203 From Animal Skins to Polyester: Four Hundred Years of Micmac and Maliseet Styles and Ornamentation Gaby Pelletier The New Brunswick Museum

The only record that presently remains of these people's clothing styles from the early contact period are found in the accounts of early travellers, fur traders, and missionaries. These accounts are usually very general, including the geography of the area as well as a description of language, and culture of the "savage nations". Although specific tribes were identified, Etchemin and Souriquois in the Atlantic Region, they do not always note the distinctions of every aspect of culture and in particular, clothing styles. Most of the accounts agree that the native people wore skin clothing made of elan (caribou), deer, beaver, moose, otter, bear or luserne (lynx) which was frequently painted with animal figures and geometric patterns of chevrons, broken chevrons, sawtooth and scrolls. Men wore a breech- clout, leggings, a and megezzins (moccasins). The women were "less nude" wearing an animal skin wrapped around and tied with a girdle or belt. They also wore leggings and moccasins. In cold weather, both sexes put on attachable which "tied behind them" as well as heavy with the fur turned in. Although there is a tendency to emphasize the "savage" aspects of Indian culture, the early writers often praised the art and decoration of these people. In particular, they seemed to be very impressed with the woven quillwork which Nicholas Denys1 described in great detail. "But the belles who wish to appear pretty and know how to do good work, make ornamented pieces of the size of a foot or eight inches square all embroidered with porcupine quills of all colors. It is made on a frame of which the warp is threads of leather from unborn moose, of a very delicate sort; the quills of porcupine form the wood (actually both woof and warp were made of fine fetal moose tenden thread) which they pass through these threads, just as one makes tapestry; and it is very well made. All around they make a fringe of the same threads which are also encircled with these procupine quills in a medley of colors. In this fringe they place wampum white and violet". (Denys 1908:44). Marc Lescarbot2 was especially awed by the colors "The maids and women do make matachias (Jewelry) with the quills or havbristlean212)de . re nodBrillian sbette asof livelthr et lustry porcupinpurple ase possibltha,e nbluewhic theie ,hthe ran thedyre dyellomay ydyedy bewe" witarfo(Lescarboehr blackalsouro scarlett,commonl 1914whit:esy 204

mentioned. These woven "patches" were sewn on clothing or used separately as belts, collars, armbands, bracelets, and ankle bands. In the term matachias was also included wampum jewelry made of quahog shell beads. Lescarbot states that "... these collars, scarves, and bracelets made of great periwinkles or porcelain are richer than pearls [not withstanding none will believe me herein] (Lescarbot 1914: 211) . No doubt the degree of ornamentation and decoration of garb depended on the festivities of the occasions. Although all the writers state that the Indians were normally bare headed, there are some references to hair style and headdress. "... the men do tress them (hair) upon the of the head, some four fingers length with a leather lace, which they let hang down behind". (Lescarbot 1914:189). "... they (the boys) tie it in tufts on the two sides with cords of leather. The dainty ones have their's ornamented with colored porcupine quills. The girls wear their's full length but tie it behind with the same cords". (Denys 1908:414). "Our Indians make for themselves a kind of crown from the two wings of the birds which they have killed in their hunting" and "sometimes they tie it (hair) up behind or else they make tresses of it which they tie suitably and which they ornament with little strings of beadwork or wampum". (LeClercq 1910:98). In most cultures the body is decorated with paints or by mutilation, and so was the case with the native people. Diereville3 offers a detailed description of tattooing applied by Indian on French Fishermen in 1699 at Port Royal: "They are made with Vermillion and gun powder which are never mixed together. These ingredients are reduced to powder separately and they are applied with a needle. . . The colors are thus differentiated under the skin and all kinds of devices are reproduced, crosses, name of Jesus, flowers anything in fact that may be desired and these marks never come off" (Diereville 1933:169). The ears were often pierced in several places and pendants were attached to cosmetically enhance both sexes. On festive occasions, red paint was used to decorate the skin, and during mourning it was painted black. The Micmac and Maliseet very quickly adapted European goods for their own uses. By the third quarter of the 17th century, most people were using wood blankets for cloaks and obtaining shirts and beaver hats in trade. Red and white wool blankets were commonly being sewn into clothing which occasionally was decorated with ribbon applique and glass beads Tailored clothing was not, however, immediately adopted. The Indians continued to sew these new fabrics in 205 a traditional manner because, as they explained to LeClercq1* "it would be impossible for them to walk or work freely with the clothes of our French women" (LeClercq 1910:98). Documentation concerning Indian lifestyles during the 18th century is very scarce. It is not until the turn of the 19th century that pictorial and documented records offer sufficient details to distinguish tribal patterns. Although tailored clothing was common at that time, it was still noticeably distinctive from European dress. Micmac women's attire consisted of a shirt or , a short fastened with one or more trade silver broaches, a full often reaching to the ankles, and knee-high leggings. The items were usually made of chintzes and coarse woolens. Sometimes a beaver hat or a peaked cap of wool broadcloth was worn (photo no. 1). On special occasions, fine fabrics such as silks, satins, and velvets were used in making clothing, which was embroidered with glass beads and ribbon applique. Maliseet women's were simpler (photo no. 2). A long shirt or shift dress probably made of plain or printed cotton and wool ended below the knee about mid calf. Short leggings covered the legs from the knee to the ankles. For extra warmth in cold weather, it appears that one or more shirts were added and a blanket served for protection from the elements. Sir Richard Levinge5 who travelled through New Brunswick in 1835, offers a brief description of a Maliseet woman's ceremonial dress. "When they appear in full dress the squaws wear a conical shaped cap or headdress of blue or scarlet cloth embroidered with white beads and edged with ribbons; a long reaching a little below the knees with scarlet or blue leggings. . . their moccasins made from moose leather, are beautifully embroidered with beads. The front of their dress is fastened with a number of circular silver buckles, the largest being placed at the . . ." (Levinge 1845:111). It's quite probable that Maliseet women also wore . In a primitive drawing by Miss Betsy Cunliffe,6 showing 3 Maliseet women at Woodstock 1820, two women are wearing jackets that are a bit longer than the Micmac style. The drawing also suggests that the skirt or frock was embroidered with silk applique (photo no. 3). Micmac and Maliseet male dress was very similar in design. Its most prominent feature was the military style often made from blankets, although blue wool broadcloth was pre­ ferred. This coat was typically decorated with bands of red material on the collar, shoulders, cuffs, down the front and along the bottom. Occasionally, glass bead embroidery was beadedbelmoccasinthapplieetTriba od,r lstinwarsash o,distinction completeheaddressesth,de woolerefacingdd nbands ths,legging e, werdoubl ancostum. edA se visiblelegging cottoeanscrol d(phot ncarribol s, o ropatternhoweverf woole noceremoniau. 4)onsr, . moos ornamentinshirtin lth ecostumes e,hid whita ewaisg e t. 206

This design identified by Speck (1914), conveyed both magical and political messages. It appeared in different forms among the various Algonkian tribes which employed it. The Micmac design was characterized by the "T" shape which was usually located in the center between the double scrolls (photo no. 5). Tightly curled ends embroidered against a less spacious background typify the Maliseet design (photo no. 6) which closely resembles that of the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes. History records other styles of male dress not so commonly observed. In a drawing made by Patrick Campbell7 in 1791, (Campbell 1937) (photo no. 7), the Maliseet man poling the canoe is wearing a skirt. The sparce evidence of this form of dress which may have been fashioned after the Scottish kilt, does not reveal how widespread was its popularity. The skirt did, however, have a lasting impression on native traditions. During the Prince of Wales' visit to Halifax in 1860, a number of Micmac men appeared in velvet with collars and cuffs edged with silk ribbons and glass beads (photo no. 8). From the waist belt hung a beaded front flap reminiscent of the Scottish sporran. In a photograph taken on Corpis Christie Day at Kingsclear, N.B., 1887, five men are wearing skirts. Another form of Maliseet ceremonial to emerge in the 19th century was the elaborately beaded shirt (photo no. 6). Unfortunately little information about its history exists. Only four examples have been located. Three of these are in the collections of the New Brunswick Museum. The fourth example is modelled by Gabe Acquin8 in a late 19th century photograph owned by Dr. Peter Paul of Woodstock. Men's ceremonial headdress in the early 19th century is described by Levinge as a tall pointed cap with two ears decorated with white glass beads and silk embroidery. In the last quarter of the 19th century, beaded glengarry caps and partridge feather bonnets with beaded head bands had become very popular ceremonial garb. From the mid 19th century the Indians of the Maritimes increasingly adopted North American clothing styles for daily use. To mark important events, they wore designed in the tradition of their grandparents. The skills of bead embroidery on cloth were, however, maintained throughout the 19th century owing to an eager market provided by the Victorians. Women ingeniously adapted their beadwork for application on many types of ornaments and objects which would be appealing to the affluent class of the prosperous Maritime provinces. Those who were not satisfied with the perfect balance of design created by the white beads on the red or black back­ ground, pressured the Indians to use more color in their embroidery. The use of multi-colored patterns was not foreign to the Indians as their quill boxes reflected a very handsome blend of colors. Gradually the double curve motif began to incorporate flecks of color in the additional appendages, yet, the design continued to maintain fundamental Indian standards. Notice that the basic line of the double curve motif remained white (photo no. 5). Gradually the meaning of the design became a 207 vague impression of a traditional custom, the colorful appendages became more prominent and finally these lines, which at first suggested leaves and flowers, burst into a full bloom of floral patterns, showing no evidence of the double curve motif. Towards the latter part of the 19th century these modifications eventually replaced the double curve motif on both Micmac and Maliseet costumes (photo no. 9). After the turn of the 20th century, there was a rapid decline in the sale of beadwork. Today few Indian people are familiar with the traditional form of native dress or beaded designs. In the last decade, however, there has been a trend among the native people to revive their past culture and attempt to re-introduce former crafts such as quillwork, beadwork and basketry. Initially it aroused a single North American Indian identity meshing the many cultures into one. As a result, hand loom beading which was used in the west became very popular here. Currently, Indian people are developing a sense of their separate cultural identities and are investigating their unique pasts. Consequently, more traditional methods of beadwork are now being practised for personal use by a few Micmac and Maliseet artists PHOTO(photSo no. 10). No. 1 Pastel of a Micmac woman, believed to be Christina Morris (Born 1804? - 1886), who was renown for her skills in beadwork embroidery and porcupine quill works; - artist is unknown; 1865. (Webster collection 3975). New Brunswick Museum. No. 2 Watercolor by John Stanton of the Maliseet women selling their goods; early 19th century; (Webster collection 6712). New Brunswick Museum. No. 3 Watercolor drawing by Miss Betsy Cunliffe, 1820, of three Maliseet women at Woodstock, N.B. Photo collection, New Brunswick Museum. No. 4 Micmac ceremonial coat; ca. 1825. New Brunswick Museum. No. 5 Micmac tea cosy made of black and red wool broad­ cloth and embroidered with silk ribbon applique. The white glass beads are threaded on horsehair and sewn down with thread, ca. 1835. New Brunswick Museum. No. 6 Maliseet man's ceremonial shirt and detachable vest made of wool fabric and embroidered with silk ribbon and primarily white glass beads; ca. 1850. New Brunswick Museum. No. 7 Drawing of "Birch Bark Canoe Poled Amongst Rocks Against A Rapid Stream" by Patrick Campbell in his 208

travels on the Saint John River; 1791 (original in the collections of the Champlain Society).

No. 8 Man's Micmac velvet skirt embroidered with glass beads and sequins and worn on the occasion of the Duke of Kent's visit to Halifax 1860; collection of the McCord Museum, Montreal. No. 9 Maliseet detachable vest, blue grey wool fabric embroidered with multi-colored glass beads in a floral design; ca. 1880. New Brunswick Museum. No. 10 Pair of moosehide moccasins tanned, designed, and beaded by Andrea Nicholas of Tobique in 1973.

NOTES

1 Nicholas Denys (1598-1688) first arrived in Acadia in 1632, as a merchant and agent of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle France. Although, at one time, he owned trading posts and fishing rights at Miscou, Nipisiquit, Saint Pierre and Chedabouctou, he suffered many misfortunes in war and economy. In 1668 he retired on his remaining holdings at Nipisiquit (Bathurst) where he wrote "Description Geogra- phique et Historique Des Coates De L'Amerique Septentrionale Avec L'Histoire Naturelle Du Pais" and "Histore Naturelle Des Peuples, des Animaux, des Arbres & Plantes de l'Amerique Septentrionale, & de les divers Climats". Marc Lescarbot (1550-1642) was a lawyer, traveller and writer who accompanied Poutrincourt in 1606 to Acadia and returned to France the following year. He wrote his observations in "Histoire de la Nouvelle France". Sieur de Diereville was a surgeon, merchant and officer from Reux France who came to Port Royal in 1699 with a consignment of merchandise to be used for the fur trade, a part of which was lost in a storm upon arrival. He also made a study of the flora and wrote about "Divers mutations of the Ocean during a prolonged Voyage; the Description of the country; the Occupations of the French who are established there, the customs of the Different Indian Tribes, their superstitions and their Hunting; with a precise Dissertation on the Beaver". In November 1700 he returned to France and later published "Relation on the Voyage to Port Royal in Canada, New France". Father Chrestian LeClercq (1644-1707?) was a Recollect missionary who taught the Micmac on the Gaspe. He is credited for inventing a hieroglyphic writing'system in Micmac. His "Nouvelle Relation de la Gaspesie" offers many details about the Micmac culture. Sir Richard George Augustus Levinge (1811-1884) was a member of the 43rd Regiment which came to the Saint John 209 River in 1835 on their way to Canada to suppress the rebellion of 1837-38. He wrote his experiences in a publication entitled "Echoes from the Backwoods". Betsy Cunliffe gave Richard Parr on October 5, 1820, a "rude sketch of three Indian Squaws of a small tribe of Indians in the neighbourhood of Woodstock". A photograph of this water colour sketch is housed in the photo collection of the New Brunswick Museum. Patrick Campbell wrote his experiences while on his excursion in the wilderness of North America in 1791. These were later published with almost no editorial revisions in "Travels in the Interior Parts of North America in the Year 1791-1792". Gabe Acquin was a famous Maliseet Chief, trapper, and guide who lived in Fredericton across the Saint John River from Government House. He frequently acted as hunting guide for famous personalities who visited Fredericton. It is reputed that he gave Edward VII a ride in a birch bark canoe on the Nashwaak River when he visited Fredericton as Prince of Wales. Gabe Acquin was over 90 years of age when he died in 1901.

REFERENCES CAMPBELL, Patrick 1937 Travels in the interior inhabited parts of North America, 1791-1792. Toronto: The Champlain Society. DENYS, Nicholas 1908 The description and natural history of the coasts of North America (Acadia). Toronto: The Champlain Society. DIEREVILLE, Sieur de 1933 Relation on the voyage to Port Royal in Acadia, New France. Toronto: The Champlain Society. LECLERCQ, Father Chrestien 1910 New relations of Gaspesia. Toronto: The Champlain Society. LESCARBOT, Marc 1914 The history of New France. Toronto: The Champlain Society. LEVINGE, Sir Richard G.A. 1846 Echoes from the backwoods; vol. 1. London: I.H. Colburn. SPECK, Frank G. 1914 The double curve motif in north-eastern Algonkian art. Canadian Geoloaical Survey, Memoir 42, 210 211

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