J-11/Task 33

Final Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses

Prepared for Transit Cooperative Research Program Transportation Research Board

of

The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Meredith Linscott Amy Posner Center for Transportation and the Environment Atlanta, GA April 2020

Permission to use any unoriginal material has been obtained from all copyright holders as needed.

Acknowledgements

This work was sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration and was conducted in the Transit Cooperative Research Program, which is administered by the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Author Acknowledgements

The Center for Transportation and the Environment thanks the external reviewers that have made substantial contributions to this Guidebook:

Judah Aber, Principal, EB START Consulting Erik Bigelow, Senior Engineering Consultant, Director of Midwest Operations, CTE Matt Boothe, Engineering Consultant, Propulsion Systems Specialist, CTE Steve Clermont, Senior Managing Consultant, Director of Planning and Deployment, CTE Andrew Daga, Chairman and CEO, Momentum Dynamics Joel Donham, Engineering Consultant, Aviation Applications Specialist, CTE Patrick Fiedler, President, Fiedler Group Jason Hanlin, Senior Engineering Consultant, Director of Technology Development, CTE Alexis Hedges, Associate, CTE Nathaniel Horadam, Managing Consultant, Automated Vehicle Specialist, CTE Jaimie Levin, Senior Managing Consultant, Director of West Coast Operations, CTE Kylie McCord, Senior Engineering Consultant, CTE Wendy Morgan, Managing Consultant, Director of Grants, CTE Alison Smyth, Engineering Consultant, Electric Utility Specialist, CTE Stuart Thompson, Principal, Transworld Associates Joel Torr, Managing Director, North America, ViriCiti Mike Tosca, Senior Engineering Consultant, Director of Hydrogen Infrastructure, CTE Blake Whitson, former Engineering Consultant, CTE

Disclaimer

This is an uncorrected draft as submitted by the contractor. The opinions and conclusions expressed or implied herein are those of the contractor. They are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the Academies, or the program sponsors.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ...... xi Introduction ...... xii ZEB TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW ...... xvii 1 Phase 1 –Assess your Needs and Requirements ...... 1-1 1.1 Overview ...... 1-1 1.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 1-2 1.3 Start Planning for ZEBs ...... 1-3 1.3.1 Technological advancements ...... 1-6 1.4 Stakeholder Engagement ...... 1-6 1.4.1 Transit Agency Staff ...... 1-6 1.4.2 External Stakeholders ...... 1-8 1.5 Data Collection ...... 1-10 1.6 Fleet Transition Considerations ...... 1-11 1.7 Additional Resources ...... 1-12 2 Phase 2 –Technology Selection and Specification ...... 2-1 2.1 Overview ...... 2-1 2.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 2-2 2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation ...... 2-3 2.3.1 Bus Modeling and Simulation Considerations ...... 2-3 2.3.2 Bus Modeling and Route Simulation Approach ...... 2-4 2.4 Technology Selection ...... 2-8 2.5 Procurement Considerations ...... 2-9 2.5.1 Technical Specifications ...... 2-9 2.5.1.1 Bus Specifications ...... 2-10 2.5.1.2 Fueling Infrastructure Specifications ...... 2-13 2.5.2 Acceptance Criteria ...... 2-17 2.5.3 Major Component Useful Life and Warranty Considerations ...... 2-18 2.5.4 Documentation and Training ...... 2-19 2.5.5 Contract Negotiation ...... 2-20 2.6 Additional Resources ...... 2-21 3 Phase 3 – Capital Costs & Funding Opportunities ...... 3-1

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3.1 Overview ...... 3-1 3.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 3-2 3.3 Capital Costs ...... 3-3 3.4 ZEB Deployment Support ...... 3-9 3.4.1 Planning Initiatives ...... 3-11 3.4.2 Financial Support ...... 3-11 3.4.2.1 Federal Funding ...... 3-11 3.4.2.2 State Funding ...... 3-11 3.4.2.3 Utilities ...... 3-12 3.5 Additional Resources ...... 3-13 4 Phase 4 –Fueling Infrastructure Strategy and Cost ...... 4-1 4.1 Overview ...... 4-1 4.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 4-2 4.3 Battery Electric Buses and Utility Rate Analysis ...... 4-3 4.3.1 Understanding your Electricity Bill ...... 4-3 4.3.2 Electric Bill Charges ...... 4-4 4.3.3 Fixed Costs ...... 4-5 4.3.4 Energy Charges ...... 4-5 4.3.5 Demand Charges ...... 4-5 4.3.6 Other Charges ...... 4-7 4.4 Typical Rate Structures ...... 4-8 4.4.1 Tiered (or Step) Rate ...... 4-8 4.4.2 Time of Use Rate ...... 4-8 4.4.3 Critical Peak Pricing ...... 4-9 4.5 Hydrogen Fuel Costs ...... 4-9 4.5.1 Electricity Costs ...... 4-10 4.5.2 Hydrogen Costs ...... 4-11 4.6 Electricity Rate Modeling ...... 4-11 4.6.1 BEB Charging Strategy ...... 4-13 4.7 Utility Partnership ...... 4-15 4.8 Resilience and Emergency Response Planning ...... 4-16 4.8.1 Understanding reliability of your operations ...... 4-16 4.8.2 Providing service during a power outage ...... 4-16

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4.8.3 Emergency Backup systems ...... 4-16 4.9 Additional Resources ...... 4-18 5 Phase 5 –Fueling Infrastructure Deployment ...... 5-1 5.1 Overview ...... 5-1 5.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 5-2 5.3 Fueling Infrastructure Deployment Overview ...... 5-3 5.4 Stakeholder Engagement ...... 5-3 5.5 Site Selection ...... 5-4 5.5.1 Hydrogen Fueling Stations ...... 5-5 5.5.2 Battery Charging Stations ...... 5-5 5.6 Design ...... 5-7 5.6.1 Hydrogen Fueling Station Design ...... 5-8 5.6.2 BEB Charging Infrastructure Design ...... 5-9 5.7 Permitting ...... 5-10 5.8 Construction ...... 5-10 5.9 Commissioning ...... 5-11 5.10 Additional Resources ...... 5-12 6 Phase 6 –Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment ...... 6-1 6.1 Overview ...... 6-1 6.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 6-2 6.3 Vehicle Inspection ...... 6-3 6.4 Bus Inspection Plan ...... 6-3 6.4.1 Configuration Audit ...... 6-3 6.4.2 First Article Inspection ...... 6-4 6.4.3 Pre-Delivery Inspection ...... 6-4 6.4.4 Post-Delivery Inspection ...... 6-4 6.5 Acceptance and Validation Testing ...... 6-4 6.5.1 Acceptance Testing Goals ...... 6-5 6.5.2 Validation Testing Goals ...... 6-5 6.5.3 Recommended Tests ...... 6-5 6.6 Initial Deployment Strategy ...... 6-7 6.7 Additional Resources ...... 6-8 7 Phase 7 –Personnel Training and Development ...... 7-1

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7.1 Overview ...... 7-1 7.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 7-2 7.3 Staff Training ...... 7-3 7.4 Operations Training ...... 7-4 7.5 Fueling Processes Training ...... 7-5 7.6 Maintenance Training ...... 7-5 7.7 Safety Training ...... 7-5 7.7.1 Hydrogen Properties ...... 7-6 7.7.2 Hydrogen Fueling Station Safety ...... 7-7 7.7.3 First Responder Training ...... 7-8 7.8 Additional Resources ...... 7-8 8 Phase 8 –Operation and Maintenance ...... 8-1 8.1 Overview ...... 8-1 8.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 8-2 8.3 Operations ...... 8-3 8.3.1 Driver Procedures ...... 8-3 8.3.2 Monitoring Battery State of Health ...... 8-3 8.4 Maintenance ...... 8-4 8.4.1 Spare Parts Inventories ...... 8-4 8.4.2 Bus Maintenance ...... 8-5 8.4.3 Fueling Infrastructure Maintenance ...... 8-7 8.4.3.1 Depot charging stations ...... 8-7 8.4.3.2 Fast charging stations ...... 8-7 8.4.3.3 Hydrogen Fuel stations ...... 8-8 8.5 Additional Resources ...... 8-8 9 Phase 9 –Data Monitoring and Evaluation ...... 9-1 9.1 Overview ...... 9-1 9.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 9-2 9.3 Data Collection and Reporting ...... 9-3 9.4 Data Sources ...... 9-11 9.5 Data Collection Procedures ...... 9-12 9.6 Additional Resources ...... 9-12 10 Phase 10 –Emerging Opportunities ...... 10-1

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10.1 Overview ...... 10-1 10.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations ...... 10-2 10.3 Emerging Research Areas ...... 10-3 10.3.1 Fleet-wide Charge Management ...... 10-3 10.3.2 MW+ Charging ...... 10-3 10.3.3 Battery Improvements ...... 10-4 10.3.4 Deployment Information ...... 10-4 10.3.4.1 Bus Performance Data ...... 10-4 10.3.4.2 Battery Life Data ...... 10-5 10.3.4.3 Cost Reporting ...... 10-5 10.3.5 Decision Support for Dispatch ...... 10-5 10.3.6 Automated Driving Systems ...... 10-5 10.3.6.1 Traffic Signal Integration ...... 10-6 10.3.6.2 Precision Docking for Charging ...... 10-7 10.3.6.3 Platooning ...... 10-8 10.3.7 New Standards and Mandates ...... 10-8 10.4 Additional Resources ...... 10-8 Appendix A – Available ZEB Models ...... A-1 Appendix A.1 – Available Transit FCEB Models ...... A-1 Appendix A.2 – Available Transit BEB Models ...... A-2 Appendix B – Altoona Testing Overview ...... B-1 Appendix C. Industry Standards Related to ZEB technology ...... C-1 Appendix D. Glossary ...... D-1 Appendix E. References ...... E-1

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List of Figures

Figure 1. The ten deployment phases found in the Guidebook ...... xiv Figure 2. Fuel Cell Electric Bus from AC Transit's fleet (Image source: AC Transit) ...... xviii Figure 3. Generalized hydrogen fueling station schematic ...... xix Figure 4. Summary of hydrogen fueling station delivery options (Image source: California Fuel Cell Partnership) ...... xix Figure 5. Summary of hydrogen fueling station considerations ...... xx Figure 6. Hydrogen Fueling Station (Image source: SARTA) ...... xx Figure 7. Hydrogen Fueling Station Equipment (Image Source: SARTA) ...... xxi Figure 8. Generalized battery charging station schematic ...... xxiv Figure 9. Plug-in charging examples (left Image Source: Rodrigo Garrido/Reuters; right Image Source: UITP) ...... xxix Figure 10. Overhead charger with pantograph (moving parts on bus) (Image source: Mike Deal, Winnipeg Free Press) ...... xxix Figure 11. Overhead charger with an inverted pantograph (moving parts on charger) (Image Source: TriMet) ...... xxx Figure 12. Overhead charging electrical equipment (Image Source: Star Metro) ...... xxx Figure 13. Example of inductive charging capabilities (Source: CARTA) ...... xxxi Figure 14. Example guide on the door to instruct a driver if they are properly aligned for on- route charging (Image Source: CTE) ...... xxxi Figure 1-1. Generalized process to kick-off ZEB planning efforts ...... 1-3 Figure 1-2. Potential guiding factors for ZEB deployments ...... 1-3 Figure 2-1. Block screening example for routes that are likely, unfeasible, and possibly able to be completed by ZEBs ...... 2-5 Figure 2-2. Example usable energy for a new and old BEB battery ...... 2-7 Figure 2-3. Cover of Draft APTA Bus Procurement Guidelines (Image Source: APTA) ...... 2-10 Figure 2-4. Summary of battery warranty duration ...... 2-18 Figure 2-5. FTA's Best Practice Procurement & Lessons Learned Manual (Image Source: FTA) .. 2- 20 Figure 3-1. Illustrative example of comparative capital costs and effort required for BEB and FCEB deployment size ...... 3-3 Figure 3-2. Estimated Relative Costs of a five FCEB deployment with hydrogen delivery and a five BEB deployment with plug-in depot charging ...... 3-6 Figure 3-3. Estimated Relative Costs of a fifty FCEB deployment with hydrogen delivery and a fifty BEB deployment with plug-in depot charging ...... 3-7 Figure 3-4. Cumulative Public Funding Awards for Electric Buses (EV Hub, 2019) ...... 3-10 Figure 4-1. Example electricity demand throughout a day (Source: We Energies) ...... 4-6 Figure 4-2. Example Costs per kWh for a Time of Use Rate ...... 4-9 Figure 4-3. Example %SOC for charge depleting and charge sustaining on-route charging strategies, showing %SOC over time for on-route charging sessions throughout the day...... 4-13 Figure 4-4. Example daily power demand with and without charge management strategies . 4-14 Figure 5-1. Infrastructure Deployment Process Flowchart ...... 5-3

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Figure 5-2. Generalized hydrogen fueling station schematic ...... 5-5 Figure 5-3. Generalized battery charging station schematic ...... 5-6 Figure 6-1. ZEB Vehicle Inspector Criteria ...... 6-3 Figure 8-1. Components of Vehicle Maintenance ...... 8-4 Figure 8-2. Observed maintenance costs by bus system at King County Metro (Eudy, 2018) ... 8-6 Figure 8-3. Cost per mile of maintenance needs by bus system (Eudy, 2019, page 12) ...... 8-6 Figure 9-1. Example KPI metrics ...... 9-3 Figure 9-2. Example KPI of Average fuel cost per mile for non-electric and electric buses (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data) ...... 9-4 Figure 9-3. Example Energy Performance KPI, showing kWh/mi by Temperature (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data) ...... 9-5 Figure 9-4. Example Availability KPI (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data) ...... 9-7 Figure 9-5. Example KPI for Comparing Fleet Fuel Efficiency (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data) ...... 9-8 Figure 9-6. ZEBs eliminate harmful emissions from diesel vehicles ...... 9-9 Figure 9-7. Health Impacts of Air Pollution (Image Source: WHO) ...... 9-9 Figure 9-8. Example KPI Comparing Cumulative Maintenance Costs (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data) ...... 9-10 Figure 9-9. Example KPI Comparing Lifetime Fuel Costs (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data) ...... 9-11 Figure 10-1. NTU-LTA-Volvo Autonomous bus being tested at Center of Excellence for Testing and Research of Autonomous Vehicles ...... 10-6 Figure 10-2. Overview of RTA Regional Transit Signal Priority Implementation Plan (Image Source: RTSPIP) ...... 10-7

List of Tables

Table 1. Summary Comparison of BEB and FCEB Technology ...... xvii Table 2. Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure Summary ...... xxi Table 3. Battery Electric Bus Charging Infrastructure Summary ...... xxv Table 4. Depot charging and on-route charging overview ...... xxvi Table 3-1. Cost Estimates for Fuel Cell Bus Deployment Components ...... 3-4 Table 3-2. Cost estimates for Battery Electric Bus Deployment Components ...... 3-5 Table 3-3. Estimated costs of on-site hydrogen production capabilities ...... 3-8 Table 3-4. Estimated costs of overhead or inductive chargers in an on-route charging configuration ...... 3-9 Table 4-1. Summary of available options for backup power ...... 4-17 Table 9-1. NREL-recommended categories for bus unavailability ...... 9-6

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Acronym List

Acronym Definition AC Alternating Current ADS Automated Driving System AFV Alternate Fuel Vehicle API Application Programming Interface APTA American Public Transportation Association AVTA Antelope Valley Transit Authority BEB Battery Electric Bus BOP Balance of Plant BRT Bus Rapid Transit BRTC Bus Research and Testing Center BYD Build Your Dreams (Auto) Caltrans California Department of Transportation CARB California Air Resources Board CDOT Chicago Department of Transportation CEC California Energy Commission CEQA California Environmental Quality Act CNG Compressed Natural Gas CO Carbon Monoxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide CPP Critical Peak Pricing CTA Chicago Transit Authority CTE Center for Transportation and the Environment DC Direct Current DGE Diesel Gallons Equivalent DOE Department of Energy EERE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy EIA Energy Information Administration EPA Environmental Protection Agency ESS Energy Storage System EV Electric Vehicle EVSE Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment FAST Act Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act FCEB Fuel Cell Electric Bus FTA Federal Transit Administration GH2 Gaseous Hydrogen GREET Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation Model

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Acronym Definition GVWR Gross Vehicle Weight Rating H2FAST Hydrogen Financial Analysis Scenario Tool H35 350 Bar for Dispensing Hydrogen H70 700 Bar for Dispensing Hydrogen HAZOP Hazard and Operability HD-UDDS Heavy Duty Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule HDSRAM Heavy-Duty Refueling Station Model HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning HVIP Hybrid and Zero Emission Truck and Bus Voucher Incentive Project ICT Innovative Clean Transit [Regulation] IDOT Illinois Department of Transportation IEC International Electrotechnical Commission IFB Invitation for Bid IT Information Technology kg Kilogram KPI Key Performance Indicators kVA Kilovolt-amperes kW Kilowatt kWh Kilowatt-hour LH2 Liquid Hydrogen Low-No Low or No (Low-No) Emission Vehicle Program MassDOT Massachusetts Department of Transportation MW+ Megawatt Plus [charging] MWh Megawatt-hour NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NFPA National Fire Protection Agency NOx Nitrous Oxide NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory NTP Notice to Proceed OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer PDI Post-Delivery Inspection PEV Plug-in Electric Vehicle PF Power Factor PG&E Pacific Gas & Electric PIO Public Information Officer PM Particulate Matter PPA Power Purchase Agreement PRV/PRD Pressure Relief Valves/Pressure Relief Devices QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control

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Acronym Definition RFI Request for Information RFP Request for Proposal RFQ Request for Quote RTA Regional Transportation Authority SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SCAQMD South Coast Air Quality Management District SMR Steam Methane Reformation SOC State of Charge STAR Strategic Transit Automation Research TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program TOU Time of use Rate TRB Transit Research Board TSP Traffic signal prioritization UITP International Association of Public Transport VOC Volatile Organic Compounds VW Volkswagen Environmental Mitigation Trust WEOL Warrantable End of Life ZEB Zero-Emission Bus ZEBRA Zero Emission Bus Resource Alliance

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ABSTRACT

The Guidebook for Deploying Zero Emission Transit Buses was created to provide transit agencies with a comprehensive overview of best practices and lessons learned from previous deployments of battery electric buses, fuel cell electric buses, and related fueling infrastructure. The zero-emission bus (ZEB) industry is rapidly evolving; the guidebook is a snapshot of current planning practices and deployment approaches. The guidebook includes information and lessons learned from previous deployments of zero-emission technologies as well as non- profits, consultants, and manufacturers serving the industry. Information and guidance is categorized into nine key phases of deployment, providing education and guidance on various aspects, including project kick-off, funding, bus and fueling infrastructure deployment, training, operations and maintenance, and data monitoring. It also includes an additional phase with an overview of emerging opportunities for the zero-emission transit market. Transit agencies should utilize the guidebook as reference material throughout each phase of their ZEB deployments for information on key considerations, stakeholder engagement, and lessons learned. The Guidebook is intended to provide transit agencies with the context and knowledge needed to understand the complexity of a ZEB deployment; supporting decision making and emphasizing the importance of building and maintaining successful relationships with technology providers, utility companies, fuel suppliers, contractors, and other fleet operators considering electrification.

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INTRODUCTION

TCRP Zero-Emission Bus Deployment Guidebook Overview and Objectives

The Zero-Emission Bus Deployment Guidebook is a tool for educating transit agencies on current best practices for ZEB deployments and represents lessons learned from previous deployments, industry experts, and available industry resources. The Guidebook is intended to provide transit agencies with the information necessary to achieve the maximum benefit out of their ZEB deployment and mitigate potential risks. Every deployment will be guided by the transit agency’s specific needs and priorities; therefore the Guidebook cannot provide prescriptive answers to every decision. Rather, it provides transit agencies with the context and knowledge needed to understand the complexity of a ZEB deployment; supports decision making; and emphasizes the importance of building and maintaining successful relationships with technology providers, utility companies, fuel suppliers, and contractors. While all transit agencies, regardless of fleet size, location, or previous experience with ZEB deployments will find the Guidebook helpful, the level of detail is designed for transit agencies deploying their first ZEBs.

Zero-Emission Bus Overview

The zero-emission bus (ZEB) market, including Battery Electric Buses (BEBs) and Fuel Cell Electric Buses (FCEBs) has seen significant growth in recent years. ZEBs are an attractive alternative to conventionally-fueled counterparts due to their cleaner, quieter, and more efficient rides. While capital costs and range limitations are still limiting factors in ZEB adoption, technology advancements and early market adopters have helped increase the understanding of the technology’s capabilities, prove the use case of ZEBs in transit applications, and lower costs. Continued efforts from zero-emission vehicle manufactures, fuel suppliers, and policy makers are needed to make ZEB deployments cost competitive for all transit agencies. The ZEB industry is still maturing; therefore, your transit agency should begin each deployment by researching the current technology options and any available Federal, State, and Local resources.

ZEBs do not rely on fossil fuels for operation and have zero harmful tailpipe emissions, improving local air quality. In 2017, the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health reported that, in the United States, air pollution control pays off at a rate of 30-1; every dollar invested in air pollution control generates thirty dollars of benefits (Watts et al., 2015). Transit agencies looking to make positive impacts on local air quality have turned to ZEB technology. ZEB’s all- electric propulsion and auxiliary systems create smoother, quieter rides for passengers. They have also demonstrated greater efficiencies than diesel and compressed natural gas (CNG) buses when tested under the Federal Transit Administration’s Altoona testing program (Penn State University, “Bus Database”). The potential benefits of ZEB technology have helped

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increase market interest, fostering new ZEB manufacturers and encouraging incumbent Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) to add ZEBs to their product portfolio.

The increase in market interest has also helped decrease product pricing. While ZEBs were more expensive than conventionally fueled vehicles in 2020, the cost of the technology has been significantly decreasing. According to the National Renewal Energy Lab (NREL), the average price of a FCEB in 2018 was $1.27 million, 49% lower than the price in 2010 (Eudy and Post, 2018). For BEBs, total bus costs haven’t declined as much as FCEBs over the same time period but the cost per kWh of battery capacity has significantly decreased. A 2016 California Air Resources Board (CARB) study predicted that the median battery cost for heavy-duty vehicles would decrease from $725 per kWh in 2015 to an estimated $405 per kWh in 2020 (CARB, 2016). While the CARB study has not been replicated, a 2019 study by the Rocky Mountain Institute found that the cost per kWh for Lithium-ion batteries, a commonly used battery chemistry for BEBs, decreased by almost 50% between 2015 and 2019, supporting CARB’s 2016 prediction (Tyson and Bloch, 2019). Instead of reflecting the lower cost of batteries in their bus pricing, BEB OEMs recognized a greater need for increased vehicle range. As a result, BEBs purchased today have greater battery capacity than those offered in 2010, giving transit agencies more flexibility and options for deployment.

All first-time ZEB deployments require new fueling infrastructure, increasing up-front capital costs. FCEBs require a hydrogen fueling station and BEBs require charging stations, both of which will likely necessitate additional land-use considerations and electric infrastructure upgrades. While the initial cost to deploy ZEBs can be significant, local, State, and Federal incentives aimed at improving air quality, advancing new technologies, and reducing dependence on foreign oil are available to offset capital costs. These incentives, coupled with the benefits of ZEBs and increased market availability, have helped to increase the number of ZEBs sold in the U.S.

In 2018, TCRP’s Battery Electric Buses – State of the Practice helped demonstrate not only the growth and potential of the Battery Electric Bus market but also the challenges many transit agencies face while deploying BEB technology (National Academies of Sciences, 2018). NREL’s Fuel Cell Buses in U.S. Transit Fleets: Current Status in 2018 provided similar insight into the benefits and challenges of FCEBs (Eudy and Post, 2018). Both reports were quick to identify the potential benefits of ZEB technology, including greater fuel economy, zero tailpipe emissions, and smoother and quieter rides. However, both were also clear on the challenges to deployment.

For FCEBs, NREL’s Fuel Cell Electric Buses in the USA report identified five challenges to FCEB deployments: cost, fuel cell system issues, parts supply, range issues, and access to and cost of hydrogen fuel (Beshilas, 2019). For BEBs, TCRP’s Battery Electric Buses – State of the Practice report also highlighted five challenges to BEB deployments: range limitations, charging time, high electricity rates for some locations, complicated utility rate structures, and higher capital costs (National Academies of Sciences, 2018). While some of these challenges can only be minimized or eliminated through market maturity, others can largely be mitigated by transit

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agencies through careful planning of ZEB deployments. Learning from previous ZEB deployments and understanding the nuances specific to the technology allows transit agencies to maximize the benefits of their deployment.

Guidebook Layout

The Guidebook’s format helps users quickly identify the necessary steps, key stakeholders, and common pitfalls so they can make the most of their deployment. The user-friendly format allows users with different interests or responsibilities to easily find relevant information for each phase of deployment. The Guidebook categorizes ZEB deployments into ten sequential Phases, as shown in Figure 1 below.

Phase 1 guides you through evaluating your transit agency’s motivations for ZEB deployments and identifying your long-term ZEB goals, considering your transit agency’s priorities, limitations, and requirements.

Phase 2 outlines how to select the appropriate technology to meet your requirements based on real-life or simulated data, and how to develop technical specifications for a bus procurement.

Phase 3 provides information on various local, State, and Federal funding opportunities that can offset the capital costs of ZEBs and charging or hydrogen fueling infrastructure. Phase 4 helps you design a charging or fueling strategy for your buses. This Phase is mostly focused on BEB charging infrastructure, with detailed information on electricity rate structures and how charge management can optimize operations. Phase 5 steps through the activities to deploy charging and hydrogen fueling infrastructure, including stakeholder engagement, site selection, design, permitting, construction, and commissioning. Phase 6 describes recommended activities to support acceptance and validation testing to ensure buses meet all technology and performance specifications. This Phase also provides guidance on developing an initial deployment plan for your buses.

Phase 7 provides high-level information on training and development needs specific to ZEB deployments for transit agency staff and first responders.

Phase 8 lists best practices for how operators can increase vehicle range and efficiency, methods for monitoring battery health, and recommendations for preventative and unplanned maintenance.

Phase 9 suggests data collection and evaluation activities to produce key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor vehicle performance, efficiency, and costs.

Phase 10 highlights potential advancements in the ZEB industry and emerging research areas to help your transit agency stay on the cutting edge.

Figure 1. The ten deployment phases found in the Guidebook Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses xiv

A ZEB Technology Overview can be found before Phase 1, providing information on BEBs, BEB charging infrastructure, FCEBs, and hydrogen fueling stations. The primer includes contextual information on the benefits and limitations of each technology to help you identify the solution best suited for your transit agency’s needs. Unless noted otherwise, references to ZEB bus statistics assume a 40’ transit bus.

Each Phase includes: § A two-page overview summarizing what to expect in that deployment phase and the roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders. The overview can be used as reference material and as an executive summary for management or other stakeholders needing a high-level summary. § Best practices that walk through the phase in detail. Throughout these sections, you will find:

o Icons to indicate if a concept is specific to BEBs or FCEBs

o Key takeaways in blue shaded boxes

o Examples from Deployments in Action in yellow shaded boxes

Using the Guidebook

The Guidebook educates and guides transit agencies through key considerations for deployment by providing a comprehensive overview of ZEBs, infrastructure, and deployment planning considerations. If read cover-to-cover, the guidebook would potentially seem overwhelming and sometimes redundant. The content is structured to be reference material throughout each phase of deployment and key concepts may occasionally be revisited, as they can be relevant at different stages. Users should consult the guidebook at the onset of each phase as a guide for expectations, required resources, and work that should be accomplished during that phase. Additional external resources that may be helpful are also included at the end of each phase.

The Guidebook utilizes best practices, building off of successful approaches from demonstrated deployments and strategies for avoiding pitfalls. Since every deployment of ZEBs is unique, and the technology is rapidly advancing, the Guidebook should be just one tool in your transit agency’s ZEB deployment toolbox. Not every transit agency will have the internal resources to manage ZEB deployments or the knowledge to effectively deploy the technology, therefore transit agency staff, third party consultants with specific ZEB deployment experience, utility experts, and local stakeholder groups should be consulted for supplemental assistance, as needed. The Guidebook provides suggestions on when external resources may be necessary, however transit agencies should evaluate their available internal resources to drive when external expertise is needed.

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In addition, current regulations and incentives coupled with early successful deployments have many transit agencies looking at full-scale, large (>100 buses) ZEB deployments. These projects are innovative and game changing. They represent a dedication to ZEBs that hasn’t previously been demonstrated in the U.S. transit market. While the Guidebook will help educate transit agencies on the complexities of these deployments, it does not provide detailed guidance on the transition plan required for implementation at this scale. Best practices for full fleet transition planning are still in the process of being established in the transit market, but it is safe to say that the principles laid out in this guidebook will form a solid foundation for a transition plan.

Regardless of the deployment size, the ZEB Best Practices Guidebook is designed to be a useful resource. Building upon case studies and lessons learned, the Guidebook equips transit agencies with the knowledge required to avoid common pitfalls and make the most of their ZEB deployment.

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ZEB TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW

A full Zero-Emission Bus fleet may include both Battery Electric Buses and Fuel Cell Electric Buses, depending on the needs of your transit agency. Electric trolleys with overhead wires are also viable zero-emission technology but are not described further in this Guidebook. However, many of the concepts listed may be applicable to electric trolley applications.

An overview of available BEB and FCEB technology and associated infrastructure is provided in the sections below for your reference. Use the information provided to help evaluate which technology is suitable for your planned application. A summary of the BEB and FCEB technology is listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary Comparison of BEB and FCEB Technology BATTERY ELECTRIC BUS FUEL CELL ELECTRIC BUS

Reliable Range Likely less than 150 miles in transit Between 200 and 320 miles in transit service on a single charge (or service before refueling indefinite range with on-route charging) Fueling Depot or on-route charging Hydrogen storage and fueling station Technology • Plug-in charging • Purchase delivered gaseous or • Overhead conductive charging liquid hydrogen • Wireless inductive charging • Produce hydrogen on-site through electrolysis or natural gas reformation Capital Costs • BEBs are more expensive than • FCEBs are more expensive than diesel buses in 2020 BEBs in 2020 • Charging infrastructure costs • Fueling infrastructure costs vary vary and may not scale easily; and depend on the required incremental costs or space fueling rate requirements increase with • Infrastructure is scalable; fleet size additional buses may not require additional infrastructure Refueling • Depot-charged buses may • Refueling procedure and time Considerations require hours to fully recharge required are slower than diesel • Electricity rates will have a buses, but similar to CNG fueling significant impact on • Electricity costs may be significant operational costs if producing hydrogen on-site • AC or DC charging options • Costs will vary based on

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Technology Overview xvii

BATTERY ELECTRIC BUS FUEL CELL ELECTRIC BUS

available depending on bus production method or delivery OEM distance

Fuel Cell Electric Bus and Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure

FCEB Technology

Fuel cell electric buses (Figure 2) utilize on-board hydrogen storage, a fuel cell system, and batteries. The fuel cell uses hydrogen to produce electricity, with waste products of heat and water. The electricity charges the batteries, which power the bus. To further improve efficiency, the waste heat can be used to heat the cabin.

FCEB operation is similar to diesel bus operation, due to their similar range and fueling approach. FCEBs may be close to a 1:1 replacement for conventionally fueled buses. However, As of early 2020, FCEB bus and infrastructure costs are higher than diesel buses and BEBs.

Example 40’ FCEB Characteristics • Fuel Cell power: About 85-120 kW • Battery capacity: 50 - 120 kWh • Reliable range in transit service: Between 200 and 320 miles • Capital costs: About $1M for base bus Figure 2. Fuel Cell Electric Bus from AC Transit's • Fuel consumption: About 35 kg H2 per fleet (Image source: AC Transit) day on average

Your transit agency is required to comply with Buy America regulations if Federal funding is used to purchase buses. Available models of transit FCEBs that, as of January 2020, are Buy America compliant are listed in Appendix A.1.

Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure

A hydrogen fueling station operates similarly to a CNG fueling station. A hydrogen fueling station will typically include a (1) hydrogen delivery system, where hydrogen is delivered by a supplier or produced on-site, (2) hydrogen storage tank(s), (3) vaporizer (for liquid storage), (4) compressor, (5) chiller, and (6) dispensing system that delivers the fuel to the vehicle (Figure 3).

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3. Vaporizer 1. Hydrogen Delivery 2. Storage Tank (for liquid storage) 4. Compressor 5. Chiller 6. Dispenser Bus Figure 3. Generalized hydrogen fueling station schematic

Gaseous hydrogen storage will require an integrated design with both low-pressure and high- pressure storage. Liquid hydrogen storage is more common for transit applications, as it allows for higher storage capacity. FCEBs available in the U.S. all require hydrogen to be dispensed at 350 bar (H35). See Figure 4 below for examples of the equipment needed for gaseous hydrogen delivery, liquid hydrogen delivery, and on-site hydrogen production. While Figure 4 uses electrolysis as the example for on-site hydrogen production, natural gas reformation can also be used to produce hydrogen.

Figure 4. Summary of hydrogen fueling station delivery options (Image source: California Fuel Cell Partnership)

Note that the hydrogen fueling station for your buses will not be compatible with most hydrogen fueling stations for light duty fuel cell vehicles, that require hydrogen to be dispensed at 700 bar (H70). Many retail hydrogen stations that dispense at 700 bar can also dispense at 350 bar.

Phase 5 –Fueling Infrastructure Deployment provides more information on the design and deployment of hydrogen fueling infrastructure. A summary of hydrogen fueling station considerations is shown in Figure 5.

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Type of Structure Fueling Medium Production Method

ü Permanent (all piping ü Liquid ü Liquid or gaseous and electrical equipment ü Gaseous delivery below ground) ü On-site generation ü Semi-permanent (all through electrolysis or piping and electrical natural gas reformation equipment above ground) ü Temporary (rented or leased mobile trailer)

Figure 5. Summary of hydrogen fueling station considerations

Upon completion, your hydrogen fueling station will look and operate much like a traditional CNG fueling station (Figure 6). In addition to the fueling pumps depicted, the hydrogen storage, compression, and production equipment, if utilized, would be located nearby (Figure 7).

Figure 6. Hydrogen Fueling Station (Image source: SARTA)

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Figure 7. Hydrogen Fueling Station Equipment (Image Source: SARTA)

While the initial investment in a hydrogen fueling infrastructure may be significant, scaling up hydrogen fueling infrastructure may be less costly and less land-intensive than scaling up battery charging infrastructure. Some equipment expansion may be needed, but the total footprint of a hydrogen fueling station is similar to a diesel or CNG station. For smaller FCEB deployments and during a fleet transition period, your facility will need fueling stations for both conventionally fueled vehicles and FCEBs. But if your transit agency phases out non-ZEBs, hydrogen fueling stations could occupy the existing footprint dedicated to diesel or CNG fueling.

More detailed information on the approaches to hydrogen fueling is provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure Summary TYPICAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES INSTALLATION Purchase liquid • Delivered to the • Less equipment to • Maintenance fees hydrogen from transit agency’s maintain may be required a supplier fueling facility via • Lower energy • Hydrogen unit costs trucks costs may be higher than • Requires cryogenic • Similar procedure on-site production storage to diesel delivery • Supply chain Purchase • Delivered to the • Lowest initial cost dependent on gaseous transit agency’s for small fleets or multiple third parties hydrogen from fueling facility via tests (manufacturers and a supplier trucks or a pipeline distributors) • Gaseous hydrogen

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TYPICAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES INSTALLATION must be stored in pressure vessels Produce • Electricity is used • Opportunities to • High electricity hydrogen on- to convert water utilize renewable consumption site through into hydrogen and energy to produce • Higher capital costs electrolysis oxygen. The hydrogen, and maintenance hydrogen is reducing the requirements for captured and carbon footprint additional stored. of operations equipment • Transit agency • Service may be controls and disrupted if manages hydrogen production production system experiences • Renewable fuel a failure source • Significant ground • Unit cost of storage needed hydrogen may be lower than delivery Produce • Steam and • Transit agency • Fossil fuel source hydrogen on- methane from controls and (natural gas-derived site through natural gas react at manages methane) natural gas high temperatures production • High electricity reformation to produce carbon • Unit cost of consumption dioxide and hydrogen may be • Higher capital costs hydrogen lower than and maintenance delivery requirements for additional equipment Service may be disrupted if hydrogen production system experiences a failure • Significant ground storage needed

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Battery Electric Bus and Charging Infrastructure Technology

BEB Technology Battery electric buses use on-board battery packs to power all bus systems. BEBs generally have no tailpipe emissions, however some transit agencies utilize an auxiliary fuel-fired heater to increase range in cold months. Generally, two types of BEBs are available: (1) long or extended range and (2) fast charge. Chargers can be plug-in, overhead conductive, or inductive. Any type of charger may be used at the depot or on-route.

Your transit agency is required to comply with Buy America regulations if Federal funding is used to purchase buses. Transit BEBs that, as of January 2020, that were Buy America compliant are listed in Appendix A.2.

Long or Extended Range BEBs

Long or extended range BEBs have larger battery packs for maximum range between charges and may use batteries that favor lower power charges. These buses are typically charged one or two times per day. Fully recharging a battery can take up to 8 hours or more, depending on the size of the bus battery and the power output of the charger. Depending on your service needs, long-range BEBs may not be 1:1 replacements for conventionally-fueled buses due to the range limitations and required downtime for charging.

Example Long-Range 40’ BEB Characteristics • Battery capacity: 250 - 660 kWh • Reliable range in transit service: < 150 miles on a single charge in most cases • Capital costs: About $740K for base bus • Charging approach: 50 - 125+ kW chargers, typically charged overnight or mid-day

Fast Charge BEBs

Fast charge BEBs have smaller battery packs that are capable of frequent high-powered charges. Fast charge BEBs typically charge on-route several times per day. If the on-route charging capabilities are implemented effectively, the buses will recharge every time they return to the charger and can run indefinitely without needing to stop for an extended charging session. If the system is deployed correctly, on-route charged buses receive sufficient charge each time at the charger to permit a bus to periodically miss a charge throughout the day, if needed for schedule adherence or charger maintenance. For this reason, fast charge BEBs can often be a 1:1 replacement for conventionally-fueled buses.

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Example Fast Charge 40’ BEB Characteristics • Battery capacity: 50 - 250 kWh • Reliable range in transit service: Indefinite range with periodic charging of sufficient duration • Capital costs: About $750K - $1M for base bus • Charging approach: 150 – 450+ kW overhead or wireless chargers, typically charged on- route

BEB Charging Infrastructure

Three options exist for BEB charging technology: plug-in charging, overhead conductive charging, and wireless inductive charging. Any of these types of chargers can be used to charge BEBs either at the depot, or on-route. Typically, plug-in chargers are primarily used to charge buses at the depot, and overhead conductive or wireless inductive chargers are used to charge buses on-route. However, the appropriate charging technology and approach will depend on fleet size, charger power, route characteristics, and available space. Overhead or inductive charging may be necessary for large-scale BEB fleets with limited space at the depot for chargers, while high-power plug-in chargers may be suitable for on-route range extension.

A BEB charging station will typically include (1) a transformer, (2) switchgear, (3) a charger, and (4) a dispenser (Figure 8). Additional equipment may be required due to the size of the deployment, requirements from your electric utility, and the charging method. For example, a single transformer and switchgear may support multiple chargers, and one charger may have more than one dispenser. Your electric utility is typically responsible for the grid and transformer assets, while your transit agency is typically responsible for the switchgear and other remaining charger assets (EEI, 2019).

Grid 1. Transformer 2. Switchgear 3. Charger 4. Dispenser Bus

Figure 8. Generalized battery charging station schematic

When selecting charging infrastructure, transit agencies must consider their route demands (e.g., speed, grade, stops,), bus service or blocking demands (e.g., deadheads, duration, and frequency), seasonal temperatures, passenger loads, available garage space and power, layover

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or transit center locations and space, and utility rate schedules and costs. Transit agencies may choose a combination of chargers and charging approaches, utilizing both depot and on-route charging, to fully meet their needs.

Integrating charging infrastructure into transit operations requires careful planning. BEB fueling infrastructure requires space and power. At scale, power demands will be significant. A thorough analysis of current and future ZEB plans should be conducted to install solutions that are scalable and make the most out of your facilities. Balance your infrastructure decisions with the understanding that the market is rapidly maturing, and future solutions may better accommodate your needs (See Phase 10 –Emerging Opportunities). Electric utilities are also becoming more interested in alternative solutions for charging infrastructure. Speak to your utility provider to understand what incentives or pilot programs they might offer to support the purchase, design, or installation of fueling infrastructure.

A summary of BEB charging infrastructure is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Battery Electric Bus Charging Infrastructure Summary TYPICAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES INSTALLATION Plug-in • Used to charge buses • Lower unit cost • Total infrastructure charging for a few hours (usually cost may be more • Additional overnight or between expensive for a chargers can be blocks) larger fleet than added for other charging • One or two buses per redundancy solutions charger with one or multiple dispensers • Slower charging • Charge power: 50 to • Identifying available 125+ kW space for equipment with large-scale • Compliant with SAE deployments J1772 or J3068 standard • Require staff to plug and unplug the buses Overhead • One charger serves • Total • Pantographs may conductive multiple buses infrastructure require additional charging costs may be less maintenance • Charging for 5 to 20+ expensive if fewer minutes at higher • Higher capital costs chargers are power and construction needed for a larger costs per charger • Charge power: 175 to fleet

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TYPICAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES INSTALLATION 600 kW available or • No manual • High power charging advertised in 2020 connections may result in higher peak demand • Compliant with SAE J3105 standard • Not all OEMs offer overhead conductive charging Wireless • One charger serves • No manual • Higher capital and inductive multiple buses connections or construction costs charging moving parts per charger • Charge power: 50 to 250 kW • Could be used by • Charging efficiency multiple vehicle varies based on bus types alignment • No right-of-way • No interoperability restrictions among different wireless charger • Total providers infrastructure costs may be less • Not all OEMs offer expensive if fewer inductive charging systems are needed for a larger fleet • Aesthetically more pleasing

As noted above, plug-in, overhead, and inductive chargers can be used either for depot charging or on-route charging. A summary of depot and on-route charging approaches is described in Table 4.

Table 4. Depot charging and on-route charging overview TYPICAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES INSTALLATION

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TYPICAL ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES INSTALLATION Depot • At the depot, • Consolidation of • Buses must be taken Charging maintenance charger and bus out of service to facility, or maintenance needs at charge garage one location • Fleetwide charge • Buses not restricted to management and specific routes optimization is required to ensure buses are ready for pullout and to minimize electricity costs • Consolidated charging at one location may result in higher peak demand On-route • Typically • One charger serves • Less redundancy due Charging installed on multiple buses to fewer chargers, route or at which could result in • Can allow for indefinite transit centers service outages bus operation where layovers • Property rights may be may occur • Buses are able to required, limiting remain in service while • Charging for 5 possible charger charging on route to 20 minutes locations on-route at higher power • May increase resilience • May interfere with during power outages road clearances, or if chargers are on a require a dedicated different utility feed or pull-off service area • Less flexibility in route assignments or to use buses for special service and emergency purposes since buses must stay near a charger

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Plug-in Chargers

Ground-mounted plug-in chargers (Figure 9) are a common choice for BEB charging, especially for overnight or mid-day depot charging. Most transit agencies utilizing depot charging have one charger per bus, or one higher-powered charger (i.e., 120+ kW) shared between two buses. Most higher-powered chargers have multiple dispensers that can charge several buses sequentially, limiting peak demand. Transit agencies should consider installing an extra plug-in charger(s) to provide redundancy if there is a maintenance issue. Plug-in chargers can have air- cooled or liquid-cooled cables, with air-cooled being more common. Air-cooled cables have a current limit of 200 A, therefore the total power delivered is dependent on the bus voltage.

One potentially significant challenge for plug-in chargers is finding adequate space for a large number of chargers. Your transit agency may be able to accommodate a small number of plug- in chargers with your currently available space, but finding space to install plug-in chargers for a full fleet of BEBs may be more challenging. Often, bus yards or transit centers already maximize the space available for bus parking, and purchasing additional land may not be feasible or possible. Most transit agencies will need to redesign bus yards to accommodate the additional space necessary for the charging infrastructure.

Space-saving solutions include having “fast charging lanes” with higher powered chargers, installing the dispenser remotely from the rest of the electronic equipment, or utilizing overhead gantries or other cord management solution where charging cords can be pulled down from the ceiling. There are limits to the length of charging cables, but these options may provide alternate solutions to installing all of the charging equipment directly next to where the bus will be parked.

Electrical infrastructure needs for a large fleet of BEBs may also be a significant challenge for transit agencies. 100 buses charging simultaneously at 100 kW each requires at least 10 MW of power. This will likely require significant power distribution upgrades. Ensure that you discuss your short- and long-term infrastructure planning needs with your electric utility, so they can help you plan for needed upgrades.

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Figure 9. Plug-in charging examples (left Image Source: Rodrigo Garrido/Reuters; right Image Source: UITP)

Overhead Conductive Charging

Overhead chargers are used for fast charge scenarios. Overhead charging equipment typically uses a pantograph, where the moving parts are on the bus (Figure 10), or inverted pantograph, where the moving parts are on the mast (Figure 11). Not all bus OEMs offer both options. For high- powered overhead or inductive charging solutions, an enclosure with the transformer, switchgear, and charging equipment would be located nearby as well (Figure 12). Figure 10. Overhead charger with pantograph (moving A benefit of using bus-mounted parts on bus) (Image source: Mike Deal, Winnipeg Free pantographs is that a malfunction with the Press) moving arm that attaches to the charger on one bus does not take the entire charging station out of service. Maintenance and inspection of the on-board charging equipment is easier if the buses return to the garage daily.

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Figure 11. Overhead charger with an inverted Figure 12. Overhead charging electrical pantograph (moving parts on charger) (Image equipment (Image Source: Star Metro) Source: TriMet)

A risk of the Inverted pantograph approach is that a malfunction of the charging station may have a significant impact on service, if the BEBs are unable to use the charger. Redundant equipment, or backup depot charging capabilities can mitigate service risks. However, the primary benefit of the inverted pantograph approach is that you do not have to purchase and maintain a pantograph for every bus, which can be a significant cost and add weight to the bus.

With either approach, operators must be trained on proper alignment for overhead charging, as improper alignment could cause a bus to miss a charge or have less available time to charge if the operator has to circle back around to the charger, if used on-route. Ensure that your on- route charging scenario is flexible enough to allow a bus to miss at least one charge throughout the day without impacting service.

Inductive Charging

Inductive chargers may also be used for high-powered charging, although maximum power levels for inductive charging have lagged behind high-powered conductive charging. Inductive chargers are built into the roadway, which eliminates any concerns about overhead clearances, does not obstruct sidewalks or roads, and may be more aesthetically pleasing. There are no moving parts with an inductive charger, which may lower maintenance requirements (Figure 13). However, there may be significant costs to remove and repair the charger if there is an issue.

Proper alignment is critical for achieving maximum charging power, therefore drivers typically use visual cues for alignment. Figure 14 shows an example of how painted guides at the charging station can support proper alignment. Ensure that your on-route charging scenario is

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flexible enough to allow a bus to miss at least one charge throughout the day without impacting service, if a bus receives less of a charge than planned due to improper alignment.

Figure 13. Example of inductive charging capabilities (Source: CARTA)

Figure 14. Example guide on the door to instruct a driver if they are properly aligned for on-route charging (Image Source: CTE)

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1 PHASE 1 –ASSESS YOUR NEEDS AND REQUIREMENTS

PHASE 1.1 Overview Needs and Requirements 1 Making the decision to deploy ZEB technology can be driven by many goals, including: Technology PHASE SeleSpecificationsction and • Lower operational costs Specificationsand Selection 2 • State/Federal mandates

PHASE • Environmental benefits Funding 3 Realization of your goals for deployment will depend on careful planning and a feasible long-term deployment strategy. There is Fueling PHASE Infrastructure no one-size-fits-all solution. Your approach will be driven by Strategy 4 unique variables that are specific to your transit agency’s service needs, available resources, and institutional goals and priorities. Fueling PHASE Carefully weigh these variables when making any decisions Infrastructure Deployment 5 related to ZEB deployment to ensure that you will receive the greatest benefit out of your investment, and effectively achieve Acceptance, PHASE your long-term goals. Validation and Deployment 6 The ZEB industry is still maturing; therefore, your transit agency

PHASE should begin each deployment by researching the current Training technology options available. Any bus will likely have a service life 7 of at least twelve years, however the capabilities and

PHASE performance of an older ZEB model may have no bearing on how OpeDataration and today’s technology will perform in your service area. Each MainMonitenaorinngce 8 deployment’s success will depend on how effectively balance capital requirements, institutional goals, operational constraints, PHASE DataOperation and and changing technology capabilities throughout the service life of MoniMaintenaorinngce 9 an individual bus and from the industry at large.

PHASE OpeEmerrationging and MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10

Best practices included for assessing your needs and requirements include: • Initiating the planning process for your ZEB deployment by engaging key staff members to defining short- and long-term goals and constraints; designing smaller deployments to meet those goals. • Identifying applicable regulations and mandates that you must comply with, as well as and grant opportunities that will support your deployments. • Engaging internal and external stakeholders to ensure your efforts are properly coordinated and incorporate the constraints and needs of each group.

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1.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations Project Managers • Executives from all departments should participate in characterization of your transit agency’s short- and long-term ZEB needs and priorities. Ask for support in engaging leaders and making project planning a priority. • Research available technologies as well as capital, construction, and operational costs prior to your leadership discussion. Talk with OEMs, experienced consultants, and other ZEB operators to help guide your discussion and educate leadership on the advantages, disadvantages, and costs of each deployment option.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • The costs and benefits of service changes to accommodate ZEBs should be carefully considered before implementation. • Incorporate required upgrades or retrofits to maintenance facilities into short- and long-term ZEB planning.

• Identify training needs for operations and maintenance staff. • Route distances and dwell times (for re-charging) will be relevant in determining what service modifications may be needed. • Facility managers should understand space and power requirements of fueling infrastructure and be ready to advise on installation options for your transit agency.

Procurement • Provide insight into your transit agency’s balance between available operating and capital funds, which may influence the timing of ZEB deployments, and the type of technology selected. • Understand your transit agency’s long and short-term priorities for ZEBs.

• Review relevant State and Federal regulations that require your transit agency’s compliance.

External Stakeholders • Electric utilities should be consulted early to plan short- and long-term electrical infrastructure needs, review available rate schedules, and discuss possible incentives or pilot programs. • ZEB consultants may be required to assist with project planning, modeling, and

fleet transition planning. • Existing ZEB OEMs, including bus and fueling station providers, should be consulted before each deployment to ensure the latest technology options are analyzed. • Transit agencies who have already deployed ZEB technology are valuable resources, especially those with similar climate, topography, and service needs. • Consult any impacted labor unions to ensure needed accommodations can be implemented in your ZEB deployment plan.

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1.3 Start Planning for ZEBs

Zero-emission buses are cleaner, quieter, and more efficient than conventionally-fueled vehicles. While transit agencies around the world are choosing to deploy ZEBs, there is no one- size-fits-all solution. Your approach will be driven by your transit agency’s specific needs.

Figure 1-1 outlines a process to guide ZEB planning. Establish a team with staff from across the transit agency (e.g., planning, operations, maintenance, procurement staff) that will spearhead the ZEB planning efforts and be engaged throughout all ZEB deployments.

Conduct a Design smaller Establish needs ZEB fleet fleetwide deployment and constraints implementation assessment projects

Iterative planning as technology advances

Figure 1-1. Generalized process to kick-off ZEB planning efforts

Establishing Needs and Constraints

Set up a kick-off meeting with your internal team to establish your transit agency’s needs, requirements, and constraints that will drive ZEB deployments. Consider using the following guiding questions to determine clear goals:

• Why is your transit agency moving towards ZEBs? What are your priorities for the deployment? (Figure 1-2) o Minimizing operating or capital costs? o Reducing air pollution or carbon emissions? o Creating positive health impacts in environmental justice or disadvantaged communities? o Minimizing disruption to current operations? Figure 1-2. Potential guiding factors for o Complying with regulations or mandates? ZEB deployments § Are ZEBs right for your transit agency? How can the technology be used cost effectively in your service area? § What decisions have already been made related to ZEB deployments? § What percentage of your fleet are you considering transitioning to ZEBs? o Are you interested in testing the technology with an initial pilot program? o Are you planning on eventually transitioning your full fleet to ZEBs?

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Common considerations and motivations for ZEB deployments include:

1. Capital availability Capital availability can be a limiting factor Funding Opportunities in ZEB deployments. ZEB buses generally cost more than their diesel or CNG Several State and Federal funding counterparts, and with any new opportunities are available to offset ZEB deployment, additional infrastructure may costs (See Phase 3 – Capital Costs & be required. Understand what capital Funding Opportunities). Keep in mind your transit agency has available at the that many of those programs require start of your project planning. local contributions to the project.

2. Regulations or mandates State and local governments are beginning to adopt laws and regulations in support of the deployment of zero-emission vehicles. Some of the regulatory actions are designed to encourage the consideration of zero-emission vehicles when making purchase decisions while others are establishing purchase requirements. Understand what regulations or mandates may be applicable to your transit agency and review the planning and reporting requirements.

For example, CARB adopted the Innovative Clean Transit (ICT) Regulation in December 2018. The regulation requires transit fleets in the state to transition to zero-emission technologies by 2040 and establishes a phased approach for ZEB purchases from 2023 until 2029, after which all purchases will be required to be zero-emission. Transit agencies are required to submit transition plans detailing how they will achieve the mandated goals.

The Federal and State Laws and Incentives section of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Alternative Fuel Data Center website provides an inclusive listing of laws and incentives in support of alternative fuels. Users can filter by state, fuel type, and user type.

3. Operational and maintenance cost savings In some markets, electricity for charging BEBs may be less expensive or less volatile than purchasing fuel for diesel buses. In addition, ZEB propulsion systems are more efficient and have fewer moving parts than conventional drive systems, potentially resulting in less wear and tear. The lack of an internal combustion engine also negates the need for oil changes, while the use of regenerative braking typically lengthens the life of brake pads. Market immaturity makes actual cost savings difficult to prove, therefore while operational and maintenance cost savings may ultimately be realized, use caution when making business decisions that rely on these potential cost savings.

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4. Environmental benefits Transportation is the largest contributor Serving Environmental Justice to greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S., Communities accounting for almost 30% of the total. More than 25% transportation related A study by the Union of Concerned emissions comes from the medium- and Scientists found that on average, African heavy-duty vehicle markets (EPA, 2017). Americans, Asian Americans and Latinos Transit agencies look to BEBs and FCEBs breathe in about 66 percent more PM to eliminate harmful tailpipe emissions 2.5 from cars, trucks and buses than and localized pollution, resulting in white residents in 12 Northeastern/Mid- cleaner air and healthier communities. Atlantic states (Reichmuth, 2019). Deploying ZEBs on blocks that serve When looking at deployment benefits, environmental justice communities consider “well-to-wheel” emissions. While provides direct health benefits to the ZEBs have no harmful tailpipe emissions, people living there. Transit agencies, like there will most likely be upstream the Massachusetts Bay Transportation greenhouse gas emissions from electricity Authority (MBTA), are prioritizing ZEB generation for charging BEBs or hydrogen service in disadvantaged or production and delivery for fueling FCEBs. environmental justice communities to help reduce local pollution and address The Greenhouse gases, Regulated public health inequities (Conservation Emissions, and Energy use in Law Foundation, 2019). Transportation (GREET) Model is a tool that simulates well-to-wheel emissions of various vehicle types and can be a useful resource in estimating the local health benefits of your deployment.

Conduct a Fleetwide Assessment

After you have an understanding of your high-level needs, requirements, and constraints, conduct a fleetwide assessment and develop an initial "master plan” that will serve as a roadmap for your ZEB deployment. The assessment should consider your deployment goals and constraints as well as your bus replacement schedule, to ensure ZEBs replace non-ZEBs at the end of their service life. While route and bus modeling (See Section 2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation ) will provide tailored insight into ZEB performance in your service area, consider that ZEBs, specifically BEBs, may not be a 1:1 replacement for conventionally-fueled vehicles due to range limitations. Your master plan should guide your deployment schedule, infrastructure needs, required facility upgrades, and training and provide strategies for overcoming challenges and ensuring all of your service needs are met.

You should revisit your “master plan” every two years to ensure that your assumptions are still valid and incorporate:

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1.3.1 Technological advancements • Regulatory requirements • Changes to your transit agency’s operations • Lessons learned from other deployments • Deployment data from your ZEB operations

Design Smaller Deployments

Depending on your deployment size, consider sequential, smaller ZEB deployments as part of your deployment strategy. No transit agency will transition to a full fleet of ZEBs overnight. Your master plan should include a timeline of smaller deployment projects that will help you reach your long-term deployment goals. This approach allows you to learn from early deployments while giving you time to address needed facility expansion and accommodate industry advancements, saving time and money. Balance your short-term goals with solutions that can scale or, at the very least, don’t conflict with future deployments. The outcomes of your early deployments will provide invaluable information on the actual performance of ZEBs in your service area, guiding future ZEB decisions.

Deployments in Action

Several transit agencies that have made larger than needed initial investments in charging infrastructure in anticipation of future growth. Upsizing transformer pads or laying additional conduit may add minor costs to your current deployment but may help you avoid greater costs in the future. Transit agencies with known or likely plans for expansion should consider what investments today may help reduce future investments.

1.4 Stakeholder Engagement

A successful ZEB deployment will require input from staff from across your transit agency and from external organizations. Engage with representatives from these different departments or groups early to ensure that you have the information you need to make informed decisions. Early interaction with stakeholders will help you determine their level of support and identify the information they will require throughout the project.

1.4.1 Transit Agency Staff Involve staff from the following departments in the planning process:

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• Operations and Planning – Operations and planning staff will gather necessary information to develop project schedules and timelines. These departments will also identify blocks or routes that would be eligible for ZEB deployment, and will manage the implementation of any necessary operational changes to accommodate charging or fueling times. Operations and planning staff will also collect and report deployment data required by any regulatory agencies or transit agency staff. • Maintenance and Engineering – Maintenance and engineering staff will drive the development of technical specifications for bus procurements and provide valuable input into the bus design. Maintenance staff will keep an inventory of spare parts and ensure scaffolding, necessary to service rooftop equipment on ZEBs, or other tools required for ZEB maintenance are on-site. • Training – Training coordinators will identify requirements for operator and maintenance training programs prior to ZEB deployment. It will be critical that maintenance staff gain in-depth knowledge of the bus to make repairs that keep the buses in service. • Facilities – Facilities staff will be responsible for managing the construction and operation of any fueling or charging equipment and will work closely with maintenance staff to ensure coordinated operation of the ZEB fleet and charging or fueling infrastructure. • Finance and Procurement – Procurement staff will assist with pursuing funding opportunities, fulfilling grant requirements, issuing RFPs for buses and charging or fueling infrastructure, and developing financial plans to support the integration of ZEB technology into your fleet. Keeping procurement staff informed on regulatory requirements, technological capabilities, and environmental benefits will help them better identify and pursue potential funding sources. • IT – IT staff can coordinate efforts to manage and analyze bus deployment data and support any data collection tools that are utilized by the buses and charging or fueling equipment, as well as handle upgrades needed for additional data access at the depot for buses or chargers. • Sustainability manager – The sustainability manager will help advocate ZEB implementation, quantify environmental benefits, and identify opportunities for financial support from additional environmental programs. • Contract operator – If your transit agency utilizes contract operators, you will need to review and update their typical terms and requirements to accommodate changes in operations for ZEBs. • Board or executive leadership – You may need to request policy direction to support ZEB deployment from your transit agency’s executive team. The Board can also and assist in establishing goals and identify sources of funding or reallocate resources in support of a fleet transition plan. You may want to educate your Board or executive team on ZEB technology and expected performance in your service area to set appropriate expectations. • Public Information Officers (PIOs)- PIOs will coordinate external communication regarding the ZEB deployments. Any communication or publicity will help align community support and promote funding sources for bus deployments.

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1.4.2 External Stakeholders External stakeholders such as government agencies, electric utilities, and labor unions will be critical to a successful ZEB deployment. Engagement with community stakeholder groups will help build support for your projects. Effective planning will allow you to build the case for the benefits of ZEBs with external stakeholders. Some groups may question the higher up-front costs, and some may have concerns about the increased load on the electrical grid. Consider highlighting the community and environmental benefits, as well as your transit agency’s commitment to serving the public with more efficient, cleaner technology to increase support for the project.

Identify contacts at the following organizations to engage during the planning process:

• Local, state, and federal government – These government organizations may administer funding opportunities for purchasing ZEBs or conducting planning studies. Your state or county may also have regulations related to ZEB deployment that your transit agency must comply with, or climate action plans or carbon reduction goals that may support the deployment of zero-emission vehicles. Ensure that you identify and understand any relevant regulations, as well as reporting requirements. • Labor unions – New job tasks may be required to test, operate, and maintain ZEBs. Therefore, coordinating with labor unions will ensure that your staff is aware of any new responsibilities, and that you can address any concerns before your buses arrive. • Electric utility – Your electric utility will be a critical partner throughout your ZEB planning process. Your utility can provide guidance on short- and long-term infrastructure needs based on your fleet size, can help evaluate charging or fueling strategies based on available rate schedules to optimize operations, and may provide incentives or pilot programs that minimize operational costs. Meet with your utility early in your planning process to share information about your planned ZEB deployments to discuss the project needs and the constraints that both organizations face. Consider including other ZEB operators, local environmental interest groups, or government representatives in your discussion, as they may help advocates for ZEB-friendly rate structures. • Environmental justice and other interest groups – Environmental justice communities, community equity groups, and public health agencies may be interested in your transit agency’s approach to deploying ZEBs. Engaging with these groups can help your transit agency understand how to address any potential equity concerns, demonstrate direct health benefits through reduced air pollution, and ensure that your deployment or fleet transition plans are compliant with regulations.

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Learn from early adopters, non-profit organizations, and industry workgroups

Discuss your goals with a transit agency that has deployed ZEBs to learn from their experiences. Connecting with other agencies can help you avoid pitfalls to ensure that you deploy the right technology effectively. Transit agencies of similar size, or located in a similar climate as you, can help set realistic expectations of range or bus performance. Keep in mind that while a transit agency may have similar operating conditions, if you are served by a different electric utility or under a different rate structure, your ZEB operational costs can vary significantly.

Recognizing the advantages of collaborative learning, several workgroups have formed or have started to include discussion and learning opportunities for Zero-emission technology, including:

• The Zero Emission Bus Resource Alliance (ZEBRA) is a national professional association for transit agencies to share lessons learned about zero-emission buses.

• The American Public Transportation Association (APTA) hosts various conference and webinars each year with many containing information on developing technologies. APTA’s Future View webinar series invites industry experts to join in discussion on critical topics in the industry, including emerging technologies. In addition, APTA Committee webinars provide specific content on best practices, critical issues, and challenges facing the industry.

• The Renewable Hydrogen Fuel Cell Collaborative created the Midwest Hydrogen Center of Excellence to act as a regional ambassador for the advancement of hydrogen- powered, zero-emission vehicles and infrastructure in the Midwest. The center serves as a resource to transit agencies by providing education on hydrogen fuel cell technology and information on funding resources.

• The International Council on Clean Transportation is an independent non-profit organization founded to provide research and technical analysis to environmental regulators in support of low-carbon fuels initiatives.

• Hosted by Sunline Transit and funded by the FTA, the West Coast Center of Excellence serves to bring education to transit agencies looking to establish or increase their zero- emission fleets and technologies.

• The International Association of Public Transport (UITP) is a non-profit advocacy organization that works to enhance quality of life and economic well-being by supporting and promoting sustainable transport in urban areas worldwide.

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1.5 Data Collection

The following information will serve as inputs for short- and long-term ZEB planning efforts, such as route and rate modeling, technology selection, and stakeholder engagement so you may best utilize ZEBs in your service area. Coordinate with internal and external stakeholders as needed to collect the necessary information.

• Route data – Data for representative routes in your service area will support modeling efforts. The results of modeling will help you understand the energy requirements for completing various routes, which will inform vehicle range requirements, blocks that would be eligible for ZEB deployment, and the fleet size needed to complete required service. • Operational need for ZEBs – Based on the goals of your deployment, your transit agency may have already identified a specific need that ZEBs could fill. For example, a downtown circulator may represent a route that can achieve visibility for the new fleet. Modeling efforts will help confirm if your planned blocks are feasible with your selected technology. • Operating metrics for non-ZEB fleet – Establishing a baseline for operations of your non- ZEB fleet such as monthly or annual mileage, fuel and maintenance costs, and availability can be used to compare costs and performance once the ZEBs are in service. • Climate information – On-board HVAC systems require a significant amount of energy, especially for BEBs. Higher heating and cooling requirements can have a large impact on range, although heating generally has higher energy requirements than cooling. Outdoor BEB depot parking in cold weather and on-route fast charging in hot weather can also impact charging rates. Review monthly average temperatures and common weather patterns that may impact driving conditions (e.g., snow, ice, extreme heat, extreme cold) to determine cabin heating and cooling requirements. • Planning documents – Review documents such as Capital Infrastructure Plans, Climate Action Plans, vehicle retirement schedules, financial constraints, and priorities for future investments to identify how ZEB technology will fit into your transit agency’s planning cycles and activities. • Electric utility information – Review past electricity bills to understand your electricity costs and the utility rate schedule. Before deploying ZEBs, you may request to be moved to a different rate schedule if the schedule better matches your service needs. It is important to understand your options for different rates to determine the most efficient and affordable way to deploy and charge your buses. Request reliability reports to understand what frequency and types of outages you should plan for.

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1.6 Fleet Transition Considerations

Current regulations and incentives have many transit agencies looking at large (i.e., >100 buses) ZEB deployments or full fleet transitions.

While there are typically “low hanging fruit” applications for early ZEB deployments, transitioning your entire fleet to ZEBs will require careful planning to determine the mix of technology to meet all of your service needs. There are very few large fleets worldwide that have fully transitioned to ZEBs, providing few industry best practices to guide the planning efforts. Future lessons learned from large-scale deployments in China and European countries will be valuable to U.S. transit agencies and the ZEB industry as a whole.

In the meantime, external consultants and industry experts may be useful for developing large transition plans, as the power and facility requirements will necessitate licensed professionals and the complexities of deployment are considerable. Specific challenges related to BEB and FCEB infrastructure your transit agency may encounter when deploying a large-scale ZEB fleet are described below.

BEB infrastructure Charging infrastructure for large BEB deployments will require significant power and space to place equipment. While more straightforward workarounds may be available for your first few BEBs, some transit agencies will need to re-design their bus yards to accommodate the additional equipment. For example, large-scale deployments worldwide use gantries for overhead depot charging or for cord management. Consult licensed engineering design firms to assist with charging infrastructure planning and installation.

Smart charging capabilities will be critical for large-scale BEB deployments to keep electricity costs down while still meeting all service requirements.

FCEB infrastructure Hydrogen fueling infrastructure can generally scale more easily than battery charging infrastructure, since adding capacity may require more storage but can often utilize the existing fueling footprint and dispensers, much like existing diesel and CNG fueling stations. Identify opportunities for scaling up charging or hydrogen fueling infrastructure in earlier deployments to avoid repeating costly construction activities. Your fleet transition plans should ensure that you maintain service and fueling for any current non-ZEBs throughout the transition.

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Determining advantageous installation of infrastructure will be important for both BEBs and FCEBs. Depending on the size of your fleet and the timing of your individual deployment projects, it will likely not be practical to install infrastructure today that meets all of your long- term ZEB goals. However, there may be opportunities to complete planning or construction activities that readily support anticipated expansion. Consider the placement of buses and charging infrastructure, required upgrades to maintenance facilities, and power requirements. For example, during a lot reconstruction consider building out all of the underground infrastructure that may be needed rather than retrofitting as the fleet size increases.

1.7 Additional Resources

• Alternative Fuel Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy • Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET) Model, U.S. Department of Energy • Innovative Clean Transit (ICT) Regulation, California Air Resources Board • Zero Emission Bus Resource Alliance (ZEBRA)

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2 PHASE 2 –TECHNOLOGY SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION

PHASE Needs and 2.1 Overview Requirements 1 Your ZEB technology selection should be based on assumed

Technology PHASE performance on your routes, under your service constraints. The Selection and efficiency and range of ZEBs can vary significantly between Specifications 2 different bus models and types of routes. Temperatures also

PHASE affect ZEB performance, as HVAC systems can consume significant Funding energy, lowering overall efficiencies. Your transit agency can 3 evaluate bus performance in advance of ZEB deployments through modeling and route simulation, operating a test bus, or analyzing Fueling PHASE Infrastructure data from other ZEB deployments. Strategy 4 Some method of bus modeling or data analysis is critical for Fueling PHASE understanding expected bus performance and informing charging Infrastructure Deployment 5 schedule requirements for BEBs.

Acceptance, PHASE Your bus and infrastructure RFPs should specify the technical and Validation and Deployment performance requirements that satisfy your service needs within 6 the constraints of your operating conditions. Utilize the

PHASE knowledge of your service area, transit agency operational Training requirements, and results of modeling efforts to identify your 7 specification essentials. Consider both technical and performance

PHASE specifications to ensure delivered buses and fueling infrastructure OpeDataration and perform as needed. Ensure procurement documents also provide MainMonitenaorinngce 8 for desired inspection and acceptance testing plans as well as any warranty requirements. PHASE DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce 9 Pay close attention to specification sections unique to ZEBs, including: PHASE OpeEmerrationging and • Service requirements MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10 • Bus charging or hydrogen fueling requirements • High voltage or hydrogen safety • Battery warranties and measurements of battery health

Best practices included for technology selection and specification include: • Selecting suitable ZEB technology and deployment strategy based on bus performance evaluation using modeling and deployment data analysis. • Developing clear technical specifications and performance requirements to ensure your buses and infrastructure meets your needs. • Ensuring ZEB procurement documents include thorough and effective considerations for inspections, acceptance testing, and warranties.

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2.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations

Project Managers • Base technology selection on modeling results and specific transit agency requirements, as bus performance can vary greatly based on temperature, topography, and driving habits. • Ensure route modeling efforts do not simply rely on OEM-provided range or energy efficiency estimates as those are typically based on ideal operating conditions and may not reflect your transit service demands. If BEB technology is selected, consider charge and utility rate modeling to identify your constraints for charging windows, suitable blocks or routes, flexibility in planning for equipment, and costs. • Coordinate with your operations and maintenance staff to develop a clear technical and performance specifications for your bus and fueling infrastructure • Ensure all expectations are clearly defined in your procurement documents and final contracts.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Participate in route modeling discussions, as schedule accommodations may be required due to range limitations for BEBs. • Based on expected battery warranty conditions, evaluate how battery degradation may impact service planning over the life of the bus.

• Operation and maintenance of the bus will affect performance. Ensure adequate training requirements are included in contracts.

Procurement • Determine the best type of procurement approach for your bus and infrastructure selections (e.g., IFB, RFP, RFI). • Coordinate with the Project Manager, Operations, and Maintenance to ensure procurement documents include the required technical and performance

specifications without unintentionally creating vendor bias. • Ensure final contracts include the same specifications, as well your inspection plan, acceptance testing requirements, and adequate time for testing. • Consult APTA guidelines for ZEB procurements to understand existing industry standards.

External Stakeholders • Selected OEM(s) should be engaged quickly to finalize clear contractual specifications and requirements. Be sure all expectations are defined, measurable, and understood by all parties.

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2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation

Comprehensive analysis that evaluates potential bus performance under a range of conditions is one of the only ways to predict success of your deployment in your service area. Transit agencies have used the following approaches to evaluate bus performance in advance of ZEB deployments:

• Bus modeling and route simulation • Evaluating data from a test bus demonstration by an OEM or nearby transit agency • Analyzing data from other ZEB deployments

Regardless of the approach taken, it is critical to evaluate bus performance under all conditions expected in your service throughout the life of the bus. Climate, bus specifications, and route conditions are only a few of the variables that can impact ZEB efficiency. Understanding the impacts of these variables on energy efficiency will ensure that you select the technology that will meet your expectations and provide the most value.

Bus modeling and route simulation is a cost-effective method to assess the operational requirements of your ZEB fleet. A suggested approach for modeling is described in the next section.

2.3.1 Bus Modeling and Simulation Considerations

Modeling and simulation provide the most valuable estimates of range and energy consumption, as results are specific to the unique conditions of your transit service. Route modeling helps alleviate “range anxiety” by providing confidence that a bus meets expectations for range and performance. Vehicle range and energy consumption estimates allow you to identify feasible blocks for your ZEB technology, and inform charging schedule requirements for BEBs.

Most OEMs provide mileage range estimates that are based on Altoona testing conditions, which may not reflect actual transit service in your service area (See Appendix B). OEMs may also offer route modeling services, but you should evaluate the model assumptions and results carefully to ensure your service area is accurately represented. While modeling will provide a more accurate assessment of range than Altoona test results, use caution when trying to predict a mileage range for your bus. The total miles possible on a certain day will vary based on many factors that affect efficiency, including:

• Route conditions – Speed, stop and go requirements, door openings, traffic conditions, and gradeability. • Passenger loading – The total weight of the bus.

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• Ambient air temperature – Heating and cooling energy required to maintain passenger comfort. The impacts of HVAC system usage on energy efficiency is more significant for BEBs than for FCEBs, since FCEBs can utilize waste heat to heat the cabin. • Driving style – CTE has observed more than 25% differences in energy efficiency based on driver performance and driving style (e.g., braking and acceleration techniques). • Battery state of health – The usable battery capacity remaining for the bus.

Long-range buses have battery packs that weigh up to 6,500 pounds. Gross vehicle and axle weight rating limitations may reduce passenger capacity. State regulations and local codes for curb weight may apply as well. Conduct analysis on desired capacity and weight constraints before committing to a long-range or quick-charge bus strategy.

2.3.2 Bus Modeling and Route Simulation Approach

A modeling a simulation tool that accommodates varying powertrain configurations and components will provide the most flexibility for service simulations. The added capability of modeling fueling configurations will help further define refueling windows and provide service parameters.

Regardless of the tools used, ensure the analysis utilizes your specific bus specification, your route information, and your load profiles. The Argonne System Modeling and Control Group’s Autonomie can be used to perform powertrain modeling and simulation. By supplying different duty cycles, powertrain configurations, and bus components, Autonomie can run a simulated operation of a bus on route to determine how the bus will perform in any given situation.

Steps for successful modeling and simulation include:

1. Complete an initial block screening - Categorize your blocks with an initial assessment of estimated energy requirements, considering both mileage and time, to understand the impacts of drivetrain and auxiliary system energy: o Are some blocks not possible for a BEB on a single charge due to their duration? o What are the shorter blocks that can easily be completed by a BEB? o Which blocks are you uncertain about?

Figure 2-1 shows an example of a block screening approach to identify blocks that are likely satisfied, possibly satisfied, or unfeasible for the modeled ZEB. The "Possibly" blocks are a good focus for further modeling or analysis.

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Figure 2-1. Block screening example for routes that are likely, unfeasible, and possibly able to be completed by ZEBs

2. Collect data from route(s) that are representative of your service area – Current route data will be inputs to your model. Collecting data for the full block duration over multiple days will help reduce sampling bias and understand the influences of traffic for a single route. Identifying routes that are representative of the conditions throughout your service area will allow you to apply the results broadly without having to collect data from and model each route individually.

3. Model "nominal" and "strenuous" vehicle efficiencies – It is not feasible to evaluate the bus capabilities under every combination of variables that affect bus efficiency and range. Define "nominal" and "strenuous" energy profiles to determine upper and lower bounds for possible energy usage in your service area.

The "nominal" efficiency is intended to represent an average day.

The "strenuous" efficiency is intended to represent a hard day for a ZEB that is reasonably likely to occur. This efficiency is not intended to represent the worst-case scenario.

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You will likely experience days that are more and less energy efficient than the nominal and strenuous conditions. These days are not representative of typical service, and may not be useful planning tools. Planning for the “worst case” day may not be feasible or practical, however, the results of a "worst case" simulation can be instructive and can inform the limitations of ZEB performance.

Varying road conditions, traffic, HVAC usage, highway driving, and hill climbs will drive routes towards either a nominal or strenuous conditions. The following parameters may help define a "strenuous" efficiency:

• Vehicle weight: At or close to GVWR • Climate conditions: Average temperature of a "worst case" month (averaging over a period of 10 years), which will be either in the summer or winter, depending on your location. Incorporate any relevant climate conditions often experienced in that month. • Route conditions: Identify a challenging speed profile and grade profile in your service area, such as a high speed route, or a slower speed route with heavy HVAC loads or long idling windows.

Model conditions over a sample of routes that are representative of your service area, and then propagate the efficiencies over similar routes, as needed. Break out energy requirements for motive and auxiliary loads. Treating time and distance separately allows you to more easily account for changes in planned service, if a bus is out for longer than expected.

Depending on your service goals (e.g., 100% ZEB route or fleet), you may want to define your strenuous efficiency using more severe conditions to ensure that your selected technology will always be able to meet your needs. Alternatively, consider developing decision-support tools that help dispatch understand the expected range based on daily conditions.

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4. Model impacts from battery degradation In addition to nominal and strenuous duty cycles, it is important to understand what impact battery degradation will have on your ZEB capabilities. As the “useable” energy from your bus decreases, so will the available range. Figure 2-2 provides an example comparison of the available energy remaining to complete a specific block with a new and old BEB battery.

Figure 2-2. Example usable energy for a new and old BEB battery

Battery degradation will likely be the most significant in long range BEBs, where higher depths of discharge are seen on a regular basis. On-route charged BEBs and FCEBs typically maintain battery SOC in a narrower range. Most OEM battery warranties will replace batteries when they are at 70-80% of their initial capacity. Understand what service needs your ZEB can satisfy when the batteries are approaching warranty limits. This will be necessary to ensure full use of your buses throughout all stages of battery health.

5. Incorporate BEB charging - With transit agencies recognizing the cost of power at scale, it is becoming increasingly important to optimize BEB charging scenarios that minimize costs while meeting service needs. Based on your initial deployment plans, incorporate depot charging, on route charging, or both in your models. Account for any factors that may affect charger performance or charge rates, such as power or current limitations, battery cooling system or cell limitations, as well as impacts from misaligned charge connections.

Transit agencies planning for tight charge windows need to make sure charge times are achievable and realistic. For depot-charged BEBs, energy is often required to precondition the batteries and cabin prior to operation, which can reduce the effective charge rate. If your charger isn’t able to charge at the expected rate, charge times will increase, putting

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schedule adherence or route completion at risk. For on-route charging scenarios make sure you account not just for charge time, but also for time to dock to the charger and disengage from the charger.

Deployments in Action

A transit agency utilizing an overhead fast charger and found that re-charge times were unexpectedly longer on very hot days. Our analysis helped identify that the charger/battery management system was limiting charge rate to prevent battery damage from overheating.

6. Apply results - A common adage is "All models are wrong, but some are useful." Use the modeling results as an educational tool to get an understanding of energy requirements and the relative differences between seasonal behavior and expected performance.

Based on modeling results, determine any needed changes to operational schedules, such as charging layovers, route adjustments, or preconditioning before pullout. High heating or cooling requirements can also impact the range of a BEB. Identify if seasonal adjustments must be made to the ZEB deployment plan to accommodate longer charge times or shorter blocks.

Deployments in Action

A transit agency in a very cold climate and found that snowy or icy conditions impacted traction and reduced regenerative braking, lowering the total range of the bus. Plan for potential for reduced range when designing winter service plans.

7. Validate and update model – Once you receive your ZEBs, conduct validation testing and use real-world data to update model assumptions and parameters, making the model more accurate for future deployments.

2.4 Technology Selection

Use the results of modeling efforts and the evaluation of your service needs to select the desired technology. and fueling approach (i.e., charging strategy or hydrogen fueling approach) for your deployment. To supplement modeling results, some transit agencies choose to release a Request for Information (RFI) to request information about available ZEB models, propulsion technology, battery chemistry, business models, and proposed solutions for charging and service needs. This approach will add time to your procurement schedule, but it may be particularly helpful if your transit agency is unfamiliar with the available bus technology. The information you learn from the RFI will help you understand the limitations and possible applications of available technology.

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Once you are confident in your selected technology, you will issue a procurement to purchase the buses and associated infrastructure.

2.5 Procurement Considerations

Some states have FTA-compliant bus procurement contracts that include ZEBs. Procuring ZEBs off of an existing state contract can save time and money, however developing technical specifications specific to your requirements is critical even with this approach.

Some transit agencies choose to issue separate procurements for buses and fueling infrastructure. However, one RFP can be issued to procure both buses and infrastructure. The latter approach can streamline procurement and management efforts, and may be beneficial for transit agencies looking for a turnkey solution for ZEB infrastructure, but may result in higher total costs and less flexibility in the chosen technology combination. If separate procurements are utilized, ensure that the project timelines are planned so that the fueling infrastructure is installed and commissioned prior to the buses being delivered.

In all solicitations, ensure adherence to internal procurement guidelines and avoid specifications that create unintentional vendor bias.

The following sections provide information on key components of an RFP that will inform your final contract specification.

2.5.1 Technical Specifications

A thorough and detailed technical specification is one of the best ways to mitigate risks of receiving buses and fueling infrastructure that do not meet your expectations. If your transit agency does not have significant internal expertise on ZEBs, outside experts are recommended for drafting a comprehensive specification for both your bus and fueling infrastructure.

At a minimum, your bus and fueling infrastructure specifications should require that: • The delivered good shall adhere to all applicable federal, State, and local regulations, codes, ordinances, or guidance, including Altoona testing, Buy America regulations, and ADA requirements, among others (e.g., it must operate legally). • The delivered good shall be able to effectively operate in the intended local environment (including topography, climate, etc.) and in accordance with contract specifications (including any bus-charger interoperability requirements). • The delivered good shall be manufactured in accordance with sound industry standards and in compliance with relevant codes and standards, which may include but are not limited to high-voltage components and wiring, hydrogen fuel storage and supply, electromagnetic radiation, and fire safety and suppression. • In the absence of a specification, the OEM will adhere to internal manufacturing standards and quality controls

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The sections below provide additional guidance for developing technical specifications for the bus and fueling infrastructure.

2.5.1.1 Bus Specifications

As an emerging industry, standardized, well-vetted procurement guidelines for ZEBs do not yet exist. Recognizing this, APTA established an industry work group to develop BEB-specific procurement guidelines (Figure 2-3). These new guidelines are expected to be available in 2020. Sharing many characteristics and components, these guidelines can be used as a starting point for FCEB specifications. Consulting other transit agencies that have deployed ZEBs or reviewing publicly available ZEB procurement documents can provide useful guidance on common considerations for your specification. Your final bus specification should include the details necessary to ensure your ZEB will perform as needed throughout its useful life. Figure 2-3. Cover of Draft APTA Bus Procurement Guidelines (Image Source: The following topics are unique to ZEBs and should APTA) be considered when developing your specification:

1. High voltage systems and components BEBs and FCEBs contain high-voltage systems that require adherence to industry standards and supplier guidelines for safe operation, including but not limited to ground-fault detection systems, interlock circuits, DC and AC isolation detection systems, and placards for high-voltage panels. Your specification should also require certification that subcomponents were installed in accordance with those standards and with supplier guidelines for installation and integration.

2. Electromagnetic Interference Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also known as radio-frequency interference (RFI) is another factor unique to ZEB procurements. Your bus specification should require that your bus meets applicable electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards to prevent performance degradation and interference with other systems.

3. High-voltage wiring In addition to the bus components, following industry protocols and standards for high voltage wiring should also be part of your ZEB specification. Improper wiring practices can increase the risk of EMI and fire hazards.

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4. Fire safety and hydrogen gas detection Industry Standards and Codes While fire hazards are not unique to ZEBs,

there are factors that make them more With emerging technologies, industry challenging. Hydrogen fires are invisible; standards are continuously evolving battery thermal “runaway events” pose and should be researched prior to each both physical and health hazards and ZEB deployment. Appendix C provides require unique suppression strategies. a list of industry standards that have Understand the safety hazards associated been used in previous FCEBs and BEBs with your ZEB technology and require any specifications. However, it is not leak or thermal detection systems and fire intended to be a comprehensive list of suppression systems that, at a minimum, all applicable standards. satisfy applicable fire safety industry standards and codes.

5. Operations, maintenance, and safety training Your ZEB specification should provide contractual support for your operating and maintenance training needs (see Phase 7 –Personnel Training and Development). It should also require OEM training of first responders, as they are best positioned to provide details on high voltage component locations and designed suppression characteristics.

6. Design operating profile The design operating profile will indicate what your requirements are for the buses in service. This will drive the size of the energy storage system for BEBs or the fuel cell/battery configuration for FCEBs. The operating profile should be as detailed as possible and should describe the required performance throughout the entire service life of the bus as BEB battery capacity or FCEB fuel cell power output degrades over time. • If you have a specific block or route in mind for your ZEBs, describe the daily service requirements that must be met by the bus, including mileage between charging or refueling, time, average speed, maximum speed, gradeability, passenger load. You may choose to provide GPS data of the route to potential vendors. • If you do not have a specific block or route in mind for your ZEBs, indicate a mileage requirement between charging or refueling, and describe what duty cycle the bus will operate on, based on the conditions in your service area. • Describe the climate conditions that the buses will be operating in to inform auxiliary system usage and charging requirements as heating and cooling may use significant energy.

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Require that the bus must be able to complete the operating profile described in the specifications for the entire service life of the bus.

Mileage requirements While defining a minimum operating range for your buses is beneficial to ensure your vehicles will be able to complete useful work throughout their service life, take care to include more information than just a mileage range requirement, as these can be hard to satisfy or disprove. Ensure you have properly detailed the conditions for which range must be met. Does that condition only apply to new batteries? Or is it intended to be a requirement for the entire service life of the bus? Must the range be met under normal transit service, with HVAC and other accessories running? Or does the range requirement align with duty cycles associated with Altoona testing requirements?

A robust range requirement will be based on battery energy in the “allowable” or recommended range of % SOC that can be used in regular transit service and will require acceleration and gradeability needs to be met with HVAC and other auxiliary systems on.

7. Data monitoring and data availability Data availability and monitoring allows thorough evaluation of your ZEB fleet’s performance and ensures access to necessary data to diagnose and troubleshoot bus issues. ZEB performance analysis requires greater visibility into bus performance data and system loads. Your specification should describe your transit agency’s desired data monitoring capabilities, any required interoperability between bus data monitoring systems and your transit agency’s existing data monitoring systems (e.g., TransitMaster, FLEETWATCH, Clever Devices), and access to the necessary data. You should also request information on all available options for data monitoring that the OEM offers, including third party service providers.

8. Fueling infrastructure compatibility Suggested specifications for fueling infrastructure are listed in the sections below, but you must ensure that your bus is compatible with the charging or hydrogen fueling infrastructure that you are procuring.

For BEBs, specify the location of charging ports or interface with charger, AC or DC charging, charging standard compliance (e.g., SAE J1772, SAE J3068, SAE J3105, SAE J2954/2)

For FCEBs, specify the Fueling nozzle receptacle (i.e., TN1 or TN5).

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2.5.1.2 Fueling Infrastructure Specifications

The sections below outline areas of focus for charging and hydrogen fueling infrastructure technical specifications. The specifications may vary based on the services that are being procured (e.g., design, construction). Specifications should be clear that adherence to federal, state, and local regulations, codes, standards, and guidance are the responsibility of the contractor.

2.5.1.2.1 BEB Charging Infrastructure BEB charging infrastructure specifications will be informed by your selected bus technology, selected location, and available electrical infrastructure. Considerations for a depot charging scenario using plug-in chargers and on- route charging scenario using overhead or inductive chargers are included below. However, the bus and charger combination you deploy may use any combination of charging capabilities.

1. Charger type Specify whether you are procuring plug-in, overhead conductive, or inductive chargers. For plug-in and overhead chargers, specify the dispenser type.

Plug-in Chargers Plug-in chargers can provide AC or DC power. Require plug-in chargers to be in compliance with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)-approved charging standards, SAE J1772 for DC chargers or SAE J3068 for AC chargers.

On-route Chargers For overhead chargers, indicate whether you will be using a pantograph, inverted pantograph, or pin and socket dispenser. Overhead chargers should support SAE J3105, and inductive chargers should support SAE J2954/2 (as of 2019, a work in progress).

2. Charging rate For any charger type, specify the required power output per charger, or fully describe the requirements of the charging window. Specify that this requirement should hold even when taking into account any cell balancing considerations.

Depot Chargers For depot chargers, describe the amount of time available for the buses to fully recharge from the minimum recommended SOC, as well as any requirements for a mid-day charge.

On-route Chargers

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For on-route chargers, describe the available time to charge per hour per bus (including time for the bus to dock and undock from the charger), the corresponding energy consumption of each trip when the bus is away from the charger, or describe the performance requirements of the charging equipment based off your planned service for all of the buses using the fast charge.

On-route charging that utilizes overhead or inductive technology requires proper bus-charger alignment for optimal charging. If not properly aligned, actual charge rates may be significantly less than planned, increasing the time and cost of charging. Most technologies offer some driver-assistance for alignment but would likely benefit from extra visual cues or training to reduce misalignments. Require OEMs to explain suggested approaches for ensuring proper alignment, as well as expected actual charging rates if the bus is improperly aligned.

Charging rates will vary based on the bus SOC. Generally, BEBs will charge slower (i.e., at lower power) at higher SOC, with charge rates significantly slowing down above 90% to 95% SOC, depending on the OEM. For on-route charged buses, this may result in a smaller gain of SOC during the charging window than estimated. Request that the OEMs include a chart indicating allowable charge rates into the bus (kW) at varying SOC (0 to 100%, in increments of at least 10%).

Some charger OEMs limit power across the operating profile, or with output voltage. Require that OEMs provide a map of how power may vary in these situations.

3. Charger Configuration Specify the number of chargers required, or describe your requirements (e.g., available charging window, peak power limitations, space limitations, available capital and operational funds) and have vendors propose a solution.

Plug-in Chargers Some transit agencies prefer to have one lower-powered charger per bus for overnight charging. These chargers will have a lower per unit cost, but could result in higher energy costs if all chargers must charge simultaneously to meet service requirements. In this configuration, an additional charger may be beneficial for redundancy during charger maintenance events.

Some plug-in charger models have multiple dispensers that can charge buses sequentially. As long as these models are of sufficient power to recharge all buses in the required time, this option can limit the overall peak power demand, lowering energy costs. These chargers tend to be higher power and have higher unit costs. If this is an option for your transit agency, include a requirement for details on sequential or simultaneous charging capabilities.

Phase 2 – Technology Selection and Specification 2-14

Regardless of the preferred configuration, specify the location for the charger port(s) for plug-in chargers (i.e., front or rear, curbside or streetside) and the port height.

Describe any cable management requirements.

On-route Chargers Fully describe your requirements for simultaneously charging multiple buses with on-route charging systems at the same location, as SAE J3105 (work in progress) requires a certain distance between overhead charging dispensers.

4. Charger Location Indicate the planned locations of charging equipment. Include annotated building schematics or diagrams that show available locations for equipment, the location of electrical utility tie-ins, and available locations for equipment staging, if the contractor will be responsible for any construction services.

For on-route chargers, describe the property rights at the charger location, and any coordination that must occur with external stakeholders to install equipment. Indicate any security or safety enclosures that will be required.

5. Charger/Demand Management & Backup Systems High-powered on-route chargers can require significant power throughout the day. Overnight, simultaneous use of plug-in depot chargers can also require significant power. Time-of-use utility rates (See Phase 4 –Fueling Infrastructure Strategy and Cost) and demand charges can make recharging your bus at certain times of the day more costly. In addition, short power-outages can quickly lead to service disruptions. Your on-route charger specification should also consider any charge management capabilities, demand management capabilities, or energy storage systems your transit agency desires for energy cost or service stability (See Phase 8 –Operation and Maintenance).

6. Power Distribution Requirements Describe the current available power and distribution assets (e.g., transformers, switchgear, metering) at the planned charge location, and any required upgrades. Coordinate with your electric utility to confirm the accuracy of the information included.

7. Data Availability and Monitoring Similar to the bus specifications, indicate your data monitoring requirements from the charging system to support the evaluation of your ZEB fleet performance, as well as to diagnose and troubleshoot issues. Require the vendors to explain all available options for accessing charger data and fault codes. Describe any required interoperability

Phase 2 – Technology Selection and Specification 2-15

between the charger data monitoring systems and your transit agency’s existing data monitoring systems and access to the necessary data.

2.5.1.2.2 FCEB Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure Detailed specifications for hydrogen fueling stations are complex and appropriately licensed third parties should be consulted for assistance. Installation of a fueling station will require a design and construction phase, potentially necessitating two separate RFPs.

Your RFP specification should provide all known information related to project scope and constraints. It should also require a site visit, and provide responders an opportunity for questions and clarifications, as the recommended design of the hydrogen fueling station will depend on the physical limitations of your site and the specific service needs of your fleet. Considerations for hydrogen fueling stations specifications are below.

1. Hydrogen storage needs and fueling requirements Technical specifications for hydrogen fueling stations should detail your expected daily hydrogen consumption, as well as any requirements for backup supply. Fuel consumption should be informed through careful modeling, and discussions with the FCEB OEM. Fuel efficiency can vary depending on climate conditions, route topography, and passenger load; provide an average daily hydrogen consumption and a maximum daily hydrogen consumption, based on your service needs.

You must also describe your available fueling window for your entire fleet of FCEBs and specifications for dispensing. Note the start and stop time when your staff is fueling vehicles back to back, including dwell time at the station. Estimate the number of vehicles fueled per hour of the fueling window. Hydrogen consumption and fueling requirements will impact equipment sizing, which will impact equipment costs.

2. Hydrogen production method Indicate whether you will get hydrogen delivered to your facility, or if you will generate it on-site. For delivered hydrogen, determine if liquefied or gaseous best suits your needs.

If you are generating the hydrogen on-site, determine if electrolysis or natural gas reformation will be used. Identify any preferences for energy source (e.g., solar panels, combined heat and power applications, or electrical grid). Transit agencies that prefer to minimize or eliminate the carbon footprint of on-site hydrogen production are considering utilizing renewable energy to operate hydrogen production equipment, or reforming biogas.

3. Fueling station location

Phase 2 – Technology Selection and Specification 2-16

Indicate the planned locations of hydrogen fueling station. Include annotated building schematics or diagrams that show available locations for equipment, the size and shape of the site, the location of electrical utility tie-ins, and available locations for equipment staging.

4. Facility upgrades and safety Make it clear which portion of the design, engineering, and construction services, are included in the RFP and which portions are not included (Phase 5 –Fueling Infrastructure Deployment). FCEB deployments will likely require retrofits to garages (if buses are stored indoors) and maintenance facilities to accommodate safety standards and regulations for hydrogen storage and distribution. Indicate if the contractor will be responsible for the facility upgrades, such as replacing exhaust fans, modifying electrical systems, and implementing a gas detection system. Ensure that the selected contractor will address safety requirements associated with hydrogen fueling infrastructure.

2.5.2 Acceptance Criteria

Specify the criteria for accepting bus and infrastructure All acceptance criteria should also technology to ensure that the technology meets all be clearly communicated in final needed requirements. Ensure that you give yourself vehicle contracts. Ensure contract enough time to adequately test the buses and clearly terms include adequate time for state what criteria must be met and under what proper testing. conditions to inform acceptance or non-acceptance of buses (See Section 6.5 Acceptance and Validation Testing).

Some transit agencies structure acceptance periods as a specific period of continuous time (e.g., 40 hours) that the bus must operate in revenue service with no issues. With this approach, the clock will reset any time that an issue is discovered, and the acceptance period will extend until the conditions are met.

Other transit agencies establish a testing period (e.g., 15 to 30 days) to test the bus in any way the transit agency sees fit.

Some OEMs will not allow operation of buses in Fueling infrastructure deployment and revenue service prior to acceptance, may have upgrades to maintenance facilities must overly restrictive timeframes, or may not include be completed prior to bus acceptance provisions for delays in fueling infrastructure for proper testing and validation of the deployment. Review any acceptance terms buses. Ensure this requirement is listed carefully and address them in your acceptance in your RFP. testing plans accordingly.

Phase 2 – Technology Selection and Specification 2-17

Ensure that you are clear in your procurement documents what criteria must be met for acceptance: • Performance standards - Service demonstration criteria could require the OEM to, upon bus delivery, demonstrate performance standards based on the OEM’s modeling efforts • Extreme weather operation – Standards for component functionality or cabin temperature • System operability – Standards for uptime or requirements for all systems to function at time of acceptance

After completing post-delivery acceptance tests, APTA guidance suggests that transit agencies can offer the following certificates of acceptance (APTA, 2013): • Accepted • Not accepted: In the event that the bus does not meet all requirements for acceptance. The Agency must identify reasons for non-acceptance and work with the OEM to develop a timeline of addressing the problem for a satisfactory resolution and redelivery. • Conditional acceptance: In the event that the bus does not meet all requirements for acceptance, the Agency may conditionally accept the bus and place it into revenue service pending receipt of Contractor furnished materials and/or labor necessary to address the identified issue(s).

2.5.3 Major Component Useful Life and Warranty Considerations

Clearly specify requirements for component warranty in your RFP. Review any warranty information provided by OEMs to ensure that terms and conditions are understood and reasonable. Require respondents to include a comprehensive statement of any additional warranty terms relating to the battery or energy storage system (ESS), with explanations of all disclaimers that could affect your ability to make a warranty claim.

Energy Storage System warranty The usable capacity of ZEB batteries will degrade over time, which will impact vehicle range. This degradation is most significant in long-range BEBs that see a deeper discharge on a daily basis, however fast charge BEBs and FCEBs will also see some battery capacity degradation. Your technical specifications and contract documents should establish clear expectations for Figure 2-4. Summary of battery performance throughout the battery life, warranty warranty duration terms, and replacement guidelines.

Warranty conditions for batteries will vary by manufacturer, but warranties will usually specify a Warrantable End of Life (WEOL) capacity. The draft APTA BEB procurement guidance defines WEOL as a measure of battery degradation (usually a percentage of remaining battery capacity

Phase 2 – Technology Selection and Specification 2-18

compared to the gross or nameplate capacity) determined as the point at which the batteries can no longer provide the energy or power required to meet the design operating profile. WEOL shall be used as a condition for battery replacement and to potentially initiate warranty claims (APTA, 2013).

The following examples summarize ESS warranty If the ESS is not warranted through the terms offered by ZEB manufacturers (Figure 2-4): entire useful life of your bus, evaluate • 12 year, 500,000 miles to 70-80% of the impacts to range with lower usable nameplate capacity battery capacity, or consider the costs of • 6 year, with a specified kWh throughput, a battery replacement. Consider with an option to extend the warranty to requiring a not to exceed (NTE) cost for 12 years, which would include a mid-life mid-life battery replacement. battery replacement.

Request that respondents to your RFP identify any actions your transit agency might take that would negatively impact your ability to make warranty claims. Most OEMs will provide information on best practices for bus operation that will preserve battery life. Conditions that could negatively impact warranty terms include: • Running the battery below the recommended SOC lower limit too many times • Storing the buses for prolonged period of times at very high or very low states of charge • Misuse or negligence, or if the buses are not kept up with preventative maintenance activities.

Testing battery state of health Your RFP language should require respondents to specify the original energy storage capacity of batteries, the WEOL capacity, and acceptable methods to annually determine the usable battery capacity. Since this metric can be difficult to accurately measure, require OEMs to indicate how this test will be completed in their response, and whether the test can be performed by the OEM, a contracted third-party, or the transit agency itself.

Fuel Cell warranty

The maximum power output of a fuel cell may degrade over time. Warranty terms vary by fuel cell OEM, but recent examples include terms that allow 15% loss of maximum fuel cell power output over the 12 year life of a bus.

2.5.4 Documentation and Training

Documentation requests for ZEB procurements will generally be in line with your transit agency’s requirements on past non-ZEB procurements. Ensure that copies of manuals for the following are required: • Preventative maintenance • Diagnostic procedures

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• Spare parts • Final parts • Component repair • Operator instructions • Bus schematics • Training materials

Ensure adequate OEM-provided operations, maintenance, and safety training is included in the contract. At least 80 hours of training is recommended, however your transit agency may need more depending on your familiarity with the technology. Subsequent deployments of the same or similar technology may require less training. While many OEMs have a standard training plan, most offer the option to purchase additional training hours, as needed (See Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development).

2.5.5 Contract Negotiation

Ensure your bus procurement activities comply with all applicable Federal, State, and Local regulations related to ZEB deployments, including Altoona testing, ADA requirement, and Buy America requirements. The FTA Best Practices Procurement & Lessons Learned Manual (Figure 2-5) provides guidance for third party procurements under FTA grant programs. State procurement guidelines should also be reviewed.

There are several contractual terms and conditions that should be considered when negotiating your final bus contract to avoid misunderstandings, including but not limited to: • A clearly defined technical specification for your bus, identifying all previously negotiated approved equals • An inspection plan and inspection procedures Figure 2-5. FTA's Best Practice Procurement & Lessons Learned driven by your technical specification (See Section Manual (Image Source: FTA) 6.3 Vehicle Inspection) • If the bus supplier is responsible for infrastructure, a requirement that fueling infrastructure be installed prior to bus delivery or acceptance, since acceptance should be measured utilizing your bus and fueling infrastructure • Measurable performance or acceptance criteria • Adequate time for bus testing and acceptance • Appropriate plans for operations, maintenance, and safety training, with clear requirements for training hours, aids, materials, tools and diagnostic equipment

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2.6 Additional Resources • Alternative Fuel Safety, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration • Autonomie, Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy • Best Practices in Hydrogen Fueling and Maintenance Facilities for Transit Agencies, CALSTART • Best Practices Procurement Manual and Lessons Learned, Federal Transit Administration • Standard Bus Procurement Request for Proposal, American Public Transportation Association • State Electricity Profiles, Energy Information Administration

Phase 2 – Technology Selection and Specification 2-21

3 PHASE 3 – CAPITAL COSTS & FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES

PHASE 3.1 Overview Needs and Requirements Up-front capital costs are one of the biggest obstacles facing the 1 current ZEB market. For your first ZEB deployment, you should anticipate capital costs related to: Technology PHASE Selection and • Vehicle costs Specifications 2 • Fueling equipment costs

PHASE • Fueling infrastructure installation costs Funding • Electric utility upgrades 3 • Maintenance facility modifications

Fueling PHASE Infrastructure Current market pricing may necessitate pursuit of additional Strategy 4 funding opportunities to augment available transit agency funds for a valid ZEB business case. The following funding opportunities Fueling PHASE can help offset the cost of ZEB procurement, including: Infrastructure Deployment 5 • FTA’s Low or No Emission Vehicle Program • FTA’s Bus and Bus Facilities Program Acceptance, PHASE • Volkswagen Environmental Mitigation Trust Validation and Deployment 6 • State programs offering competitive grants or incentives • Electric utility EV fleet programs PHASE • Electric utility infrastructure make-ready programs Training 7 The ZEB market is maturing, creating risks that investments in PHASE capital today can become obsolete in the future. A thorough OpeDataration and MainMonitenaorinngce analysis of market technologies and expansion plans can help 8 ensure continued usefulness of infrastructure investments. You

PHASE should review and compare current technologies, market costs, DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce and funding opportunities prior to each ZEB deployment on a 9 total cost of ownership basis. As the market matures, bus and infrastructure costs may decline and technology advancements PHASE OpeEmerrationging and may improve the business case for future deployments without MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10 additional funding sources.

Best practices included for evaluating capital costs and funding opportunities include: • Estimating current costs of your selected vehicle and fueling technology through thorough research and modeling. • Assessing short- and long-term fueling infrastructure needs and available capital to make the smartest investments for your ZEB plans, while meeting current service needs • Identifying available Local, State, and Federal funding opportunities to support the procurement of ZEB technology.

Phase 3 – Capital Costs & Funding Opportunities 3-1

3.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations

Project Managers • Complete bus and infrastructure cost analyses before each deployment. OEMs or transit agencies that have deployed the technology may be able to provide cost estimates for equipment or lessons learned. However, an analysis specific to your deployment should be conducted. • Factor all future plans for ZEB deployments into your cost analysis to ensure infrastructure investments made today have long-term usefulness. Balance this analysis with an understanding that technology advancements may alter your plan in the future. • Research funding opportunities to support your ZEB deployments. Funding availability can significantly offset capital costs. Coordinate with procurement on funding requirements and deadlines.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Review maintenance requirements for your ZEB technology to understand required facility upgrades/equipment and training needs. • Review power requirements for BEB charging to understand facility upgrade needs.

Procurement • Engineering design services may be needed to fully understand the needed facility modifications and cost of fuel equipment installation. If expertise is not available in-house, a third-party could provide a cost estimate. • Funding opportunities will often require grant applications or rebate filings.

Review applicable terms, deadlines, and filing requirements to ensure compliance.

External Stakeholders • Bus and fueling infrastructure OEMs should be consulted on current technology options and costs prior to any ZEB deployment. • Electric utilities should be consulted early in the planning process to discuss funding opportunities or potential partnerships for sharing in capital costs of

infrastructure or energy storage systems. • Third party consultants can be useful in identifying funding opportunities or helping build business cases for deployment.

Phase 3 – Capital Costs & Funding Opportunities 3-2

3.3 Capital Costs

Capital costs for a ZEB deployment may include, but are not limited to: • Vehicle costs • Fueling equipment costs • Fueling infrastructure installation costs • Utility upgrades • Maintenance facility modifications

ZEB costs will be transit agency-specific and based on the different configurable options of the buses, the size of the deployment, required facility upgrades, and fueling approach. While large, full-scale deployment planning is in the early stages in the U.S., current market conditions suggest the comparative capital cost and effort required for BEB versus FCEB deployments can be illustrated by Figure 3-1.

With a smaller fleet size, FCEB deployments tend to be more costly than BEB deployments, mainly due to higher hydrogen fueling station costs and required maintenance facility upgrades. These costs tend to dominate the overall costs per bus for small deployments. However, hydrogen fueling infrastructure scales more easily than BEB infrastructure and, so with larger fleets, the costs associated with incremental BEB charging infrastructure and associated facility and electrical infrastructure modifications required for depot charging become more significant. Any future plans for expansion should be analyzed to ensure the value of your current deployment is not negatively impacted by your expansion plans.

FCEB BEB Effort and Cost

Fleet Size

Figure 3-1. Illustrative example of comparative capital costs and effort required for BEB and FCEB deployment size

Table 3-1 and

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Table 3-2 contain high-level cost estimates for various components of FCEB and BEB deployments respectively. Because the magnitude of costs vary with deployment size, estimated costs for a five bus deployment, and estimated costs for a 50 bus deployment are shown. These estimates are based on recent deployments and should be used for planning purposes only. Costs can vary widely based on the configurable components of buses, as well as local factors that will influence costs of infrastructure design and construction. For example, AC Transit’s required $1.5M in facility upgrades when deploying FCEBs. Upgrades would have been more costly if AC Transit did not require buses to depressure fueling systems prior to maintenance (Sokolsky, 2016). SunLine Transit constructed a new FCEB maintenance facility that allows hydrogen to escape through large gaps, therefore avoiding the need for major retrofits (Sokolsky, 2016).

Figure 3-2 shows the relative estimated costs of components of a five FCEB deployment without on-site hydrogen production equipment, and a five BEB deployment with plug-in depot chargers. Figure 3-3 shows the relative estimated capital costs of a 50 FCEB and 50 BEB deployment of the same configuration.

The ZEB market is maturing; current market costs should be researched before each ZEB deployment as pricing and options will change.

Table 3-1. Cost Estimates for Fuel Cell Bus Deployment Components

High-Level Cost Estimate for a High-Level Cost Estimate for 5 bus deployment a 50 bus deployment 40 ft Fuel Cell Electric Bus $1.01M per bus (CA DGS, $994K per bus (CA DGS, 2019) 2019) Base cost shown with no options Hydrogen Fueling Station ~$5M ~$5M equipment and installation Maintenance facility ~$1M per facility ~$1M per facility upgrades

Costs may vary significantly based on technologies currently deployed (e.g., CNG). TOTAL ESTIMATED ~$11.1M ~$55.8M DEPLOYMENT COSTS

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Table 3-2. Cost estimates for Battery Electric Bus Deployment Components

High-Level Cost Estimate for a High-Level Cost Estimate for 5 bus deployment a 50 bus deployment 40 ft Battery Electric Bus ~$740K (CA DGS, 2019) ~730K (CA DGS, 2019)

Base cost shown with no options Plug-in depot charger ~$75K - $125K (CARB, 2016) ~$75K $125K (CARB, 2016) capital costs Plug in-depot charger ~$50K - $75K per charger ~$150K - $180K per bus design, build, and electrical upgrades TOTAL ESTIMATED $4.3M ~$48.5M DEPLOYMENT COSTS

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Figure 3-2. Estimated Relative Costs of a five FCEB deployment with hydrogen delivery and a five BEB deployment with plug-in depot charging

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Figure 3-3. Estimated Relative Costs of a fifty FCEB deployment with hydrogen delivery and a fifty BEB deployment with plug-in depot charging

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The FCEB costs shown in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 reflect a scenario where hydrogen is delivered. Estimated costs for on-site production of hydrogen are shown in Table 3-3.

Table 3-3. Estimated costs of on-site hydrogen production capabilities

System High-level Cost Estimate

Electrolysis system $4.4K/kg/day for 1,000 kg capacity to $10.6K/kg/day for 100 kg capacity (Melania and Penev, 2013). Costs of raw materials are variable; at 100% electrolyzer efficiency, 2.4 gallons of water are required to produce 1 kg of hydrogen.

Natural gas reformation $4K/kg/day for 1,000 kg capacity to $11.2K/kg/day for 100 kg system capacity (Melania and Penev, 2013).

One transit agency installed a reformation station for 5 buses for $750K (Sokolsky, 2016).

The following tools that can help your transit agency analyze the costs associated with FCEB fueling: • The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) offers a Hydrogen Financial Analysis Scenario Tool (H2FAST) that provides a quick and convenient financial analysis for hydrogen fueling stations. • Argonne National Laboratory has a Heavy-Duty Refueling Station Model (HDRSAM) that allows a user to compare the cost of alternative hydrogen refueling options, identify cost drivers of current hydrogen refueling technologies for various station configurations, and identify demand profiles of heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles.

The BEB costs shown in Figure 3-2 and Figure 3-3 reflect a depot charging scenario with plug-in chargers. Estimated costs for overhead conductive chargers, inductive chargers, and installation costs for an on-route charging configuration are shown in Table 3-4.

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Table 3-4. Estimated costs of overhead or inductive chargers in an on-route charging configuration

Item Estimated Cost

Overhead charger capital costs and installation ~$350K - $500K

Inductive charger capital costs and installation ~$200K - $500K

On-route charger design, build, and electrical ~$400 - $600K per charger upgrades

Some economies of scale will be seen if multiple chargers are installed at the same on- route location.

Battery, fuel cell, and bus technology are continuously evolving; therefore, costs are expected to decline in the future as the market matures and moves toward economies of scale. Your transit agency should perform a thorough analysis of deployment options and costs before any ZEB deployment. This will likely include: • Research on current ZEB bus pricing and fueling infrastructure costs, either through discussions with OEMs, other transit agencies who have recently deployed the technology, or a Request for Quote (RFQ) process. • Consultation with your electric utility, to understand power needs and required utility upgrades for your short- and long-term ZEB deployment plans. • Consultation with engineering design experts to understand costs related to fueling equipment installation and any needed facility modifications.

3.4 ZEB Deployment Support

While the Federal government has supported ZEB deployments through competitive grants for years, State and local governments have begun increasing support as well, as a way to mitigate the impacts of climate change through reducing emissions and prioritize the public health needs of their communities.

Public funding awards for Electric buses have increased significantly since 2015 (Figure 3-4).

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Figure 3-4. Cumulative Public Funding Awards for Electric Buses (EV Hub, 2019)

Financial support may be in the form of planning initiatives that consider opportunities for zero- emission vehicle deployments, policies that encourage or require zero-emission vehicle deployment, or programs offering financial support to help offset the higher incremental costs associated with these vehicles. Funding may be available through competitive grant solicitations or programs that provide vouchers or other types of incentives.

Electric utility companies are also increasing their support for ZEB deployments. According to the Utility Filings Dashboard, 16 utilities in 14 states have been approved to invest more than $590 million in electrification programs, some focused on buses and trucks (Smith, 2019). Utilities are using these programs to create opportunities for shared infrastructure and offer incentive programs (Smith, 2019). Some utilities are starting to create rate structures that promote electrifications, offer rebates for charging equipment, provide make-ready power distribution, or provide design and build support for fueling installations to incentivize transportation electrification.

The public health and environmental benefits of ZEBs are increasing the availability of public funding programs for ZEB deployment. Prior to your ZEB deployment, research all opportunities for Federal, State, and local funding as well as programs offered by your electric utility.

The number and types of funding programs being offered associated with the ZEB industry are constantly changing. The sections below describe different types of funding sources that are or have been available, as of early 2020.

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3.4.1 Planning Initiatives

States, regions, and local jurisdictions, beginning to undertake planning initiatives to address:

• The role zero-emission vehicles play in achieving emission reduction goals • How a state or region might accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles • The feasibility of fleet electrification • The impact of electric vehicles on the grid

For example, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation (MassDOT) is conducting zero- emission vehicle feasibility studies. MassDOT is working with state agencies and commissions to evaluate opportunities to electrify the state’s vehicle fleets, including vehicles used by the regional transit authorities. (Senate Bill 2505, 2017)

The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) is working with state agencies such as public transit operators, to update the California Transportation Plan. The plan addresses how the state will achieve emissions reduction goals, taking into consideration the use of alternative fuels and new vehicle technology. (California Government Code 65070-65073)

3.4.2 Financial Support

3.4.2.1 Federal Funding

Two competitive grant programs available through the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) offer funding that can help transit agencies deploy zero-emission buses. The Low or No (Low- No) Emission Vehicle Program is included in the Fixing America’s Surface Transportation (FAST) Act. FTA issues a Notice of Funding Opportunity on an annual basis for this competitive program that provides funding for the acquisition of low and no emission buses and supporting infrastructure.

FTA’s Bus and Bus Facilities Program is another competitive funding opportunity for transit agencies. Funding is available for capital projects to replace, rehabilitate, and purchase buses and to construct bus-related facilities. Unlike the Low-No program, the Bus and Bus Facilities Program is not exclusively focused on advanced vehicle technologies, however, awards in recent years have increasingly included projects supporting the deployment of ZEBs.

3.4.2.2 State Funding State or local programs may also offer funding to help support the purchase of zero-emission buses. The programs may offer vouchers, incentives, or funding awarded through competitive grants.

Phase 3 – Capital Costs & Funding Opportunities 3-11

One of the most well-known voucher programs is California’s Hybrid and Zero Emission Truck and Bus Voucher Incentive Project (HVIP) offered by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). HVIP is a point of sale incentive program that offers vouchers to reduce the cost of eligible vehicles. Voucher amounts for the purchase of a new battery electric bus range from $90,000 to $175,000 and $300,000 for a fuel cell electric bus. Other states have offered similar programs in the past, including New York and Maryland.

Replacement of transit vehicles is an eligible mitigation activity under the consent decree that governs the Volkswagen (VW) Environmental Mitigation Trust that made funding available to all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia. States are beginning to open funding opportunities with some including a specific focus on transit vehicles. For example, the Driving a Clean Illinois Program made funds available for the replacement of diesel buses. Virginia is funding a Clean Transportation Voucher Program that offers grants to transit agencies to help offset the incremental costs associated with all electric buses, and also helps fund the purchase of infrastructure. As the VW funding includes scrappage requirements, transit agencies are advised to contact their regional FTA office to determine the useful life and federal interest in the vehicle proposed for replacement.

Funding may be available through Air Quality Management Districts in California. For example, the Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program helps deploy newer and cleaner vehicles and is offered through a partnership between CARB and local air districts. These funds cannot be used for projects required by law or in certain periods prior to regulation compliance.

3.4.2.3 Utilities Electric utilities across the country are offering electricity rate or infrastructure incentives to support the deployment of light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles. The incentives will vary by market and utility type (i.e., Investor-Owned Utility, Municipal Utility, Rural Electric Cooperative). Discuss available incentives or pilot programs with your utility and engage in any new rate filing discussions. The type of utility will dictate the required procedures for any new rate structures or pilot programs.

Infrastructure Incentive Examples Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) has created the EV Fleet program to assist fleets with the installation of charging infrastructure. The program “offers dedicated electrical infrastructure design and construction services, significant cost offsets for electrical infrastructure work, and additional EV charger rebates for eligible equipment.” Transit and commuter bus fleets customers are eligible for the program.

Other utilities own and operate BEB chargers, and some are considering purchasing BEB batteries at the end of the bus’s service life to use as energy storage.

Rate Incentive Examples

Phase 3 – Capital Costs & Funding Opportunities 3-12

Many utilities offer residential or commercial EV rates. Some utilities are conducting pilot programs that give fleet operators time to familiarize themselves with the technology and optimize operations. For example: • PG&E is proposing an EV rate where operators pay for kW of charging capacity, not the actual peak demand used. • Southern California Edison is waiving demand charges for five years. • Minnesota Power’s pilot program that would cap demand charges at 30% of the total electricity bill.

3.5 Additional Resources

• Federal funding examples o Low or No Emission Vehicle Program, Federal Transit Administration o Bus and Bus Facilities Program, Federal Transit Administration • State funding examples o Carl Moyer Memorial Air Quality Standards Attainment Program, California Air Resources Board o Driving a Clean Illinois Program, Illinois Environmental Protection Agency o Hybrid and Zero Emission Truck and Bus Voucher Initiative Project (HVIP), California Air Resources Board • Electric Utility examples o EV Fleet program, Pacific Gas and Electric • Cost Estimations o Hydrogen Financial Analysis Scenario Tool (H2FAST), National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy o Heavy-Duty Refueling Station Model (HDRSAM), Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy o Total Cost of Ownership to Advance Clean Transit, California Air Resources Board o Advanced Clean Transit Program – Literature Review on Transit Bus Maintenance Cost, California Air Resources Board

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4 PHASE 4 –FUELING INFRASTRUCTURE STRATEGY AND COST

4.1 Overview PHASE Needs and Establishing a fueling strategy and estimating fuel costs is an Requirements 1 important step to ensure that you are maximizing the utilization of your buses and infrastructure in order to minimize costs. Technology PHASE Both BEB and FCEB deployments will require electricity for bus Selection and charging or hydrogen fueling. Understanding consumption Specifications 2 patterns and electric utility rate structures will help identify PHASE opportunities for load management and cost savings. Funding 3 For BEBs, electricity costs can vary significantly based on the type of charging utilized, the time of day the buses are charged, and Fueling PHASE Infrastructure the size of the deployment. Charge management strategies can Strategy 4 help minimize costs for any size deployment and become a necessity for larger deployments. BEB deployments of any size Fueling PHASE Infrastructure will benefit from demand management strategies. For FCEB Deployment 5 deployments, the benefits will vary based on the fueling solution utilized (on-site generation versus delivery). Acceptance, PHASE Validation and Deployment 6 For FCEB deployments, costs will vary based on the type of deployment (on-site production versus hydrogen delivery). For PHASE deployments utilizing hydrogen delivery, daily operation of fueling Training stations will be similar to CNG stations today. The greatest driver 7 of costs for these deployments will be location, as hydrogen fuel PHASE costs vary greatly by region. FCEB deployments utilizing on-site OpeDataration and MainMonitenaorinngce hydrogen generation will require a significant amount of energy 8 and may benefit from demand management strategies, depending

PHASE on the generation process utilized and storage capabilities. DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce 9 Completion of this phase includes evaluating the available utility rate schedule to estimate electricity costs and designing a fueling PHASE OpeEmerrationging and strategy to minimize costs while still meeting all service needs. MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10 Coordination with your transit agency’s electric utility is vital throughout this phase. Your utility can help you understand your rate schedule, evaluate your service needs and how to satisfy them, and identify opportunities for reducing costs.

Best practices included for evaluating fueling infrastructure strategy and cost include: • Conducting electricity rate model analysis to understand how bus operation impacts costs. • Determining total fueling costs and opportunities for demand management. • Identifying charge management strategies for BEB operation that will meet all service needs. Phase 4 – Fueling Infrastructure Strategy and Cost 4-1

4.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations

Project Managers • Maintain a strong relationship with your electric utility throughout the ZEB deployment process to discuss service and infrastructure needs, changes to your electricity rate schedule after ZEB deployment, and methods to lower electricity costs through demand management. • Develop an electricity rate model to estimate electricity costs based on BEB charging procedures, considering the duty cycle, schedule, battery capacity, and useable charger power. • Work with the utility and operations staff to identify ways to optimize the charging approach to limit demand charges, weighing service and operational constraints.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Meet with your electric utility early on in the planning process to discuss infrastructure needs for the fueling infrastructure deployments. • Ensure that roles, responsibilities, and timing for bus fueling are clear, either at the hydrogen fueling stations for FCEBs or at the charging stations for BEBs.

• Identify service and operational constraints that would impact charge management optimization (e.g., %SOC needed for morning pullout, timing and flexibility of bus assignment, limiting demand charges, minimizing overall costs).

Procurement • Coordinate with transit agency staff to understand estimated monthly fuel costs. • Work with your electric utility provider to review and identify the most favorable rate schedules for your deployment strategy. • For hydrogen delivery deployments, research production facilities and delivery

options to determine the combination that best satisfies service demand.

External Stakeholders • Electric utility providers should be engaged throughout the ZEB deployment process to discuss service and infrastructure needs, changes to your electricity rate schedule, and methods to lower electricity costs through demand management. The utility may be able to offer pilot rates or programs to support

the ZEB deployment or infrastructure operation. • Hydrogen production facilities and delivery companies, when applicable, should be engaged to discuss hydrogen costs, estimated demand, and delivery schedules. • Labor unions may need to be engaged if staff are assigned new job responsibilities to operate a hydrogen fueling station or plug in depot-charged buses. • Third party vendors provide software solutions to support data monitoring and smart charging capabilities.

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4.3 Battery Electric Buses and Utility Rate Analysis

Deploying BEBs may result in a significant Early coordination with your electric increase in your electricity usage compared to utility is vital to understand how your the historical usage of your facilities. A transit rate schedule may change and to explore agency with a full BEB fleet may be one of the options for reducing costs. largest electricity users in the utility’s service area.

Have a strong understanding of the factors that will impact your electricity costs prior to BEB deployment (e.g., time of electricity usage, number of buses charging simultaneously). The impact of these factors will be influenced by the electric utility rate schedules available to you. Discuss your short- and long-term BEB goals early on in the planning process with your electric utility so they can help you understand the infrastructure needs to support your planned deployments as well as options for your electricity rate schedule. For customers with BEBs, your utility may be able to propose charging strategies that will allow you to achieve your service needs at the lowest cost.

The sections below describe common components of electricity rates. Your rate schedule may contain a combination of the components listed.

4.3.1 Understanding your Electricity Bill

Since generation and demand must precisely match at all times, power companies tend to favor steady, predictable consumption of energy. To help manage demand, utilities impose different rates throughout the day and often surcharge the price of electricity during peak usage hours. Therefore, your cost for the same electricity usage may vary based on when it is consumed.

Electric bills consist of many different charges, which will vary between power providers. Some charges are billed by kilowatt (kW), a measure of power, while others by kilowatt-hour (kWh), a measure of energy. Your electric bill may include an additional power factor charge (sometimes called a Power Factor Adjustment) since a low power factor can overload generating, distribution, and networks. However, the majority of your utility bill will be based on kW and kWh consumption.

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Power vs. Energy

Power, measured in kW, is the rate that energy is consumed or moved. Energy, measured in kWh, is a quantity of work. For example, using a 50 kW bus charger for 2 hours consumes 100 kWh: 50 kW × 2 hours = 100 kWh

Using a 300 kW bus charger for 20 minutes also consumes 100 kWh:

300 kW × 0.33 hours = 100 kWh

This relationship can also help determine the minimum time required for recharging buses. For instance, restoring 150 kWh utilizing a 50 kW charger would require at least 3 hours. Note that actual charge times may be longer due to charger limitations. An engineering analysis is needed to calculate accurate charge times.

Compare the above examples to filling up a diesel tank. A diesel pump may be able to fill a bus at 10 gallons per minute. That flow rate is analogous to the power of a bus charger. Using the pump for 15 minutes will dispense 150 gallons of diesel. That total amount of fuel received is analogous to the kWh of energy that a battery would receive during a charging session.

Power Factor

Working Power, measured in kW, is the actual power electrical equipment requires when performing its function. For a bus charger, the working power would be approximately equivalent to the power rating of the charger (e.g., a 50 kW depot charger would have 50 kW working power). However, many types of equipment require Reactive Power to generate and sustain a magnetic field in order to operate. Working power and reactive power make up Apparent Power, which is measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). Comparing Apparent Power to Working Power gives the Power Factor (PF), which determines how much of an incoming current is doing useful work. A high PF benefits both the customer and the utility, while a low PF indicates poor utilization of electrical power (Laurens Electric Cooperative, Inc). Power Factor (PF) is expressed as:

PF = Working Power (kW) / Apparent Power (kVA)

4.3.2 Electric Bill Charges

Electric bill charges are commonly broken down into the following categories, described in more detail below:

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• Fixed Costs • Energy Charges • Demand Charges • Other Charges

These charges will be applied to each electric meter installed at your facility. Your approach to demand management may differ if your chargers or hydrogen fueling equipment are on the same meter as the rest of your facility.

4.3.3 Fixed Costs

The utility may charge a monthly service fee, which usually covers the price of being connected to the grid. Fixed costs are generally account for less than 1% of your total monthly bill.

4.3.4 Energy Charges

= Total energy used (kWh) × Rate ($/kWh)

The utility will charge for the total energy consumption, which accrues throughout each month and is typically measured in kWhs. Some utilities have seasonal rates, tiered rates for the amount of energy used, or higher energy charges for peak periods. There may be many line items on a bill that are all billed based on the kWh consumed.

4.3.5 Demand Charges

= Highest average power (kW) over a specified period of time × Rate ($/kW)

The electric utility must always be able to meet the power demand for all of their customers at the instant that it is required. Demand charges are put in place to cover the cost of electrical infrastructure needed to meet the highest electricity demand at any time. Most commercial utility rates will include demand charges. Demand charges are typically calculated each billing cycle and are based on the highest demand used over a window of time, typically 15- or 30- minutes. However, some utilities utilize a ratchet charge on demand, utilizing an annual peak demand (instead of resetting it each month), based on your highest monthly demand from the previous year. Depending on the rate structure, demand rates may also vary by the amount of power used and the time of day it is used.

The relationship between energy and demand is demonstrated in Figure 4-1. The blue line shows the demand (kW) throughout the day, and the gray area shows the total energy consumed (kWh).

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Electric demand throughout the day (kW) Highest demand of the day Quantity of energy consumed (kWh)

CONSUMPTION

Midnight 6 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. Midnight

Figure 4-1. Example electricity demand throughout a day (Source: We Energies)

The following example illustrate how peak demand is calculated based on different usage scenarios, assuming a 15-minute demand window. Note that the calculations below do not take into account efficiency losses which may result in higher demand charges.

Example 1: Five 50 kW depot chargers are installed on the same meter that services your transit facility for overnight bus charging. Your facility utilizes an average of 175 kW during the day and 75 kW overnight. Under these conditions, your previous peak demand was during the day. Without any charge management strategies, your new peak demand would now occur overnight, from simultaneously charging five buses on the 50 kW chargers. Assuming the buses require more than 15 minutes to charge, the chargers, alone, would create the following power demand:

5 chargers × 50 kW × (15 minutes of charging / 15 minute demand window) = 250 kW

When you add that to your existing average overnight facility demand (75 kW), your new peak demand now occurs overnight:

75kW (existing overnight demand) + 250 kW (overnight charging demand) = 325kW

In this example, the chargers created 250 kW of additional demand. However, the previous peak demand, occurring during the day, was 175 kW. The new overnight peak demand was only 325 kW, an increase of 150 kW instead of the entire 250 kW the chargers created. Because the charging occurred during previously off-peak hours, a portion of the charger demand was offset by the daytime facility usage.

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Example 2: A separately metered 450 kW fast charger is installed. Your highest demand possible for that charger would be approximately 450 kW, which would occur if your bus took 15 minutes to charge:

1 charger × 450 kW × (15 minutes of charging / 15 minute demand window) = 450 kW

However, many buses fully charge in less than 15 minutes. If your buses take 10 minutes to charge, your peak demand would be approximately:

1 charger × 450 kW × (10 minutes of charging / 15 minute demand window) = 300 kW

For separately metered fast chargers, your peak demand will occur during your longest charge event for each month.

In most rate schedules, demand costs are a significant contributor to operational costs. As such, increased usage of the buses will reduce the overall cost per mile, since the demand charges can be spread out over more miles of operation.

If your chargers will be on the same meter as your facility, evaluate your current electricity consumption for your facilities to determine what time of day your current demand peak occurs. Charging buses at the same time as your current facility peak will add to the overall peak demand. However, charging buses at a different time of day will allow you to offset the demand from your facilities.

Demand charges can have significant implications for BEB operation since faster chargers or using many depot chargers concurrently will result in higher demand costs. Transit agencies can overcome these challenges by developing charge management strategies, such as a charging schedule and control schemes that minimizes the rate of electricity consumption.

Even with charge management strategies, if you ever need to charge more buses simultaneously than planned to meet service, you could be charged for that peak demand, even if that only occurs once in a billing cycle.

4.3.6 Other Charges

Surcharges, taxes, and other fees will also be included with the utility bill. These can be related to how the energy was produced, who produced or sold the energy, energy efficiency, renewable energy production, the decommissioning of old power plants, city taxes, or rate adjustments during a rate case. The magnitude of these rates can be hard to predict but can account for as much as 30% of the total monthly bill.

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4.4 Typical Rate Structures

Building and maintaining strong relationship with Utilities across the country have varying your electric utility is vital throughout the regulations and policies that determine deployment process. Some utilities have how they establish rate structures and implemented rate structures and pilot programs what types of programs they can offer. that promote the deployment of zero-emission Just because a program or pilot rate is vehicles. If your utility is able to offer a pilot rate beneficial for one transit agency does or program to benefit your BEB deployments, not mean that it will be beneficial, or ensure that you plan for a change in costs or even possible, for another. electricity rates if the pilot program expires before the end of the service life of your buses.

Examples of rate structures or pilot programs being offered around the country include: • Limiting demand charges • Energy and demand discounts for off-peak usage • Owning and operating charging infrastructure and batteries • End of life battery purchasing for energy storage projects • General contracting services for any required electrical or construction work to install charging infrastructure for a BEB fleet expansion.

4.4.1 Tiered (or Step) Rate

A common rate structure used by utilities utilizes a tiered rate structure. With a tiered structure, the cost per kWh can change at different thresholds of consumption. For example:

7.15¢ each for the first 2,000 kWh 6.00¢ each for all kWh above 2,000

4.4.2 Time of Use Rate

= Total energy used at peak times (kWh) × Peak Rate ($/kWh) + Total energy used at off-peak times (kWh) × Off-peak Rate ($/kWh)

Time of Use (TOU) rates are designed to curb usage during peak windows of power consumption. Utilities charge a lower rate for electricity consumed during off-peak hours, usually in the evening or at night, and a higher rate for electricity consumed during peak hours, typically during periods when most businesses are operating.

Utilities sets peak and off-peak times based on many factors, such as overall customer demand, or the availability of electricity (e.g., if your utility relies on solar energy, electricity may be less expensive in the afternoon). Example costs per kWh for a time of use rate are shown in Figure

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4-2. Note that the times when the highest energy charges are incurred may shift as more renewable energy sources are brought online to the grid. For example, the highest energy costs for a utility that relies heavily on solar may be in the evening.

Weekends Weekdays and Holidays (per kWh)

Cost Cost Off-Peak Mid-Peak On-Peak Mid-Peak Off-Peak

11 p.m. 8 a.m. Noon 6 p.m. 11 p.m. All Day

On-Peak Mid-Peak Off-Peak Highest Energy Charge Medium Energy Charge Lowest Energy Charge

Figure 4-2. Example Costs per kWh for a Time of Use Rate

It is important to understand your utility’s current and future mix of electricity generation and the impact it may have on your TOU rates. Some utilities add seasonality to their TOU tariffs as well, varying their TOU rates and peak windows to account for seasonal effects on energy consumption.

4.4.3 Critical Peak Pricing

Some utilities will implement Critical Peak Pricing (CPP), where a substantially higher rate is charged for energy used during a period of time when the electric utility requires more power than usual, such as extremely hot days, or during emergency situations. Some utilities allow customers to enroll in a demand response program that offers a discount on regular electricity rates in exchange for reducing consumption during critical peak events. This approach can be challenging for transit agencies, if you require charging during critical periods to meet required service, especially with on-route charging during daytime peaks.

4.5 Hydrogen Fuel Costs

There are two major cost components for fueling FCEBs: (1) Electricity costs and (2) Hydrogen costs.

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4.5.1 Electricity Costs

Hydrogen fueling infrastructure operates similarly to diesel and CNG fueling stations. At a minimum, hydrogen fueling requires compressors, cooling, and a dispenser, which can consume a considerable amount of energy. Energy consumption becomes more complex if you are producing hydrogen on-site. Strategies to limit electricity demand charges or concentrate usage to off-peak times will depend on the type of system you install.

For delivered hydrogen that is stored and dispensed on-site, your system would operate much like a CNG station, with automatic loads that cannot be easily controlled. Compression energy can be as much as 2.5 kWh/kg of fuel dispensed, whereas liquid pumping requires about 0.4 kWh/kg or less. Pre-cooling may be required, depending on several variables, including high flow rates and vehicle storage capacity. Energy to cool hydrogen gas as it is dispensed into the vehicle should not require more than 0.5 kWh/kg, but will depend on the size of the system and the energy required to maintain safe temperature levels during the fueling process.

On-site hydrogen generation would significantly increase energy consumption, compared to conventional diesel fueling stations, requiring between 55 kWh/kg and 65 kWh/kg. For stations that produce hydrogen on-site, your ability to mitigate electricity demand will depend on the type of production system used. The latest electrolyzer technology allows for instant on/off cycles with little efficiency loss. Oversizing the electrolyzer and controlling on/off cycles to take advantage of off-peak electricity rates and the availability of on-site renewable power can help avoid demand charges. If utilizing natural gas generation, your primary fuel for generation is natural gas, eliminating any significant benefit of scheduling generation during non-peak times.

It is important to understand the power requirements of the needed infrastructure prior to installation and deployment (See Section 2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation ). Once the power requirements for the fueling infrastructure are known, estimated usage patterns can be combined with existing utility rate options to calculate the anticipated costs and inform your fueling strategy.

While pipeline hydrogen delivery is the cheapest and most efficient delivery method, there is little infrastructure available for this to be a viable option today, although continued market adoption may incentivize additional infrastructure in the future. For most deployments, hydrogen must either be pressurized and delivered as a compressed gas or stored as a liquid on-site then converted to pressurized gas (requiring additional equipment for compression and dispensing).

Transporting compressed hydrogen gas by truck or high-pressure tube trailers is expensive and used primarily for distances of 200 miles or less. Liquefied hydrogen tankers can transport over greater distances but liquefaction is expensive and, once delivered, some liquefied hydrogen can be lost to evaporation if not utilized quickly. (US Department of Energy, EERE Alternative Fuels Data Center)

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4.5.2 Hydrogen Costs

Transit agencies can either purchase hydrogen from a supplier or produce it on-site.

If you are purchasing hydrogen from a supplier, the supplier and dispensing company will dictate product costs. As of early 2020, hydrogen costs between $4 and $9 per kg in depending on location and access to large-scale hydrogen production facilities. This significant variance in price is largely due to limited hydrogen distribution infrastructure. Since distribution is a significant component of hydrogen costs, transit agencies located further from production sources will have higher prices. However, if demand for hydrogen in fuel cell applications grows, the prices should decrease. Some major energy suppliers in California are predicting pricing between $5 to $6 per kg in the next few years when demand increases, but as of the writing of this report, none have made firm commitments to this pricing level. Prices as low as $2.50 per kg are possible with hydrogen delivered by pipeline.

If you are generating hydrogen on-site at your facility through electrolysis or natural gas An electrolysis system that produces reformation, you must consider the costs of the hydrogen required for 12 buses may use raw materials (i.e., power, water, or natural gas), as much as 1 MW. equipment, maintenance, and energy to operate the equipment.

Even without equipment to generate hydrogen on-site, total fuel costs should account for energy consumption to operate the station. One study found that a public hydrogen fueling station had a net energy consumption of 5 kWh per kg of hydrogen dispensed (Brown et al., 2012).

Argonne National Laboratory’s Heavy-duty Refueling Station Analysis Model to estimate the energy usage of a hydrogen fueling station for a fleet of heavy-duty vehicles. The model takes into account the many hydrogen fueling infrastructure options (delivery vs. on-site production) and the cost of energy from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) to calculate the overall fueling cost and station cost.

4.6 Electricity Rate Modeling

After gaining a strong understanding of the components of your electricity bill, model your electricity consumption based on your planned service requirements to estimate your operational costs. This section is focused on BEB operation, but transit agencies operating FCEBs and producing hydrogen on-site would also benefit from modeling electricity consumption based on hydrogen consumption.

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A rate model will provide an upper bound of costs and operational parameters for your BEB deployment. It will also help identify what factors have the greatest impact on costs, which may be managed with charging strategies. Any charge management strategy to limit demand or time usage to off-peak hours must be balanced with your service requirements and the cost for this management service. Understanding your utility rate structure and how different charging scenarios impact your cost of deployment will be essential for maximizing the utilization and cost effectiveness of your BEBs.

At a minimum, your rate model should: 1) Utilize the proposed bus usage (e.g., in-service time and mileage) and estimated energy efficiency identified through your modeling efforts (See Section 2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation ), incorporating any seasonal variations. 2) Establish operational requirements (e.g., when a bus is available to charge, when a bus must be available for service, what state of charge is required to be put into service, time required for cleaning, and any other standard vehicle operation and maintenance use) 3) Reflect charger power ratings to establish how long it will take to recharge your buses (See Section 2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation ). Note that the estimated time to charge should incorporate efficiency losses and other parasitic loads during charging and assume that the charging rate will slow down as the batteries get close to full. Ensure that you incorporate a margin of error within your charging requirements to accommodate unanticipated issues with charging or bus scheduling. 4) Estimate your maximum electricity load profile with the overall kW demand and kWh consumption from charging your buses. 5) Apply your utility rate schedule to estimate the costs of charging based on time of day and duration of charging. 6) Incorporate flexible parameters that allow you to evaluate the costs or benefits of various scenarios (e.g., limiting the number of buses charged simultaneously, limiting charging to off-peak hours, changing the time in service). Compare the cost per mile for each scenario to determine which scenario will provide you the greatest costs savings, while still allowing you to meet your service needs.

Limiting your peak demand may allow you to save money on or delay electrical infrastructure upgrades for smaller ZEB deployments, if the existing depot facility is not utilizing its full rated kW capacity. However, for larger installations or for overhead fast- chargers, a thorough analysis of power and consumption needs will be required. While adding some initial complexity and cost, larger installations can provide fleet owners greater flexibility in creating charging patterns that minimize spikes in demand (Chandler et al., 2016).

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4.6.1 BEB Charging Strategy

Utilizing the results of your route and rate modeling efforts, schedule data, the available battery capacity of your buses, and the power delivered from your chargers, develop a charging strategy that meets service needs while minimizing costs.

On-route charging strategies can be either charge depleting or charge sustaining (as shown in the illustrative on-route charging sessions in one service day in Figure 4-3). Charge depleting scenarios occur when a bus cannot “catch up” or fully recharge to the % SOC at the beginning of the previous charging session. With this approach, buses will require additional charging to get a bus to sufficient % SOC to begin service the next day.

Charge sustaining scenarios occur when a bus can “catch up” to the % SOC at the beginning of the previous charging session. Under this scenario, buses will not need plug in charging, and can operate in service indefinitely.

Example % SOC – Charge Depleting Scenario Example % SOC – Charge Sustaining Scenario

100% 100% 90% 90% 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50%

Bus SOC 40% 40% 30% 30% 20% 20% 10% 10% 0% 0%

1:31 1:31 6:06 0:22 1:01 0:16 1:01 6:06 0:22 1:01 0:16 1:01 Figure 17:33 18:084-3. Exa19:10 20:56mple %SOC for charge depleting and charge sustaining on22:41 18:08 18:56 20:41 22:26 17:33 18:08 19:10 20:56 22:41-route charging strategies18:08 18:56 20:41 22:26 , showing %SOC over time for on-route charging sessions throughout the day.

With some charging scenarios, on-route charging can result in lower peak demand than simultaneous plug-in charging, due to the number of buses and duration of charge required. In addition, if charging isn’t required each time the bus passes the on-route station, charging can be strategically timed to occur outside of peak demand windows. Recognizing the need for balancing recharging and demand costs, OEMs are starting to offer technology solutions as well. At least one overhead charging station on the market includes a stationary battery for storage to limit the peak demand (Heliox, “Sprint Charge”). As the ZEB industry matures, there may be opportunities for utilizing batteries that have reached the end of their useful life in a transit bus or other application as on-site energy storage as well.

For depot-charged buses, sequential charging or charging at lower power may help limit demand charges. You may have 8 hours to charge your buses overnight before morning pullout, but your buses only need 4 hours to fully charge. Operational procedures or charge management software can help manage your demand load by:

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• Limiting the number of buses being charged simultaneously (e.g., charge 4 buses, then charge the other 4); or • Reducing the power output of your chargers (e.g., charge 8 buses over the 8 hours at 60kW instead of 125kW)

Third party software can provide smart charging capabilities that automate charge management strategies. Contact your bus or charger OEM for more information on options for smart charging.

Effective charge management strategies may extend the total time required for recharging your fleet but will ensure all buses are fully charged for morning pullout (as shown in Figure 4-4).

Total Power Without Charge Management Total Power With Charge Management

5000 5000

4000 4000

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0 kW Consumed by Charger by Consumed kW 0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00 4:48 0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00 4:48

Figure 4-4. Example daily power demand with and without charge management strategies

Establish priorities for charge management

Prioritize the constraints of your fueling strategy to identify the optimum charging processes that will allow you to meet your service needs and minimize costs.

What is the minimum state of charge needed at the time of pullout? Do you require a mid- day charge to optimize bus usage? Do you need to ensure that your demand never exceeds a certain limit? Are you attempting to minimize overall costs?

Your transit agency’s service requirements may limit the types of charge management strategies that you can implement. Weigh the benefits and costs of your charging strategy and keep in mind long-term BEB goals. Any charge management software should pay for itself, regardless of the size of your ZEB deployment, by saving you money on your electricity bill. The complexities and benefits of charging a large fleet of BEBs will likely require an automated solution to manage demand.

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While operational procedures can be another strategy for minimizing demand, be sure to educate all relevant staff on charge management procedures to avoid accidental charging. Plugging in and charging buses at the wrong time, even once in a billing period, can immediately impact demand and negate the benefit of a charging strategy.

4.7 Utility Partnership

A strong partnership between transit agencies and their electricity provider is invaluable and will help ensure a charge management strategy that balances transit needs with those of the utility. A transit agency with a fully electric fleet may become one of the largest customers in a utility’s service area, which introduces new challenges and opportunities. Work with your utility to understand where your transit agency fits within their capital plan.

Early in your BEB deployment process, coordinate with your electric utility to understand infrastructure needs, existing or planned rate schedules, and to discuss opportunities to plan your charging sessions to minimize costs. Engagement with your electric utility throughout the life of your BEBs will ensure that you have a seat at the table for any discussions about proposed changes to rate schedules or the development of any beneficial programs.

Your utility can help you understand how your rate schedule may change as you add ZEBs to your fleet, increasing electricity consumption. Work with your electric utility to identify ways to reduce your electricity bill, such as utilizing time of use rates, or methods to limit demand charges. Demand response programs may be available, providing financial incentives for the ability to curtail demand during peak windows.

Evaluate your options

Besides your electric utility, there may be options in your service area for electricity purchase or generation. Coordinate with your local government to discuss available options.

Electric utilities are anticipating changes in how electricity is generated and distributed in the future, due to the increased usage of renewable energy. Consider re-evaluating your options every few years to identify new opportunities that may become available to you.

Other options include: • On-site energy generation and storage, such as on-site solar or wind • Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) • Community microgrids

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4.8 Resilience and Emergency Response Planning

As transit resources are often part of emergency management planning, resilience and emergency response planning are an essential element of your ZEB deployment. FCEB systems require power for fueling infrastructure to operate, and depend on a hydrogen supply stored, or created, on-site. BEB charging infrastructure also requires continual power to operate. Consider existing abnormal procedures for your diesel or CNG fleet when developing a resilience plan for your ZEB fleet. Your transit agency needs to understand what risks your system may face, how new vehicles will or will not factor into existing emergency response planning, and what strategies are available for fulfilling service needs during power outages. Establishing a plan for both short- and long-term power outages is important.

4.8.1 Understanding reliability of your operations The first step in creating your resilience plan is to understand what types of disruptions are likely to occur in your area. Request reliability reports from your utility to understand the duration of historical disruptions to inform what types of regular outages to plan for, as well as service restoration times during significant weather events. Areas exposed to hurricanes and ice storms may be more vulnerable to more frequent longer-term outages.

4.8.2 Providing service during a power outage Once you have an idea of the type and duration of disruptions, you need to consider what minimal service your transit agency needs to provide in order to fulfill its mission. There may be different goals of operation, depending on the time of day, day of the week, type of event (e.g., power outage versus significant weather events, such as hurricanes), and the services your transit agency provides (e.g., evacuation services). Create a back-up plan for each type of occurrence and ensure operations and maintenance personnel are trained on the necessary procedures.

4.8.3 Emergency Backup systems Consider talking with a local hospital or After assessing the likelihood and duration of other establishments with emergency disruptions, you may find that additional response and resilience plans to learn infrastructure is needed to satisfy your minimum electrical distribution design and service needs. There are several options for maintenance procedures. emergency power backup systems, providing different levels of resilience, each with advantages and disadvantages (Table 4-1). Talk with your utility provider about options you are exploring since some may require grid interconnection.

In addition to providing back-up power during outages, some back-up solutions may be utilized to offset peak demand loads or defray grid consumption, helping reduce your overall energy costs. For example, solar panels may be utilized to help power charging stations or on-site

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energy storage systems could help provide power during peak demand periods. Be sure to understand available technology solutions, utility programs and the cost benefit of avoiding time-of-day charges as this may help reduce the cost of your solution.

Table 4-1. Summary of available options for backup power

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES NAME Dual Power Providing two • Familiar implementation • Still requires a back- Feeds independent as many electricity up power source to electricity paths customers require this ensure reliability as to your charging • If one power path faults, line faults, alone, are a infrastructure the other continues to small risk for provide a path for deployments power • Line extensions may be costly if needed • Requires additional space for equipment Backup power Utilizing diesel • Can operate when • Infrastructure is costly generator – or natural gas to needed as baseload, and requires internal generate power back-up, or peak significant space combustion on-site curtailing • Generator need to be engine • Can automatically correctly sized in provide power when a order to prevent disruption in the grid charger disruptions or supply is detected failures; coordinate • Mature, stable with equipment technology with several providers for correct manufacturers sizing • Efficient • Requires ongoing maintenance • Releases harmful emissions and noise • May require on-site fuel storage On-site energy Utilizing wind or • No variable costs for fuel • Will require an energy generation solar to • Ongoing power storage system to utilizing wind generate power generation can be used ensure power is or solar on-site for daily service needs available at all times • Grid connections may be restored more quickly to smaller microgrids than larger grid systems

Phase 4 – Fueling Infrastructure Strategy and Cost 4-17

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES NAME Fuel Cells Utilizing a local • Very high fuel • Few commercially • Molten fuel cell stack to efficiencies available devices, Carbonate generate power • Water and heat are the although industry is (MCFC) only emissions from growing (Vine et al, • Phosphoric hydrogen fuel, low 2017) Acid emissions from other • Need for fuel (PAFC) fuels reformer in almost all • Polymer • Potential to operate applications Electrolyte base load with utility • Start times vary based Membrane back-up on technology used: (PEMFC) Cold start is 1–2 days • Solid for MCFC, 3 hours for Oxide PAFC, 1 hour for (SOFC) PEMFC, and 2 minutes for SOFC66 Dual-Grid Installation of • Provides easy back-up • Difficult to operation charging during localized outages, incorporate for depot infrastructure especially for fast- charge installations as across different charge infrastructure most transit agencies portions of the installations don’t have two depot power grid options with enough space for all vehicles

4.9 Additional Resources • Heavy-duty Refueling Station Analysis Model, Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy • Preparing to Plug in Your Bus Fleet: 10 Things to Consider, Edison Electric Institute

Phase 4 – Fueling Infrastructure Strategy and Cost 4-18

5 PHASE 5 –FUELING INFRASTRUCTURE DEPLOYMENT

PHASE 5.1 Overview Needs and Requirements After selecting the fueling infrastructure method and technology, 1 you will need to complete the necessary activities to design and deploy your infrastructure. Infrastructure deployment is critical Technology PHASE SeleSpecificationsction and for bus acceptance and is one of the more complex phases of Specificationsand Selection 2 deployment, requiring time and coordination with stakeholders. Infrastructure installation must be substantially complete prior to PHASE Funding bus delivery for proper acceptance testing. 3 This phase of deployment will likely require an outside design or Fueling PHASE construction firm, necessitating that the time and effort of a Infrastructure Strategy 4 formal bidding process be included in the project timeline.

Fueling PHASE Early engagement of stakeholders, including utilities, permitting Infrastructure Deployment authorities, facilities, maintenance, designers, and the bus OEM 5 will be necessary for resolving issues and accomplishing a

Acceptance, PHASE successful deployment. Validation and Deployment 6 While the complexity of deployments can vary, the process for this phase of deployment typically includes: PHASE Training • Stakeholder engagement 7 • Site selection • Design PHASE OpeDataration and • Permitting MainMonitenaorinngce 8 • Construction • Commissioning PHASE DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce 9

PHASE OpeEmerrationging and MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10

Best practices included for fueling infrastructure deployment include: • Ongoing coordination between your transit agency, equipment providers, designers, contractors and utility providers • Designing for current and long-term plans • Clearly delineating contractor and OEM responsibilities for infrastructure installation • Ensuring commissioning and acceptance of infrastructure coincides with bus delivery

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-1

5.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations

Project Managers • Ensure infrastructure deployment and upgrades to maintenance facilities are completed prior to bus acceptance for proper testing and validation of the buses. • Create a realistic project timeline, allowing for the continued coordination of stakeholders, a formal bidding process, facility and power supply upgrades, design and construction, and commissioning of the station prior to bus delivery. • Conduct a kick-off meeting with key stakeholders, including designers, equipment manufacturers, power utility representatives, facility managers, maintenance and operation managers, and health and safety personnel.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • For BEB deployments, consider placement of charging infrastructure that accommodates safe and efficient charging while allowing adequate egress. • Ensure that the selected fueling approach does not disrupt the operations of the facility, which may be challenging with larger ZEB fleets.

• For FCEB deployments, ensure maintenance facility upgrades meet ventilation and gas detection standards and are coupled with alarm systems for safety. • For BEB deployments, identify a charging solution for maintenance facilities.

Procurement • Prepare for RPFs for the design and construction services for the fueling station. • Ensure General Contractor scope of work clearly delineates contractor responsibilities and requires coordination with the OEMs for equipment delivery and installation instructions.

• Coordinate with key stakeholders to ensure solicitations and contracts include the necessary responsibilities.

External Stakeholders • Electric utility providers should be engaged early to discuss the required upgrades to meet the increased electricity demand; scalability for future ZEB deployments, and possible incentive programs for infrastructure purchase or installation. • An engineering design firm should be engaged to support site selection and

infrastructure design. • Local permitting authorities will be required throughout the planning and construction process. • A general contractor will likely be needed for construction and installation of infrastructure, unless the OEM provides a turnkey solution. • The bus OEM and fueling equipment providers should be consulted throughout the design process and should be on-site for equipment commissioning. • All stakeholders should be available during the entire infrastructure deployment process to address any unanticipated issues or changes.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-2

5.3 Fueling Infrastructure Deployment Overview

While the complexity of the process can vary depending on the technology chosen and scale of the project, the infrastructure deployment steps are similar for BEB and FCEB fueling installations. The time and effort associated with this phase of deployment poses significant risk to project schedules and is often on the critical path for successful bus deployments. As one of the more complex phases of deployment, key stakeholder engagement throughout is required to mitigate potential risks and maintain project schedules. A certain degree of flexibility will likely be required to accommodate space or service constraints to find the best solution for fueling infrastructure installation,

The coordination and management of the stakeholders and processes highlighted in Figure 5-1 can be broken down into six key steps: (1) Stakeholder engagement; (2) Site selection; (3) Design; (4) Permitting; (5) Construction; (6) Commissioning.

Site Safety & QA/QC Electric utility Management Organization departments General contractor Manufacturer

Stakeholder Site Selection Commissioning Engagement Construction

Pre-deployment Permitting Inspection Deployment

Local permitting authority Fire department Building department Identify Code Bus Validation Final Requirements & Design Permit Needs & Testing Approvals

Figure 5-1. Infrastructure Deployment Process Flowchart

5.4 Stakeholder Engagement

Project managers will need to engage both internal and external resources to deploy fueling infrastructure. Plan a kick-off meeting with all key stakeholders to discuss the project and confirm roles and responsibilities of each group. Many of these groups will need to be engaged throughout the infrastructure deployment process.

• Transit Agency Executives will be necessary for support of site selection, procurement of services, budget approval, and to assist with coordination across departments.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-3

• Operations, maintenance, and facility managers should be consulted to evaluate any potential operational impacts of possible fueling solutions and ensure the selected site(s) allow for easy bus access, maintenance, and scalability. • Procurement managers should be engaged to understand procurement requirements, timelines, and to assist with any required competitive bid processes. • Local power providers and your transit agency’s utility liaison should be consulted early on for a thorough understanding of the required upgrades to the electrical infrastructure to provide the necessary power. Some utilities may provide incentive programs to offset fiscal requirements of infrastructure installation or complete the necessary construction work to expand capacity but will require coordination. • Engineering designers should be engaged to prepare the necessary electrical design, to create a comprehensive site design, and to coordinate with local authorities for permitting requirements. • Bus and charging equipment manufacturers should be consulted for equipment specifications, design requirements, and limitations. • A general contractor will likely be required for construction and installation of the charging equipment and associated site upgrades. • Permitting agencies with your local government will provide instructions on the permits required to complete the installation

Consider scaling needs for anticipated expansion. Scaling up hydrogen fueling infrastructure may be less costly and less land-intensive than scaling up battery charging infrastructure. If using stored liquid hydrogen on-site, additional vaporizers and dispensers would need to be added but a separate facility would not likely be necessary, depending on the capacity required.

For depot charged BEBs, an additional dispenser or an additional charger will be needed per bus deployed. For fast-charge BEB technology, route length and recharge times will dictate how many buses each charger can service and when additional chargers are needed. An additional transformer or a new substation may also be required once your BEB deployment exceeds your existing electric infrastructure capacity.

5.5 Site Selection

Selecting a site for the fueling infrastructure will be guided by available space, permitting requirements, the impact on current operations, and plans for future ZEB deployments. Depending on the location of the development and the funding authority, National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) or California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requirements should be considered.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-4

5.5.1 Hydrogen Fueling Stations

For hydrogen fueling station site selection, transit agencies should consider how the hydrogen is produced and delivered when identifying potential site locations. Consideration should be given to the area required for fueling infrastructure as well as options for scalability. Current regulations require hydrogen storage to be above ground. Piping and electrical equipment can be underground, if desired.

A hydrogen fueling station will typically include a (1) hydrogen delivery system, where hydrogen is delivered by a supplier or produced on-site, (2) hydrogen storage tank(s), (3) vaporizer (for liquid storage), (4) compressor, (5) chiller, and (6) dispensing system that delivers the fuel to the vehicle (Figure 5-2). Gaseous hydrogen storage will require an integrated design with both low-pressure and high-pressure storage. Liquid hydrogen storage is more common for transit applications, as it allows for higher storage capacity. FCEBs available in the U.S. all require hydrogen to be dispensed at 350 bar (H35).

3. Vaporizer 1. Hydrogen Delivery 2. Storage Tank (for liquid storage) 4. Compressor 5. Chiller 6. Dispenser Bus Figure 5-2. Generalized hydrogen fueling station schematic

Note that the hydrogen fueling station for your buses will not be compatible with most hydrogen fueling stations for light duty fuel cell vehicles, that require hydrogen to be dispensed at 700 bar (H70).

The limited suppliers of hydrogen in the U.S. can make distribution a challenge. Several State and Federal programs are aimed at increasing production. In the meantime, transit agencies should conduct a careful analysis of the hydrogen delivery system and associated costs.

5.5.2 Battery Charging Stations

A battery charging station will typically include (1) a transformer, (2) switchgear, (3) a charger, and (4) a dispenser (Figure 5-3). Additional equipment may be required due to the size of the deployment, requirements from your electric utility, and the charging method (e.g., depot, on-route,

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-5

inductive). For example, a single transformer and switchgear may support multiple chargers, and one charger may have more than one dispenser.

Grid 1. Transformer 2. Switchgear 3. Charger 4. Dispenser Bus

Figure 5-3. Generalized battery charging station schematic

Depot charging

Bus yards or maintenance facilities are ideal infrastructure siting locations of depot chargers, as they are already transit agency owned and maintained, are usually at the end of the line for routes and are closed to other vehicular traffic. The chargers must be installed where power utilities can provide a supply line capable of delivering the required power.

It is important that the placement of the depot chargers do not block the flow of traffic within the transit center. You must analyze your system and infrastructure needs to determine if you will require one charger per bus, or if you can support multiple buses per charger. You should also consider an appropriate ratio of spare chargers for achieving desired service continuity, as charging stations can require maintenance or malfunction. For smaller initial deployments, it is good practice to have one charger per depot-charged bus with a redundant charger, potentially at your maintenance facility, to limit service interruptions. Newer depot charger designs allow multiple dispensers per charger. The design of the station and the options for charger locations may require additional operational or service planning. Where space is limited, or for fleetwide ZEB deployments, overhead pantograph or reel dispensers attached to gantries installed across the bus yard should be considered. However, these installations require additional planning and cost for the overhead structures.

On-route charging

An ideal location for on route chargers would be existing depots, transit centers, or end-of-line layover sites where multiple buses pass through during layovers, and where your transit agency has access or property rights to install the infrastructure. This can limit options for charger locations, particularly in dense urban environments. Managing overhead clearances and planning for dedicated pull-offs may also need to be considered. Site selection for on-route charging infrastructure is extremely important, as it is costly and labor-intensive to relocate equipment.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-6

5.6 Design

Unless your transit agency has extensive The Request for Proposals (RFP) process experience in designing hydrogen fueling stations for a Transit Agency requiring design or charging stations, hiring an engineering firm to expertise for a BEB fast-charger design the fueling solution, permitting, and installation and maintenance facility oversight of construction is recommended. upgrades can add up to six months to Competitive procurement requirements can add the project schedule due to the time additional time to the project schedule. required to create the RFP, receive Procurement managers should be consulted to responses, review proposals, and finalize ensure all applicable Local, State, and Federal the contract. regulations are followed and that the project schedule is updated accordingly.

Upon selection and contracting of an engineering design consultant, a kick-off meeting should be scheduled with all key stakeholders, including bus and charger equipment manufacturers, utility representatives, facility, maintenance, and operations managers, safety representatives, and other transit agency or City staff, as applicable. The discussion should encompass current needs, as well as future expansion goals to ensure the final design can accommodate any anticipated FCEB or BEB deployments.

Permitting Authorities should be consulted early to ensure the design team understands design Discussions with local power suppliers and permitting requirements. Depending on the are essential to both FCEB and BEB location of the development and the funding deployments. Hydrogen fueling stations authority, NEPA or CEQA analyses may be can require significant power for required as well. compression. For BEB technology, simultaneously charging buses, or Utility providers should also be engaged at utilizing a fast-charge solution may project initiation to understand local code require significant upgrades to on-site requirements and power and metering options. electrical equipment. Invite your electric While separately metering fueling infrastructure utility to review the designs for your provides the most accurate information on fueling stations, to ensure that the energy consumption for deployments, smaller required energy can be provided to your depot charger installations may be better served station and that the station design meets by existing service/meters. Submetering may be all other local utility requirements. Your utilized in those situations to provide better utility may also offer incentive programs insight into charging infrastructure consumption to support the purchase, design, and versus facility consumption. installation of bus fueling infrastructure.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-7

Deployments in Action

A southern U.S. transit agency planned for the installation of five depot chargers for their BEB deployment. By modeling anticipated power and energy against supply, it was discovered that their current facility transformer had enough capacity to satisfy the charging loads and locating the chargers on the same meter would partially mitigate the increase in demand from their buses. The daytime-heavy demand of their facility helped offset overnight demand from charging the buses, saving them money.

Deployments in Action

The Antelope Valley Transit Authority (AVTA) in California worked with their electric utility to gain an understanding of how much energy they could consume at their facility. Through this process, it was determined that the utility could only provide about half of the power needed to satisfy their long-term plan. To compensate for the lack of available power, AVTA worked with a third-party software company to manage peak charging requirements and take advantage of lower evening rates (Engel, 2018).

Interim deliverable reviews should be schedule with the design team (e.g., at 30%, 60%, and 100% drawings) to ensure that the project is on track. Request an estimate of construction costs at each stage. The 100% design documents (i.e., drawings and specifications) are typically used for the RFP for construction services.

The final design drawings will be a required input for permit applications and will be utilized in the RFP for construction. Design firms will often help develop the RFP. For this reason, conflict of interest policies can preclude the design firm from competing for the construction portion of the project. Be sure to consult internal policies as well as any applicable laws and regulations for guidance.

5.6.1 Hydrogen Fueling Station Design FCEB deployments will likely require retrofits to maintenance facilities or garages (if buses are stored indoors) to accommodate safety standards and regulations for hydrogen storage and distribution (e.g., gas detection, ventilation). If your transit agency utilizes compressed natural gas (CNG) buses, some of the modifications may already be in place, with the exception of a hydrogen gas and flame detection system. If your facility does not operate CNG buses, you may need to replace exhaust fans, modify electrical systems, and implement a gas detection system.

Contract with a hydrogen infrastructure deployment expert to guide the necessary upgrades. Compete the following steps to determine what modifications may be needed: (Source: Fiedler Group)

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-8

§ Conduct a facility assessment by Design costs will often be approximately comparing the record drawings of your 5 to 15% of construction costs. facilities to how the facility was actually constructed. § Conduct an air balance test of the existing ventilation system to confirm that the exhaust fans are operating at the necessary rates. If the system is not performing as needed, identify what modifications must be made to achieve the necessary result. You will conduct a second air balance test after modifications to the exhaust system are completed. § Review electrical systems (e.g., ceiling mounted fixtures and connections) to identify potential sources of ignition should there be a hydrogen leak.

Deployments in Action

A Midwest transit agency deploying FCEBs identified electrical equipment in their maintenance facility that could be a potential source of ignition should there be a hydrogen leak. The agency determined that isolating that area from the rest of the facility with walls would be the most efficient and cost effective approach to eliminate risks.

The fire department will most likely require that they witness annual testing of the gas detections system to ensure that it is calibrated correctly. The manufacturer will most likely provide support to ensure the system is calibrated. Similar testing of the ventilation systems may also be required.

The fueling station needs to be integrated into the control systems that monitor and trigger the various alarms and ventilation or evacuation responses to gas leaks or fires.

5.6.2 BEB Charging Infrastructure Design

Transit agencies can choose to outsource the purchase, design, or installation of charging infrastructure. The various approaches will change the amount of risk on the transit agency, as well as the cost. Regardless of which approach is selected, close coordination with utilities, designers, and permitting agencies is still recommended. The transit agency can:

• Complete charging infrastructure specification, design, and installation independently of the bus OEM. • Request the bus OEM specifies and delivers charging infrastructure with the buses, but install the charging infrastructure yourself • Request a turnkey solution from the OEM, who specifies, delivers, and installs the charging infrastructure as a part of the bus procurement.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-9

5.7 Permitting

Permitting requirements will vary depending on The design and permitting process are the station type and local jurisdictions. Engage interdependent. Design drawings will be with your local permitting agencies early in the required to obtain permits and process of planning and designing your fueling permitting authority comments and station. Depending on your jurisdiction, obtaining concerns will need to be addressed in the required permits can be a lengthy process design revisions. and could take as long as 24 months.

While jurisdictions vary, projects will likely need to satisfy local requirements in at least Zoning, Architectural Review, Electrical, and Fire Department review, along with NEPA or CEQA analyses. Engage with the Fire Department as early in the design process to ensure you are aware of and in compliance with all requirements.

A temporary or mobile hydrogen fueling station may require fewer permits than a permanent station, however, it will need to be re-permitted if it is ever moved.

Small depot charger installations may only require the installation plan, electrical load calculations and manufacturer installation instructions, or specifications for permitting.

5.8 Construction

The contractor selected to complete the construction and installation of the fueling infrastructure should be responsible for pulling the required permits, as well as management of traffic considerations so as not to disrupt current operations, health and safety concerns, and infrastructure construction (i.e., civil and engineering work).

The RFP for the construction should include a requirement for a detailed construction schedule, a schedule for milestone payments, and a construction Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) plan. The QA/QC plan should include procedures for inspection, field-testing, and documentation.

Ensure that the engineer of record for the construction is licensed to practice in the state where the infrastructure will be installed, to ensure compliance with all applicable Codes.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-10

Integrate the equipment supplier and design firm into the construction phase. The design firm should review construction RFP responses, and can identify solutions or approve any necessary changes to the design throughout the construction process.

Ensure that your fueling infrastructure is installed and functional before any buses are delivered to your transit agency. This will preserve your ability to test and utilize buses. Otherwise, you may run the risk of being unable to operate and test your bus during the acceptance period.

The fueling stations utilizing gaseous hydrogen will require a compressor, storage, a dispenser, and cooling equipment; liquid storage stations will also require a vaporizer. These components are typically delivered as modules. The contractor will provide the necessary connections, including piping and electrical, between the modules for proper operation of the fueling station.

Some electric utilities have programs that assist with the engineering design and construction services for charging station installation.

5.9 Commissioning

Following the completion of construction, and any final inspections, you will need to commission the Make sure your bus and buses to the fueling equipment. Commissioning infrastructure contracts do not testing will verify if the equipment functions according require bus acceptance until after to design objectives and technical specifications. The infrastructure is installed for proper buses must be present to successfully commission the testing and validation. fueling equipment and ensure that the stations function for their intended purpose.

Typically, the fire department will be required to conduct a final safety review of the hydrogen fueling station and witness a fueling event before providing the final permit approval. Plan to have the equipment supplier(s) and bus OEM on-site for the commissioning to support any troubleshooting, if necessary.

Plan to have the equipment supplier and bus OEM on-site for the commissioning of charging stations to support any troubleshooting, if necessary. It is common for there to be communication issues between the chargers and the buses when they are initially plugged in. Work with the equipment supplier and the bus OEM to develop a commissioning plan to be used during the commissioning process to adequately test the operation of the charging equipment and compatibility with the bus.

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-11

5.10 Additional Resources • Construction Project Management Handbook, Federal Transit Administration • Zero-Emission Vehicles in California: Hydrogen Station Permitting Guidebook, California Governor’s Office of Business and Economic Development

Phase 5 – Fueling Infrastructure Deployment 5-12

6 PHASE 6 –ACCEPTANCE, VALIDATION, AND DEPLOYMENT

PHASE Needs and 6.1 Overview Requirements 1 In advance of your ZEBs arriving at your property, you will need to Technology PHASE coordinate bus inspection, acceptance, and validation activities Selection and Specifications that will help ensure your buses meet contractual and 2 performance requirements prior to deployment. This phase of

PHASE deployment includes: Funding • Vehicle inspection 3 • Acceptance testing Validation testing Fueling PHASE • Infrastructure • Deployment planning Strategy 4 During bus build, a resident inspector should perform on-site Fueling PHASE Infrastructure inspections, similar to an approach that you have taken with non- Deployment 5 ZEB purchases. Inspectors should have specific knowledge of electric drive vehicles and high voltage systems, potentially Acceptance, PHASE necessitating a specialized inspection company. ZEB experts can Validation and Deployment 6 be contracted to perform inspections or educate in-house inspectors on the technology through assisted inspection. PHASE Training Once your buses are through production, pre- and post-delivery 7 inspections will ensure buses meet your specifications, and no PHASE damage was done during delivery. After delivery, you will have a OpeDataration and MainMonitenaorinngce window for acceptance testing. Operator training will likely be 8 taking place shortly after the buses are delivered (See Phase 7 –

PHASE Personnel Training and Development). Bus fueling infrastructure DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce should be installed prior to delivery to effectively test the fueling 9 of your buses.

PHASE OpeEmerrationging and Validation testing, performed in conjunction with acceptance MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10 testing, will verify that actual bus performance meets expectations from your modeling efforts. Results will support strategic deployment of your buses, maximizing utilization under all conditions.

Best practices included for acceptance, validation, and deployment include: • Create and execute a clear inspection plan supported by a well-defined technical specification. • Conduct acceptance and validation testing to ensure delivered buses perform as planned. • Refine your initial deployment strategy based on validation results.

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-1

6.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations Project Managers • Select a vehicle inspector either from your transit agency’s staff or a third-party vendor that is familiar with electric drive vehicles and high voltage system build practices. • Schedule a review on-site at the OEM with your transit agency’s ZEB deployment team prior to the first vehicle being approved for shipment. • Coordinate with transit agency staff to develop an acceptance and validation testing plan. Some tests will require the participation of staff from the operations, maintenance, and facilities departments (e.g., road tests, testing the bus under various loads, identifying challenging locations in the service area). • Utilize the results of validation testing to update model assumptions for future deployment analyses. • Engage operations staff when developing a deployment plan. For your first deployment, consider starting vehicles on less challenging blocks to accommodate a learning curve on technology nuances. • Inform decision makers on the validated range in your service area at the conclusion of testing to set realistic expectations of vehicle performance.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Ensure charging infrastructure has been installed prior to vehicle acceptance. • Coordinate training on conducting post-delivery inspections with the OEM in advance of bus arrival, to ensure that you have the information needed to conduct a thorough inspection of new components.

• Conduct post-delivery inspections and coordinate with the OEM to confirm that all repairs are completed prior to acceptance. • Coordinate with bus and fueling equipment OEMs to commission the buses with the chargers after the first bus arrives. • Identify possible service blocks for deployment, and work with the project manager to develop a deployment plan.

Procurement • Ensure your RFP requires specific knowledge of ZEBs and demonstration of qualifications, if utilizing a third-party vendor for inspection.

External Stakeholders • Third party vendors may be utilized to conduct vehicle inspections. Establish procedures for reporting the results of inspections. • Coordinate with local politicians for ribbon cutting ceremonies or other promotional events highlighting your deployment

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-2

6.3 Vehicle Inspection

The FTA requires resident inspectors for bus orders larger than 10 buses. Resident inspectors must conduct inspections at the OEM’s final assembly facility and must visually inspect and road test the vehicles. See FTA’s Post-Delivery Review Requirements for more information regarding federal resident inspection regulatory requirements.

While it is good practice for your maintenance lead to participate in inspections, a qualified ZEB inspector is recommended as well. ZEB experts can either conduct the inspections on your behalf or educate your chosen inspectors on ZEB technology (Figure 6-1). Figure 6-1. ZEB Vehicle Inspector Criteria 6.4 Bus Inspection Plan

Include a bus inspection plan in your bus procurement documents to ensure that all components and assemblies meet your quality standards throughout the production process, and that the buses comply with the design and technical specifications. Outline procedures for inspecting and testing materials, work in process, and completed articles in your inspection plan. You should have a well-defined technical specification for the vehicle, identifying all approved equals, that will drive the inspection plan and ensure all parties have a clear and concise understanding about what is expected.

Your resident inspectors will provide regular Federal requirements may change due to reports of their findings, the bus’s progress changes in law, regulation, other through the manufacturing process, and requirements, or guidance. Familiarize corrective actions taken by the OEM to address yourself with the most current any issues with quality. Transit agencies either inspection requirements prior to contract inspection activities to a third party or developing your inspection plan. utilize in-house inspectors.

6.4.1 Configuration Audit For larger orders, there will be a pilot bus produced well in advance of the remaining buses in the order. This prototype or “first article” should be delivered far enough in advance of the remaining order so that any needed changes can be incorporated into the final bus design for the remaining buses. A configuration audit should be conducted at the manufacturing facility when the first article vehicle is almost finished. The audit criteria and process should be well defined in the contract as a milestone delivery with clear roles for all parties. The goal of the

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-3

configuration audit is to verify that the vehicle meets the contract requirements, reflecting any change orders, and to reveal any items requiring correction prior to first article inspection.

6.4.2 First Article Inspection The first article inspection should be conducted For smaller orders, transit agencies may when the first bus is complete, and all issues from combine the configuration audit, first the configuration audit are addressed. When article inspection, and pre-delivery complete, the first article inspection provides a inspection in the same visit, but all verified compliant configuration so that a notice inspections should be completed before to proceed (NTP) can be issued for the rest of the shipment. order.

6.4.3 Pre-Delivery Inspection Your on-site inspector will conduct a final review of the completed bus before the OEM can release the bus to be shipped to your property. Transit agencies may elect to have the staff managing the ZEB procurement along with a ZEB bus expert visit the OEM prior to article completion to review the manufacturing processes and ensure that the bus meets quality standards and specifications.

6.4.4 Post-Delivery Inspection Once the bus arrives at your facility, your transit Note that ZEBs may arrive at your facility agency needs to conduct a post-delivery with fewer miles than conventionally- inspection (PDI) of each article. If zero-emission fueled vehicles, since ZEBs will not technology is new to your transit agency, ask the typically be driven from the bus OEM to provide training to your maintenance manufacturing plant to your facility. staff in conducting PDIs for the new bus Therefore, ZEBs may have less driving components. Coordinate with the OEM to ensure time to identify potential issues before all items identified in the PDI are addressed to arriving on-site. your satisfaction prior to acceptance.

6.5 Acceptance and Validation Testing

After your buses are delivered and your fueling infrastructure is installed, you will want to test the performance and functionality to ensure that all contractual requirements for bus operations have been meet (acceptance testing) and that actual performance is in line with expected performance (validation testing). Acceptance and validation testing may reveal unanticipated issues with the buses. Work closely with the OEM to ensure issues are addressed prior to bus acceptance.

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-4

6.5.1 Acceptance Testing Goals

Ensure that your acceptance criteria outlined in your contract requires the fueling infrastructure to be installed prior to bus acceptance and commissioned in conjunction with bus acceptance.

Bus procurement contracts have a set period of time for a transit agency to test and accept buses. Since many operators are unfamiliar with the technology, ZEB acceptance periods may need to be longer than standard to allow adequate time for training and acceptance. Be sure your contract is clear that the acceptance testing period should not begin upon bus delivery if fueling equipment has not been installed (See Section 2.5.2 Acceptance Criteria).

6.5.2 Validation Testing Goals

The goal of validation testing is to collect actual bus and fueling infrastructure performance data to validate any assumptions that you made in your route and charge modeling efforts (See Section 2.3 Bus Performance Evaluation ). Evaluating this data will allow you to confirm that your assumptions are valid or adjust expectations with respect to range and bus performance. In general, the results of your validation testing will not be considered criteria for acceptance or non-acceptance of a bus. However, this will inform bus deployment plans, identify potential risks, and assist with future planning of ZEB expansion. By validating and updating your ZEB route and charging models, you create a tool that helps plan for end-of-life battery capacity and future ZEB route options.

Use the results of validation tests to update the model to ensure that the buses will perform as needed. If your bus is performing significantly differently from the model results, you may need to troubleshoot with the OEM to determine where the discrepancy exists.

6.5.3 Recommended Tests

In advance of your buses being delivered to your transit agency, develop a plan that will outline and schedule all acceptance and validation tests that you will conduct. Refer to your technical specifications and ensure that your tests allow you to confirm the bus meets all contractual requirements.

Depending on how your contract is written, the results of some of these tests may not be considered acceptance criteria. However, the results should help refine your simulation model, improving its accuracy for future deployments. They will also be useful for identifying any needed adjustments to your deployment plan.

The acceptance period should be used to test the full operation and functionality of each bus. Ensure that you test all conditions that your bus may expect to encounter during revenue

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-5

service. In addition to your existing bus acceptance procedures (e.g., inspections, bus wash, IT system configuration), you should consider conducting the following tests:

• Operating Range – Test the total range of the bus under various conditions, such as in different traffic patterns, on different routes, with different HVAC and auxiliary loads, or weighted sandbags or water barrels. For BEBs, record the total range when operating the bus over the usable SOC. For FCEBs, record the total range to an empty tank.

If you included range requirements in your technical specifications, be clear under what conditions that range is being measured. Are those range requirements to be met under any specific conditions while in transit service? If your technical specifications are Total bus range will decrease over time put together properly, then they will as the battery degrades. Consider this account for how the bus range will be capacity loss when planning for impacted by ambient temperature, traffic revenue service deployment. conditions, battery age, and the driver.

• Maneuverability – Drive the bus on “challenging” locations in the service area (e.g., steep grades, hill starts, difficult turns, hard acceleration). Record top speeds, time to accelerate, and any difficulties or unexpected behaviors that drivers experience.

• Performance at “low” SOC – Determine how performance changes when operating the bus at low SOC. Operating the bus at low SOC is not recommended while in regular service, as this impacts battery life, but it should be tested at delivery. Evaluate how performance changes at low SOC, and when warning notifications appear on the dashboard. Ask the OEM what would be considered “low” SOC for your buses (usually below 20%).

For FCEBs, test performance at challenging locations in your service area where sustained higher power outputs could potentially drain the battery. This may be accomplished by performing a hill climb after sustained high speeds.

• Performance under load – Testing should confirm that the bus shows acceptable performance under various conditions. Conduct all testing at various weights (e.g., Curb Weight, Gross Vehicle Weight Rating) and with high and low temperature HVAC loads. Varying conditions may impact energy efficiency, which can be used to plan for bus range on hot and cold days that will require more energy from the battery to make up for increased HVAC load.

• Charger Compatibility – Plug in each bus to each charger to ensure that the all buses charge successfully at the expected rate. Coordinate with the bus and charger OEMs to address any performance issues with the chargers.

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-6

Avoid unanticipated costs of driver overtime by establishing a plan for road testing activities and ensuring that your acceptance testing window is adequate to complete all necessary tests. Conducting acceptance testing in revenue service deployment can help offset labor costs, if allowed in your contract.

6.6 Initial Deployment Strategy

ZEB technology will apply additional constraints to your service planning, compared to conventionally fueled buses. An initial deployment plan should appropriately minimize the costs to your transit agency to accommodate the constraints, optimize the bus utilization in your service area, and include decision-support tools for dispatch to determine will be capable of completing planned service.

Ensure that you complete sufficient planning to maximize bus use throughout its service life considering: • Battery capacity degradation – For BEBs, most battery warranties specify that expected end of life capacity is 70% to 80% of the nameplate capacity over 6 or 12 years. Ensure that the battery capacity is sufficient so that your bus will be able to complete non-trivial blocks in your service area at the end of its service life. • Seasonal variation in energy consumption – Energy consumption will vary seasonally; HVAC systems will use more energy in particularly warm or cold climates. The impact of HVAC systems in colder climates is more apparent in BEBs, as FCEBs can utilize waste heat from the fuel cell, and has been seen through observations to heat the cabin in temperatures as low 20°F. • Public visibility - Some transit agencies have a specific route(s) in mind for ZEB deployment. These routes may get high ridership or visibility and are a useful tool in advertising that your transit agency is utilizing zero-emission technology.

• Pollution reduction in environmental justice or underserved communities – ZEBs deployed in underserved or disadvantaged communities can provide focused environmental benefits due to the lack of GHG harmful emissions. Address Title VI, Title IX, and FTA Environmental Justice regulations in planning for smaller initial deployments to ensure that benefits are distributed around the service area.

If zero-emission technology is new to your transit agency, deploying ZEBs on less challenging routes or blocks during the initial deployment allows your drivers and operations staff to get comfortable with the technology and its capabilities, and to further understand sensitivities to different temperatures, loading capacities, routes, or traffic conditions. Your agency may be the first to pilot new technology due to the nature of the market, therefore you should

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-7

anticipate stumbling blocks. Plan for adequate testing of the new features and document lessons learned for future users.

Ensure your ZEB technology can perform on An agency introducing electric buses existing routes. Changing routes or blocks to alongside route changes inadvertently accommodate your ZEB technology may be created local opposition to ZEBs. Don’t required as ZEBs compose a larger percentage of make electric buses an excuse for route your fleet but a cost/benefit analysis should changes (Judah Aber, EB Consulting). always be conducted prior to implementing route changes.

Establish a plan to periodically evaluate the performance of your ZEBs, and adjust your deployment strategy, as needed (See Section 9.3 Data Collection and Reporting).

6.7 Additional Resources • Post-Delivery Review Requirements, Federal Transportation Administration • Federal Agency-Specific Environmental Justice Information, Department of Justice

Phase 6 – Acceptance, Validation, and Deployment 6-8

7 PHASE 7 –PERSONNEL TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

PHASE 7.1 Overview Needs and Requirements 1 Your transit agency already provides training on new buses, as the

Technology PHASE components or operations may differ slightly across OEMs and Selection and models. BEBs and FCEBs will have many new components and Specifications 2 operations that your operators, maintenance staff, and facilities

PHASE staff may be unfamiliar with. Funding 3 During this phase of deployment, provide training for your operations, maintenance, and facilities staff on the safe and Fueling PHASE Infrastructure efficient operation and maintenance of ZEBs. You will also need to Strategy 4 coordinate with first responders to schedule training on potential hazards and recommended response techniques. Fueling PHASE Infrastructure Deployment 5 RFP or contract language for your bus procurement should include requirements for the OEM to provide sufficient training to your Acceptance, PHASE staff. Validation and Deployment 6 Best practices for personnel training and development include:

PHASE • Coordinating operations and maintenance training prior to Training or in conjunction with bus delivery. 7 • Ensuring that OEM-provided training includes sufficient

PHASE high-voltage hazards and safety training as well as OpeDataration and hydrogen fuel safety training, when applicable. MainMonitenaorinngce 8 • Requiring OEMs to conduct first responder training.

PHASE DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce 9

PHASE OpeEmerrationging and MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-1

7.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations Project Managers • Coordinate with the OEM prior to delivery of the buses to schedule all required training and ensure that you retain a copy of any materials. • Coordinate with first responders to conduct training on potential hazards and response procedures. • Develop a plan to determine what portion of your drivers and maintenance staff should be trained on the ZEB; a smaller deployment may allow you to train fewer staff initially. • Establish a plan to provide recurrent training for staff if the size of your ZEB fleet provides limited exposure opportunities. • Consider incentives to influence efficient driving behaviors as operators can significant impact energy efficiency. Safety and schedule demands should be key considerations for any incentive program.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • ZEBs have different components and controls than conventional buses. Bus performance also differs. Train drivers on the differences and efficient operation of the buses. Emergency procedure recurrent training should be provided.

• Maintenance staff need to be trained to service and troubleshoot all-electric propulsion and auxiliary systems, how to work with the on-board diagnostic systems, and be trained in safe work practices for high voltage and, if applicable, hydrogen. • Operations staff should be briefed on any expected range or endurance limitations (including seasonal variations) of the ZEBs as well as expected refueling and recharging times. • Safety training is critical for all staff involved in supporting ZEB deployments.

Procurement • Ensure contracts for ZEB bus and fueling technology require adherence to all applicable codes, regulations, and industry standards to ensure proper safety techniques and systems are included. Training requirements, including training hours, aids, materials, and diagnostic equipment should also be clearly defined.

External Stakeholders • OEMs will provide training to your transit agency, per the requirements identified in your contract. • First responders and the local emergency response community should participate in training on potential hazards and response procedures.

• Schedule and test towing training with the contractor who will ultimately tow the vehicle, as required. • Centers of excellence focused on ZEB technology may be good resources for additional training Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-2

7.3 Staff Training

Training provided by the OEM should be clearly outlined in your bus procurement documents and should occur shortly after bus delivery to limit delays in revenue service deployment. Contract specifications should include requirements for training hours, aids, materials, tools and diagnostic equipment. In advance of your buses arriving at your property, confirm what direct staff training or "train-the-trainer" training will be provided by the OEM and ensure that your transit agency has access to needed tools and materials. All employees who may be near hydrogen buses or hydrogen fueling stations must be trained in hydrogen safety.

Determine what portion of transit agency staff will be trained to support the initial deployment. If ZEBs make up a small Balance staff resources percentage of your total fleet, or are dedicated to specific required for training with blocks, it may be possible to restrict buses to a limited number those needed to support of operators. This approach will focus initial training efforts to bus acceptance and those specific operators, as well as other operators that may validation testing. periodically cover shifts. This also allows operators to bid on a block knowing that it will be a ZEB, getting operators that want to drive a ZEB in the driver’s seat, and avoiding those that don’t.

As you procure more ZEBs, or if you find that ZEBs are not available for service more frequently due to the lack of trained drivers, additional staff should be trained. A train-the-trainer program is a good approach to adopt for long-term training of additional and new staff members in- house.

General training on considerations for ZEB deployments may be extremely valuable for any staff involved with ZEB planning. Successful deployments require all those involved to understand the costs, benefits, and goals of your deployment. This will help raise awareness and create a foundation for future deployment success.

Deployments in Action

One transit agency deploying ZEBs had service changes three times each year, with operators able to elect route block moves each time. Since initial ZEB training was targeted to the operators originally on the block serviced by ZEBs, any operators moved to that block required ZEB training. If this is similar to your transit agency’s approach, plan for potential training during each service change.

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-3

7.4 Operations Training

The operator’s compartment may have different gauges or displays, compared to conventional buses. Provide an overview of dashboard controls and warning signals for all drivers and maintenance staff, as well as training on the correct procedure when a warning signal appears on the dashboard.

BEB operators should be trained on how to understand and use readings such as battery SOC, remaining operating time, estimated range, and other system notifications that may occur during operation. Operators should be well versed and confident about what notifications require immediate action as opposed to notifications that are simply noting items for diagnostic purposes and system upgrades.

Confirm with your OEM how SOC will be reported on the dashboard or in other data monitoring services in order to properly train drivers and dispatch on how to make decisions using SOC remaining.

In addition to the physical components of the bus, the FTA recommends training on concepts, working principles, and details of regenerative braking, mechanical braking, hill holding, and roll back. Training on the differences between regenerative braking and conventional friction braking is recommended. Some OEMs limit regenerative braking until the bus falls below a certain SOC threshold, which can affect braking feel. Ensure that drivers are trained for this possibility.

Driving habits can significantly affect BEB efficiency and performance. Train drivers on optimal driving habits, such as the recommended levels of acceleration and deceleration to maximize efficiency. Consider providing additional training or incentives to promote efficient driving behaviors. Establish an incentive program must balance energy efficiency with safe operation of the bus, as well as demands on operators to adhere to schedule points.

Since ZEBs operate with much less noise, drivers should also be aware and properly trained on the risks silent operation can pose. Pedestrians may not hear an approaching ZEB and parked buses don’t provide sound cues to notify drivers they are still running. While OEMs and third- party providers are starting to provide solutions, drivers should be sensitive to the lack of sound cues that they have become accustomed to with conventionally fueled buses. Operator training should include a process for ensuring parked buses have been turned off.

Deployments in Action

A transit agency deploying BEBs found that operators failing to turn off the buses at the end of the shift drained low-voltage auxiliary batteries, which eventually required replacement (CARB, 2016).

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-4

7.5 Fueling Processes Training

APTA recommends that any staff responsible for ZEB operation and maintenance are familiar with processes, procedures, and hazards associated with the fueling process, and that the transit agency staff responsible for specific tasks associated with BEB charging or FCEB fueling should receive additional training on the safe operation of BEB chargers and hydrogen fueling stations.

7.6 Maintenance Training

Provide training so that technicians understand how to service and Some transit agencies troubleshoot all-electric propulsion, balance of plant (BOP) for utilize third-party FCEBs, and auxiliary systems. They should also know how to work services for all high- with the on-board diagnostic systems, and should be trained on voltage system safe work practices for hydrogen and high voltage systems, to maintenance. include the handling, storage, and disposal of batteries.

Schedule and test When conducting inspections, transit agency staff should be aware towing training with of the unique hazards associated with battery chargers and the contractor who will hydrogen fuel cells; specifically, the presence of high voltage ultimately tow the cables, battery-specific fire or explosion hazards, and high-pressure vehicle if needed. gas hazards that do not exist in conventional buses.

Deployments in Action

Some transit agencies have found that there is a shortage of technicians with the required skillsets for electric powertrains and high voltage servicing. The industry is addressing this need by working with community colleges and technical schools to add the required courses for ZEB technicians (Eudy and Jeffers, 2018). FTA has funded Centers of Excellence for ZEB training at both Sunline Transit in California and the Stark Area Regional Transit Authority in Ohio to help facilitate this process. Additional work is also being done by both LA Metro and AC Transit to help technicians develop the necessary skillsets to support ZEBs.

7.7 Safety Training

Thorough safety training is critical for all staff involved in supporting ZEB deployments. Proper safety training will provide specific best practices and emergency procedures related to your ZEB and associated infrastructure.

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-5

At a minimum, safety training should include: • Overview of hazards associated with battery chargers and hydrogen fuel cells, when compared to conventional fuels • Safe handling and deactivation of high-voltage components, including required PPE for different tasks and capacitor discharge timing • Lockout and tagout procedures for working on energized components and systems, as specified in The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout), Title 29, CFR Part 1910.147 (OSHA, 2002) • Battery-specific safety hazards, such as electrocution, arcing, and fires from short circuits • Locations of emergency cut-off switches and fire response equipment • Actions to take to avoid an emergency and what to do during an emergency (e.g., contact first responders, evacuate passengers, power off vehicle) • Maintenance and testing of safety critical systems like hydrogen sensors and ground fault detection • Hazards associated with operating and maintaining the high-pressure hydrogen storage systems to ensure proper procedures are followed when disconnecting lines

For all ZEBs, incident response procedures should include assessing high-voltage systems and risks as well as procedures for isolating risks and preventing further damage/exposure. FCEB procedures should include hydrogen hazards as well.

Emergency Response Guides for battery electric bus manufacturers including Proterra, Novabus, BYD, and GILLIG are available on the NFPA's website.

7.7.1 Hydrogen Properties

Hydrogen molecules are small and lighter than air and considerations for managing hydrogen-related emergencies should address buoyancy, confinement difficulties, as well as the lack of radiant heat when burning (Center for Hydrogen Safety).

Hydrogen burns invisibly and does not produce any smoke. A hazard and operability study (HAZOP) should be conducted to ensure risks are identified, appropriate safety systems are in place, and operational and procedural controls are clear.

Hydrogen fuel has no odor, and cannot have an added odorant, due to hydrogen purity requirements of the fuel cell stack.

Large hydrogen fires can only be extinguished by shutting off the fuel supply of the fire. Small hydrogen fires can be extinguished with dry powder retardant, carbon dioxide, a halon extinguisher, or a fire blanket.

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-6

Shut off the fuel supply of a hydrogen fire before extinguishment due to the risk of reignition. If the fuel source cannot be shut off, the fire should be contained and actions taken to prevent injury and spreading.

7.7.2 Hydrogen Fueling Station Safety

Hydrogen fueling stations will have hazards similar to compressed natural gas facilities. For hydrogen stations, safety systems will include pressure relief, and fire and leak detection, and flame detection systems. The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Hydrogen Safety Training Materials provide more information about general station safety system requirements and operation. Safety features will be incorporated into product designs to conform to SAE guidelines. Ensure that maintenance and facilities staff are aware of how the features operate and how they should be tested. NFPA provides the code for fundamental safeguards for generation, installation, storage, piping, use, and handling of hydrogen in compressed gas (GH2) or cryogenic liquid (LH2) form.

DOE’s Hydrogen Emergency Response Training Resources guide highlights that general station safety systems include: • Pressure relief systems o Burst disks o Pressure relief valves/devices (PRV/PRD) o Safety vents • Fire and leak detection systems o Telemetric monitoring o Hydrogen gas detectors o UV/IR cameras o Fueling line leak check on nozzle connect • Design elements o Engineering safety margins and analysis (HAZOP) o Hydrogen compatible materials o Siting to established regulations o Cross-hatched areas for user attention • Other systems o Emergency stops o Dispenser hose break-away devices o Impact sensors at dispenser o Controlled access o Excess flow control (fueling) o Pre-coolers (-40°F)

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-7

7.7.3 First Responder Training

Coordinate OEM training for local first responders in advance of revenue service deployment to ensure proper emergency response procedures will be followed if an incident does occur. Ensure that emergency personnel have the contact information for a designated staff member within the transit agency in the event of an emergency.

First Responder training could include:

• How to distinguish electric buses from conventional buses (including NFPA Hazard placards and SAE J2578 identification) • How to best approach a battery electric vehicle fire and how a battery electric vehicle fire differs from a conventional internal combustion vehicle fire • Properties of lithium ion batteries, and the distinction from a lithium metal fire • How to isolate high-pressure and high-voltage systems • Overview of the location of important components on a ZEB, such as batteries, electric motors, control panels, and inverters • Location of emergency cut-off switches to disconnect the electrical system from energy storage devices • Proper procedures for disconnecting batteries and isolating them from the bus • How to treat chemical burns and neutralize battery fluid • Understand all hazardous fluids being used and proper storage methods • Information on any potential explosive or toxic gas hazards that batteries may pose to them • Hydrogen release and hydrogen flame indicators (e.g., venting/hissing sounds, thermal waves) • How to attack a hydrogen fire and how to redirect venting hydrogen away from ignition sources

7.8 Additional Resources

General training • Design Guidelines for Bus Transit Systems Using Electric and Hybrid Electric Propulsion as an Alternative Fuel, Federal Transportation Administration • Recommended Practice for Transit Bus Operator Training, American Public Transportation Association • Recommended Practice for Transit Supervisor Training, American Public Transportation Association

Safety • The Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout), Title 29, CFR Part 1910.147, Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-8

• Emergency Response Guides from Alternative Fuel Vehicle Manufacturers, National Fire Protection Association • Hydrogen Emergency Response Training Resources, U.S. Department of Energy • Hydrogen Fuel Cell Engines and Related Technologies Course Manual, U.S. Department of Energy

First responder training • Emergency Response to Incident Involving Electric Vehicle Battery Hazards, National Fire Protection Association • Hybrid and EV First and Second Responder Recommended Practice, Society of Automotive Engineers • Introduction to Hydrogen Safety for First Responders, U.S. Department of Energy (requires free registration)

HAZOP Analysis • Hazard and operability studies – Application Guide (IEC 61882), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

ZEB Centers of Excellence • West Coast Center of Excellence • Midwest Hydrogen Center of Excellence

Phase 7 – Personnel Training and Development 7-9

8 PHASE 8 –OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

PHASE 8.1 Overview Needs and Best practices for operation and maintenance of ZEB technology Requirements 1 are still evolving since the ZEB market is maturing. Therefore, monitoring bus deployment data, and evaluate performance will Technology PHASE Selection and help inform any adjustments that should be made to your Specifications 2 operational plan.

PHASE ZEBs may require less preventative maintenance than diesel Funding 3 counterparts since they have fewer moving parts, however there is not enough data from ZEB deployments in the U.S. to provide Fueling PHASE detailed insight into maintenance requirements. Many transit Infrastructure Strategy agencies have experienced issues with the availability of spare 4 parts, where long lead times extend the time required for

Fueling PHASE maintenance activities. In addition, the existence of high-voltage Infrastructure systems may require a licensed electrician or OEM-provided Deployment 5 technicians for preventative service. Be sure you understand what service is required and the technician capabilities required to Acceptance, PHASE Validation perform the service. and Deployment 6 Battery capacity will degrade over time, impacting BEB PHASE Training performance. However, battery health is complex and difficult to 7 measure. Having a plan to measure and track battery health will help you estimate expected degradation, identify anomalies, PHASE Operation and manage warranty claims, and plan for future service capabilities. Maintenance 8 Best practices included for the operation and maintenance of ZEBs PHASE and fueling infrastructure include: DataOperation and MoniMaintenaorinngce • Promoting energy efficient driving behaviors. 9 • Monitoring battery state of health. PHASE • Understanding and preparing for bus and fueling OpeEmerrationging and MainOppotrenatunitiesnce infrastructure maintenance activities, including spare part 10 inventories and lead times.

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-1

8.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations Project Managers • Ensure operations and maintenance departments are briefed on battery degradation and potential service impacts for BEBs. Identify useful blocks that your BEB fleet can complete throughout its entire service life. • Establish a method to measure the battery capacity at time of delivery, and a schedule to periodically measure battery health at least once per year. Track battery degradation and any impacts on service. • Monitor operator efficiency throughout the deployment. • Facilitate coordination of OEM and maintenance staff to create a spare parts inventory and a catalog of ZEB components and lead times.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Consider incentivizing efficient driver behaviors to optimize ZEB use. • Coordinate with OEMs and component manufacturers to create spare parts inventories and understand lead times for ZEB components.

Procurement • Coordinate spare parts procurements needed for ongoing ZEB maintenance.

External Stakeholders • Depending on the service required, licensed technicians or OEM-provided technicians may be needed for some maintenance activities. • OEMs should provide suggested spare part inventories and indicate driver behaviors that can increase efficiencies.

• Third party data monitoring services or OEM technicians may be required to measure battery health.

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-2

8.3 Operations

Since the ZEB industry is still maturing, transit agencies around the country are learning how to optimize bus performance and utilization. Data from normal ZEB operations should be monitored and analyzed to inform potential changes to your deployment plans. Understanding how your buses perform in real transit service will allow you to make better decisions about what blocks are available, or how fueling practices can be optimized.

8.3.1 Driver Procedures

Driving habits can significantly affect ZEB efficiency and performance. Work with your OEM to understand driver behaviors that can extend the range of your daily ZEB operation. Consider creating an incentive program that rewards good driving habits to achieve operational goals.

8.3.2 Monitoring Battery State of Health

The usable capacity of bus batteries will degrade over time and the amount of degradation can be difficult to accurately and consistently measure. Ensure that you incorporate this consideration in your deployment planning, as a ZEB may not be able to complete the same planned service at the end of its service life as it was able to upon delivery. This is of particular importance for BEBs. Battery degradation is not as significant for FCEBs, as the typical allowed degrees of battery charge and discharge preserves battery health.

Battery warranties typically guarantee a battery to 70% to 80% of the nameplate capacity. It can be difficult to know the absolute value of the usable battery capacity during the service life of your bus. This makes submitting warranty claims related to battery capacity a challenge.

Some transit agencies use a contractor to conduct a detailed battery capacity test while others use OEM-provided test procedures to measure battery capacity. These tests sometimes require specialized equipment. It is important that your transit agency understands the complexity of accurately measuring battery health and determines a consistent method for measuring battery health (See Section 2.5.3 Major Component Useful Life and Warranty Considerations).

Your transit agency’s staff or the OEM should test the battery capacity at the time of each bus’s delivery to establish a baseline for battery capacity. Then, create a plan for measuring this metric over consistent intervals of time (at least annually). The combination of these measurements will help you understand typical degradation, identify anomalies, and plan for future service capabilities.

Some data monitoring services provide a measure of battery state of health. Be sure to review how the metrics are being calculated, and determine how to best apply them, if utilizing this information for planning purposes.

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-3

8.4 Maintenance

Since many ZEB deployments are still in their adolescent stages, maintenance data for aging fleets is sparse. While ZEBs may have lower maintenance costs due to fewer moving parts, “normal” maintenance costs will become more apparent as the ZEB industry matures. NREL tracks and reports on maintenance costs for several ZEB deployments around the country. These reports are an excellent resource for transit agencies wanting to learn more about other agencies’ experiences and lessons Figure 8-1. Components of Vehicle learned with ZEB maintenance. The sections Maintenance below outline the significant components of ZEB maintenance (Figure 8-1).

8.4.1 Spare Parts Inventories

Parts availability is a common issue with transit While delays on a bus repair due to part agencies deploying advanced technology buses lead times can be difficult to absorb, (Eudy and Jeffers, 2018). Require your bus and fueling infrastructure (such as hydrogen fueling infrastructure OEMs to provide a list of station or fast charger) maintenance critical and recommended spare parts for on-site events can immobilize large portions of inventory to speed the repair process. For other your ZEB fleet. Spare part inventories spare parts, request that they provide pricing and should balance the effects of downtime common lead times to determine expectations with the cost of keeping them in stock. for vehicle downtime.

Coordinate directly with your OEMs or their component manufacturers to obtain the desired parts at the best cost.

Deployments in Action

AC Transit in California experienced issues with the availability of bus parts with long lead times for delivery. One reason for the lead time is the need to order foreign supplied parts through a distributor.

AC Transit found that their distributor only offered some components as kits. This added unnecessary cost for cases where only one part out of the kit was needed for repair. Working directly with the component manufacturer helps address this issue (Eudy et al., 2017).

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-4

8.4.2 Bus Maintenance

Propulsion-related maintenance of your ZEB fleet may be lower than your non-ZEB fleet. Propulsion-related costs include repairs for (Eudy and Jeffers, 2018): • Fuel • Electric motors • Battery modules • Propulsion control • Non-lighting electrical (charging, cranking, and ignition) • Air intake • Cooling • Transmission

ZEB propulsion systems are more efficient and Experience has shown that there are have fewer moving parts than conventional some driving differences with electric internal combustion (IC) engines, potentially buses that reduce some of the wear and resulting in less wear and tear. In addition, the tear on brake pads. Bus drivers slow lack of an IC engine negates the need for oil down differently with regenerative changes, while the use of regenerative braking brakes. (Aber, 2016) typically lengthens the life of brake pads.

As advanced technology vehicles, ZEBs typically contain on-board communication systems that continuously report error messages and issues to OEMs. This access to detailed bus data allows for quick identification of maintenance issues.

A study of King County Metro’s fleet indicated the cab, body, and accessories system contributed to the highest percent of maintenance costs for BEB technology.

Figure 8-2 shows maintenance costs by system for their fleets.

For FCEB technology, the fuel cell-specific components and the on-board hydrogen storage increase the number of components for maintenance. A 2018 National Renewable Energy Laboratory report found that the majority of issues with FCEBs were due to balance of the fuel cell powerplant, including air handling and cooling (Eudy, 2018).

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-5

Figure 8-2. Observed maintenance costs by bus system at King County Metro (Eudy, 2018)

Figure 8-3 shows the cost per mile by bus system for various maintenance needs, reported by NREL.

Figure 8-3. Cost per mile of maintenance needs by bus system (Eudy, 2019, page 12)

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-6

For preventative maintenance activities, require your bus and infrastructure OEMs to provide a list of activities, the time interval, skills needed, and required parts to complete each task. Some activities may require expertise from licensed electricians or from OEM technicians.

Maintenance costs may be higher for initial ZEB deployments as maintenance staff learns how to troubleshoot and repair unfamiliar systems. As your ZEB fleet grows, so will knowledge in anticipating issues and preventing them with proper maintenance (See Phase 7 –Personnel Training and Development). Comprehensive tracking of maintenance history will be useful in predicting maintenance needs. Establish a tracking process to ensure that the necessary parts are in stock to conduct the maintenance when needed.

8.4.3 Fueling Infrastructure Maintenance

As of early 2020, there was little industry data on the maintenance required for fueling infrastructure due to immaturity of the market. The type of infrastructure will affect the maintenance required. Advanced features or communication systems will likely require more periodic maintenance than a basic unit, due to the number of components that can malfunction, but many OEMs have remote diagnostic capabilities, helping them to quickly identify issues.

Require OEMs to provide maintenance manuals that outline preventative maintenance activities, as well as the time and skill to complete them. Manuals should also provide definitions of all fault codes with recommended troubleshooting or repair activities. OEMs should also provide a list of recommended spare parts. It is likely that a licensed electrician or OEM technician is required, due to risks involved with high-voltage systems.

8.4.3.1 Depot charging stations Depot charging stations will likely require minimal maintenance. They are often modular in design, so that malfunctioning components can be replaced without disrupting the entire charging system (Smith and Castellano, 2015).

8.4.3.2 Fast charging stations Fast charging stations require ongoing maintenance as they typically have cooling systems, filters, and other components that require preventative maintenance (Smith and Castellano, 2015).

Your transit agency may need to procure special equipment and fall protection to conduct maintenance on overhead charging stations with high clearances.

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-7

8.4.3.3 Hydrogen Fuel stations All maintenance activities should be conducted in accordance with a written and approved procedure or manual. You should also consider having a risk review completed. The risk review details the activities to be performed, the risks associated with those activities, and control or mitigation steps required to minimize the risks (Sokolsky, 2016).

A maintenance schedule must be completed and implemented. Include safety system testing in the maintenance schedule. A maintenance log must be maintained (per NFPA 2). And should detail: • The maintenance activity performed and the date completed • The start and stop time of the maintenance work • Whether the maintenance was scheduled or unscheduled • If unscheduled, the reason it was performed • The name of the maintenance inspector • A list of the components repaired/replaced including serial number and/or certification number of the component

8.5 Additional Resources

• Costs Associated with Non-Residential Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment, U.S. Department of Energy • Fuel Cell Electric Bus Evaluations, U.S. Department of Energy

Phase 8 – Operation and Maintenance 8-8

9 PHASE 9 –DATA MONITORING AND EVALUATION

PHASE 9.1 Overview Needs and Requirements 1 Data analysis provides insight into how the buses are performing in your service area and if they are being fully utilized. The results Technology PHASE Selection and can inform operational changes that will allow you to get the most Specifications 2 out of your ZEBs, help you understand the true costs and benefits of the deployment, and inform future needs from a ZEB fleet. In PHASE addition, data monitoring tracking and reporting leads to early Funding 3 identification and mitigation of deployment issues. Reports can also satisfy any reporting requirements from Federal, State, or Fueling PHASE local grants. Infrastructure Strategy 4 Common Key Performance Indicators for ZEB deployments are: Fueling PHASE • Fuel cost per mile Infrastructure Deployment • Energy performance 5 • Availability

Acceptance, PHASE • Utilization Validation • Fleet comparisons and Deployment 6 • Emissions reductions

PHASE • Maintenance costs Training • Ongoing lifetime cost analysis 7 Best practices for data monitoring and evaluation include: PHASE Operation and • Defining key performance indicators and metrics for Maintenance 8 reporting. • Identifying and coordinating internal and external sources PHASE Data for operations and maintenance data. Monitoring 9 • Ensuring bus performance data is developed for fair and accurate reporting of metrics, especially when compared PHASE OpeEmerrationging and to non-ZEB vehicles and vehicles of different ages. MainOppotrenatunitiesnce 10

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-1

9.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations

Project Managers • Develop reports, as requested from executive leadership and transit agency staff, and as required by Federal, State, or Local funding sources used to support the ZEB deployment. • Coordinate with bus and infrastructure OEMs, electric utility providers, and operations and maintenance staff to establish data collection procedures for ongoing reporting.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Ensure procedures are in place for capturing ZEB mileage, block assignments, service data, and daily availability. • Develop availability metrics to distinguish issue causes. • Track ZEB maintenance activities and costs for the duration of ownership (both

during and after warranty periods).

Procurement • Review contracts to ensure access and rights to the desired bus and fueling infrastructure data. • For FCEB deployments, notify project managers upon renewal of hydrogen fuel contract pricing.

External Stakeholders • Bus and fueling infrastructure OEMs should be notified of data needs and access requirements prior to bus deployment.

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-2

9.3 Data Collection and Reporting

After your ZEB fleet is in revenue service, collecting and analyzing bus data will help you better understand the performance, reliability, durability, and cost of your deployment. Evaluating the performance and limitations of the technology allows you to determine the most effective and efficient use of the buses throughout your service area.

Operations, maintenance, and planning staff should use ZEB performance data to optimize bus scheduling; monitor fueling, operational, and Figure 9-1. Example KPI metrics maintenance costs; calculate emission reductions; and evaluate variables that may impact performance (Figure 9-1). Non-ZEB fleet data should be utilized as well to understand how the technology compares to other vehicles in your transit agency’s fleet.

Periodic ZEB performance reports will inform your transit agency’s board or executive leadership on deployment success and help build a business case for future deployments. If your ZEBs were purchased with State, Federal, or other Local funds, funding providers may also require periodic reporting. ZEB operational data can also be used in promotional materials to advertise your transit agency’s commitment to the environmentally friendly technology.

Your transit agency should determine what Data collection and validation can be metrics define and measure the success of your burdensome, if data is required from ZEB deployment, and reports should be disparate sources. Ongoing coordination developed to ensure fair and accurate between OEMs, transit agency measurement of those metrics. There are departments, and potential third parties several KPIs that are commonly used to evaluate will be needed. ZEB deployments, including:

• Fuel Cost per mile (Figure 9-2) Track fuel costs per mile to determine if bus operations are in line with your estimates. Since transit agencies typically track fuel costs per mile, this is the easiest metric for comparing ZEB and non-ZEB vehicles. For ZEB technology, cost per mile also allows transit agencies to see the impact other factors (e.g., weather, topography) have on deployment costs. This metric also serves as the basis for calculating diesel gallon equivalent fuel efficiencies.

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-3

Figure 9-2. Example KPI of Average fuel cost per mile for non-electric and electric buses (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data)

BEB: Fuel costs measure electricity costs to charge the buses. If possible, separately meter or sub-meter charging infrastructure to understand the exact charger kWh consumption. If charger consumption data is not itemized on your utility bill, utilize bus kWh consumption and grid-charger- bus efficiency loss approximations to estimate grid energy consumption. Alternatively, you can install separate three phase power measurement in your switchgear cabinet to measure the input to each charger. Your measured kWh consumption in conjunction with your utility rate schedules will determine your energy cost.

Fuel costs per mile for your BEB fleet will depend Discuss demand-metering options with on your rate schedule and the number of miles your electric utility provider to ensure driven. Demand charges can almost be you achieve the charger-specific kWh considered a fixed cost each month, since it is consumption visibility you desire without based on your peak power, regardless of the unintentionally eliminating any benefits miles driven. Therefore, the more miles your BEB from scheduling charges during low is driven in a given month, the more miles the facility demand periods (See Section demand charges are spread over and lower the 4.3.5 Demand Charges). fuel cost per mile.

FCEB: Fuel costs measure costs of delivered hydrogen or raw materials for hydrogen produced on-site, as well as electricity costs to operate the fueling

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-4

station. Separate or sub-metering of fueling stations will provide the most exact electricity consumption data.

• Energy performance (e.g., kWh/mile, miles/kg H2) (Figure 9-3) The energy performance and energy efficiency of your ZEB fleet will inform range, identify any seasonal variability, and identify energy efficiency trends by route or operator. Cross-referencing energy efficiency with temperature or auxiliary usage will allow you to see how temperature and related HVAC loads impact efficiency.

Energy consumption (kWh) provided by OEMs or third parties does not typically account for any grid-to-charger or charger-to-bus loss. While this data is useful in understanding efficiency of your bus, it does not equate to the actual kWh consumption you would be charged for on your utility bill. Additionally, buses may have standby energy consumption that is not reported as energy used while driving.

Figure 9-3. Example Energy Performance KPI, showing kWh/mi by Temperature (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data)

BEB: Energy efficiency is typically measured in kWh/mi. While the most accurate and comprehensive measure of kWh consumption will come from a charger-specific meter or power measurement, this may have its limitations if buses share chargers. If charger-level data is unavailable, data monitoring programs from the OEM or a third party provider can provide the energy (kWh) consumed by the bus, or calculate kWh/mi. For these services, ensure you understand how kWh measurements are taken and what consumption it includes. As a final alternative, you can estimate kWh consumed by the bus with the following expression:

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-5

kWh consumed = % SOC used x Battery nameplate capacity (kWh)

If estimating kWh consumption using bus SOC, be aware that this method has the potential to be inaccurate for a number of reasons. To start, SOC is hard to measure accurately. Additionally, some bus models report a SOC on the dash that is different than the actual SOC. Be careful when calculating kWh consumption using SOC. It is better done by pulling energy used at the meter or bus charger and divide it over total miles driven.

FCEB: Energy efficiency is typically measured in kg H2/mi or kg H2/100 km. Utilize your fueling records to determine the volume of hydrogen consumed.

• Availability (Figure 9-4) Availability will indicate know how often the ZEB fleet was able to be put into service. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) typically uses the following categories for availability: o In-service (road calls should also be tracked on days when the bus is put into service) o Event/Demonstration o Not used o Training o Not available to be put into service due to one of the following reasons (Table 9-1):

Table 9-1. NREL-recommended categories for bus unavailability

BEB FCEB Energy storage system Fuel cell system Electric drive Hybrid propulsion system Traction motor Traction batteries Preventative maintenance Preventative maintenance General bus maintenance General bus maintenance

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-6

Figure 9-4. Example Availability KPI (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data)

I Your transit agency can define additional categories if helpful, such as “Road Call for Low SOC.” Reporting availability monthly will allow you to track maintenance issues that kept buses out of service.

ZEB availability may be dependent on charging or fueling infrastructure availability. This may be particularly true for BEBs that utilize on-route fast chargers, as there may be less redundancy in charging equipment. Hydrogen fueling station and charger availability should also be tracked in your data collection efforts.

While availability may be reported monthly, ensure that data is collected weekly, as it may be difficult to recount reasons for bus unavailability weeks after the fact.

• Utilization Utilization measures the actual usage of your ZEB fleet compared to the possible usage. It can be measured by comparing the number of days a bus was actually put into service to the total days it was available to be put into service. Low utilization could indicate that there are operational issues, such as there not being enough operators trained on ZEBs. Tracking utilization can help your transit agency identify the root cause of issues and address them, helping you meet your ZEB usage goals.

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-7

• Fleet Comparison (Figure 9-5) Comparing the performance of the ZEB fleet to the diesel, CNG, or hybrid fleets informs relative cost and performance. Comparing mileage and availability will allow you to see if the buses provide similar service.

Figure 9-5. Example KPI for Comparing Fleet Fuel Efficiency (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data)

Many transit agencies compare fuel economy, fuel costs per mile, and maintenance costs per mile. Ensure that the cost and performance variables you are tracking are equitable to allow for a fair comparison between fleets.

You can compare fuel economy for ZEBs by calculating miles per diesel gallon equivalent (mpDGE) for the fleet. The following conversions take into account the energy content of hydrogen and electricity to calculate diesel gallons equivalent (DOE):

DGE for BEBs = Total kWh consumed / 37.64

DGE for FCEBs = Total kg H2 consumed / 1.13

• Emissions reductions (e.g., gallons of diesel avoided, CO2 emission reductions) The environmental benefits of ZEBs is a driving force for many transit agencies’ deployment projects (Figure 9-6). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other environmental organizations provide greenhouse gas (GHG) emission estimates by

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-8

diesel gallon avoided or mile travelled. Common GHGs associated with diesel combustion include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulate matter (PM). Use the fuel economy for your conventionally fueled buses to estimate gallons of diesel avoided from Figure 9-6. ZEBs eliminate harmful emissions from diesel vehicles BEB operation.

Be sure to account for CO2 emissions from the production of electricity. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) provides estimates of CO2 produced per megawatt-hour (MWh).

• Net health benefit In addition to the calculating GHG emission reductions, more and more cities are calculating a net health benefit as well, since those same reductions also reduce the incident of health problems from particulate matter (PM) in those emissions (Figure 9-7).

Figure 9-7. Health Impacts of Air Pollution (Image Source: WHO)

A team of scientists at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab), the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), RAND Corp., and the University of Washington has calculated the economic benefit of reduced health impacts from GHG reductions strategies to be between $40 and $93 per metric ton of carbon dioxide reduction (Balbus et al, 2015).

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-9

• Lifetime costs analysis (Figure 9-8 and Figure 9-9) Compare the actual operating and maintenance costs to the projected costs throughout the service life of the fleet. Utilize similar data for your non-ZEB fleet to create a comparison across vehicle technologies as well.

Figure 9-8. Example KPI Comparing Cumulative Maintenance Costs (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data)

For maintenance costs, include all maintenance activities and mid-life rebuild/replacement activities. Be sure to create a method for tracking any activity during the warranty period as well. While service during that period may be covered by your OEM, it is important to understand what maintenance activity has been required. This information can help inform expectations going forward.

Reports need to ensure fair comparisons between different vehicle technologies and different vehicle ages; care should be taken to ensure cost and performance data is comparable. Try to match the topographical features of routes each fleet type is deployed on and ensure that all factors needed to calculate costs are included.

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-10

Figure 9-9. Example KPI Comparing Lifetime Fuel Costs (For illustrative purposes only, values do not reflect actual deployment data)

9.4 Data Sources

You may need to collect data from several, disparate sources to support robust data reporting for your ZEB fleet.

• Utility bills – Use the total costs from your electricity bills to calculate fuel costs per mile. Compare the total kWh billed to the energy consumption data from other estimations or data sources (i.e., OEM or third-party data monitoring systems) to understand efficiency loss between the grid, the charger, and the bus.

• Data monitoring services o OEM platforms – Some OEMs provide a data monitoring platform to track performance data. Most platforms allow you to view detailed energy consumption data, and track state of charge, mileage, charging, and other metrics. Coordinate with your OEM to understand your available options for accessing data monitoring portals or performance summaries. Be sure you have a clear understanding of what is being reported and how it is calculated/provided.

o Third-party platforms – Third party solutions can provide real-time data on your ZEB fleet. These services will work across OEMs to allow you to monitor your entire fleet, even if you are operating buses from different manufacturers or fuel

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-11

technologies. Often times, these services create customizable reports, providing the data you define at the frequency you desire.

• Asset Management Systems and Maintenance Reporting Systems – Your maintenance department will have information on vehicle service needs, parts and labor costs, and reasons for a bus being out of service to inform fleet availability and maintenance costs.

• Operations Reporting Systems (e.g., Transit Master, Clever Devices, FLEETWATCH, HASTUS) – Your operations department may track data such as route and block assignments, driver assignment, driver time on/off, and route time points. Operations may also track reasons for road calls and any driver-reported issues that arise while in service.

9.5 Data Collection Procedures

Designate a point(s) of contact at your transit agency to maintain and evaluate the collected data. That staff will most likely be required to coordinate across departments to collect and validate the data.

Some transit agencies use application programming interfaces (APIs) to automatically collect data from IT systems, translating the data into a format that can be more easily used. Otherwise, maintaining a spreadsheet is a common approach to maintain and analyze data.

Developing monthly or quarterly reports is recommended, however, if you used grants to purchase ZEBs, the funding agencies may have specific reporting requirements. Determine if your management or Board of Directors would like regular reports on specific metrics.

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) conducts data analysis on ZEB deployments through a partnership with the FTA. NREL publishes regular public reports on bus deployment data.

9.6 Additional Resources • Third Party Data Monitoring o Clever Devices o FLEETWATCH o GreenRoadTM o Trapeze SmartMonitor o ViriCiti • OEM Data Monitoring o BYD, in coordination with I/O Controls, Health Active Monitoring System (HAMS) o New Flyer Connect o Proterra APEX

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-12

• Greenhouse gas emission calculations o State Electricity Profiles, Energy Information Agency o Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency o Energy’s Fuel Property Comparisons, U.S. Department of Energy

Phase 9 – Data Monitoring and Evaluation 9-13

10 PHASE 10 –EMERGING OPPORTUNITIES

PHASE 10.1 Overview Needs and Requirements 1 The ZEB industry is still maturing, and new technological advancements are frequently emerging. These advancements will Technology PHASE Selection and improve operational efficiency, vehicle safety, and durability. Specifications 2 Ultimately, industry innovations will allow for a more PHASE Funding straightforward replacement of conventionally fueled buses with 3 ZEBs, and will provide necessary information, tools, and resources for transit agencies to support full fleets of ZEBs. Approaches and Fueling PHASE workarounds used for smaller ZEB deployments will likely be cost- Infrastructure Strategy 4 prohibitive or overly cumbersome if applied to large deployments.

Fueling PHASE While bus components and software will see improvements, the Infrastructure most valuable growth will be the knowledge that the transit Deployment 5 industry and its stakeholders gain as the number of ZEBs in service grows. Real-life deployment data will provide an understanding of Acceptance, PHASE Validation how ZEB technology will perform under various climate and Deployment 6 conditions, operating profiles, driving styles, and service areas.

PHASE Training As emerging opportunities are not mature enough for established 7 best practices, the following sections provide general information on potential trends and advancements in the ZEB industry. PHASE Operation and Transit agencies deploying ZEBs should research and consider Maintenance 8 technologies that may positively impact their deployment or long- term ZEB goals. PHASE Data Monitoring 9

PHASE Emerging Opportunities 10

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-1

10.2 Key Stakeholder Considerations

Project Managers • Stay on top of industry news to be able to speak to new advancements with OEMs, and to know what your options are for future procurements. • Your transit agency may be the first to pilot new technology. Plan for adequate testing of the new features if this is the case. • Engage with transit industry colleagues and stakeholders to share deployment data and lessons learned. • Remain informed of new standards and mandates that will impact your transit agency’s requirements for deploying ZEBs.

Operations, Maintenance, and Facilities • Support the data collection and analysis efforts to share your transit agency’s experiences with transit industry colleagues and stakeholders. Review available deployment data from other transit agencies located in a similar climate or that provide similar service as your transit agency.

• Future advancements may include tools that provide decision-support to dispatch, providing more detailed insight into bus performance and available range. • Future advancements may include charge management solutions for large fleets of ZEBs, which may improve or streamline current charge management strategies.

Procurement • Ensure contract terms address appropriate procedures to test and understand new features that your transit agency may be piloting. • Industry standards for cost principles may impact how capital, maintenance, and operations costs are tracked.

• New mandates for ZEB requirements may impact your transit agency’s fleet composition and procurement requirements.

External Stakeholders • Share deployment data and lessons learned with other transit agencies through trade associations, conferences, or direct contact. • Reach out to bus and fueling infrastructure OEMs to learn more about new components and features.

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-2

10.3 Emerging Research Areas

Keeping track of ZEB industry news can feel like drinking out of a fire hose. The sections below highlight current areas of focus for the ZEB industry. Monitoring these areas will ensure that you stay abreast of ZEB-related technological advancements, as well as valuable ZEB deployment data from transit agencies around the world.

10.3.1 Fleet-wide Charge Management

As described in Phase 2 –Technology Selection and Specification and Phase 4 –Fueling Infrastructure Strategy and Cost, charge management allows transit agencies to establish a charging protocol that minimizes energy costs while still meeting all service requirements. For smaller BEB deployments, charge management may be as simple limiting the time of day when most charging occurs or timing buses to charge sequentially as opposed to simultaneously. These initial solutions may rely on staff hours to manually plug and unplug buses or move buses around the yard.

Transit agencies will also need to address the logistical challenges of the equipment necessary to support and entire fleet of BEBs. Include a lifecycle cost analysis of the various approaches to charging logistics in a fleet transition plan, including automated overhead charging, overhead gantry of plug-in charging cables, and labor costs for staff to plug in buses.

With an entire fleet of BEBs, charge management will be more difficult, but much more important as your transit agency faces multi-megawatt power demands. At scale, minimizing the amount of infrastructure and maximizing its usefulness can significantly reduce capital and operational costs. A robust, facility-wide solution for charge management that allows flexible operation of an entire fleet of BEBs will be needed. Software solutions to control chargers based on service needs, schedule requirements, power limitations, and on-peak electric utility times are under development but are not yet available for all chargers and all bus OEMs.

Close coordination with your electric utility when developing a charge management solution is critical. Your electric utility will also provide necessary input to inform electrical infrastructure needed to support full fleets of ZEBs. The point at which your transit agency needs significant generation capacity will vary by location and by the type of utility you are served by.

10.3.2 MW+ Charging

As of early 2020, very high-power charging of over one megawatt (MW+) is being implemented for the heavy-duty trucking industry. MW+ charging capabilities may be coming to the transit industry. High power and high speed charging will benefit applications that require complete

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-3

recharging to occur in a matter of minutes, as opposed to hours. This approach to charging will allow BEB fueling to operate at a similar time scale to conventionally fueled vehicles.

Battery improvement will be needed, as the high voltage batteries used in BEBs in 2020 will most likely not be able to support MW+ charging anytime soon. MW-scale charging also poses unique infrastructure and construction challenges that are still in research.

10.3.3 Battery Improvements

The demand for electric vehicles, as well as recent reductions in the cost of Lithium ion batteries has resulted in large investments in the battery technology industry. These investments will likely result in cost-competitive transit applications and open doors for applications of other batter technologies (Tyson, et al., 2019).

Lower battery costs and higher energy density would be a “game changer” for the BEB industry, as increased range and lower initial capital costs will make BEBs more competitive with conventionally-fueled buses. The open question for the industry is: how much energy will the battery pack ultimately need to store and how fast will it need to charge to be a straightforward, 1:1 replacement for a conventionally fueled bus?

The targets for these advancements and the timeline for their potential implementation are not clear. The industry may never be able to meet these goals and battery electric buses may never be a 1:1 replacement for diesel buses, giving fuel cell buses a market advantage. However, due to the advantages and challenges of each technology, the industry will most likely end up with both FCEBs and BEBs in large numbers in transit.

10.3.4 Deployment Information

10.3.4.1 Bus Performance Data

Bus deployment data from transit agencies around the country will be critical to help spur Trade associations like ZEBRA provide industry improvements and to support the an open forum to allow transit expansion of applications of ZEBs. This data will agencies to share information about provide insight into bus performance in various ZEB deployments. Membership in climate conditions, operating profiles, driving ZEBRA is offered to transit agencies styles, and service areas. Performance data for only and CTE provides technical how a BEB performed in a service area in a support so agencies can openly share similar climate or operating profile to you will their experiences with ZEBs. provide direct information that can inform future ZEB deployments.

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-4

Consider sharing deployment data that your transit agency collects to support other transit agencies. Phase 9 –Data Monitoring and Evaluation has more information on what data collection and analysis activities will best inform performance tracking.

10.3.4.2 Battery Life Data

Since the ZEB industry is still maturing, there are not many ZEBs that have been in revenue service long enough to fully understand battery degradation throughout the entire useful life of the batteries. Anecdotal evidence of battery performance can be confusing or misinformed, and published data can be complicated and easy to misinterpret.

Battery data for both BEBs and FCEBs across various climates and duty cycles will inform how battery warranties and costs are structured in the future. Many warranties on the energy storage system cover the batteries to a certain capacity for 6 or 12 years, or over a specified kWh throughput, but the timing and frequency of mid-life battery replacements are unknown. The cost of mid-life battery replacements can be significant and must be factored into the lifecycle costs of the bus.

Procedures for testing useable battery capacity and battery state of health vary widely across different bus and battery OEMs, making it difficult for a transit agency to know with certainty, how much their batteries are degrading over time. The transit industry needs a clear standard or definition for determining battery state of health, and measuring battery SOC.

10.3.4.3 Cost Reporting

The costs per mile for BEBs, FCEBs, and conventionally fueled buses may guide operational decisions. However, ZEB maintenance costs outside of the warranty period are not yet well understood. The industry will not know if the assumption that maintenance costs will be lower for ZEBs is valid until more data is available. The industry needs standardized principles for cost reporting that address capital costs as well as operational and maintenance costs.

10.3.5 Decision Support for Dispatch

As of early 2020, transit agencies are relying heavily on bus SOC and estimated range based on average energy efficiencies to make dispatch decisions. Decision support tools for dispatch and other transit agency operational staff offer better solutions to manage large fleet of BEBs. These tools will continue to improve but show the promise of evaluating estimated range based on current climate conditions, and the recent performance of specific drivers and buses.

10.3.6 Automated Driving Systems

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-5

Automated Driving Systems (ADS) have the Driving habits can have over a 25% potential to increase vehicle safety, improve impact on bus energy efficiency, based operating efficiency, and provide greater on CTE’s observations from bus data accessible service to customers. Vehicle collected in revenue service. Automated automation already exists in some form in driving features, such as automated light-duty and heavy-duty markets, including: braking and acceleration, can improve Lane keeping assistance • bus range by improving driver efficiency. • Adaptive cruise control • Automatic emergency braking

Bus rapid transit (BRT) is a preferred Automation of transit buses will likely be a application of vehicle automation, since gradual process; full automation will not occur dedicated traffic lanes are a more overnight. Potential shorter-term transit controlled operating environment, with applications that provide significant driver less exposure to other road users. assistance include traffic signal integration and automated docking for charging, and platooning.

The FTA developed a five-year Strategic Transit Automation Research (STAR) Plan that outlines research and demonstration programs to assess impacts and feasibility of automation technologies for transit buses. Recently, a joint project between Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Volvo, and Land Transport Authority (LTA) launched a fully autonomous electric bus for on-road trials in Singapore. (Figure 10-1).

Figure 10-1. NTU-LTA-Volvo Autonomous bus being tested at Center of Excellence for Testing and Research of Autonomous Vehicles

10.3.6.1 Traffic Signal Integration

Integrating transit operations with traffic signals can improve energy efficiency, support schedule adherence, and may increase ridership by providing faster and more reliable service.

Applications of this integration include traffic signal prioritization (TSP) for buses. The bus would either communicate with the intersection signals, alerting the intersection control that a

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-6

bus is present at or approaching the intersection, or dedicated bus lanes would have queue jumps with additional signals giving an earlier green signal and therefore priority.

Figure 10-2. Overview of RTA Regional Transit Signal Priority Implementation Plan (Image Source: RTSPIP)

Deployments in Action

The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) is leading a regional coordination effort in collaboration with the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT), the Chicago Department of Transportation (CDOT), and other transportation authorities throughout the region to deploy TSP to help the Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) and Pace buses travel along 100 miles of roadway and through about 500 intersections (Regional Transportation Authority, “Transit Signal Priority”). (Figure 10-2)

Additional on-board communications infrastructure is required for these applications, and implementing the functionality requires collaboration with owners of road and signal infrastructure (e.g., departments of transportation, public works departments).

10.3.6.2 Precision Docking for Charging

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-7

Automated systems can improve yard operations or on-route charging logistics through automated, precision docking. Achieving acceptable alignment, which may be the difference of a few inches, can be challenging for bus operators. Automation would improve reliability through programmed behavior capable of repeatedly precise maneuvers.

Automated docking for a depot-charged fleet would reduce infrastructure requirements. Fewer chargers and maintenance staff are needed if buses can maneuver around yards and dock themselves without human supervision, potentially at all hours.

10.3.6.3 Platooning

Cooperative adaptive cruise control, commonly referred to as “platooning,” allows multiple vehicles to follow a lead vehicle with only a single human operator. This feature could eliminate the need for articulated buses, by using the technology to maintain consistent spacing and alignment between buses. In addition to transit, the long-haul trucking industry is pursuing platooning technology.

10.3.7 New Standards and Mandates

As the ZEB industry matures, new standards for bus and fueling infrastructure as well as mandates for ZEB purchases will likely emerge. An inductive charging standard is also under development (SAE J2954), and other standards may be written to support MW+ charging practices.

In 2020, an APTA committee was in the process of developing BEB-specific procurement guidelines. Similar guidelines for FCEB procurement and charging infrastructure procurement may follow.

California is the first U.S. state to require transit agencies to fully transition to ZEBs. It is possible that your transit agency may be subject to similar local, state, or Federal regulations in the future.

10.4 Additional Resources

• ZEB Industry News and Updates o Industry News and Updates, Center for Transportation and the Environment o Industry Newsletter, Sustainable Bus o Zero Emission Bus Resource Alliance (ZEBRA) • Automated Drive Systems o Transit Automation Research Program, Federal Transportation Administration o Strategic Transit Automation Research (STAR) Plan, Federal Transportation Administration

Phase 10 – Emerging Opportunities 10-8

Appendix A – Available ZEB Models

Appendix A.1 – Available Transit FCEB Models

Available models of transit FCEBs, as of December 2019, are listed below. Only models compliant with Buy America Regulations are included, and only publicly available information from OEM publications is listed. Research existing models and options prior to each deployment of ZEB technology. Your transit agency is required to comply with Buy America regulations if Federal funding is used to purchase buses.

Table A-1. Buy America Regulation Compliant Transit FCEB Models

OEM Bus Battery OEM Bus Model Fuel Cell Power Advertised length Capacity Range Not 35’ 150 kW 260 miles provided ENC Axess-FC Not 40’ 150 kW 260 miles provided 160 kW Rated 40’ Motor Power; 150 kWh Not provided New Xcelsior CHARGE 85 kW (Net) Flyer H2 210 kW Rated 60’ Motor Power; 150 kWh Not provided 85 kW (Net)

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix A- 1

Appendix A.2 – Available Transit BEB Models

Available models of transit BEBs, as of December 2019, are listed below. Only models compliant with Buy America Regulations are included, and only publicly available information from OEM publications is listed. Research existing models and options prior to each deployment of ZEB technology. Your transit agency is required to comply with Buy America regulations if Federal funding is used to purchase buses.

Table A-2. Buy America Regulation Compliant Transit BEB Models

Bus Battery OEM Bus Model OEM-Advertised Range length Capacity

K7M 30’ 215 kWh 150 miles

K7M-ER 30’ 266 kWh 185 miles

K9S 35’ 299 kWh 145 miles

K9S-ER 35’ 352 kWh 215 miles BYD K9M 40’ 324 kWh 156 miles

K9MD 40’ 352 kWh 200 miles

K11M-Low 60’ 578 kWh 220 miles Capacity

K11M 60’ 578 kWh 220 miles

Ebus (Bus EBUS22 N/A 130kWh Not provided repowering)

GILLIG Ebus 40’ 444 kWh 150 to 210 miles

EV250 30-32’ 210 kWh > 175 mi Green Power EV300 35’ 260 kWh > 175 mi

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix A- 2

Bus Battery OEM Bus Model OEM-Advertised Range length Capacity

EV350 40’ 320 kWh > 185 mi

EV400 45’ 320 kWh > 185 mi

45’ EV550 Double > 478 kWh > 240 mi Decker

35’ 160 kWh 75 miles

35’ 213 kWh 100 miles

40’ 160 kWh 75 miles

40’ 213 kWh 100 miles Xcelsior CHARGE Rapid Charge 40’ 267 kWh 115 miles

60’ 213 kWh 55 miles

60’ New Flyer 267 kWh 70 miles

60’ 320 kWh 85 miles

35’ 311 kWh 155 miles

35’ 388 kWh 195 miles

Xcelsior CHARGE 40’ 311 kWh 155 miles Long Range

40’ 388 kWh 195 miles

40’ 466 kWh 225 miles

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix A- 3

Bus Battery OEM Bus Model OEM-Advertised Range length Capacity

60’ 466 kWh 135 miles

LFSe 40’ Not provided Not provided Nova Bus LFSe+ 40’ 594 kWh 211 to 292 miles

Proterra Catalyst XR 35’ or 220 kWh 97 – 120 mi (DuoPowerTM) 40’ Catalyst XR 35’ or 220 kWh 92 – 114 mi (Prodrive) 40’ Catalyst E2 35’ or 440 kWh 161 – 234 mi (DuoPowerTM) 40’ Catalyst E2 35’ or 440 kWh 150 – 212 mi (Prodrive) 40’ Catalyst E2 max 40’ 660 kWh 232 – 328 mi (DuoPowerTM) Catalyst E2 max 40’ 660 kWh 213 – 290 mi (Prodrive)

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix A- 4

Appendix B – Altoona Testing Overview

All new bus models must complete testing at the Bus Research and Testing Center (BRTC) in Altoona, PA before they can be sold in the U.S. This FTA-funded program is commonly known as “Altoona testing.”

Since the ZEB industry is relatively new, bus models are frequently being refined to add new or modify existing components, which may require testing to be completed before being sold. During your procurement process, be sure to understand how the timing of any required Altoona testing will impact your delivery schedule, if you were intending on purchasing a new model.

Completed test results can be found at http://apps.altoonabustest.psu.edu/.

Testing procedures provide information on: • Maintainability • Reliability • Safety • Performance • Structural Integrity and Durability • Fuel/Energy Economy • Noise (Interior and Exterior) • Emissions

Fuel/Energy Economy tests for ZEBs are conducted with a variety of different duty cycles. OEMs will typically base their vehicle range estimates off of Altoona testing results. The conditions of these tests are designed for repeatability and will most likely not be representative of the expected performance in your service area. The results are a good planning tool to establish a baseline for performance but should not be relied upon as an expectation of the range or efficiency that may be achieved while your buses are in service. A summary of a selection of the duty cycles is below.

Manhattan Driving Cycle The Manhattan duty cycle is a low average speed, highly transient urban test. The speed profile of the Manhattan Driving Cycle is shown in Figure A-1. These conditions are most similar to normal transit service due to the varying speeds, acceleration requirements, and stops.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix B- 1

Manhattan Test Cycle

35.00

30.00

25.00

20.00 (mph)

15.00 Speed

10.00

5.00

0.00 0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0 Time (seconds)

Figure A-1. Speed profile of Manhattan Test Cycle (1089 sec duration, 25.4 mph maximum speed; 6.8 mph average speed)

Heavy Duty Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (HD-UDDS) Cycle The HD-UDDS Cycle consists of urban and highway driving segments. The speed profile for the HD-UDDS Test Cycle is shown in Figure A-2.

UDDS Test Cycle

60.00

50.00

40.00

(mph) 30.00 Speed

20.00

10.00

0.00 0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0 Time (seconds) Figure A-2. Speed profile of HD-UDDS Test Cycle (1060 sec duration; 58 mph maximum speed; 18.86 mph average speed)

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix B- 2

Orange County Bus Cycle The Orange County Bus Cycle is a medium average speed, transient urban cycle. The speed profile of the Orange County Bus Cycle is shown in Figure A-3.

Orange County Test Cycle

45.00

40.00

35.00

30.00

25.00 (mph)

20.00 Speed

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00 0.0 200.0 400.0 600.0 800.0 1000.0 1200.0 1400.0 1600.0 1800.0 2000.0 Time (seconds) Figure A-3. Speed profile for Orange County Test Cycle (1909 s duration; 40.63 mph max speed; 12.33 mph average speed)

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix B- 3

Appendix C. Industry Standards Related to ZEB technology

The standards provided below are samples of some applicable standards utilized when creating a ZEB specification. As an emerging industry, new practices and standards are being defined and previous standards refined. This list should NOT be used as an all-inclusive listing of applicable standards. Your transit agency should research and understand all standards relevant to your procurement and seek third party assistance if unfamiliar with what standards may apply.

Category Standard

US DOT Standards – All fuel Systems 49 CFR 393.65

US DOT Fuel System Integrity of Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles 49 CFR 571.303

US DOT Compressed Natural Gas Fuel Container Integrity 49 CFR 571.304

Compressed Natural Gas Vehicle Fueling Connection Devices ANSI/AGA NGV1-1994 (with 1997 & 1998 adden)

Fuel System Components for Natural Gas Powered Vehicles ANSI/AGA NGV3.1-1995

Basic Requirements for Compressed Natural Gas Vehicle Fuel ANSI/CSA NGV2-2000 Containers

Hydrogen Gas Vehicle Fuel Containers ANSI/IAS NGV2-1998

NGV Dispensing Systems ANSI/IAS NGV4.1-1999

Hoses for Natural Gas Vehicles and Dispensing Systems ANSI/IAS NGV4.2-1999

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix C- 1

Category Standard

Breakaway Devices for Natural Gas Dispensing Hoses and Systems ANSI/IAS NGV4.4-1999

Manually Operated Valves for Natural Gas Dispensing Systems ANSI/IAS NGV4.6-1999

Basic Requirements for Pressure Relief Devices for Natural Gas ANSI/IAS PRD1-1998 Vehicle Fuel Containers (with 1999 addendum)

Seamless and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing ASTM A269

Salt Spray, Salt Fog & Corrosion Testing ASTM Procedure B-117

Fire Resistance ASTM-E 162-90

Methods for External Visual Inspection of Natural Gas Vehicle CGA C-6.4-1998 Fuel Containers and Their Installations

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards Air Brake Systems FMVSS 121

Fuel System Integrity FMVSS 301

Fire Safety Practices FMVSS 302

Fuel System integrity of Compressed Natural Gas Vehicles FMVSS 303

Compressed Natural Gas Fuel Container Integrity FMVSS 304

Recommended Fire Safety Practices FTA Docket 90-A

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix C- 2

Category Standard

Fast-Fueling – Option A (heavy duty vehicles) ISO 27268:2012

Normal Fueling – Option B (light duty vehicles) ISO 27268:2012 or SAE J2600

Slow Fueling – Option C (time fill) ISO 27268:2012 or SAE J2600

Dimensions, Test Methods and Requirements for Copper ISO 6722 Conductor Cables

Vehicular Natural Gas Fuel Systems Code NFPA 52

Compressed Hydrogen Vehicular Fuel Systems NPFA 52

Automotive and Off-Highway Air Brake Reservoir Performance SAE J10 and Identification Requirements

Describing and Measuring Driver’s Field of View SAE J1050

Electromagnetic Compatibility Measurement Procedure for SAE J1113 Vehicle Components

Low Voltage Battery Cable SAE J1127

Low Voltage Primary Cable SAE J1128

Automobile and Motor Coach Wiring SAE J1292

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix C- 3

Category Standard

Fan Guard for Off-Road Machines SAE J1308

Recommended Environmental Practices for Electronic Equipment SAE J1455 Design in Heavy-Duty Vehicle Applications

Electronic Data Interchange Between Microcomputer Systems in SAE J1587 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Applications

Recommended Practice for Compressed Natural Gas Vehicle Fuel SAE J1616

Serial Data Communications Between Microcomputer Systems in SAE J1708 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Applications

Electric Vehicle/Plug-in Hybrid EV Conductive Charge Coupler SAE J1772

Recommend Practice for a Serial Control and Communications SAE J1939 Vehicle Network

Balance Weight and Rim Flange Design Specifications, Test SAE J1986 Procedures, and Performance Recommendations

Engine Power Test Code – Spark Ignition and Compression SAE J1995 Ignition – Gross Power and Torque Rating

Road Vehicles-Symbols for Controls, Indicators, and Tell-tales SAE J2402

Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle Safety SAE J2578

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix C- 4

Category Standard

Recommended Practice for Measuring Fuel Economy and SAE J2711 Emissions of Hybrid-Electric and Conventional Heavy-Duty Vehicles

Driver Hand Control Reach SAE J287

Exterior Sound Level for Heavy Trucks and Buses SAE J366

Voltage Drop for Starting Motor Circuits SAE J541

Location and Operation of Instruments and Controls in Motor SAE J680 Truck Cabs

Nonmetallic Air Brake System Tubing SAE J844

Energy Storage System (Lithium batteries) UN/DOT 38.3

Electromagnetic Emissions Compatibility UN/ECE Regulation R10

Electromagnetic Interference/Radio-Frequency Interference UNECE Council Directive 95/54(R10)

Compressed Hydrogen Surface Vehicle Fueling Connection SAE J2600 Devices

Hydrogen Fuel Quality for Fuel Cell Vehicles SAE J2719

Hydrogen Surface Vehicle to Station Communications Hardware SAE J2799

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix C- 5

Category Standard and Software

Fueling Protocols for Light Duty Gaseous Hydrogen Surface SAE J2601 Vehicles

Hydrogen Technologies Code NFPA 2

Standard for Gaseous Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites NFPA 50A

Standard for Liquefied Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites NFPA 50B

Additional Resources:

The Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy provides templates for the various standards development organizations relevant for electric and fuel cell technology: • National Template: Stationary & Portable Fuel Cell Systems • National Template: Hydrogen Vehicle and Infrastructure Codes and Standards • Electric Vehicle and Infrastructure Codes and Standards Chart

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix C- 6

Appendix D. Glossary

Term Definition

Acceptance testing Procedure to identify defects that have become apparent between the time of equipment release and delivery to the transit agency, and to ensure that all contractual requirements for bus and charging or fueling infrastructure have been met.

Air balance test Process by which the performance of HVAC airflow is measured. Once it is tested, the systems are then adjusted, or balanced, so that the air brought into a building is slightly greater than the air being pulled out of the building.

Altoona testing The Larson Transportation Institute's Bus Research and Testing Center, located in Altoona, Pennsylvania, was established in 1989 with funding provided by the Federal Transit Administration. The facility houses four bus maintenance and test bays and is fully equipped to perform heavy vehicle maintenance, repair, and testing as mandated under 49, CFR Part 665.

The Center tests buses for safety, structural integrity, durability, performance, maintainability, noise, and fuel economy. In accordance with the 1991 Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, the Center tests brake performance, bus emissions, and buses using alternative fuels.

Autonomie Powertrain modeling and simulation software by Argonne System Modeling and Control Group that can run a simulated operation of a bus on route to determine how the bus will perform based on user-specified duty cycles, powertrain configurations, and bus components.

Auxiliary energy Energy consumed by time to operate all support systems.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 1

Term Definition

Availability Measure of how often a bus was able to be put into service. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) typically uses the following categories for availability: • In-service (road calls should also be tracked on days when the bus is put into service) • Event/Demonstration • Not used • Training • Not available to be put into service

Battery electric Bus Zero-emission bus that uses on-board battery packs to power all bus systems.

Battery Management Monitors energy, as well as temperature, cell or module voltages, System and total pack voltage and adjusts the control strategy algorithms to maintain the batteries at uniform state of charge and optimal temperatures.

Battery Nameplate The maximum rated output of a battery under specific conditions Capacity designated by the manufacturer. Battery nameplate capacity is commonly expressed in kWh and is usually indicated on a nameplate physically attached to the battery.

Block Refers to a vehicle schedule, the daily assignment for an individual bus. One or more runs can work a block. A driver schedule is known as a “run.”

Buy America Provision which requires that federal tax dollars used to purchase Certification steel, iron, and manufactured goods used in a transit project are produced domestically in the United States.

Charge Depleting On-route charging approach for BEBs where the bus does not charge for sufficient time to completely recharge at least the energy that it consumed since its previous charging session. Daily depot charging is required for regular operation under a charge depleting scenario.

Charge Management Optimization of charging processes to both meet service needs and minimize energy costs.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 2

Term Definition

Charge Modeling Recommended component of a BEB performance evaluation to understand the capabilities and limitations of charging scenarios. Charge modeling evaluates the effectiveness of planned charging windows, based on the specifications of the bus and charging equipment, as well as a transit agency's service plan and electricity rate schedule.

Charge Sustaining On-route charging approach for BEBs where the bus charges for sufficient time to recharge the energy that it consumed since its previous charging session (or more). With a charge sustaining scenario, BEBs can operate indefinitely with no need for depot charging.

Charging equipment The equipment that encompasses all the components needed to convert, control and transfer electricity from the grid to the vehicle for the purpose of charging batteries. May include chargers, controllers, couplers, transformers, ventilation, etc.

Charging Interface The equipment and/or coupler used to create a connection between the charging equipment and the vehicle for the purpose of recharging a vehicle’s batteries.

Charging station The location that houses the charging equipment connected to a utility’s electric service to provide electricity to a vehicle’s battery system through a charging interface.

Commissioning Process to verify if the equipment (i.e., charging stations for BEBs, hydrogen fueling station for FCEBs) functions according to design objectives and technical specifications. All charging or hydrogen fueling equipment must be commissioned to each bus.

Configuration Audit Inspection activity to verify that the vehicle meets the contract requirements, reflecting any change orders, and to reveal any items requiring correction prior to first article inspection.

Conventionally-fueled A diesel, diesel hybrid, or CNG bus. vehicles

Cryogenic Storage Required for the storage of liquid hydrogen since the boiling point of hydrogen at one atmosphere pressure is -252.8°C.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 3

Term Definition

Curb Weight Weight of vehicle, including maximum fuel, oil and coolant; and all equipment required for operation and required in a technical specification, but without passengers or driver.

Deadhead operation Non-revenue time when a bus is not carrying passengers, usually a trip from, to, or between lines or garages. Usually this refers to the trip between the home division garage to the point where the bus enters or leaves its route.

Demand Charges A charge by utilities that is often based on the highest kW demand used in a billing cycle over a window of time, typically 15- or 30- minutes. Depending on the rate structure, demand rates may also vary by the amount of power used and the time of day it is used. Demand charges are put in place to cover the cost of electrical infrastructure needed to meet the highest electricity demand at any time, since the electric utility must always be able to meet the power demand for all of their customers at the instant that it is required.

Depot Charging Centralized BEB charging at a transit agency's garage, maintenance facility, or transit center. With depot charging, BEBs are not limited to specific routes, but must be taken out of service to charge.

Design operating Included in technical specifications, the operational requirements profile under standard operating conditions that the bus must be able to achieve.

Dual grid operation Option to have your electrical power served by two Installation of charging infrastructure across different portions of the power grid

Dual power feeds Providing two independent electricity paths to your charging infrastructure

Duty Cycle Information regarding how a vehicle is used, which includes (but is not limited to): hours per day; days per week; total miles; typical load profile; and peak load profile.

Electricity Rate List of types and amounts of charges administered by electric Schedule utilities to customers. Rate schedules vary depending on customer type and geographic location.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 4

Term Definition

Electrolysis Method to produce hydrogen where electricity is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen using an electrolyzer.

Energy Quantity of work, measured in kWh for ZEBs.

Energy Charges Electricity charge by a utility for the total energy consumption, which accrues throughout each month and is typically measured in kWh. Some utilities have seasonal rates, tiered rates for the amount of energy used, or higher energy charges for peak periods.

Energy efficiency Metric to evaluate the performance of ZEBs. Defined in kWh/mi for BEBs, mi/kg of hydrogen for FCEBs, or miles per diesel gallon equivalent for any bus type.

Environmental Justice Fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. Fair treatment means that no population bears a disproportionate share of negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or from the execution of federal, state, and local laws; regulations; and policies. Meaningful involvement requires effective access to decision makers for all, and the ability in all communities to make informed decisions and take positive actions to produce environmental justice for themselves.

First Article Inspection Conducted when the build of the first bus is complete and all issues from the configuration audit are addressed. When complete, the first article inspection provides a verified compliant configuration so that a notice to proceed (NTP) can be issued for the rest of the bus order.

Fixed Costs Recurring monthly service fee on an electricity bill, often used to cover the price of being connected to the electric grid.

Fleet Transition Plan Plan that outlines the timeline and preferred technology to replace a fleet of conventionally-fueled vehicles with zero-emission vehicles.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 5

Term Definition

Fuel Cell Electric Bus Zero-emission bus that utilizes on-board hydrogen storage, a fuel cell system, and batteries. The fuel cell uses hydrogen to produce electricity, with the waste products of heat and water. The electricity powers the batteries, which powers the bus.

Greenhouse gas Zero-emission buses have no harmful emissions that result from emissions diesel combustion. Common GHGs associated with diesel combustion include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulate matter (PM). These emissions negatively impact air quality and contribute to climate change impacts.

Gross Vehicle Weight Curb weight plus gross load.

Gross Vehicle Weight The maximum total weight as determined by the vehicle Rated manufacturer, at which the vehicle can be safely and reliably operated for its intended purpose.

Hydrogen fueling The location that houses the hydrogen production (if produced on- station site), storage, compression, and dispensing equipment to support fuel cell electric buses.

Inductive charger BEB chargers that rely on magnetic charge plates beneath roadways and a counterpart inside the bus. When an induction- capable bus passes over that charging plate, the two magnets become "tuned," and current flows to charge the on-board battery.

Key Performance Critical indicator of progress toward an intended result. Indicator

Motive Energy Energy consumed by mile to operate the powertrain of a ZEB.

Natural Gas Method to produce hydrogen where high-temperature steam Reforming (700°C–1,000°C) is used to produce hydrogen from a methane source, such as natural gas. In steam-methane reforming, methane reacts with steam under 3–25 bar pressure in the presence of a catalyst to produce hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a relatively small amount of carbon dioxide.

Net Power For a fuel cell, stack power minus projected balance of plant (BOP) power.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 6

Term Definition

OEM-Advertised Total possible vehicle range reported by the bus manufacturer. This Range range may not reflect the range a transit agency could expect in regular transit service.

On-route Charging BEB charging while on the route. With proper planning, on-route charged BEBs can operate indefinitely, and one charger can charge multiple buses.

Operating Range Driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to travel a given driving cycle.

Overhead Charger Overhead chargers are used for fast charge scenarios. Overhead charging equipment typically uses a pantograph, where the moving parts are on the bus, or inverted pantograph, where the moving parts are on the charger mast.

Plug-in Charger BEB charging method typically used for overnight or mid-day depot charging. Most transit agencies that use plug-in charging have one charger per bus, or one higher powered charger (i.e., 120+ kW) shared between multiple buses.

Post-Delivery Inspection of each bus after it arrives at your facility to identify any Inspection defects. Part of acceptance testing.

Power Rate that energy is consumed or moved, measured in kW for ZEBs.

Power Factor Ratio of Apparent Power to Working Power, a measurement of how much an incoming current is doing useful work. Working Power, measured in kW, is the actual power electrical equipment requires when performing its function. For a bus charger, the working power would be approximately equivalent to the power rating of the charger (e.g., a 50 kW depot charger would have 50 kW working power). However, many types of equipment require Reactive Power to generate and sustain a magnetic field in order to operate. Working power and reactive power make up Apparent Power, which is measured in kilovolt-amperes (kVA). A high Power Factor benefits both the customer and the utility, while a low Power Factor indicates poor utilization of electrical power.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 7

Term Definition

Pre-Delivery Your on-site inspector will conduct a final review of the completed Inspection bus before the OEM can release the bus to be shipped to your property. Transit agencies may elect to have the staff managing the ZEB procurement along with a ZEB bus expert visit the OEM prior to article completion to review the manufacturing processes and ensure that the bus meets quality standards and specifications.

Rated Power For a fuel cell, the total power in the stack.

Regenerative Braking When kinetic energy is brought back into the battery when the bus is decelerating through taxi or braking, when the motor acts as an electric generator, producing electricity that is fed into the vehicle's batteries.

Reliable Range Estimate of the total expected range from a vehicle in regular transit service. The driving conditions in regular transit service (e.g., passenger load, stops and starts, traffic conditions, driver style) differ from the conditions of Altoona testing or manufacturer testing, resulting in a lower estimated range.

Retirement schedule Timing of when buses will be retired from revenue service at the end of their useful life.

Revenue Service All scheduled time a bus spends serving passengers, which can also be defined as platform hours minus deadhead and layover time.

Road call A failure of an in-service bus that causes the bus to be replaced on route or causes a significant delay in schedule.

Route Modeling A cost-effective method to assess the operational requirements of ZEBs by estimating the energy consumption on various routes using specific bus specifications and route features.

State of Charge Quantity of electric energy remaining in the battery relative to the maximum rated amp-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery expressed in a percentage. This is a dynamic measurement used for the energy storage system. A full SOC indicates that the energy storage system cannot accept further charging from the engine-driven generator or the regenerative braking system.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 8

Term Definition

Technical Critical component of bus and charging or hydrogen fueling specifications infrastructure procurements that define technical and performance requirements that satisfy your service needs within the constraints of your operating conditions.

Tiered (or Step) Rate Electricity rate structure with distinct costs per kWh at different thresholds of consumption (e.g., $0.07 for the first 2,000 kWh, and $0.06 for all kWh above 2,000).

Time of Use Rate Electricity rate structure designed to curb usage during peak windows of power consumption. Utilities charge a lower rate for electricity consumed during off-peak hours, usually in the evening or at night, and a higher rate for electricity consumed during peak hours, typically during periods when most businesses are operating.

Utilization Comparison of the number of days a bus was actually put into service to the total days it was available to be put into service. Low utilization could indicate that there are operational issues, such as there not being enough operators trained on ZEBs. Tracking utilization can help identify the root cause of issues and address them.

Validation Procedure to confirm that the actual bus performance is in line with expected performance. Results of validation testing can be used to refine bus modeling parameters and to inform deployment plans. Results of validation testing are typically not grounds for acceptance or non-acceptance of a bus.

Well to wheel Quantity of greenhouse gas or other harmful emissions that emissions includes emissions from energy use and emissions from vehicle operation. For BEBs, well to wheel emissions would take into account the carbon intensity of the grid used to charge the buses. For FCEBs, well to wheel emissions would take into account the energy to produce, transport, and deliver the hydrogen to the vehicle.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 9

Term Definition

Warrantable End of A measure of battery degradation determined as the point at Life Capacity which the batteries can no longer provide the energy or power required to meet the design operating profile. It is expressed as a percentage of remaining battery capacity as compared with gross capacity at the beginning of useful life. For purposes of this specification, WEOL shall be a measure of the useful and intended life of the energy storage device. WEOL shall be used as a condition for battery replacement and to potentially initiate warranty claims.

Zero-Emission Vehicle A vehicle that emits no tailpipe emissions from the onboard source of power.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix D- 10

Appendix E. References

Aber, Judah, “Electric Bus Analysis for New York City Transit,” May 2016, http://www.columbia.edu/~ja3041/Electric Bus Analysis for NYC Transit by J Aber Columbia University - May 2016.pdf.

American Public Transportation Association, Standard Bus Procurement Request for Proposal (RFP), 2013, https://www.apta.com/research-technical- resources/standards/procurement/apta-bts-bpg-gl-001-13/.

Balbus, J.M., Greenblatt, J.B., Chari, R. et al. Erratum to: A wedge-based approach to estimating health co-benefits of climate change mitigation activities in the United States. Climatic Change 129, 363–364 (2015), https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-015-1336-z.

Beshilas, Laura. “Fuel Cell Electric Buses in the USA,” NREL, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.nrel.gov/state-local-tribal/blog/posts/fuel-cell-electric-buses-in-the- usa.html.

Brown, T., Stephens-Romero, S., & Scott Samuelsen, G. (2012). Quantitative analysis of a successful public hydrogen station. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 37(17), 12731-12740. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.06.008 Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3q74x085.

California Air Resources Board, “Advanced Clean Transit: Battery Cost for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles (Discussion Draft)”, August 2016, accessed March 31, 2020, https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/msprog/bus/battery_cost.pdf.

California Air Resources Board, “Advanced Clean Transit Program: Literature Review on Transit Bus Maintenance Cost (Discussion Draft)”, August 2016, accessed January 29, 2020, https://ww3.arb.ca.gov/msprog/bus/maintenance_cost.pdf.

California Department of General Services, “Zero Emission Transit Buses (ZEBs), New Flyer of America, Inc.,” Contract ID 1-19-23-17B, accessed January 29, 2020, https://caleprocure.ca.gov/PSRelay/ZZ_PO.ZZ_CTR_SUP_CMP.GBL?Page=ZZ_CTR_SUP_ PG&Action=U&SETID=STATE&CNTRCT_ID=1-19-23-17B

California Department of General Services, “Zero Emission Transit Buses (ZEBs), Proterra, Inc.,” Contract ID 1-19-23-17C, accessed January 29, 2020, https://caleprocure.ca.gov/PSRelay/ZZ_PO.ZZ_CTR_SUP_CMP.GBL?Page=ZZ_CTR_SUP_ PG&Action=U&SETID=STATE&CNTRCT_ID=1-19-23-17C

Center for Hydrogen Safety, “Introduction to Hydrogen Safety for First Responders,” accessed January 19, 2020, https://www.aiche.org/academy/courses/ela253/introduction- hydrogen-safety-first-responders.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix E- 1

Chandler, Sara et al. “Delivering Opportunity: How Electric Buses and Trucks can Create Jobs and Improve Health In California,” University of Concerned Scientists, https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2016/10/UCS-Electric-Buses- Report.pdf.

“Costs and Financing,” California Fuel Cell Partnership, accessed January 18, 2020, https://h2stationmaps.com/costs-and-financing.

“Draft Cost Model Discussion with ACT Cost Subgroup,” California Air Resources Board, accessed January 18, 2020, https://cafcp.org/sites/default/files/5_CARB-ACT-Cost- Model-Discussions_CaFCP-Bus-Team-Meeting-Aug2016.pdf.

Edison Electric Institute, “Preparing to Plug In Your Bus Fleet: 10 Things to Consider,” December 2019, https://www.apta.com/wp- content/uploads/PreparingToPlugInYourBusFleet_FINAL_2019.pdf.

“Electric Bus, Main Fleets, and Projects Around the World,” Sustainable Bus, accessed January 19, 2020, https://www.sustainable-bus.com/electric-bus/electric-bus-public-transport- main-fleets-projects-around-world/.

Engel, Len. “Best Practices: Operating a Fleet of Electric Buses,” Mass Transit, April 2018, accessed January 29, 2020, https://www.masstransitmag.com/technology/article/12404881/best-practices- operating-a-fleet-of-electric-buses.

Eudy, Leslie and Matthew Post. 2018. Fuel Cell Buses in U.S. Transit Fleets: Current Status 2018. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-72208. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/72208.pdf.

Eudy, Leslie. “Technology Validation: Fuel Cell Bus Evaluations,” DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program 2019 Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting, accessed March 30, 2020, https://www.hydrogen .energy.gov/pdfs/review18/tv008_eudy_2018_o.pdf.

Eudy, Leslie; Jeffers, Matthew; and Post, Matthew. 2018. Zero-Emission Bay Area (ZEBA) Fuel Cell Bus Demonstration Reports: Sixth Report. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-68413, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/73407.pdf.

Eudy, Leslie and Matthew Jeffers. 2018. Zero-Emission Bus Evaluation Results: County Connection Battery Electric Buses. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-72864. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/72864.pdf.

Eudy, Leslie and Matthew Jeffers. 2018. Zero-Emission Bus Evaluation Results: King County Metro Battery Electric Buses, accessed March 30, 2020, https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/docs/research- innovation/115086/zero-emission-bus-evaluation-results-king-county-metro-battery- electric-buses-fta-report-no-0118.pdf.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix E- 2

Goldia-Scot, Logan. “A Behind the Scenes Take on Lithium-ion Battery Prices,” BloombergNEF, accessed January 18, 2020, https://about.bnef.com/blog/behind-scenes-take-lithium- ion-battery-prices/.

M. Melania and M. Penev. 2013. Hydrogen Station Cost Estimate: Comparing Hydrogen Station Cost Calculator Results with other Recent Estimates. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-5400-56412.

“MBTA Debuts Zero Emission Electric Buses,” Conservation Law Foundation, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.clf.org/newsroom/mbta-debuts-zero-emission-electric-buses/.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2018. Battery Electric Buses—State of the Practice. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25061.

“OSHA Fact Sheet: Lockout/Tagout,” U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/factsheet-lockout-tagout.pdf.

Reichmuth, David, “Inequitable Exposure to Air Pollution from Vehicles in California,” Union of Concerned Scientists, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/inequitable-exposure-air-pollution-vehicles- california-2019.

“SprintCharge,” Heliox, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.heliox.nl/sprintcharge.

Smith Connor, “California Could Make up 90 Percent of U.S. Electric Utility Investment with a Transportation Equity Focus,” EV Hub, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.atlasevhub.com/data_story/california-could-make-up-90-percent-of-u-s- electric-utility-investment-with-a-transportation-equity-focus/?portfolioCats=947.

Smith, Connor, “Dominion Energy to Invest in More than 1000 Electric School Buses,” EV Hub, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.atlasevhub.com/news/dominion-energy-to- invest-in-more-than-1000-electric-school-buses/.

Smith, Margaret and Castellano, Jonathan. “Costs Associated with Non-Residential Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment,” New West Technologies, LLC and U.S. Department of Energy, November 2015, https://afdc.energy.gov/files/u/publication/evse_cost_report_2015.pdf.

Sokolsky, Steven. “Best Practices in Hydrogen Fueling and Maintenance Facilities for Transit Agencies,” CALSTART, December 2016, https://calstart.org/wp- content/uploads/2018/10/Best-Practices-in-Hydrogen.pdf.

Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix E- 3

“Transit Signal Priority,” Regional Transportation Authority, accessed January 18, 2020, https://www.rtachicago.org/plans-programs/programs-and-projects/transit-signal- priority.

Tyson, Madeline, Charlie Bloch. Breakthrough Batteries: Powering the Era of Clean Electrification. Rocky Mountain Institute, 2019. http://www.rmi.org/breakthrough- batteries.

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Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses – Appendix E- 4