainy season 2005 rainy season Average00-04 A/B (％ A/C (％ (ton) A (ton) B (ton) C change) change) Millet 1,175,038 1,196,253 1,064,374 -2% 10% Sorghum 1,515,774 1,552,910 1,281,474 -2% 4% Maize 866,664 799,052 641,081 9% 35% Rice 113,724 93,516 91,608 22% 23% Fonio 9,474 7,801 9 ,360 21% 1% Total 3,680,674 3,649,533 3,087,898 1% 13% Source：Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulic and Fishery Resources 06/07
As shown in Table4-1, in 2006, production of cereals, except millet sorghum, increased from that in 2005. In total, it could be considered that, in 2006, production of cereals remained at almost same level as in the previous year. Rice increased by around 20% compared both to the previous year and past 5 year average. To respond the increasing domestic demand for rice, many small scale irrigation projects by lowland & wetland have been under way, and these are considered to be bearing fruits. In Burkina Faso, maize is a relatively new cereal crop, but it has been gradually increasing in ordinary household as staple food, and production is also responding to consumption. Fonio is a cereal crop grown from the very old days in Burkina Faso, but the consumption as staple food is limited to specific tribes in the western part of the country and its share in cereal crops are limited.
Table4-2 shows the balance of cereal demand-supply in 2006. Cereal supply, consisting of domestic production, from stock and import including food aid, are 970,000t more than the demand, which consist of human consumption, reserve and estimated export. Judging from the table above, domestic consumption could be met by only domestic production only.
Table 4-2 Domestic balance sheet for cereal demand/supply Supply Domestic Supply (after processing) 3,094,456 Domestic reserve 233,553 Private sector imports & food aid 350,984 Total（A） 3,678,993 Demand Human requirements 2,518,238 Requirements for reserve 158,699 Estimated exports 31,131 Total （B） 2,708,068 Balance （A）-（B） +970,925 Source：Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulic and Fishery Resources 06/07
Table 4-3 shows that, among total 45 provinces in Burkina Faso, 32 can cover the required cereal by production in their respective provinces. Provinces with production coverage ratio less than 90% are 8, mostly located in northern and eastern part of the country where the rainfall is scarce. Kadiogo
40 province which embraces metropolis Ouagadougou, with concentration of population of 1.27 million， about 9% of the total population, naturally show low coverage ratio of 14％.
Table 4-3 Cereal requirement coverage by province Provinces with supply capacity to requirement less than 90% 90%-120% more than 120％ Kadiogo 14% Boulgou 91% Sourou 121% Bam 52% Zondoma 96% Koulpélgo 124% Sanmatenga 62% Kompienga 96% Comoé 126% Nahouri 63% Tapoa 98% Soum 132% Kouritenga 68% Bazèga 98% Houet 136% Komandjoari 69% Ganzourgou 101% Ioba 141% Gnagna 76% Yagha 101% Namentenga 143% Oubritenga 88% Gourma 105% Séno 146% Zoundweogo 107% Poni 151% Boulkièmdé 110% Bougouriba 155% Passoré 110% Ziro 158% Oudalan 115% Banwa 160% Kourwéogo 115% Sissili 169% Sanguié 120% Balé 175% Yatenga 182% Loroum 185% Noumbiel 198% Kossi 218% Léraba 223% Nayala 237% Kénédougou 290% Mouhoun 305% Tuy 323% Source：Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulic and Fishery Resources 06/07
Cotton production in 2006 was 759,000t, 5th in the world and top in Africa. Cowpea is another important crop as staple food and also is effective for soil fertility increase. Government, therefore, encourages cowpea planting and provides related technical support. Other major crops produced in2006 include groundnut ( 215,447t )，sweet potatoes (81,434t), bambara groundnut (37,731t),sesame (22,887t), yam (22,157t) and soybean (5,867t).
As sluggish cotton price at international market is one of the destabilizing factors of Burkina Faso economy，the Ministry of Agriculture is trying to diversify cash crops，and sesame and soybean are target crops for this crop diversification. Tuber crops are mostly produced in southern part as traditional food crops of the tribes living these areas.
Food price at the end of 2006 rainy season, lean season of the year, was fairly stable owing to the better crops and carry over of the previous year and also favorable prospect of 2006 production. Or, it may be said that, due to bumper crops for two consecutive years and food aid from abroad, food price seems to be declining. Small-scale irrigation encouraged expanded vegetable production. Outbreaks of pests and diseases were minimal. All these are considered to have contributed to the
41 increased food production and supply and resulted in stable food price.
Drought stricken areas, 14 provinces in North, Center-North and Sahel, received emergency food aid from humanity organizations of 10,000t (8,000t of cereal, beans，edible oil，salt and sugar). “Afrique verte” (NGO) offered cheap cereal and WFP provided assistance by food for work programme. Beneficiaries are estimated at 670,000.
For damages caused by concentrated heavy rain and flood，in addition to the Government, many UN organizations such as WFP, UNICEF, FAO and WHO provided assistance in the form of food, medicine and other dairy necessities. KR Food Aid by Japan was also utilized to support the victims of these drought and flood.
4-1-3. Characteristics of major crops grown and the issues to be addressed (1) Cereal crops Cereal production in Burkina Faso is characterized by rain-fed, low input and extensive farming. More than 80% of the arable land is devoted to cereal production and most of them are produced for self-sustenance. Farmers are very conservative in general and reluctant to tackle new approaches， sticking too much to the traditional methods and crops.
Cereal requirement and supply (production) in each province in 2001/02- 2005/06 and 2006/07 are shown in Table4-4. In this table, per capita cereal requirement was set at 190 kg/year. In 2001/02, production to requirement at national total level was 117%. Of total 45 provinces, 9 were below 90% that extended central, east, north and Sahel. From 2002/03 to 2005/06, generally favorable production continued by 15-28% more than the requirement，except in 2004/05. In the year 2004/05, extremely poor harvest was recorded. Total production scarcely reached the national requirement and, cereal shortage occurred in 15 provinces. Most severely hit were provinces in Sahel, north and center-north, by scarce rainfall and desert locust (Chart4-3).
Fluctuation of annual production are noticeable in general，but in 9 provinces (3 in central plateau, 2 in center-north, one in center-west, one in center-south, one in Sahel and one in the north) persistent lower production to requirement are observed. Case of 2004/05 also indicates that，even in the provinces of enough production in normal year, such external factors as poor rainfall and attack of pest and disease can easily worsen the situation. Vulnerability due to rain fed farming is noticeable.
42 Table4-4 Ratio of supply (production) to demand by Provinces (%) Regions/ Provinces 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 CENTRE 20 18 18 13 16 14 Kadiogo 20 18 18 13 16 14 PLATEAU CENTRAL 76 94 72 70 112 99 Ganzourgou 81 100 71 84 100 101 Oubritenga 72 88 78 65 119 88 Kourweogo 72 93 64 47 124 115 CENTRE-NORD 89 86 141 99 116 81 Bam 82 59 90 58 84 52 Namentenga 105 121 170 159 159 143 Sanmatenga 84 80 148 85 107 62 CENTRE-OUEST 127 122 129 148 140 129 Boulkiemde 82 89 79 79 120 110 Sanguie 156 105 126 137 159 120 Sissili 178 186 163 124 135 169 Ziro 154 178 244 415 176 158 CENTRE-SUD 103 101 91 106 109 93 Bazega 124 121 107 111 113 98 Nahouri 46 44 53 74 67 63 Zoundweogo 112 113 96 118 127 107 SAHEL 111 75 128 54 151 127 Oudalan 142 53 161 16 144 115 Seno 60 88 129 55 229 146 Soum 142 66 125 47 105 132 Yagha 96 95 96 104 127 101 BOUCLE DU MOUHOUN 174 175 214 140 184 206 Kossi 170 168 257 188 215 218 Mouhoun 141 189 181 128 254 305 Sourou 144 116 169 111 91 121 Bale 196 187 167 109 179 175 Banwa 205 177 250 135 165 160 Nayala 203 226 257 166 171 237 EST 139 154 158 129 111 88 Gnagna 141 182 199 103 119 76 Gourma 125 143 137 113 120 105 Tapoa 166 142 140 188 99 98 Komandjoari 88 93 102 94 88 69 Kompienga 109 148 127 93 107 96 CENTRE-EST 118 111 100 107 99 91 Boulgou 118 101 99 90 93 91 Kouritenga 105 96 76 118 74 68 Koulpelgo 132 153 133 128 143 124 NORD 109 84 129 91 133 146 Passore 112 100 131 98 134 110 Yatenga 125 91 142 93 133 182 Loroum 94 46 129 80 162 185 Zondoma 61 62 81 82 101 96 SUD-OUEST 124 141 147 159 129 153 Bougouriba 164 171 177 196 127 155 Poni 86 113 130 150 123 151 Ioba 125 132 147 130 125 141 Noumbiel 194 225 161 222 162 198 HAUTS-BASSINS 173 168 157 119 181 194 Houet 121 108 114 87 141 136 Kenedougou 298 330 231 186 264 290 Tuy 234 221 240 168 245 323 CASCADES 138 194 160 98 128 165 Comoe 145 192 154 84 98 126 Leraba 120 199 179 134 212 223 BURKINA FASO 117 115 128 102 125 122 Remarks：food requirement is estimated at 190kg/person/year Source: DSA/DGPSA/MAHRH
43
Fig.4-3 Administrative Division (Regions and Provinces)
Annual rainfall from 2001to 2006 and annual average from 1960 to 2006 in each province are shown in Table 4-5. According to the table, for example, in Dori district of Seno province, lowest annual rainfall of 310mm was recorded in 2004，and the average of 1960-2006 was 486mm. This may be one of the factors affecting lower food production and coverage ratio. However, in Po district of Nahouri province, annual rainfall fluctuated at 700-1200mm and average was 941mm, coverage ratio is the lowest within the province. As observed, though the amount of rainfall is an important factor for production, such factors as the intensity and unstable distribution of rainfall, soil fertility, production input including labor, and pest and disease.
In recent years, domestic demand for rice has been increasing sharply particularly in urban area. However, domestic production remains limited, meeting only 30% of the total consumption.
National Census 2006 indicates that, in the last 10 years, population growth rate rose from2.3% to 2.6%. Under steady progress of urbanization, urban dwellers continue to increase, while cereal crop producing farmers are said to be getting old and tend to decrease.
Solid plans and programmes for promotion of cereal production including rice are now needed to ensure sustainable national food security.
44 Table4-5 Trend of annual rainfall 2001-2006 by Region (mm) Regions/ Provinces Average 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 （Observation site） 1960-2006 CENTRE Kadiogo (Ouagadougou-aero 618.7 656.2 847.7 772 845.5 596.8 764.3 (Ouagadougou-ville ------780.8 (Kamboinse) 795.5 827.4 - 610.9 731.1 613.7 781 PLATEAU CENTRAL Ganzourgou Oubritenga Kourweogo CENTRE-NORD Bam (Tourcoingbam) 720.3 594.9 749 - 762.8 - 636.6 Namentenga (Boulsa) - - 693.9 - - - 681.8 Sanmatenga (Kaya) 504.3 - - - - - 674.3 CENTRE-OUEST Boulkiemde (Saria) 663.1 646.2 878.1 774.7 - 754.4 795.2 (Koudougou) - - - - - 787.5 777.6 Sanguie Sissili (Leo) - 941.9 - 943.3 - - 987.8 Ziro CENTRE-SUD Bazega (Mogtedo) 643.8 - 787.4 808.2 - - 777.8 (Kou) 820.6 652 1017.8 771.7 745.9 978.8 894.6 Nahouri (Po) 728.1 850.4 1206.2 935.1 1082.9 1079.8 941.3 Zoundweogo (Manga) 768.3 862.4 - - - 922.6 889.8 SAHEL Oudalan (Markoye) 413 352.2 434 - 400 - 350.7 Seno (Dori) 400.8 432.9 753.2 310.7 722.1 396.5 486.4 Soum (Djibo) 572.7 447.5 620.7 - - - 442.6 Yagha BOUCLE DU MOUHOUN Kossi (Nouna) 777.6 594.2 854.3 573.2 584.1 707.4 729.5 Mouhoun (Dedougou) 811.7 744.8 986 706.6 777.1 915.5 806.9 Sourou (Tougan) 698.3 602.8 - 529 - - 681.2 Bale (Boromo) 840.1 647.4 1040.4 874 763.7 822.5 878.9 Banwa Nayala EST Gnagna (Bogande) 644.1 597.9 737.5 550.2 877.3 443.2 619.1 Gourma (Fada N'Gourma) 801.9 658 1058.7 889.3 841 842.1 842.6 Tapoa (Diapaga) 794.4 813 - - - - 788.1 Komandjoari Kompienga (Pama) 887.6 666 1062.2 707.2 - 737.3 914.3 CENTRE-EST Boulgou (Tenkodogo) - 542.8 - - - 796.5 828.9 Kouritenga Koulpelgo NORD Passore (Yako) 769.2 500.8 - - - - 658.1 Yatenga (Ouahigouya) 733.9 579.6 729.8 596 627 647.9 623.8 Loroum Zondoma SUD-OUEST Bougouriba (Diebougou) 996.1 1095 1030 1047 - - 1037.6 Poni (Gaoua) 1048.3 934.4 1146.2 1073.9 901.4 1201.4 1067.7 Ioba Noumbiel (Batie) - - - 915.2 852.1 896.1 1096.1 HAUTS-BASSINS Houet (Bobo-Dioulasso) 924.5 807.6 1155.7 840.6 818.9 1105 1037.2 Kenedougou (N'Dorola) 948.8 945.5 1036 - 92.1 - 979 Tuy CASCADES Comoe (Beregadougou) 817.1 869.7 1226 961.9 843.1 1249.6 1019.2 (Niangoloko) 1135.7 - 1368.2 1220.3 975.1 1145.2 1152.2 Leraba (Loumana) 1090.6 1208.6 1410.4 1289.7 1018.3 1381.9 1110.8 Note:－or blank indicates no data available Source: Direction Générale Météorologique, Ministre des Transports
45 (2) Cash crops Cotton is the most important cash crop in Burkina Faso since the colonial days. Owing to the strong support by the Government on expansion of planted areas and other assistance to farmers, Burkina Faso is the No.1 now on cotton production in Africa. Almost all of cotton produced in Burkina Faso are exported without any processing. Currently, cotton sector is faced with severe problems，such as low international market price and increasing cost of agricultural input. The Government is exploring the ways for diversification, including the expansion of sesame and soybean.
4-1-4. Trend of hunger and food shortages and their causes From the Table4-6, which includes a number of indicators on food shortages, following characteristics are observed. First, at the national level, significant progress, for example, on per capita GDP, ratio of below poverty line population and ratio of undernourished population on time series basis. At least, progress at national level has been witnessed. Though the ratio of the undernourished declined, actual number of undernourished population is increasing. Further in the indicators on 2006, although average per capita supply meets the requirement (food gap), due to income disparity in the country, supply does not meet the requirement (distribution gap). This means that, though total supply meets demand as an average, there exist those undernourished due to income and other factors of disparity in the country. In addition, while current population growth rate remains at 2.6%, estimated growth rate of food supply from 2006 to 2016 is forecast at1.5% per year. In 2016, even on simple average, serious shortage of supply is expected. Therefore, although some progress have been made in Burkina Faso, distribution gap at present and serious prospect in future call for attention.
Undernourishment in Burkina Faso is not limited to any particular area (ref. Table4-7). According to WFP survey in 2003, undernourishment of infant was outstanding in rural area, particularly in east and Sahel regions reaching nearly to 50%. Consequences of undernourishment for women in reproductive age are seen in poor weight, and incase of the pregnant, more than 70% suffer from anemia and Vitamin A deficiency. Further, about 15% of the new born babies are with less than 2.5kg weight Thus, the problems in Burkina Faso is not limited to quantity but also related to quality. Regarding quality issues, lack of food diversity, particularly lack of animal protein and fruits and vegetables are noted. More than 80% of the total population live in rural area. WFP points out that around 40% of the rural households are “Food insecure” and they are unable to self-sustain their food，thereby being forced to buy from outside and often need to borrow money from others. Usually prices of millet and sorghum are lower after harvest season and higher the later part of dry season (from April to June) when seeds are required. Actual food situation cannot be explained by the coverage ratio only. Detailed survey of rural households is needed to grasp the actual image of food production and consumption in rural area.
46 Table4-6 Major indicators on hunger and food shortages of Burkina Faso Ratio Ratio rural Ratio urban Ratio of GDP/ Capt (US$ at year Undernourished undernourished Indicators Total population (mil.)* population below population below undernourished 2000)* population (mil.)* infants less than 5 poverty line (%)*** poverty line (%)*** population (%)* years*** Year 1991 2003 1990-92 2001-03 1998 2003 1998 2003 1990-92 2001-03 1990-92 2001-03 1990-95 2000-05 Figure 217 247 9.2 12.6 61.1 52.4 22.4 19.2 1.9 2.1 21 17 33 38
Growth rate Average annual Forecasted annual of Distribution Gap** Indicators growth rate of growth rate of food Food Gap**（Mt） population （Mt） cereal (%)** supply (% /year)** (%/ year)** Year 2006 1990-2005 2006-16 2006 2016 est. 2006 2016est. Figure 3.0 3.6 1.5 0 82 41 414 Source: * FAO/JAICAF (2007), pp.33-36. ** USDA (2007), pp.37-39. *** World Bank (2007), p.60.
Agricultural environment in Burkina Faso is diverse, with the annual rainfall of only 300mm in Sahel to 1200mm in the south-west bordering with Cote d’Ivoire. Depending on different natural condition, various types of agriculture have been developed, though the undernourishment remains prevalent all over the country. Ratio of undernourished population by region is presented in Table4-7. No noticeable difference among regions, almost all regions having the ratio of 10-20% undernourished population. Region with high incidence of undernourishment does not necessarily coincide with region of low coverage ratio of food production/supply. It seems to be difficult to explain undernourishment of Burkina Faso by regional differentiation. Therefore, issues on undernourishment cannot be explained by production alone in each region. It needs to be considered in the broad context of social differential and poverty.
Classification No. in Fig.4-4 Major farm products Annual rainfall (mm) 1 Root crops, Maize 900 2 Maize, Rice, Furuits, Cotton 1000 3 Cotton, Maize 700-900 4 Sorghum, Millet, Cotton 700-900 5 Cereals, Groundnut, Horticultural crops 600-800 6 Sorghum, Millet, Cotton, livestock 600-800 7 Livestock, Millet 400-600 8 Mobile pastoralism, Millet 300-500 9 Groundnut, Millet, Sorghum 1000 Source: FEWSNET (August 2007), p.3. Fig.4-4 Regional characteristics of agricultural production in Burkina Faso
47 Table 4-7 Ratio of undernourished population by Regions Ratio of Region undernourished Provinces included population (%) Centre 12.4 Kadiogo Nord 16.2 Loroum, Passoré, Yatenga, Zondoma Centre Sud 13.2 Bazéga, Nahouri, Zoundwéogo Centre Ouest 14.3 Boulkiemdé, Sanguié, Sissili, Ziro Boucle du Mouhoun 15.0 Balé, Banwa, Kossi, Mouhoun, Nayala, Sourou Est 16.3 Gnagna, Gourma, Komondjari, Kompienga, Tapoa Centre Est 16.1 Boulgou, Koulpélogo, Kouritenga Sahel 10.0 Oudalan, Séno, Soum, Yagha Centre Nord 11.8 Bam, Namentenga, Sanmatenga Comoé 12.4 Comoé, Léraba Hauts Bassins 12.7 Houet, Kénédougou, Tuy Sud Ouest 19.2 Bougouriba, Ioba, Noumbiel, Poni Plateau central 12.1 Ganzourgou, Kourwéogo, Oubritenga Source: FEWSNET May 2007
As mentioned, undernourished population tends to be concentrated in lower age groups. This is clearly seen as the ratio of undernourished population of the infant less than 5 years population group is growing against the fact that ratio of undernourished population is declining as a whole (ref. Table 4-6). Demographic Survey conducted in 2003 shows that the ratio of undernourished infant is higher in rural (41.6%) than in urban (20.2%), with specifically high ratios of Est Region (58.6%) and Sahel (49.4%).
A number of factors are considered to contribute to food shortage and undernourishment. External factors such as natural conditions and price fluctuation would be raised first of all. As stated, bordering Sahel, damage on crop production by unstable rainfall is rampant. Increasing population pressure leads to deterioration of land fertility and decreased productivity. Unstable price of agricultural products increases the risk of declining income of farm household. For example, rural Survey conducted by WFP reports that rural population recognized that these 3 factor (scarce rainfall, soil degradation and price fluctuation) are the most serious issues. Report by the Burkina Faso Government 2006-07 states that, drought damage on crop and shortage of pastureland in Sahel region, flood damage on crop and infrastructure in north-western region and decreased income by the decline of agricultural products in west region were the major problems faced by farmers respectively.
Low level of food self-sustenance at household level is the second issue to be mentioned. WFP report pointed out that, about 40% of the rural households were in a situation of food insecure, being unable to produce enough food for family consumption and these households needed to allocate significant portion of their income to purchase food.
In northern region where rainfall is scarce and not suitable for crop production, many households depend on sale of livestock for the purchase of food. In poor crop harvest year, cereal price hike worsen the exchange rate of livestock to cereal in favor of cereal, leading to serious difficulty to obtain cereal food.
48 As the 3rd issue, there are factors separated from quantity of food production. In spite of the progress on macro-economic indicators, improvement on undernourishment of infant has not been observed. For example, against the fact that annual growth rate of cereal production from 1990 to 2005 was 3.6% on average and population growth rate during the same period was 2.6%, ratio of undernourished infant is increasing during this period. In short, undernourished infant are increasing in spite of the increased food supply. There seems exist factors other than the quantity of food supply. Joint Analysis by the Government and donors contributes the causes of infant undernourishment to the lack of education of mothers on appropriate baby food in weaning period, infectious diseases and safe water. To improve undernourishment of infant, broad approach, including such areas as education, health and medical care would be required in rural development.
4.2. Trends of cooperation in the field of food and agriculture for the reduction of hunger and food shortages
4-2-1. Poverty reduction strategy of Burkina Faso Food shortage and undernourishment cannot be separated from poverty. Overseas Development Assistance to Burkina Faso by bilateral and multilateral development partners are extended in line with the Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper (PRSP) which forms the policy framework of national development in Burkina Faso. PRSP, revised in 2004, emphasizes rectification of social defects, promotion of rural development and food security, improved access to safe water, fight against HIV/AIDS, environment conservation and improved livelihood, promotion of small and medium scale industries and development of small mines, enhanced security and upgrading communication capacity as priority issues. To realize these priority issues, following 4 strategies are formulated for which Priority Action Plan are established.
Strategy 1. Acceleration of growth in wide range of economy Strengthening and stabilization of macro economy, strengthening economic competitiveness and cost reduction, support to production sector and acceleration of rural development.
Strategy 2. Promotion of basic social services provision and protection to the poor Education, health and nutrition, access to safe water and medical care, improved living conditions and secured social protection.
Strategy 3. Promotion of increased employment and income of the poor impartially Strengthening and modernizing agricultural activities, support to producers organization, comprehensive improvement of infrastructure, increased and diversified job opportunity and income, speed-up of the access to isolated areas, employment and vocational training for youth and improved livelihood and working condition of female.
Strategy 4. Promotion of good governance Politics, Administration, economy and local governance
49 4-2-2. Cooperation by major development partners (1) World Bank Cooperation started in 1970s. Since then, the focus of support for agriculture sector has been evolving. From 1970s to early part of 1980s, emphasis had been placed on cotton, the most important export crop in Burkina Faso. Major target area was eastern part of the country, where cotton was mainly produced. From later part of 1980s to 1990s, target areas are expanded nation wide, covering the wide range of agriculture sector. However, through the review of cooperation in this period it was considered that too diversified and fragmented program needed to be rectified. Currently, cooperation programmes are shifting to focus on specific commodity of high development potential, covering whole of commodity chain from production to processing and marketing. Diversification and marketing are emphasized in this approach. Project PAFASP places emphases on such commodities as onions (for domestic market and export market near by), mangoes (for export) livestock (poultry for domestic market) and maize( for domestic market). Activities include variety improvement, production input supply, production technology and marketing improvement. Projects for Rural Community Development emphasizes people’s initiatives and capacity building are implemented nation wide. National Program for Land Management (PNGT2) adopts this approach, aiming at strengthening the capacity of community and farmers group through implementation of rural development projects on land improvement and small scale irrigation.
(2)African Development Bank (AfDB) Major characteristics of development support by AfDB are that many projects are devoted to particular location and field of cooperation activities. Currently (2007) 11 projects are on-going. Difficulties faced in project implementation are said to have been the delay in procurement of goods and services, and recruitment of project staff, lack of experience of local firms contracted, mostly those related to technical aspect. Another point raised is that, in approach to emphasize people’s initiative, too much time are needed, forcing the project period often to be extended.
(3) European Union (EU) EU recognizes hunger and undernourishment not only by food security from the viewpoint of agricultural production, but from broad context as nutrition security with attention on other related factors. Therefore, those projects that directly support agricultural production are not executed. Among the projects related to agriculture and rural development include ①Technical support to the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics for capacity building, ②Support to National Food Secretariat (SE=CNSA) on national buffer stock management and operation, ③support to safe water supply and health/ hygiene, and ④Support to the crop research (rice, tomatoes, mangoes, beef etc.) for crop diversification. From 2008, more than half of the EU contribution to Burkina Faso is said to be shifted to Multi Donor Budget Support.
(4) World Food Programme : WFP WFP support to poverty eradication through food distribution is implemented in 3 areas, namely basic
50 education support, nutrition support to vulnerable group and support to rural development. As emphases are placed on the regions with negative development indicators, major targets concentrate in northern, eastern and central areas (ref. Table4-8).
Basic education support includes 2 components, one being luncheon program as an incentive for school enrollment and another for adult, particularly for female, on literacy and health/ hygiene education.
Nutrition supports to vulnerable group are conducted through food supply to hospitals. Targets are the pregnant, infant and mother and the HIV/AIDS infected, to whom nutrition and health education are provided.
Rural development support are promoted through the provision of food for those who participated in the work for irrigation project or any other project related to the rural development. Food supply is not only for workload for those participated but further, after the completion of the construction works, technical guidance on new technology are provided on the improved farmland.
Table 4-8 Outline of WFP support Contents No. of Beneficiaries Food items supplied （１）Basic education 260,000 Literacy 205,000 Cereal, Vegetable, Edible oil, Salt School canteens 55,000 Cereal, mixed foods, Vegetable, Edible oil, Salt Dry rations for girls 2,750 Cereal （２）Nutrition support 62,800 Mother-and-child heath 49,800 Cereal, mixed foods, Vegetable, Edible oil, Salt, Suge People living with HIV/AIDS 13,000 Cereal, mixed foods, Vegetable, Edible oil, Salt, Suge （３）Rural development 5,000 Food for Work/Assets 5,000 Cereal, Vegetable, Edible oil Total 372,800 Source: World Food Programme (2005) "Draft Country Programme- Burkina Faso (2006-2010)"
(5) GTZ Though GTZ has been providing support for a long lime on irrigation and prevention of soil erosion in the past, currently emphasis is placed on an approach of “Value Chain”. The approach takes the step of listing up the promising cash crops at first, and analyses the issues at various stages from production to marketing( natural condition required, input supply, cost of production , marketing, consumption) and selects high potential commodities for promotion of production and marketing. In selecting commodities, various criterions are used, including those whether vulnerable group can afford to produce, promising markets are available, no negative effect to environment by production, no gender disparity etc. Targets are small-scale farmers and medium scale industries, excluding those crops dealt by large-scale agribusiness. Behind this shift to value chain approach, there would have been the recognition that pattern of agriculture too much dependent on cotton need to be reorganized by diversification and income of rural dwellers to be urgently increased. The cooperation started in 2004 will be continued for 15 years with each 3 years phase. At present (Dec.2007), study on promising
51 commodities has been completed. In the early part of 2008, selection of the 2-3 commodities will be made for succeeding activities. Commodities (crops) to be selected are from among; cashew nut, Shea butter, ground nut, organic cotton, sesame, jatropha，hibiscus tea, mango and cassava.
(6) DANIDA DANIDA’s cooperation in Burkina Faso started in 1995. Current support focuses on agriculture and rural development, education, and water and sanitation. Support to agriculture and rural development started in 2000 with 1st phase of 6 years. Currently in 2nd phase(2006-11), support to ①Rural development through promotion of promising crops in Sahel, Est and Centre Est, ②Micro finance, and ③Rural sector Program are on-going.
(7) Taiwan Taiwan has been extending support to Burkina Faso since 1994 when the diplomatic relations were established between the two countries. Supports cover the areas of agricultural development, public health, vocational training and culture and sports. In the field of agriculture, irrigation and rice production are the major focuses, as noted in the case of large scale irrigated rice farming in Bagré in the south. Projects on rice farming are spread in various parts of the country. Other projects include farm mechanization, small-scale dam development, livestock marketing, fresh water aquaculture and agro-processing.
(8) Japan Development support of Japan covers the areas of education, food and poverty eradication, protection of desertification, water and other basic human needs. Support related to agriculture, forestry and fisheries in recent years includes ①Food assistance grant for the purchase of rice, ②Food production promotion grant for the fertilizer import for needy farmers, ③Support to National Forestry Seed Center for the protection of desertification. Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV) and concerned experts have been dispatched in relation with these supports. On Feb. 2008, high-yielding seeds extension program on millet, sorghum, rice, cowpea, soybean and sesame started as a new cooperation project
4-2-3. Detailed cases of cooperation projects (1) Food for Work by WFP Food for Work being implemented in the eastern part of Burkina Faso, funded by the Government of Japan (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries), aims at reduction of poverty through promotion of rice production by small irrigation development. The project, targeting female and young generation, was implemented in 3 provinces of East Region in 2006-07. In 2008, the project is expected to expand to Center west and Center south regions.
Project activity starts by land consolidation (construction of ridges) by human labor at the selected lowland suitable for rice growing. Participants in ridge construction work are paid 3kg of rice as daily wage. Completed rice field are distributed to farmers, 0.25ha/ person, where rice is grown in rainy
52 season and vegetables in dry season .For rice production technical guidance is provided for 3 years. In the first year of rice growing, input package including seeds (12.5kg), chemical fertilizer (75kg), and farm implements. From the 2nd year, farmers are required to manage by themselves to procure such input by sales income of produced rice. In 2006-07, 120 ha of rice field have been developed.
Support to the formation of farmers group and technical guidance have been take care by DRAHRH (Regional Department of Agriculture, Hydraulic and Fishery Resources) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulic and Fishery Resources, while land consolidation was in charge of the Irrigation Development Directorate of the ministry. From 2008, due to limited capacity of DRAHRH, their technical guidance will be taken care by NGO.
At the initial stage of project implementation, farmers initiatives to participate in the project are not much promising, due partly to the lack of experience on the part of staff members of DRAHRH and the limited attraction of rice production at that time by existence of higher income job opportunities on that specific occasion.
(2) Small scale village irrigation development programme The project, funded by Middle East Fund and others, promotes small scale irrigation farming in dry season, using pedal and small motor pumps drawing water from small reservoirs. Project started in 2001 and concluded in 2006. Maize, vegetables, banana, papaya etc. are grown. Technical support on irrigation and farming technology and input supply by discount prices are provided by the project. Beneficiary farmers organized producers’ cooperatives for operation and maintenance of irrigation pumps by contribution of member farmers. This system of cost sharing by member farmers not only contribute to reduce the project cost but also to enable long term autonomous operation and management of irrigation facility, and to enhance the capacity of the organization as a whole.
(3) Food Security through rehabilitation of soil fertility in the Northern area The project, funded by West African Development Bank, was implemented from 2004 to 2008, covering 3000ha in 4 provinces in the northern area. The target area, with limited rainfall and growing pressure on land by population increase, has been facing with severe soil degradation. Project aimed at recovering soil fertility in the following manner.
In the 1st year of the project, in advance to the start of rainy season, ridges of 80cm depth are dug in parallel to slope with 3-5m interval by tractor. Then, farmers put dung into ridge, where rain water are retained and become suitable for crop growing. This system is based on one of the traditional farming methods, called Zai, where small hole is dug by hand and put dung into the hole which retains rain and become growing ground for crops. Water retention and prevention of soil erosion are attained and tree planting become feasible.
In the project area, farmers organize Management Committee, and the Committee allocates the land to member farmers, decides the crops and/ or trees to be planted, and maintenance of ridges from the 2nd year onward.
53 Many farmers recognized the increased productivity and water retention capacity of land one year after project implementation. However, since farmers are required to manage by themselves the maintenance of ridges from the second year, sustainability of the project depends on the farmers’ initiative and action.
(4) Paddy production project The project, supported by Taiwan, started in 2003 and concluded in2007. Covering 10,000 ha in 35 provinces all over the country, project aims at increased production and productivity of both irrigated and upland rice. Ministry Agriculture, Hydraulics and Fisheries Resources is in charge of the project and 11 Taiwanese experts are providing technical advice. Support activities by experts extend all over the country and most intensive support by 7 experts (leader, 3 agronomists, agricultural engineer, agricultural machinery, and aquaculture) are provided at Bagré in the south. In Bagré, large scale irrigation started in 1994, taking water from the dam for hydroelectric power generation, providing irrigation water to 1,800 ha in the downstream and double cropping has now been realized. Farmers are allocated 1.0ha each and pay 30,000 CFA to the Government each year. Farmers association is organized for the maintenance of irrigation facilities. Major varieties grown are TS-2 (60% of farmers adopt) brought in from Taiwan and FKR-14, FKR-19, both local improved varieties. Fertilizer application are NPK (15:25:15) 150kg and Urea 100kg. Average yield at 4-5 t/ha, yearly yield are 8-10t/ha. Between rice crops, various vegetables are also grown. In recent years, rice mills have been introduced in 16 village cooperatives and started operation to increase net income of farmers. More than 10 years of continued support by experts stationed at the site providing timely and appropriate advice responding to the needs of the beneficiary farmers and the accumulated technical expertise of the experts would have been the factors contributed to the achievement so far.
4-2-4. Major contribution for the reduction of hunger by development partners In Burkina Faso, various programmes and projects have been implemented by the support of many development partners so far, and these supports are expected to continue. List of the on-going projects is referred to "Répertoire des Projets et Programmes 2007, Ministère de l'Agriculture, de l'Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques (2007) ".
Regarding the impact of these programmes and projects to the reduction of hunger in Burkina Faso, needless to say, simplification and easy-going numerical assessment should be avoided. However, there had certainly been a definite contribution to the improvement of agriculture, which depends on unstable rainfall, the most serious disadvantage of the country. To overcome the problem of scarce and unstable rainfall, various types of support to secure and use the water for agriculture, many projects have been implemented. These supports include from small scale one to the large-scale projects such as the project supported by Taiwan as mentioned earlier. This large-scale development of irrigated paddy field achieved not only the household food security and increased income of resettled farmers but also established the market channel of new brand of “Bagré Rice” contributing to the increased supply to domestic market. In many donor supported projects on small scale irrigation implemented in
54 the various part of the country also enabled to initiate dry season crops in addition to the rainy season crops only in the past, contributing increased income of farmers. Reservoirs and tanks constructed are also used as sources of drinking water of cattle and contributing to the stable development of livestock sector.
Regarding infrastructure development as represented by irrigation system development, there exist a number of problems to be tackled, such as the beneficiary area is limited geographically, initial cost is generally high, long-term and consecutive operation and maintenance cost and management capacity are required. Therefore, in promoting irrigation schemes, there is a need to ensure economic effect and validity of the project in advance through meticulous Feasibility Study.
4-3. Future needs of support for the reduction of hunger and food shortages
Rural Development Strategy (SDR) was formulated in 2003, in line with the Poverty Reduction Strategy, by the Ministry of Agriculture, Hydraulics and Fishery Resources with 7 major pillars as follows;
① Strengthening and diversification of agriculture, livestock production and fisheries ② Enhancement the linkage of production and market ③ Increasing income and diversification of income sources ④ Supply of safe drinking water and hygiene improvement ⑤ Securing sustainable management of natural resources ⑥ Strengthening competence of concerned personnel and establishment of better structure ⑦ Raising the social and economic status and environment of youth and female through promotion of gender issues
Development support from now on is to be organized in line with these pillars. By increasing agricultural production alone, the goals above cannot be achieved and hence comprehensive efforts with multi-sector approach are required. That is, fair appraisal of natural resources, technology development and extension, infrastructure development, processing and marketing development in parallel with the social development in such areas as education, health and hygiene. In case of processing and marketing, private sector participation is essential.
As stated earlier, while chronic undernourished areas exist, number of undernourished population is spreading all over the country. To solve the problem of undernourishment, particular attention to diversify diet pattern, adding to cereals other food items such as meat, vegetable and fruits. To meet the requirement of food deficit areas, production should further be encouraged in the areas of high productivity, while in the deficit areas expansion of job opportunity and increased income for the purchase of food should be considered. Major needs of support will be summarized below.
55 (1) Establishment and strengthening national food safety net In Burkina Faso, there exists public corporation called SONAGESS, which deals with stockpile of food for emergency, under the National Food Security Commission. For effective and efficient operation of SONAGESS, it is essential for SONAGESS to be able to collect detailed information on emergencies quickly and accurately from province to region and national levels, with appropriate stock of food and transportation and distribution system .For these activities, experiences in our country on weather observation and forecast, agricultural statistics, crop forecast using GIS and other know how owned by private sector will be applicable.
Therefore, for the planning and implementation of information collection and analysis on weather condition, crop production forecast, and issuance of warning throughout the country and appropriate reserve and distribution of food, human resource development in this regard is crucial. Private sector needs to be mobilized on stock management and transportation.
(2) Enhancing countermeasures for undernourishment and malnutrition at local level- from increasing yield to increasing income- In addition to strengthening national food safety net, it is needless to say that increased food production in the food deficit areas is crucial. And from the viewpoint of food security of the poor, increased production with crop diversification is important as they need cash from surplus to purchase food to supplement their food deficit. To increase cash income of rural population in food deficit areas, it seems to be important to explore the effective ways and means of mobilizing regional resources available. Shea butter is the case in point, and eco-tourism which embraces increased job opportunity by tourism and environmental protection might be a possible option. These ideas would better be incorporated in their preparation of regional development plan.
① Appraisal of natural resources and the formulation of regional development master plan there on Constraints for food production are various such as scarce and unstable rainfall, low soil fertility, shortage of input including improved seeds. In our field visit to Yatenga province in the northern part of the country, an official of MAHRH stated on specific area that the area was too poor in soil fertility and not suitable for crop production. However, as many inhabitants over there in fact rely on agriculture for their livelihood, generalization may not be applied, particularly in case of agriculture highly variable on the spot. Actually, on both sides of the way, many small lakes and ponds were observed with useful water resources beyond our expectation.
Water resources in the region, both of surface and underground, soil productivity and pasture and forest resources available for livestock need to be appraised with their seasonal changes. Taking these into full account, regional development plan should be prepared with particular emphasis on selection of most suitable crops and livestock to their specific condition. Experiences in our country on water resource survey, soil survey and fertility assessment, resource assessment of grassland and forest, and technology on small scale horticulture and animal husbandry should be mobilized in consistent and long term basis for these regional development efforts.
56 ② Reappraisal of traditional techniques and their improvement/ modification Traditional techniques developed and adopted for so many years have, though there exist room for improvement, advantages suited to the specific condition of particular areas. To increase and stabilize agricultural production, it is important that the conventional technologies should be improved based on the rational scientific appraisal with attention to the environmental impact and the cost for beneficiaries. In case of food processing and preservation, there may exist traditional technologies suitable to be adopted in value chain approach. Too much dependence to the technologies from developed countries would better be avoided. Research cooperation on appraisal and improvement of traditional technologies should be conducted by cooperation of researchers, students and farmers on the spot. This will be important from the viewpoint of human resource development as the researchers, students and farmers in Burkina Faso work together on the spot. This may also provide favorable opportunities for young researchers in Japan.
Technical issues to be addressed include weather observation, soil management including fertilizer application, cultivation techniques including plant breeding, processing and conservation technologies and marketing which need private sector involvement. To many farmers, it is often difficult to buy and apply chemical fertilizers.
In this case, the traditional technique called “Zai” where dung, organic matter and rain water retained, half moon method of effective rainwater utilization and green manure utilization play important roles. Exploitation of phosphate rock deposit for super phosphate production is hoped to be explored as this will contribute not only to Burkina Faso but also to other West African countries. In Japan, though phosphate resources are limited, technologies on fertilizer production are well advanced in the world. The technologies developed and accumulated in the private sector will better be mobilized for fertilizer industry development in Burkina Faso.
③ Enhanced understanding on structure of rural community and their mentality For smooth implementation of technology development and extension, better understanding on structure of rural community and the mentality of those living there are required. In rural communities in Africa, there seems to exist units consisting of age group or gender in general, each bearing particular responsibility within the community. As farming operation is usually done by female, techniques to be developed need to be acceptable and diffused by female. By enhanced understanding on rural society, farmers’ organization will be more smoothly formed. Study by cultural anthropology approach might be effective.
(3) Importance of human resources development- OJT, Education Cooperation, Research Cooperation, Reciprocal Cooperation- Assistance cannot be expected their effect without the initiative of the recipient, or sense of ownership and responsibility. To improve techniques for increased yield, capacity building of those concerned is very important, namely, awaken farmers, extension officers who guide the farmers, research scientists who develop new techniques and administrative officers supporting all of these from the policy
57 dimension. Human resource development is one of the important components of many current projects. But it may call for consideration of more broad perspectives including from primary to higher education and research. Concerned agencies on research, education and overseas assistance should tackle the issue in full cooperation, including human resource development in our own country.
(4) Promotion and activation of the private sector Marketing of agricultural produce and input is extremely important for the improvement of undernourishment and malnutrition. In general, processing and marketing are shouldered by the private sector. Expectation is high for expanded and strengthened marketing and processing, as it may lead to increased value added and job opportunities. Including overseas investment, private sector of our country needs to be encouraged for their active involvement in Burkina Faso.
58 Chapter 5. Agriculture and Rural Development Contributing to the Reduction of Hunger in West Africa
5-1. Current situation of hunger and food shortages: Ghana and Burkina Faso
In comparison of Ghana and Burkina Faso on the progress of hunger reduction, two points will be raised. One is the change of the number of undernourished population from 1990-92 to 2001-03. In Ghana, undernourished population at 2001-03 is 0.4 to that of the 1990-92 showing remarkable decline while corresponding figure for Burkina Faso is 1.1, showing a slight increase. Another is the ratio of undernourished population to the total population on the above period. In Ghana, it improved from 37% to 12%, showing sharp decline, while in Burkina Faso from 21% to 17%, a rather moderate decline.
As macro basis, GDP per capita in the base year (1990-92) was almost at the same level (Ghana $216, Burkina Faso $217). In 2001-03, per capita GDP remain at the similar level (Ghana$269, Burkina Faso$247). However, per capita GDP for agricultural labor force was higher for Ghana for through the both period (Ghana $316→＄346, Burkina Faso$151→＄164). Existence of powerful agricultural sub-sector such as cocoa in Ghana may explain as a contributing factor.
In the comparison of the 2 countries, it should be noted that, in the base year (1990-92) Ghana might have faced economic difficulties due to unfavorable international price of cocoa and unfavorable crop harvest. In the base year (1990-92), per capita food supply in Ghana was 2,080kcal, while that of Burkina Faso was 2,350kcal, 15% more than that of Ghana. In 2001-03, Ghana’s per capita food supply was 2,650kcal, or 8% more of Burkina Faso’s 2,460kcal. Undernourished population in the base year was 5.80 million (37% of total population) in Ghana while it was 1.90 million (37% of total population) in Burkina Faso. This shows that the figure of Ghana in the base year was much worse than that of Burkina Faso and current situation can be interpreted that Ghana has caught up with, and surpassed Burkina Faso in recent years. Political stability and steady economic progress, partly supported by the favorable international price of cocoa, and progress on infrastructure development such as road, agricultural development potential seems to be bearing fruits.
Table 5-1. Comparison of Ghana and Burkina Faso by major indicators Undernourished population (B)/(A) Total population (A) (B) Million ％ 1990-92 2001-03 1990-92 2001-03 1990-92 2001-03 Ghana 15.7 20.5 5.8 2.4 37 12 Burkina Faso 9.2 12.6 1.9 2.1 21 17 GDP/capita GDP／Agr. population Energy supply/capita US$ fixed at 2000 kcal/day 1991 2003 1991 2003 1990-92 2001-03 Ghana 216 269 316 346 2,080 2,650 Burkina Faso 217 247 151 164 2,350 2,460 Source：The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006, FAO
59 Difference of natural environment and geographic feature of the two countries needs to be noted. Natural environment of Ghana are, as stated earlier, divided roughly into 3 groups( Forest vegetation, Northern Savannah and Coastal Savannah),and northern 3 regions which belong to Northern Savannah has scarce and unstable rainfall with one rainy season in a year. This area is connected to Burkina Faso at the southern border and shares the similar climatic condition. For example, in 3 northern regions of Ghana, annual precipitation is usually 1000- 1250mm, and there exist areas of less than 1,00mm. The situation in Burkina Faso is more severe, usually with precipitation of 650-900mm and 1,000mm or more are limited in 2 Regions that border with Cote d’Ivoire
While in the Forest Vegetation Zone of Ghana agriculture has been carried on under favorable conditions, namely relatively stable rainfall and two rainy seasons a year, in the north, unstable rain fed agriculture is performed sharing same problems with Burkina Faso.
Characteristics of crop production coincide the above regional disparities. In the southern part of Ghana, which is Forest Vegetation Zone, dominant crops are tuber and root crops, while in the Northern Savannah in Ghana and in Burkina Faso cereal crops such as millet and sorghum are outstanding.
As for the undernourishment in Ghana, though there exist issues of division and distribution, main focus should be addressed to the Northern Savannah as in the south, export earnings from cocoa and gold make it possible to import required food.. In this context, northern Ghana shares the same problems with Burkina Faso on hunger eradication. However, in case of Burkina Faso, there exists disparity within each region or province as stated earlier. In addition to undernourishment at the household level, there are issues to be addressed such as undernourishment of infants and stunts, mainly due to the ignorance of mothers on baby food, infectious diseases and lack of safe water. Therefore, in addition to the increased food supply, increasing income of the poor and provision of social services in more broad perspectives may be required.
5-2. Hunger and food shortages in West Africa
The two countries, Ghana and Burkina Faso, have achieved some progress in improving undernourishment among Sub-Saharan African countries. Many other countries remain to be faced serious food shortages that require support by international community.
In 2006, countries facing serious food shortages in Africa are, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Cong, Burundi, Eritrea Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Tog. More than half of these countries had or has been facing civil war or internal strife. But in 10 countries namely Cameroon, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique Zambia, Zimbabwe Benin, Ghana and Togo are forecast to improve in coming future (Food Security Assessment 2006, USDA). Many of these are generally countries with low population growth rate.
Most of the hunger and food shortages in Sub –Saharan countries are due to stagnation of agricultural
60 production caused by civil strife and drought. Food consumption is closely linked to food production, and the production highly depends on rainfall. Particularly in semi－arid tropical savannah of west Africa, growing period of crops is short in general, and as the rainfall pattern and amount varies year by year, fluctuation of the production is noticeable. Irrigation，therefore，plays an important role, however, due to limited water resources available, ratio of irrigated area to total agricultural land remains less than 5%，being lowest among the developing regions.
To increase yield, soil fertility and supply of plant nutrient are important. However, fertilizer application in Sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world. Adoption of high yielding varieties is also limited, except the cases of maize in Kenya and others. Use of tractors is also limited at the level of 1.2 tractors per 1000ha, compared to the world average of 20 (Food Security Assessment 2006.USDA).
Regarding farm labor force, HIV/AIDS is the serious constraint for development. Refugees caused by civil strife and subsequent abandonment of farmland are another problem for food insecurity. Such being the case, situation surrounding food production in Sub-Saharan countries, including West African countries is very severe, particularly in northern part and semi-arid tropical savannah.
As observed in Chapter 3 and 4, similar to other Sub-Saharan countries, in most West African countries, rain fed agriculture is dominant and in some years due to delay and/or limited rainfall, food production cannot cover the requirement. Even if the total supply meets the requirement at national level, in certain parts of the country people often face chronic food shortages. Therefore, to meet the needs due to food supply instability, social food safety net at the national level needs to be established. However, this safety net and/or food aids would be the countermeasures to the emergencies, and fundamental issues to food security in these chronic food deficit areas should be to strengthen food supply capacity within the area. In case of Ghana, sustainable increase in agricultural productivity, particularly in northern savannah is the most important issue to be addressed.
In this case, agricultural production does not solely imply staple food production. In respective areas, crops with comparative advantages should be promoted, including those for cash income to purchase required food (for example, in case of Burkina Faso, vegetables such as onion are produced in dry season and exported to Benin). Shea butter production from Shea nut is a case to contribute the increased job opportunities and income for farmers, by the utilization of local resources available. As stated already, undernourishment and hunger cannot be solely attributed to the agricultural productivity. Factors therefore，are not only natural one, such as climate and soil fertility，but also others such as road and transportation measures, social and institutional are also closely intertwined. Thus the problem cannot be solved by increased production only. However, as clearly observed in cases of Ghana and Burkina Faso, to secure enough food production to meet the domestic demand is the issue of first priority. In the areas of rain fed agriculture with unreliable rainfall such as in West Africa, establishing sustainable agriculture is the most important prerequisite to solve the food shortage, and development support addressed to this issue is considered most important in the field of agriculture
61 and rural development.
5-3. Needs of development support for the reduction of hunger and the expected Japanese roles
Development support in the field of food and agriculture by the Government of Japan has been extended through technical and financial cooperation schemes to the developing countries including those in West Africa. It is hoped to be increased and expanded in coming future. As observed already， situation of hunger and food shortages in both Ghana and Burkina Faso is fairly improving by increased food production，and at least total requirement is now covered by domestic production at national level in recent years. However, it is also the fact that there exist poor strata having limited access to food even now and vulnerability on climatic risk is serious.
Regarding the future needs for development support to Ghana, while emphasizing the importance of safety net, following points are raised in Chapter 3, 3-3.
① Appraisal of agricultural resources and development potentials in the region ② Increase in land productivity (soil fertility) and reappraisal of traditional technique ③ Encouragement of farmers’ creativity and sense of ownership ④ Special consideration to the longer gestation period，specific to agriculture projects ⑤ Active response to the market economy.
Similar to the above, for Burkina Faso, following points are raised in Chapter 4, 4-3.
① Improving and strengthening food safety net at national level ② Strengthening countermeasures to combat food shortages and undernourishment at the community and provincial levels- from yield increase to income increase- 1) Appraisal of regional natural resources and formulation of master plan for the regional development 2) Recognition of traditional techniques and their improvement/modificationw 3) Enhanced understanding on structure of rural community and their mentality 4) Importance of human resources development- OJT, Education Cooperation, Research Cooperation, Reciprocal Cooperation- 5) Promotion and activation of the private sector
All of the above issues are considered applicable to other West African countries where the natural and socio-economic conditions are more severe than in Ghana and Burkina Faso. By putting in order the issues, two major aspects of the response to emergency and the more fundamental response to undernourishment, seem to call for future development support as follows.
62 Susutainable Agriculture Support to the Major Factors Affecting and Rural Development: Emergency Food Shortages in Sustainable Increase in Needs Rural Areas Agricultural Productivity
Stagnation of Constraints of Appraisal of the Agricultural Natural Environment Regional Productivity ・Scarce and Agricultural ・Low food unreliable rainfall Resources and production ・Deficiency of water Response by Development capacity resources strengthened Potential ⇒ ・Low soil fertility food safety Low self sufficiency Increase in Food net Occurrence Underdeveloped ・Low cash Agricultural Hunger Security at of Hunger Socio-Economic crop Increase in Soil Production Eradication Household Rescue Infrastructure production Fertility Access to Level system Food ・Poor road network capacity Food responding Shortages ・Underdeveloped ⇒Low food to the marketing system Reappraisal of
63 purchasing Food emergency ・Underdeveloped Traditional power Security at needs rural financial Techniques Household system Level Low Class Disparity Increase in Improvement of Non-Farm ・Access to water/ Non-Farm Market System Income land Income ・ ：Direct Outcome Access to asset ・Labor force (female headed Human Outcome and Achievement of household. ： Resources the Actions/Measures Taken HIV/AIDS issues.) Development Underdeveloped Regional Industries ・Limited capital ・Limited job opportunities ・Lack of human resources
Fig.5-1 Factors affecting undernourishment in rural areas and their countermeasures
63 (1) Improving and strengthening food safety net at national level Even if the food supply can meet the domestic demand at national level in other countries of West Africa, as the cases of Ghana and Burkina Faso, food safety net is definitely required for the national food security as the vulnerability is high to drought and flood damages as well as to the decline of international prices of export commodities. Socially disadvantaged groups should be taken care of by this safety net as food aid until the fundamental solution is established. For the appropriate operation and management of safety net, establishment of early warning system is essential. The improved early warning system enables, through weather forecast and crop monitoring, the crop production forecast and clear grasp of region, number of population for food aid.
To realize this, various actions are required at provincial, regional and national levels, on collection of data and accurate information and their analysis, issue of warnings, planning of reserve stock and distribution etc. In strengthening this system, Japanese experiences on agricultural statistics may be applicable, in the aspects of human resources development and integrated technology. Existing organization at grass root level, if existing, should be mobilized to this system. The system would better be organized, not by top down but by bottom up manner, for more effective and quick information collection and response to the emergency.
(2) Measures to increase sustainable agricultural production The safety net mentioned above is basically addressed to the emergency and the disadvantaged groups. Fundamental issue is the sustainable increase in agricultural production. Needless to say, the problem of food shortages cannot be solved by only increased agricultural production and more comprehensive approach is required.
As evidenced in the cases of Ghana and Burkina Faso, however, increase in food supply capacity is most important, particularly at the household and regional levels in those areas of chronic food shortages. In this case, agricultural products will not be limited to food crops. Crops or animals with competitive advantages should be selected. Increased income through increased production provides better access to food.
For the sustainable increase in agricultural production, following issues would be required.
① Appraisal of the regional agricultural resources and development potential In promoting agricultural development in the regions where food shortages are chronic, first of all, actual condition of the said region should be grasped accurately and in detail. Constraints to agricultural production in West Africa are many, including scarce and unstable rainfall, poor soil fertility and lack of input including improved seeds. Water resource is of particular importance. Therefore, detailed appraisal of water/ land resources with careful consideration on environmental impacts, using long-term weather and hydrological data, should be made for the selection of most suitable crops or livestock. In our field visit in November, 2007, it was noted that so many small ponds or lakes existed beyond our expectation. It seems that, first of all, water resources in each region, both
64 of surface and underground, should be clearly grasped with their seasonal change and availability. Experts on remote sensing and GIS are many in our country who will be helpful to this study. Japanese research scientist dispatched by IWMI is now working for the study on water resources development of low and wetland in Ghana with careful attention to water borne disease. This type of cooperation is hoped to be expanded to other West African countries.
Based on the study on water resources, most suitable techniques to each region to mobilize and utilize this precious resource need to be developed. In WFP project in Burkina Faso, funded by Japan, is an example of water utilization where paddy production in rainy season and vegetable growing in dry season by drawing water from shallow well are effectively conducted. Further effort seems to be needed for more labor saving of water drawing and irrigating.
Box-1 Tackling artificial rain in Burkina Faso Since 1999,the government of Burkina Faso has been implementing the Program, called SAAGA to create artificial rainfall for acquiring water for human and livestock, as well as the for irrigation and power generation. SAAGA means “water” in local dialect. The program takes a holistic approach. At first, the Ministry of Agriculture and Hydrology identifies the sites where crop damages in rainy season are expected due to the scarce rainfall and drought. Then the Ministry of transportation (Meteorology Agency) monitors the site for required condition of rain cloud occurrence. This is followed by spraying iodine silver to the air of the site by the Air force. The technology used in the program was introduced from Morocco. Funded by the Burkina Faso Government, the program has been going on with the partnership of Ouagadougou University and CLISS in anticipation of improved accuracy of rain making and its technology diffusion to other neighboring countries. This technology is earnestly hoped to contribute to solve the water resources constraints. The early realization of practical use of artificial rain making is strongly hoped.
Box2: Burkina Faso’s policy on water reservoirs In recollection of bitter experiences of severe drought damages on crops and livestock in 1970’s and 80’s, the government promoted to construct water reservoirs all over the country. As a result, there exist around 1,500 reservoirs including natural and man-made ones in the country and around 400 are said to retain water throughout the year. These reservoirs scatter throughout the country and exist even in the regions of scarce rain and dry such as north, north-eastern and east regions, being hoped to be a momentum of regional development.
These water resources are mostly aimed at providing drinking water to livestock and not actively used for other agricultural or industrial purposes so far. In recent year, however, needs for increased food production and farmers income called for the effective use of these water resources. Small scale irrigation for vegetable growing is gradually expanding. Vegetable growing had been limited in dry season in the past, but now it is grown throughout the year due to its higher profit, particularly in the areas of better access to urban market. Mono-cropping farmers of vegetables are now emerging.
Land utilization near the reservoirs requires arrangement of legal right of farmers. Ministry of Agriculture, Hydrology and Fisheries created new Directorate to deal with land title issues in 2006 to tackle the problems.
65 ② Increase in soil fertility As factors of low productivity in West Africa, poor soil fertility is to be mentioned. First of all, therefore, detailed soil survey all over the country or specified areas, with soil classification, distribution and their productivity appraisal are necessary. As soil retains N, P, K, water, sulfur, calcium, magnesium iron and other plant nutrients. Crops can grow by absorbing these nutrients in the soil. If the nutrients in the soil is not sufficient, plant growth will be suppressed and results in poor harvest. Soil fertility and soil productivity is not necessarily synonym but can be considered quite similar. Clay, silt, sand and organic matters are major ingredients of soil and, among them, most important players of water and plant nutrient retention are clay and organic matter in the soil. Plant residues are decomposed by soil animals and soil microorganisms in the soil. And in this process nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are released as plant nutrients. The organic matters from remains of plant can be plant nutrient from the long-term point of view. In precise, organic matters in soil play two roles of water retention and nutrient supply. Therefore, it could be said that fertile soil contains much clay and organic matters and that higher capacity of water and plant nutrient retention.
Low productivity soil in West Africa is sandy in general, with limited contents of clay and organic matters. Retained water and plant nutrient are limited and as its retention capacity is also low, it can easily be eroded by rain even if chemical fertilizer is applied. To overcome this problem, contents of clay and organic matters in the soil needs to be increased. Application of soil with high content of clay is usually practiced in other part of the world, but in West Africa it seems difficult to procure high clay content soil near by. Therefore, by utilization of locally available organic resources such as tree leaves, branches, roots of plants, straws, dung etc. to explore sustainable soil management is required. As seen in the case of Burkina Faso, traditional technique such as Zai would be appraised and utilized.
Box 3. Soil fertility in Ghana and fertilizer application
In considering agricultural productivity in Ghana, special attention should be paid on soil fertility. This is also an important issue for the agricultural development in other West African countries and Africa as a whole. AICAF, the predecessor of JAICAF had conducted corroborative trials on soil fertility. From results obtained following countermeasures are introduced.
3-1. The importance of phosphates and effective utilization of rock phosphate
Among 3 major plant nutrients of Nitrogen, Phosphate and Potassium, phosphate is the most important one. For the fixation of nitrogen in the air by leguminous plant, phosphates play an important role. African soil has relatively high potassium supply potential. As resources of phosphate fertilizer, phosphate rocks are distributed very unevenly in Africa. At present only high grade phosphate rock deposits have been developed, leaving many deposits untapped so far. Those high quality phosphate rock deposits are mainly developed by and exported to developed countries for processing. Chemical fertilizers processed thus in the developed countries are again imported to African countries.
The Study Team of AICAF observed in Ghana that high and competitive yield of maize was realized in Daboya of Northern Region where low-grade phosphate rock is abundant. Survey had been conducted in other parts of the country where high phosphate soil or rocks exist. In these areas, phosphate rocks can be used as fertilizer by digging out the rock and processing for oxidation.
For oxidation processing, sulfuric acid is used. Sulfur exist extensively in Africa including Ghana and be sources of sulfur to sulfur deficient soil. Therefore, for the modernization of agriculture，other industries related to agriculture including fertilizer need to be developed for the sustainable agricultural
66 development.
Thus, in addition to the development support to agricultural production technologies, support for the promotion of phosphate fertilizer industry based on the locally available rock resources will be an important area of Japanese cooperation for the sustainable and low input agricultural development.
Ref: Study on supporting sustainable food production in Africa , Report on Ghana 2002 and 2003 by AICAF (Japanese version)
Box3: Soil fertility in Ghana and fertilizer application
3-2. Micro-nutrients deficiency and the countermeasures
In Ghana, sulfur deficiency of soil has been observed in addition to N, P and K. This phenomenon is not limited to Ghana. In many African countries in geologically old continent, deficiencies of such essential secondary nutrients for plant growth as Ca, Mg, and S and of micro nutrients such as Mn, B, Zn, and Cu are widely observed. As lack of these secondary or micro nutrients obstruct plant growth, satisfactory growth of crops cannot be assured by only N, P, and K supply. These elements needs to be supplied from outside, as these are exhausted through consecutive cropping.
As an example, field trial conducted by JAICAF in Northern Region of Ghana in 2003 will be informative.
Field trial on maize production was conducted by 3 types of plot, one for no-fertilizer applied plot (no.1), N, P and K applied plot (no.2) and N.P.K. and Sulfur applied plot (no.3). Yield of the plot compared to no.1 was 2.9 times for no.2 and 9.5 times for no.3. Only no.3 plot could recover the production cost including fertilizer. From this trial, it is said that application of N，P and K only cannot assure the profit of maize growing.
Composite fertilizer used on trial was N-P-K: 15-15-15 but no mention on S. According to the analysis of used fertilizer, it was found that some of them included 10% of sulfur while others included none. In Ghana, no indication is made on sulfur in composite fertilizer. In Benin, indication on contents such as N.P.K.S. Bo :15-23-14-5-1 are observed for fertilizers for cotton and these fertilizers are also used for rice growing. As sulfur deficiency is widely observed in Ghana, clear indication of sulfur on composite fertilizer should be promoted by the initiative of public organization for improved production and income of farmers. In Grant Assistance for Underprivileged the Increase of Food Production (KR-2) support by the Japanese Government, careful consideration should be paid on this issue.
As mentioned, nutrients deficiencies other than N.P.K., careful attention are required and for this, soil diagnosis at each district and appropriate fertilizer introduction and application are important.
Ref: Study on supporting sustainable food production in Africa , Report on Ghana 2004 and 2005 by AICAF (Japanese version)
Box3: Ghana’s soil fertility and fertilizer application
3-3. Degradation of soil fertility and restoration of organic matter
It is often said on agriculture in developing countries that soil fertility has been drastically deteriorating due to unreasonable cropping and to curve the trend it is important to return organic matter to the land by conducting sustainable organic farming. However, it is impossible to maintain soil fertility in the field even if all the crop residues are returned to the land. This can be illustrated as follows;
Total weight of paddy crops with normal growth and harvest is 10t/ha excluding root portion. Average content of nitrogen is 2%, therefore 200kg/ha of nitrogen is included in the produced. 4t/ha is the paddy produced and this portion is taken out from the field. Supposing that remaining 6t/ha are totally used for manure production, most important to organic farming, nitrogen from manure are only 60kg/ha, as the average nitrogen content of well matured manure is 0.5% at most. This means that the nitrogen supplied by manure is just 1/3 of the total nitrogen taken out from the field. Nitrogen in the air fixed by
67 soil microbe or nitrate acid in the rain by thunderbolt may be added, but at most 100kg/ha would be the maximum. That is, in case of expecting normal growth and harvest, the circulation of organic matters cannot ensure fertility of soil of nitrogen. If the yield level remains at extremely low level, organic farming can be feasible by high ratio of nitrogen fixation and supply by rain water. However, this low yield is the most serious problems to be addressed for poor farmers in Africa. This does not imply, however to deny the importance of use of organic matters. Quite contrary, organic matter from crop residues should be returned to the field. 60kg/ha nitrogen from the crop residues is the significant amount in African agriculture.
Of the chemical fertilizer applied in Africa, nitrogen fertilizer shares only 11.5kg/ha. Crop residues are burnt so often, though all of nitrogen are lost by burning, an unacceptable farming practice.
Though by only organic matters production cannot be assured, organic matters by crop residues play an important role for sustainable agriculture, particularly in Africa where chemical fertilizer consumption remains at low level.
Ref: Dr. T.Takahashi (2008), Potentials of sustainable agricultural development in low and wet land in African inland area. – A consideration on natural condition- Rice cultivation front line in Africa, JIRCAS Working Report No.57 (Japanese version)
③ Reappraisal of traditional techniques and their improvement/ modification for the development of techniques for increased productivity Yield levels of major crops in West Africa remain low by international standard. To increase yield levels of major crops is urgently required to meet the increasing demand and for creating sustainable production system. For the improvement of production techniques, research on improved varieties and farming techniques need to be enhanced. At the same time, traditional techniques inherited from the past generations by farmers should duly be reappraised so that the advantages of traditional one would be modified or taken into new techniques developed
Traditional techniques are, though they may require improvement, have been suited to their environment. Under current situation of poor availability of input, effective utilization of dung, organic matters and rain water together, called “Zai”, rain water harvesting technique called Crescent Ridges” and green manure from leguminous crops are among these traditional techniques.
To increase yield and stabilize production, rationality of these traditional techniques should be appraised scientifically for further improvement with due attention to their environmental impact.
Table 5-2 Yield of cereals (t/ha) 1998-2002 2003-2005 World 3.09 3.24 Asia and Pacific 3.41 2.80 Near East and North Africa 2.03 2.45 Sub-Saharan Africa 1.08 1.34 Ghana 1.30 1.44 Burkina Faso 0.91 0.96 Source: The State of Food and Agriculture 2003-04 and 2006, FAO
68 Box4: Traditional techniques in West Africa
4-1. Zai
“Zai” has been a traditional technique in semi-arid savannah in Burkina Faso and Niger. But owing to the shortcoming of too labor intensiveness the technique has been forgotten in many parts. In the later part of 1980s, the technique revived in Yatenga of northern Burkina Faso after some modification, and is now spreading as soil conservation/ improvement farming practice.
During the dry season, holes each with diameter 30 cm and depth 20cm are dug. These holes are filled with cattle/goat dung, and manures mixed. Surface of holes are kept 10cm lower than the filed so as to retain rain water, and the earth dug is left on the lower side of the slope for the protection of soil erosion. This can be seen as conventional water harvesting system. In rainy season, seed of millet is sown in these holes. Usually millet requires to wait 20mm rainfall for seeding, but as Zai has an advantage of collecting water as it is lower than earth level. Millet can also absorb plant nutrients released through the process of decomposition of organic matters in the hole. As the size of Zai is rather small it can easily be destructed, but it can be reinforced by rock arrangement. Zai does not need team work, farmers can manage independently in dry season and requires no professional expertise. Therefore, Zai is getting more popular than other techniques.
Ref: Japan Green Resources Agency (2001), Technical Notes on Prevention of Desertification in Sahel, Part 5. Agricultural Land Conservation Technology Manual: maintenance of soil fertility (Japanese version)
Box 4. Box4: Traditional techniques in West Africa
4-2. Crescent ridges
This is one of the water harvesting techniques, constructing ridges in crescent shape toward the upper part of the slope. It is very simple structure of just heaping the earth by shovel, but due to low durability, construction works are required in each season. If applied manure /organic matters in the crescent, soil fertility will be increased and can get higher yield. Similar to Zai, farmers can manage individually. In the region of rainfall at 400mm, 625 half moons (4m lengthwise and crosswise each), with diameter of 3m is recommended.
Ref: Japan Green Resources Agency (2001), Technical Notes on Prevention of Desertification in Sahel, Part 5. Agricultural Land Conservation Technology Manual: maintenance of soil fertility (Japanese version)
④ Marketing system improvement and response to the market economy As stated already, strengthening food supply capacity does not necessarily imply the increased food crop production only. By producing and selling the products most suited and with comparative advantages for respective regions or districts, they can purchase food in need. In this case, marketing of the products is an important issue to be addressed. For example, farmers who produced Shea butter in Ghana faced difficulty to find the outlet. In case of Sawah system developed in Ghana for low and wetland paddy production, lack of access road for input and output transportation is essential taking account of the specific nature of rice as cash crop.
Many programmes and projects now emphasize the importance of marketing in response to the needs of market oriented agricultural development. Improved marketing system not only provides farmers a better access to market for their products but also contribute to the comprehensive economic development by strengthened linkage among concerned sectors, which may lead to increased job
69 opportunities and income of local population. For better functioning of safety net at the time of emergency, infrastructure for marketing is also crucial.
Food processing and preservation technologies are also important issues from the view point of value chain approach. Marketing of agricultural input and products contribute much to the improvement of undernourishment and food shortages. However, marketing and processing are the areas primarily dealt by the private sector. To encourage and promote the private sector in this aspect need to be emphasized.. Japanese support in this regard would be called for.
⑤ Support to human resources development It is clearly noted lesson from the experience that, in any development assistance, success cannot be assured without the initiative and active participation of the recipients. Therefore, it is essential, particularly in case of agriculture and rural development project, to motivate and sensitize farmers who are so familiar to the socio-economic conditions and traditional techniques in their particular environment. To ensure the situation, human resources development is an important agenda, specifically in administration, technology development and extension services, who can lead the farmers in their development endeavor.
Many programmes and projects include human resources development and capacity building as an important component, further emphasis in this regard is required.
5-4. Considerations to be paid in the implementation of the future support
Huger reduction and needs for development support in West Africa has been discussed. For the effective implementation of support, following points will be raised to be paid attention.
Eradication of poverty and hunger, one of the important Millennium Development Goals, cannot be achieved by conventional approach of sector-wise development or technology development. The shift from agricultural sector development to rural development/ regional development is to be really effective, more comprehensive approach is required.
Clear methodology and strategy of how to tackle the development needs are to be formulated. In the Value Chain approach of Germany, income generation, poverty reduction, nutrition and others are consistently linked within the programme/project.
In our consideration on future development support, consistent idea and principle should be established with attention to the following points.
(1) Multi-dimensional approach and core component In West Africa, agriculture and its related industries are major focus of regional development programme/ project by nature, though close collaboration with other sectors are required. Taking this into account, many programmes/ projects has been introducing multi-dimensional approach nowadays. But this does not deny the importance of specifically focused independent project, though it is
70 necessary to ascertain the environment for the individual project implementation to be appropriate. In this context, core component of the project should be accurately examined. Regarding multi-dimensional approach, importance of donors coordination is mentioned below.
(2) Further enhancement donors coordination As already mentioned, there should be a consistent idea and strategy in planning, priority setting and implementation of our development support. There is a need to consider effective approach of project implementation on such issues as selection of core sub-sectors (paddy, research and development, post-harvest and marketing), cooperation and sharing of works among donors. Each of the donors needs not to take multi-dimensional approach, but it is rather hoped to exhibit their outstanding expertise in the donor coordination.
It is hoped to be considered of establishing mechanism on international coordination of donors support, and, for example, Japan may shoulder the issues of on rice, particularly on rice production and processing and provides support in line with ① to ⑤of the preceding chapter. In many West African countries in recent years, demand for rice is rapidly increasing, particularly in urban areas of these countries.. As domestic production cannot meet the demand, considerable amount of rice are now imported from Thailand, Vietnam and others. Regarding the quality of milled rice, domestic one cannot compete with imported rice due to delay in post-harvest and processing technology development. Therefore, increased production, improved post-harvest and processing can contribute not only to the increased access to market and income of farmers but also to save the precious foreign currency used for rice import. Our country has the long history of rice cultivation, and accumulated experiences and expertise nurtured on this area are seen to be outstanding and has comparative advantage. As referred in Chapter 4, Taiwan has been supporting Burkina Faso for a long term basis with remarkable results. In our development support, effort may be needed to include such advantageous area into consideration in formulating framework of development support.
(3) Cooperation based on better understanding on structure of rural society and mentality of rural inhabitants It is most important for rural development support project to fully understand the structure of the rural society where live and their ways of thinking. To organize those farmers who share the common interest into groups/ associations would be much easier by this approach. In many countries, there exist various groups based on ages, genders and others, many of which play important social roles and functions within the community. For example, as most of the crop cultivation works are dealt by women, techniques to be developed need to be acceptable to rural women. Approach of cultural anthropology which has not often used in the rural survey will be an effective option, and may be useful establishment of food safety net.
(4) Encouragement of farmers’ initiatives and creativity with their sense of ownership In the development support, as mentioned already, initiatives of participating farmers are prerequisite and motivation of farmers is essential. Performance of the programme/ project highly depends on
71 initiatives and motivation farmers who shoulder the risk with the fruit of success. Therefore, from the very early stage of project preparation and planning, better understanding by farmers of the project idea and with initiative and active participation are required. The project PaViDIA in Zambia being implemented by JICA, takes approach of Participatory Approach to Sustainable Village Development (PASViD) (Ref. Box.5), provides example of this approach.
Box.5 Participatory Village Development in Isolated Areas in Zambia( PaViDIA)
Final goal of PaViDIA is the reduction of poverty in isolated areas of Zambia. Applying the method of PASViD (Participatory Approach to Sustainable Village Development), project tackles community development, namely, nurturing sense of cooperation and self-help of farmers and their capacity building on solving the problems by themselves in the process of poverty reduction. Micro projects are the cores of PASViD with participation of community members. Community participation includes PCM workshop for identification of the problems being faced at village and their solutions, planning of micro projects and their implementation by their own knowledge, idea and labor. Through this process from planning to implementation by their effort, ownership of the project by community is to be strengthened.
However, as it is practically difficult to execute all of this process by their own effort, in PASViD, support of extension officers as facilitators throughout the process is proposed. To hold PCM workshop and training of extension officers as facilitators are important elements of PASViD.
In micro project planning of PASViD, 3 component of infrastructure, income generation and training are recommended to be included. In isolated areas, as income generation options are limited, sustainable agriculture is the major focus of development. Support on farming techniques for sustainable agriculture is provided to farmers through the training of extension officers as facilitators. Micro project on income generation can also play the role of creating fund for other community development projects and open the avenue to initiate new community development plan. PASViD thus has the structure of ensuring sustainable community development by participatory approach with enhancing the initiatives and sense of the ownership of community members.
Ref: PaViDIA Website www.pavida.org.zm/explanation-j2.html (Japanese version)
(5) Special consideration for longer gestation period of agriculture projects Agriculture strongly depends on and affected by natural conditions. Particularly, small-scale farmers in West Africa are subject to the unstable natural conditions. Therefore, any programme/ project may require a longer period to obtain certain results. This has clearly been shown by the Research & Extension Project in Ghana by World Bank or by Rice Development Project in Burkina Faso by Taiwan. Programmes and projects from now on need to be considered from the viewpoint of long perspective with regular monitoring and evaluation and follow up action.
72 Reference Materials
(1) WFP: Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation-Reversing growing under-nutrition in food insecure regions (1 January 2007-31 December 2008) (Burkina Faso PRRO 10541.0) (2) NEPAD: Programme detaile pour le developpement de l’agriculture africaine Burkina Faso- Programme national d’investissement a moyen terme (PNIMT) Annexe 1-1 (3) Ministere de I’Agriculture de I’Hydralique et des Ressources Halieutiques: Resultats definitifs de la campagne agricole 2006-2007, p.22) (4) World Food Programme (2005): Draft Country Programme- Burkina Faso (2006-2010), p.5 (5) WFP (2004) : La Vulnerabilite Structurelle a La Securite Alimentaire en Milieu Rural, p.15 (6) Burkina Faso (2007) : Résultats définitifs de la campagne agricole 2006-2007, p.26 (7) WFP: Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation (1 January 2007 - 31 December 2008) Project-paper (8) Burkina Faso: Points of clarification on the food and malnutrition crisis, mimeo, (August 11, 2005) prepared jointly by Department of Agricultural Forecasts and Statistics (DGPSA), Ministry of Agriculture, Water, and Water Resources, Burkina Faso; World Food Programme in Burkina Faso; Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWS NET) Regional Bureau for West Africa; Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS); and Food Security Programme of the European Union (FSP/EU) in Burkina Faso. (http://www.fews.net/resources/gcontent/pdf/1000780.pdf) (9) Ministère de l’Economie et du Développement (2004): Cadre Strategique de Lutte Contre la Pauvrete (10) Ministère de l’Economie et du Développement (2004): Programme d’Actions Prioritaires de Mise en Oeuvre du Cadre Strategique de Lutte Contre la Pauvrete 2004-2006 (11) MAHRH (2006) : (Ministère de l’Agriculture de l’Hydralique et des Ressources Halieutiques) （2006.12） (12) Japan Green Resources Agency （2001）:Technical Bulletin on prevention of desertification in Sahel (Japanese version) (13) Murdock, G.P. (1959) : Africa: Its Peoples and Culture History, New York, McGRAW-HILL, 1959. pp.77-88（Voltanic Peoples） (14) FAO/JAICAF (2007): The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2006 (Japanese version) (15) USDA (2007): Food Security Assessment 2006, Washington, D. C. (16) FAO (2007) : The State of Food and Agriculture 2007 (17) Ghana (2007) : Pattern and Trends of Poverty in Ghana, Statistical Service Ghana (18) FAO/WFP (2003): Special Report, FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission to Northern Ghana (19) World Bank (2007): 2007 World Development Indicators, Washington, D. C. (20) Ministère de l’Agriculture, de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques (2007) : Résultats définitifs de la campagne agricole 2006-2007, pp.30-31
73 (21) N. Nishiyama & J.Sakagami (2008): Current situation and development potential of rice production in Burkina Faso. Rice growing front line in Africa, JIRCAS Working Report No.57 (Japanese version) (22) AICAF (2002) : Study on supporting sustainable food production in Africa- Ghana 1st year Report (Japanese version) (23) AICAF (2003): Study on supporting sustainable food production in Africa- Ghana 2nd year Report (Japanese version) (24) AICAF (2004): Study on supporting sustainable food production in Africa- Ghana 3rd year Report (Japanese version) (25) AICAF (2003): Study on supporting sustainable food production in Africa- Ghana 4th year Report (Japanese version) (26) T. Takahashi（2008）Potential of sustainable agricultural development using inland wetland in Africa, Consideration on natural conditions－Rice growing front line in Africa. JIRCAS Working Report No.57 (Japanese version)
Website (27) FEWSNET(Famine Early Warning Systems Network) Burkina Faso (http://www.fews.net/centers/?f=bf) (28) World Food Programme, Current Operations - Burkina Faso (http://www.wfp.org/operations/current_operations/countries/countryproject.asp?country=854)
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