HAND PAPERMAKING AND THE USE OF INVASIVE PLANT
SPECIES FOR SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
by
AMANDA COPPES
submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the
MASTER'S DEGREE IN TECHNOLOGY MTech Fine Art
In the
DEPARTMENT OF FINE ART Technikon Witwatersrand
Study leader: Ms Kim Berman
September 2003 Dedicated to:
South Africa
and
Kim Berman,
who provided the opportunity
inspiration
and
motivation.
Thank you ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to:
The Technikon Witwatersrand for financial support.
The Technikon Research Committee for dedication in the areas ofResearch and
Development.
The International Affairs Committee for financial support and the opportunity to
undertake a study visit to Japan and Belgium.
My parents, for their support, emotionally and financially throughout this study.
My partner, Gary Martin for all the encouraging words and support.
Phumani Paper, for providing the work place and experience for this investigation
to take place.
Rowena Murray Brown for the difficult task ofediting this monster.
David Tshabalala in helping gather evidence and data.
Bronwyn Marshall for always being the other person interested in this
investigation.
Veerle Rooms for inspiration and enlightenment.
Bob Matthysen, for his stimulation and passion for paper.
Pam Allara, for proofreading and supervising, always at the last minute.
Gail Deery and Robbin Silverberg, for inspiration and technique. ABSTRACT
HAND PAPERMAKING AND THE USE OF INVASIVE PLANT VEGETATION AS A VIABLE RESOURCE FOR A NEW CULTURAL INDUSTRY.
Unemployment and the crime levels which escalate as a result ofit, are very realistic social problems in South Africa and training for job skills and entrepreneurship has become a priority. This study identifies the use of invasive plant fibres as a viable resource for the hand papermaking industry and the development of a new cultural industry. The research' funded by the National Research Foundation (NRF) and the Technikon Research Committee (TRC) has been implemented in an established poverty relief programme called Phumani Paper', which creates jobs especially in rural or impoverished sectors through technology transfer and training. A curriculum is currently being developed for current and future participants ofthis programme to obtain qualifications in hand papermaking.
An investigation has been undertaken to define suitable invasive plant species for the purpose ofthis research. The investigation included the extent ofinvasive encroachment, plant identification, methods ofcontrol and government legislation. Initially water hyacinth (eichhomia crassipes) was identified as a suitable fibre, but because Phumani Paper supports 21 small paper businesses in seven provinces, research had to be undertaken on several different species found in each ofthe regions. Species such as moth catcher (Araujia sericifera), milkweed (Asclepias fruticosa), pampas grass (Cortadeira selloana), giant reed (Arundo donax) and bugweed (Solanum mauritianum) have been identified as viable fibres for the hand papermaking industry, due to their fibrous characteristics.
I The Papennaking Research and Development Unit (PRDU) has received research funds from the National Research Foundation (NRF) and the Technikon Research Committee (TRC). 2 Phumani paper is funded by the (DST) Department ofScience and Technology and is supported by the Technikon Witwatersrand. The programme started in 2000 and has managed to meet the governments objectives ofthe establishment. at a minimum of450 job opportunities since the DACST-funded Poverty Relief Programme roll-out in early 2000. The fibre yield and productivity levels of each fibre are recorded using data sheets. Comparisons are made with all fibres researched, in terms ofthe amount of useable fibre extracted from each species. The productivity levels show the end result, disclosing that some fibres have a high fibre yield but are not necessarily productive.
Hand papermaking is fast becoming a trend in South Africa for craft and job creation. The predominant fibre currently used in the hand papermaking industry in South Africa is recycled waste paper, which has its use for craft items but lacks strength and pliability due to the inferior quality ofthe fibre. South Africa has an abundance ofnatural fibre resources. An extensive knowledge ofthe hand papermaking industry, combined with a focus on environmental issues, is ofextreme importance to enhance quality and reach the level ofinternational market standards. The use ofinvasive plant species for a new cultural industry fulfils the criteria for successful, sustainable development in that issues such as environmental conservation and social and economic development are addressed.
The use ofnatural fibres for hand papermaking by small business enterprises to create a viable income has several benefits: 1. Low cost production can be undertaken. 2. A diverse range ofpapers can be manufactured. 3. Plant fibres are substantially easier to process than cotton rag', and can be hand beaten, which enables manufacture to be implemented in communities that have no access to electricity. 4. Invasive plant vegetation, found in most parts ofSouth Africa, is a viable resource. 5. Paper can be used for the design ofa variety ofnew products.
I Cotton rag is the long fibre found in cotton fabric, and is utilized for the production ofarchival papers for the art industry. TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT
CHAPTERl
INTRODUCTION
1.1 SURVEY OF THE FIELD .1
1.1.1 Hand papennaking in South Africa 2
1.1.2 Motivation for the selection ofinvasive plant species 5
1.2 BACKGROUND 6
1.2.1 The importance ofthe integrated approach 7
1.2.2 The benefits ofthe utilization ofinvasive plant species 9
1.3 SPECIFIC RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 1O
1.3.1 Aims .10
1.3.2 Objectives 11
1.4 GENERAL INDICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1.4.1 Review ofrelevant theories '" 12
1.4.2 Paper processes '" .. , .13
1.4.3 Case studies ofthe successful utilization ofinvasive plant species .14
1.4.4 Research methodologies , .14
1.4.5 Product design and development and artistic expression 15
1.4.6 Results and findings '" 16 PAGE
CHAPTER 2
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
REVIEW OF RELEVANT THEORIES
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 17
2.2 WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 21
2.3 THREE COMMON THEORIES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 23
2.3.1 The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) '" 23
2.3.2 Our common future 24
2.3.3 Caring for the earth 25
2.3.3.1 Priority requirements ofcaring for the earth 25
2.4 CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 26
2.5 THE URGENCY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 26
2.5.1 Root causes ofthe environment in crisis 28
2.6 THE WAY FORWARD 28
2.6.1 The key outcomes ofthe Johannesburg World Summit.. 29
2.6.2 Government involvement with sustainable development. .30
2.7 HAND PAPERMAKING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 32
2.8 INVASIVE ENCROACHMENT 37
2.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES 39
2.9.1 Mountain catchment areas .39 2.9.2 Fire and erosion 40
2.9.3 Bio-diversity 41
2.9.4 Economic impacts 42
2.10 GOVERNMENT LEGISLATION ON INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES 42
2.10.1 Methods ofcontrol. 43
2.11 SECONDARY INDUSTRIES, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT 44
2.11.1 Human resources development '" .44
2.11.2 The use ofinvasive plant vegetation in developing sustainable cultural
industries 46
CHAPTER THREE
CASE STUDIES
3.1 THE KUYASA PAPER PROJECT 50
3.1.1 Project background 50
3.1.2 Product development and marketing 52
3.1.3 Community development and project management. 54
3.1.4 Key indicators ofprogress within the project.. 55
3.2 THE TWANANO PAPERMAKING PROJECT IN IVORY PARK,
MIDRAND, GAUTENG 55
3.2.1 Project background 55
3.2.2 Fibre distribution 56
3.2.3 Access to specific communities 58 3.2.4 Transference ofskills: curriculum development. 59
3.2.5 Appropriate technology transfer 62
CHAPTER FOUR
PAPER RESEARCH AND PROCESSES
4.1 WHAT IS PAPER? 66
4.2 RAW MATERIAL 67
4.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF HAND PAPERMAKING AND THE UTILIZATION
OF SPECIFIC FIBRES 69
4.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT FIBRES ~ 71
4.4.1 Sclerenchyma tissue 71
4.4.2 Trichomes ' 72
4.5 REQUIREMENTS OF FIBRES FOR HAND PAPERMAKING 72
4.6 FIBRE CHEMISTRy 73
4.6.1 Cellulose 74
4.6.2 Behavior ofcellulosic fibres 74
4.7 HYDROGEN BONDING 75
4.8 FIBRE TyPES 76
4.8.1 General fibres employed in the hand papermaking industry 77
4.8.2 Recycled fibres 78
4.8.3 Processed fibres 79
4.9 RAW, UNPROCESSED INVASIVE PLANT FIBRES SUITABLE FOR HAND
PAPERMAKING 79 4.9.1 Bast fibre 80
4.9.2 Leaffibre '" 81
4.9.3 Grass fibre 82
4.9.4 Seed hair fibre 83
4.10 PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF FIBRE YIELDING PLANTS 84
4.11 TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES 86
4.11.1 The Western tradition versus the Eastern tradition 86
4.12 PROCESSING 89
4.12.1 Harvesting 89
4.12.2 Retting 90
4.12.2.1 Dew retting 90
4.12.2.2 Pool or dam retting 91
4.12.2.3 Stream retting 91
4.12.2.4 Chemical retting 91
412.2.5 Steam retting 91
4.13 FIBRE SEPARATION 92
4.13.1 Stripping bast fibre 92
4.13.2 Extracting seed fibre 93
4.13.3 Leaffibre separation 94
4.13.4 Grass fibre separation 95
4.14 COOKING 96
4.15 BEATING AND REFINING 98
4.15.1 Hand beating 100 4.15.2 The Hollander Beater. 102
4.16 SHEET FORMATION .104
4.16.1 Formationaids 104
4.17 PRESSING 105
4.18 PARTING AND DRyING 106
4.18.1 Drying on the mould " 106
4.18.2 Loft drying 107
4.18.3 Board or wall drying 108
4.18.4 Drying boxes 108
3.19 PAPER PROCESS AND INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE .109
CHAPTER FIVE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
PRACTICE-BASED RESEARCH 110
5.1 THE FORMULATION OF A SPECIALIZED DATA SHEET .111
5.2 REVISED OUTLINE OF THE DATA SHEET .113
5.2.1 Plant background 113
5.2.2 Fibre collection record 116
5.2.3 Pre cooking preparation .117
5.2.4 Cooking preparation 118
5.2.5 Beating methods .118
5.2.6 Production output. .120
5.3 EXAMPLE OF A DATA SHEET 121 6.1 ACKNOWLEDGING THE IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PRESERVATION WHILE SUPPORTING INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 138
6.1.1 Eco-efficiency .141
6.1.1.1 Cleaner process .141
6.1.1.2 Cleaner products 141
6.1.1.3 Sustainable resource use " .141
6.2 ECO EFFICIENT CRAFT .142
6.3 AN EXAMPLE OF AN ECO-EFFICIENT PRODUCT UTILIZED BY
PHUMANI PAPER 144
6.2.1 Product design .145
6.2.2 Manufacture and sustainable use ofresources 146
CONCLUSION 149
APENDIX CONTENTS
Annexure A - Skills Development. " '" 161
Annexure B- International Exchange " 165
Annexure C- Complete List ofData Sheets 174
Annexure D- Product Design " 189 LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figures
1-1 Hand beating river reed .1
2-1 Sustainable Fanning in the Transkei 17
2-.2 Concepts involved in the term, "Sustainable Development" .26
2-3 Cover illustration for the World Summit. 29
2-4 Women comprise 50% ofthe work force for Working for Water 31
2-5 Secondary industries that optimize the use ofwood from the clearing programmes..32
2-6 Format for hand papennaking and sustainable development. 34
2-7 The interaction between people, resources and pollution 35
2-8 The interaction between the utilization ofinvasive plant species and human activity 36
2-9 Estimated distribution ofinvading alien plants in South Africa 37
2-10 Biological control agents introduced to water lettuce .40
2-11 Species richness ofselected groups in Southern Africa, Africa and the world .41
2-12 Cooking with fuel briquettes on a cement stove .47
2-13 A pit with dried cornstalks waiting for a solution ofwater and lime to start the retting process 48
3-1 The participants ofthe Kuyasa project receive extensive training on the Hollander beater 51 3-2 The wood chipper for chipping the bark 51
3-3 Hand crafted products made from Port Jackson willow and recycled waste paper. ..52
3-4 Kuyasa products with their particular trademark. 53
3-5 The North Seas Jazz festival craft showcase brochure 54
3-6 Harvesting milkweed 57
3-7 Sorting through harvested milkweed 59
3-8 Stripping milkweed fibre from the inner core 59
3-9 Several crafts sold in the national parks utilizing grasses and reeds 60
3-10 Cooking milkweed by gas , 62
3-11 Hand beating milkweed with mallets 62
3-12 Twanano participants hand beating milkweed 63
3-13 Participants forming a sheet ofmilkweed , 63
4-1 Focus areas for hand papermaking processes 67
4-2 Sclerenchyma cells 71
4-3 Variety oftrichomes found on hemp 72
4-4 Hydrogen bonding 76
4-5 Milkweed '" 81
4-6 Bast fibre 81
4-7 Waterhyacinth 82
4-8 Leaffibre 82
4-9 Pampas grass 83
4-10 Grass fibre '" 83
4-11 Moth catcher 84 4-12 Seed hair fibre 84
4-13 Cross section ofWashi 86
4-14 Cross section ofWestern style paper ," '" 86
4-15 Naginata beater. 87
4-16 Hollander Duplex Beater. 87
4-17 Scooping up pulp 87
4-18 Casting paper. 87
4-19 Post ofJapanese papers 88
4-20 Couching paper onto a couching table 88
4-21 Brushing paper onto a heated steel cylinder 88
4-22 Restraint drying cotton paper , , 88
4-23 Dew retting milkweed 90
4-24 Stripping Bug weed 93
4-25 Bast fibre in Kenaf , 93
4-26 Seed hair fibre in moth catcher 94
4-27 Extracting fibre from the pineapple leaf 95
4-28 Sisal fibres 95
4-29 Fibre cooking in a stainless steel pot 97
4-30 Bad sheet formation 99
4-31 Examples ofhand beating tools 100
4-32 Hand beating fibre in Ivory Park and Western Cape 101
4-33 Freeness test, 10 minutes 102
4-34 Freeness test, 20 minutes 102 4-35 Hand beating after 30 minutes '" 102
4-36 The Duplex Hollander beater, (TWR) Technikon Witwatersrand .103
4-38 Vacum pressing sheets ofdifferent sizes 106
4-39 Drying directly onto the mould, Flower Valley 107
4-40 Loft Drying, "Verfmolen de Kat" in Holland, 2000 '" 107
4-41 Brushing a sheet ofpaper onto a stainless steel mould .108
5-1 Water hyacinth 113
5-2 Map distribution ofwater hyacinth 115
5-3 Beater tests ofBlack Wattle .119
5-4 Drawing ofblack wattle leafstructure '" 121
5-5 Photo documentation ofblack wattle 121
5-6 Beater tests ofblack wattle taken every halfhour. 123
5-7 Comparative graph offibre yield 126
5-8 Comparative study offibre waste 127
5-9 A comparison ofproductivity levels with different invasive species 128
5-10 The tensile strength reading as a guide to the performance ofpaper when subjected to tensional pulling forces 133
5-11 The higher the tensile rate the stronger the paper under tension 133
5-12 The tensile strength ofthe invasive plant species in comparison with cotton rag papers 133
5-13 Burst strength tests vary according to the fibre and method ofprocessing 135
5-14 The Burst strength ofinvasive plant species in comparison with cotton rag papers .136 6-1 Shade made from hand made paper 138
6-2 Various innovative technologies based on paper, ranging from a paper chair to paper jewellery 139
6-3 Approaches to achieving eco-efficiency 141
6-4 Model for eco-efficient craft production 143
6-5 Plastic bag crafts 145
6-6 Paper vessels 146
6-7 Milkweed spun and knitted 147
6-8 Paper transformed into two dimensional forms 147
6-10 Artwork by Peter Gentenaar, Ryswyk, Holland 2000 142 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
NRF National Research Foundation TRC Technikon Research Committee PRDU Papermaking Research and Development Unit DST Department ofScience and Technology DAC Department ofArts and Culture DWAF Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry WFW The Working for Water Programme UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development WCS World Conservation Strategy IUCN World Conservation Union lIED International Institute for Environment and Development UN United Nations NEPAD The New Partnership for African Development WESSA Wildlife Environmental Society ofSouth Africa WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development NGO Non Governmental Organization. EDA Environmental and Development Agency Trust RDP Reconstruction and Development SMME Small Medium and Micro Enterprises DOL Department ofLabour TWR Technikon Witwatersrand KEAG Kommetjie Environmental Society of South Africa KKNK Klein Karoo Nationale Kunstefees CHAPTE R 1
I NTRODUcr tON
Figure I-I Hand beating riverreed , Flowe r Valley, Wes te n! Cape .
Photograp h by Kim Berma n, Westen! Cape 2000
1.1 SURVEY OF THE FIELD
The main aim of this study is to investigate the use of invasive l plant vege tation for
the hand papermaking indu stry, both in a soc ial developm ent and manufacturing
context, and also for a creative application that adds value to the final product.
The invasion of alien vege tation poses great threats to the sensitive natural bio
diversity of South Africa. "South Africa as a country has the third highest natural
bio-diversity in the world after Braz il and Indonesia" (Whittaker. 2000:7). The
Departme nt of Water Affa irs and Forestry (DWAF, 2000: 13) states that "man's
dependency on bio-diversity, and therefore its value, co mes in the form of free
ecosystem services such as food, wood, water, clean air, soil retention, pollination,
decompositi on of waste produ cts, recreation, eco- tourism and medicine". Bio-
I An inva sive plant, one that spreads free ly into area s where it is not wa nted. diversity, when viewed in a holistic manner, provides for life in its entirety and is
something that should be cherished and preserved.
According to the DWAF's Annual Report (2000: 16), assessing"...the impact
ofinvading alien plants! is ofparamount importance to a country's economy.
While the statistics for South Africa have not been fully assessed, estimates
for Australia show that plant invasions have caused financial losses ofup to
RIO.5 billion to the Australian economy each year".
1.1.1 Hand Papermaking in South Africa
This study identifies and investigates the use ofspecific invasive plant fibres for the
hand papermaking industry. The application ofinvasive vegetation for secondary
industries2 conserves the indigenous! growth in an area and can economically benefit
a community through skills training and poverty alleviation. Hand papermaking, has
been supported by the Department ofScience and Technology (DST) since the year
2000, through a special allocation ofpoverty relieffunds awarded to the Technikon
Witwatersrand to promote craft and job opportunities in South Africa. There are
several precedents in countries such as India, Brazil, Ecuador, Philippines and
Thailand that utilize these countries' natural resources for hand papermaking as a
tool for economic development. The two most significant programmes ofthis nature
1 Alien plants are those species whose presence is due to international or accidental introduction as a result ofhuman activity. 2 Secondary industries are those which arise from programmes that have specific objectives, for example the Working for Water programme's chiefobjective is to get rid ofalien species and through the eradication process certain employment opportunities such as furniture making and the manufacturing of coal can be implemented in surrounding areas.
2 operating in Southern Africa are Phumani Paper' in South Africa and Mapepa' in
Zimbabwe. The predominant material being utilized in the Phumani programme is
recycled waste paper, which is mixed with other plant waste such as mielie husks
and banana leafand stem fibres. Re-processed paper, although contributing to waste
management, is ofan inferior quality as it lacks strength and pliability and does not
reach the level ofquality to compete in the international market. One ofthe reasons
for the inferior quality is that most recycled papers are made from commercial paper,
which is characterized by very short fibre lengths and high acidity levels.
The utilization ofalternative plant fibres for the hand papermaking industry is
currently being revived worldwide, and the assumption that can be reached is that
this revival could, in part, address the destruction ofnatural habitats by forestation
for commercial paper. The degradation ofthe Amazonian rain forests is an example
ofthe destruction that occurs when large areas of the forests are cleared for
agriculture, logging and mining. "Deforestation in the Amazon is presently occurring
at a rate ofabout one percent a year and ifit carries on at this rate the rain forests
could reach the point ofno return"(National Geographic News, 2001). According to
the Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry (2000:6),38% ofthe land in South
Africa is occupied by invasive species used in commercial forestry for the
I Plant and animals that are native to a country. 2 Phumani Paper, a poverty aIleviation project funded by DACST (Department ofArts, Culture, Science and Technology) and implemented by the (TWR) Technikon Witwatersrand. Technikon students and staff run the programme and through this relationship Mtech and Btech students undertake research into hand papennaking. 3 Mapepa, a hand papennaking project in Zimbabwe initiated by Walter Ruprecht. Walter Ruprecht, an engineer, developed simple papennaking machinery and taught rural people in Zimbabwe to make paper using local fibres.
3 production ofpaper. For example, Sappi and Mondi utilize pine and blue gum trees
to manufacture paper. Another reason for the revival ofalternative papermaking
fibres' is the fact that the age-old tradition ofhand papermaking has been recognized
as an alternative method ofexpression, the medium allowing for sculptural and
creative manipulation as well as for product design and innovation.
The historical uses and applications ofhand papermaking', has determined
the way for commercial papermaking as it is today. The basic technology
employed informed the industrialized technology that is used today for the
mass production ofcommercial paper. Fibres used in Japan, China and
Europe in 1151 are still being utilized today. The main fibre types used in the
East have been researched thoroughly and embody excellent fibre qualities
and strength, but are mostly exotic to the South African fauna and flora.
Mitsumata', Kozo4 and Gampi' are some ofthe fibres that are grown in Japan
and imported into South Africa, either as raw fibre or processed paper for the
South African consumer. Le Papier" advertises its handmade papers from all
over the world to the local market. This research investigates locally
available plant species, which could produce paper with comparable qualities
to selected fibres cultivated abroad.
I Alternative papennaking fibres are plant fibres that have not been processed into paper before or are not currently utilized in the hand paper making industry. 2 Paper was invented in A.D. 105 3 In Japan the best rnitsumata goes into the production of bank notes. 4 A native fibre ofJapan sometimes called "Mulberry Paper". 5 Gampi fibres are strong and have an inherent resistance to insects. 6. Le Papier is a shop with branches in Benmore, ~a.ndt<;m and Cape Town, and specializes in hand made papers.
4 1.1.2 Motivation for the Selection of Invasive Plant Species.
There are several incentives for selecting invasive plant species as an area of research, namely:
a. This research introduces new knowledge and could provide the South
African paper market with a unique fibre which addresses issues of
environmental conservation and poverty alleviation.
b. My work as a fine artist has always portrayed issues ofthe
environment and its conservation and is expressed through a personal
exploration ofspecific media that relate to this specific subject matter,
i.e. invasive plant material.
c. South Africa has the third highest bio-diversity in the world but the
invasion ofalien vegetation poses a major threat to this sensitive
equilibrium.
d. "Invasive encroachment is on the increase in South Africa and has
already caused drastic and often irreversible changes to the plant
coverage ofSouthem Africa"(Henderson, Fourie, Wells, 1987:3).
Research ofthis nature could aid the curtailment ofinvasive encroachment
while also managing the indigenous fauna.
e. Sustainable development requires the utilization and protection ofour
natural and cultural resources.
5 1.2 BACKGROUND
This research initially identified water hyacinth (eichhornia crassipes) as a key
invasive species to be investigated, as it has been considered a nuisance on most
continents for the last 100 years. Water hyacinth is a very fast growing plant.
"The bio-mass doubles its surface within 14 days. Moreover they can
produce enormous amounts ofseeds (surviving up to 15 years in the river
bottom). Infrastructures such as drinking water and hydroelectric plants have
been destroyed due to water hyacinth blocking the pipes. The dense mats of
vegetation provide an ideal breeding ground for microorganisms that in turn
1 cause malaria , bilharzias'', river blindness and other infectious tropical
diseases" (Teyge1er, 2000: 168).
Extensive research has been carried out on the eradication ofthis plant and in many
cases the integrated approach' has been practiced for the control ofthis species.
(Plant Protection Research Institute, 1999). Uses for the harvested plant vary
internationally. In Cambodia, ropes are plaited from the fibres extracted from the
stems to manufacture sacking. In Thailand, the dry fibre, is soaked in glycerine to make the fibres more pliable and receptive to dyes for the making ofsandals.
(Teygeler, 2000: 172). During this specific investigation several questions arose, for
example:
I A disease causing fever which recurs at intervals, transmitted by mosquitoes. 2 A tropical disease caused by a parasitic flatworm,
3 "The integrated approach" relates to all the methods ofcontrol used simultaneously in the eradication of alien vegetation.
6 a. Does creating a market for something one is trying to eradicate, cause an
even bigger problem?
b. Could the fact that people may well make a living from these plants, lead
to the harvesting and cultivation ofa particular species?
The response to these questions is that the notion oftotal eradication ofinvasive
plant species is somewhat naive. Ifthe removal ofthese species is undertaken in a
controlled manner, the plant can become a useful resource to a developing country
such as South Africa. It should also be stated that a failure to address the problem of
invasive encroachment would intensify poverty and unemployment, as well as the
biophysical impact on the environment, because it would encroach on areas that
could otherwise have been agriculturally productive. Invading vegetation also
impacts on other social factors such as eco tourism, loss of indigenous habitats, bio
diversity and water security.
1.2.1 The Importance ofthe Integrated Approach
The integrated approach, which includes finding ways in which to utilize the waste generated from eradication programmes, provided the impetus for this investigation.
The Working for Water programme (WFW)l aims at combating invading alien plants. The clearance ofinvasive plant species is an extremely labour-intensive process and this has led to programmes with a strong emphasis on social
7 development. The focus on the creation ofsecondary industries has contributed
significantly to the success ofthis programme: once the vegetation has been cleared,
the wood is used to produce furniture, coal, crafts and building materials, thereby
generating income and relieving poverty.
The initial investigation into water hyacinth and the alarming extent ofalien
encroachment in SA, led this research into a broader scope ofinvestigation, which
incorporated the introduction and research ofa new and wider range ofinvasive
plant fibres. The Phumani Paper project also dictated that because it had small
business enterprises in seven provinces, research had to be undertaken on several
different species according to the areas affected by invasive plant species. As a
researcher and trainer on the project, I identified the need to investigate species that
were found near each ofthe current 21 projects in those seven provinces. These units
have been trained to produce paper from fibres found in and around the work
environment: for example, the Free State projects process mielie husks and waste
paper, while the Northern Province produces paper from banana stems. The Western
Cape is one ofthe units that utilizes invasive plant species, making paper from Port
Jackson willow bark'. (Refer to chapter 3 for an overview ofthe project). Water
hyacinth is prolific in only some ofthese provinces: conducting research on water
hyacinth alone would mean that only this specific species could be utilized for paper,
and only selected projects ofPhurnani Paper would benefit from this kind of
1 A programme ofthe Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry. The project began in 1995 and has received a budget ofR25 million; the project has grown to an annual budget ofR400 miIIion per annum. (World Summit Publication 2002:111)
8 research. The geographical dynamics would severely restrict productivity and
research outputs, as the natural resources that are utilized for hand papermaking
should be readily available and accessible.
Research oflocally available invasive plant species was encouraged through the
establishment ofthe PRDU (Papermaking, Research and Development Unit) at the
TWR. It is supported by the NRF (National Research Foundation) and the TRC
(Technikon Research Committee), and has added value to the Phumani Poverty
ReliefProgramme by providing a sustainable foundation for the establishment of
small business enterprises.
1.2.2 The Benefits of the Utilization of Invasive Plant Species
The use ofinvasive plant fibres for the establishment ofsmall business enterprises
has several benefits, such as:
a. Paper made from fibre has its own colour distinction and tactile quality
with no additional colouring or embellishment. This leads to low cost
production, producing an extensive range ofpapers.
b. Plant fibres are easier than cotton rag! to process into a sheet. Plant fibres
can be processed by hand beating without the use ofelectricity.
c. Invasive plant vegetation is found throughout Southern Africa, especially
in rural areas, making it a viable and free resource.
1 Port Jackson willow is a persistent invasive and is currently being cleared by Working for Water in the Western Cape.
9 d. The use ofinvasive plant vegetation contributes to the productive use of
waste and the skills ofthe community while stimulating awareness in the
conservation ofthe natural environment.
e. Paper has numerous uses and through skills transfer and innovative
product design, hand papermaking could contribute to the establishment
ofa new niche market in SA.
1.3 SPECIFIC RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 Aims.
The aims ofthis study include:
a. Identification ofinvasive plant fibres suitable for hand papermaking.
b. Investigation ofinvasive fibres that can be processed by rural and poor
communities.
c. Promotion ofsustainable development, through the utilization ofthe
countries, natural resources.
d. Empowerment, targeting the rural communities of South Africa, through job
creation and poverty alleviation with a focus on education and skills
development.
e. Education ofthe public on issues ofconservation through marketing ofa
"green product".
f. Contribution to new product development using paper as a medium.
I Long fibres found in cotton fabric and require a Hollander beater for processing.
10 g. The utilization offibre from invasive vegetation in an expressive and artistic
manner.
h. Expansion oflocal and international markets with indigenous and unique
South African products.
1.3.2 Objectives
This investigation is divided up into specific research objectives, namely:
a. Paper processes.
b. Review ofrelevant theories relating to invasive encroachment,
sustainable development, as well as the potential for hand
papermaking to become a secondary industry in terms ofclearing
invasive plant species.
c. Review oftwo paper projects utilizing invasive plant fibres for
. hand papermaking.
d. Product design utilizing handmade paper as a medium.
e. Research methodologies, including data sheets, data capture and
problems.
f. Results and applications.
g. Conclusion.
11 1.4 GENERAL INDICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLGY
The different research objectives require separate attention and analysis. The following points summarize the basic outline ofeach objective addressed in this research project.
1.4.1 Review of Relevant Theories.
An investigation into the extent ofbush encroachmentI and the identification ofinvasive plant species sharing the four main fibre types is necessary for application in the hand papermaking process. This investigation considers the following issues:
a. Regulations concerning declared weeds and invaders subject to the
"Conservation ofAgriculture Resources Act" amended in March 2001.
b. Government legislation and methods ofcontrol.
c. Sustainable development theories: 4 pillars i.e. social development, economic
development, poverty alleviation and environmental conservation.
d. Skills transfer. The development ofa papermaking curriculum for the
implementation ofa small business enterprise, with special reference to the
specific needs ofa rural based business.
e. A review ofthe Twanano paper project in Ivory Park, Midrand, utilizing
milkweed (asclepias fruticosa) in creating a small papermaking business.
12 1.4.2 Paper Processes
The encompassing aim ofthis investigation is the research ofinvasive plant fibres,
which would be suitable for the hand papermaking industry. Plant vegetation is
composed ofdifferent elements with different amounts offibre, making some
species more viable than others.
Some ofthe elements ofthis investigation include:
a. Identification ofspecific types offibre, i.e. bast', seed", leaf! and grass'
fibres. According to Silvie Turner (The Book ofFine Paper), Helen
Hiebert ( The Papermakers Companion) and Lilian Bell (Plant Fibres for
Hand Papermaking), these fibres types have been identified as the main
fibre characteristics found in plant vegetation. Similar characteristics are
identified within the invasive species for the purpose ofthis research.
b. Identification ofthe basic principles ofhand papermaking. These include
the use ofchemical additives, beating methods and fibre characteristics.
The technology investigated is adapted to the South African environment.
I Encroachment, to advance beyond the original or proper limits. 2 The fibre found between the outer bark and the core ofa branch or shrub. 3 Seed fibres are found in the fruits ofa plant.
13 1.4.3 Case Studies of the Successful Utilization of Invasive Plant Species.
The case studies provide an overview oftwo Phumani Paper projects currently
utilizing invasive plant species for sustainable livelihoods.
a. Kuyasa in the Western Cape is producing paper from Port Jackson willow
(Acacia saligna) and recycled paper waste. The project has become successful by
producing a marketable product within the craft arena.
b. Twanano is currently producing paper from Milkweed (Asclepias fruticosa), as a
direct result ofthe implementation ofthis research project in terms of sustainable
development.
1.4.4 Research Methodologies.
"All plant vegetation contains cellulose! and fibre, the key components for
papermaking" (Hiebert, 2000:39). Some plants contain higher percentages offibre
than others and some contain higher levels ofcellulose. The differing levels of
cellulose or fibre content are the characteristics, which determine the strength,
pliability and productivity ofthe final product; they are investigated through the
formulation ofbasic data sheets to record relevant information. The recorded data is
specific to the invasive plant species and can be referenced for future research.
This research makes use ofalternative fibres, specifically invasive plant
species, which have not been previously processed into paper. It is necessary
to identify them by the following elements:
1 The fibre found in the leafofa plant, the whole leaf could be used for hand papennaking. 2 The fibre found in the stem ofa plant.
14 a. Specific invasive plant species and map distribution for easy reference.
b. Fibre yield.2
c. Productivity levels.
d. Photographs ofthe specific fibres investigated in order to ascertain the
differences in beating times and fibrillation. 3
1.4.5 Product Design and Development, and Artistic Expression.
Hand papermaking offers a wide range ofopportunities for artistic expression
and innovative product design. Fibres can be manipulated into three-
dimensional sculptural forms and two-dimensional printing surfaces.
Depending on the fibre, paper can be dyed, spun and knitted. In the Japanese
tradition ofhand papermaking, products such as hot air balloons and clothing
have been developed. Through innovation and the marketing of "green
products", contemporary design using hand papermaking as a medium adds
value to the final product as well as addressing the needs ofconservation and
social development. These issues will be discussed with reference to the
following:
a. Product design utilizing hand made paper.
b. Product design for the Phumani Paper project and the
implementation ofspecific design theories.
I An organic substance found in all plant tissue and in textile fibres. 2 The amount of fibre extracted form any given plant. 3 The process ofraising the fibrils or tiny thread-like hairs from the surface ofthe fibre so that bonds will form between them as the paper is being made. This occurs during the beating process.
15 c. Product design for small business enterprises with reference to
value added products and economically viable products.
1.4.6 Results and Findings.
The recorded information derived from the data sheets determine what
characteristics each species exhibits. The following characteristics will be
addressed:
a. Analysis ofresults with reference to fibre yield and productivity
levels.
b. Comparative analysis offibres.
c. Discussion offindings
16 CHAPTER 2
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
REVIEW OF RELEVANT THEORIES
" We lise land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a commodity to which we belong. we may begin to use it with love and respect. " (Aldo Leopold)
Figure 2-1 Sustainable farming in the Transkei Photograph by Mandy Cop pes 1999
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
In an introductory guide to sustainable development, the author (David Reid, 1995) examines sustainable dev elopment in the context of the linked histories ofdevelopment and environment and how they relate to one another in the second part ofthe twenti eth century. Reid provides an overview of the interconnected problems ofthe environment
17 and social development, which consider issues such as the global crisis1 and how the
earth is seen as one system'. Reid also formulates the principles for the sustainable use
ofresources. These relate directly to this research, on the basis ofhis discussion ofthe
social benefits ofthe sustainable use ofresources to create an ecologically-sound
environment which could help fulfill social needs for the future.
Reports from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED), formulated at the Rio de Janeiro World Summit in 1992, are pertinent to this
research. These reports contain declarations made during the course ofboth the Rio and
Johannesburg World Summits, which coincide with government policies and conduce
and could lead to sound development.
The final documents ofUNCED are summarized in Agenda 21, an international
blueprint on the environment and development for the twenty-first century. It comprises
over 500 pages containing 40 chapters, each ofwhich focuses on different issues of
concern. Agenda 21 laid the principles and the framework for sustainable development,
but did not provide the consensus and commitment needed to implement sustainable
development (Valli Moosa, World Summit Publictation, 2002:3). The Johannesburg
I Includes problems of global pollution ofthe atmosphere and oceans, the growing inequality between the world's rich and poor, industrialization on a global scale and the sustainability thereof, and the need for long-term economic growth. 2 The earth is seen as one interactive surface where every action causes a reaction,; whenever a reaction takes place, the earth never resumes its original state. 3 This document has been posted online by the United Nations Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs (DESA). Reproduction and dissemination ofthe document - in electronic and/or printed format - is encouraged
18 Summit, which took place in 2002, put more emphasis on action and the way forward.
The chapters included in Agenda 21 that directly relate to this research project include:
Chapter 3 - Combating Poverty: deals with issues such as the sustainable utilization of natural resources in order to be productive as a community. Poverty reliefprogrammes should be country specific because a global application does not offer a solution to all countries. However the struggle against poverty is a responsibility ofall countries
(United Nations Division for Sustainable Development 19/03/1999).
Chapter 8 - Integrating the Environment and Development in Decision-Making: states that the environment should be integrated into policy making and planning (United
Nations Division for Sustainable Development 19/03/1999).
Chapter 34 - Transfer ofEnvironmentally Sound Technology, Cooperation and Capacity
Building: covers various aspects oftechnologies that are less polluting and that utilize resources in a sustainable manner; it also addresses the recycling ofwastes. The chapter states "process and product technologies should be designed to generate little or no waste. Environmentally sound technologies should be compatible with nationally determined socio-economic, cultural and environmental priorities." (United Nations
Division for Sustainable Development 10/08/1999).
Chapter 35 - Science for Sustainable Development: provides an overview ofthe need for the sciences to constantly reassess and promote less intensive trends in resource utilization, and to effectively research alternatives for the depletion ofnatural resources.
The sciences are increasingly becoming an essential component towards sustainable development. This research is important because it integrates grass roots technologies
19 and at the same time integrates an environmental approach. (United Nations Division for
Sustainable Development 10/08/1999)
In the book "Towards Sustainable Settlements" (Irurah et al., 2002) the authors
highlight selected housing schemes which address issues similar to the research of
invasive plant species. The underlying themes are those ofpoverty alleviation and
social, institutional and environmental sustainability. An integrated approach, and a
creative way ofimpacting on all facets ofsustainable development, can benefit the
community as well as the environment.
Park, in his book "The Environment: Principles and Applications" (Park, 1997)
undertook a global study ofthe environment and its applications, which covers issues of
sustainable development on an environmental basis and emphasizes the "environment in
crisis". General themes ofpollution and degradation ofthe biosphere', hydrosphere' and
atmosphere are highlighted in this text.
Frans J. Schurman, author of "Beyond the Impasse" (Schurman, 1993) provides clear
theories on development, from neo-Marxist to post-Impasse development theory on
greening ofthe environment i.e. sustainable development. He also looks at several
controversial theories and debates within the "green theory".
1 The earth's crust and atmosphere, occupied by alI living things. 2 Waters ofthe earth's surface.
20 2.2 WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVLOPMENT?
"The term "sustainable development"! first came into prominence in the World
Conservation Strategy (WCS)! published by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in
1980"(Reid, 1995: 1) The most common and widely used definition ofsustainable
development was published in Our Common Future, the Bruntland Report in 1987.
(Reid, 1995).
The Bruntland Report defines 'sustainable development' as a state that
"meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability offuture
generations to meet their own needs" (Reid, 1995:4).
"The concept behind the Brundtland Report is far from a clear base upon which to build new theoretical ideas about development" (Adams. B: 208). Since the Brundtland Report was published the concept ofsustainable development continues to be revised, while its methods ofimplementation are expanding. The report takes a holistic approach to development in which there is a balance between all dimensions ofdevelopment - social, economic, political and ecological.
Valli Moosa, Minister ofEnvironmental Affairs and Tourism, states that, in the past, sustainable development has "wrongly been characterized as an environmental issue"
I Credit for the invention ofthe term is accorded to Eva Balfour, founder of the Soil Association, the International Institute for Environment and Development (liED), and Wes Jackson, the American geneticist and biodynamic farmer.
21 (World Summit Publication, 2002: 3). This may be true with respect to the previous
year's theories but since the Stockholm Earth Summit, which was followed by the
Johannesburg World Summit in 2002, sustainable development appears to have gone
beyond the formative ideas to those ofimplementation and restructuring. At the Rio
Summit the world agreed, for the first time, on a common target and a central theme of
development, the environment and the protection ofjustice (From Rio to Johannesburg,
2002: online) .
Valli Moosa (2002:3) described 'sustainable development' as follows:
" 'Development' that meets social, economic, health, environment andpolitical
needs without compromising the very basis on which these human needs depend".
The term 'sustainable development' is a common one, but one which is difficult to theorize because ofits ambiguity. There are, however, three clearly-defined landmarks which define the mainstream theories on sustainable development. For the purpose of this research project, it is important to review the principles ofthis concept, so that the overall outcomes can have the moral convictions ofsound practice. 'Sustainable
Development' has become a household term, but the ideals and principles it embodies should be clearly defined so that some - such as conservation or poverty relief- do not fall by the wayside The term should, therefore, encompass a variety ofobjectives.
1 The WCS was prepared during the 1970s by the International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the United Nations Environment
22 2.3 THREE COMMON THEORIES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Adams (1993:208) describes the three main, documented theories in the sustainable
development debate, which have developed from three separate documents, namely: The
World Conservation Strategy (IDCN! 1980), Our Common Future (Bruntland 1987) and
Caring for the Earth (IDCN 1991).
2.3.1 The World Conservation Strategy (WCS)
The WCS represented a turning point in the thinking behind conservation because:
a. It moved away from the concept of 'prevention' towards attempting to find a
solution to the loss ofwildlife species and habitats.
b. It confirmed the aims ofconservation and development, and recognized that both
are key to achieving sustainable development.
c. It was a consensus document which embraced a diverse range ofconcepts.
The WCS identifies three objectives for conservation, namely:
1. Maintenance ofessential ecological processes.i
2. Preservation ofgenetic diversity.'
3. The sustainable utilization ofresources.
Programme (UNEP), and published in 1980 by IUCN. t International Union for the Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources. 2 Essential ecological processes are those governed by ecosystems and are essential for food production, health and other aspects ofhuman survival and sustainable development. (Adams, 1993) 3 Involves the variety ofgenetic material in both indigenous crop plants and animals. (Adams, 1993)
23 2.3.2 Our Common Future
The report ofthe World Commission on Environment and Development is the second
major element within the mainstream ofsustainable development.
The Commission's report, Our Common Future (BrundtIand 1987) addresses the key principles originating from the Brundland Report, which include:
a. The prompting ofthe UN Secretary General to discuss the environment and
development as one single issue.
b. The development ofnew horizons based on global relationships (including
relationships with developing countries), in terms ofworld economics and
environment.
c. The placement ofcertain elements ofsustainable development within the
political and economic realms, and putting environmental issues on the political
agenda.
In Our Common Future, sustainable development is based on two common concepts, namely:
a. Basic needs and development action for the poor.
b. Environmental limits. These are not the limits set by the environment,
but rather the policies, technologies and social organization that
distributes such things as natural resources.
(Adams, 1993)
24 2.3.3 Caring for the Earth
The framework for Caring for the Earth (IUCN 1991) was published by the same
agencies that produced the WCS, and both documents share similar concerns. The IUCN
identified a set ofprinciples for sustainable development, with more emphasis on the
earth's carrying ability and development priorities. There is also more emphasis on the
implementation ofsustainable development.
2.3.3.1 Priority Requirements of Caring for the Earth.
a. Respect and carefor the community oflife.
b. Improve the quality ofhuman life.
c. Conserve the Earth's vitality and diversity.
d. Minimize the depletion ofnon-renewable resources.
e. Keep within the earth's carrying capacity.
f Change personal attitudes andpractices.
g. Enable communities to carefor their own environment.
h. Provide a nationalframeworkfor integrating development and conservation.
i. Forge a global alliance.
(Adams, 1993; 218)
The priorities outlined above provide a framework from which to operate in terms ofthis research project, in that each point addresses the underlying ideas and principles on which this investigation is based.
25 2.4 CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The term 'sustainable development' is unpacked in Figure 2-2 in order to identify what
factors contributed to the final statement. Sustainable development involves the people,
the economy, industry and conservation.
Environmental Social Development Economic Conservation Social ad). Development Environment n. Living in an organized Economics n. Surroundings, especially community. 1. The science concerned those affecting peoples lives Social services: with the production and Conservation n. Welfare services provided by consumption or use of goods Preservation, especially of the State, including the and services. the natural environment. education, health, housing and pension services. 1 / Sustainable Development Sustain v. 1. To support, to keep alive; sustaining food, food that keeps up one's strength. Develop v. 1. To make or become larger, fuller, or more mature and organized. 2. To convert (land) to a new purpose so as to use its resources.
Figure 2-2 Concepts involved in the term 'sustainable development'.
2.5 THE URGENCY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
There has been a resurgence ofinterest in environmental conservation within the past
decade. The human race has pushed the earth to its limits due to the misuse ofthe
planet's resources. The exploitation ofthe earth's natural resources has been cause for
26 serious concern among scientists, environmentalists and local and international
governments. The interest in the environment does not remain static, but increases
during periods ofrecession or when reports are published on specific environmental
hazards. Extensive media coverage alerts the public on environmental issues, an
example being the hole in the ozone layer and the integration ofthe impacts ofthe ozone
hole into the daily weather report.
The impact ofHIVIAIDS has gained its foothold in SA and has posed a significant
threat to growth in terms ofhealth, education and employment. It is a fact that a large
percentage ofthe workforce is likely to die within the next few years.
The issue ofglobalization has proved to be an important factor in resource management and development. Global involvement was on the agenda for the Johannesburg World
Summit, addressing foreign aid to developing countries.
"Poverty and hunger are still ubiquitous in many countries. The violent protests against uncontrolled globalization and the terrible events of 11 September 2001 painfully recalled the fact that inequitable conditions and seething conflicts offer the most fertile ground for fundamentalism and terrorism" (From Rio to Johannesburg, 2002:online).
Despite the progress that has been made since the first Earth Summit, issues ofpoverty, global economic instability and environmental destruction still remain the key factors.
27 2.5.1 Root Causes ofthe Environment in Crisis
There are a number offactors which add to the global crisis, along with political agendas
ofdifferent countries, the population increase and the HIVIAIDS crisis.
a. Since the industrial revolution, the human population has been able to utilize
natural resources. Many ofthese resources are, however, being exhausted.
b. The rapid population increases, which has significantly increased population
densities in many countries.
c. The emergence ofthe free market economies where economic factors playa
central role in decision-making about production, consumption, the treatment of
waste and the use ofnatural resources.
d. Attitudes ofpeople, where the main consensus is that the environment is freely
available for people to do whatever they want with it.
e. Education on recycling and environmental issues is only undertaken and
upgraded in a few countries, such as Germany;
f. Many companies make short-term decisions, which lead to short-term profits
with little regard for long-term sustainability ofnatural resources.
(Park,1997)
2.6 THE WAY FORWARD
The Johannesburg Summit set out to bring issues ofdevelopment back into the public arena and to define clear roles and targets for the future. This research project has drawn on a number ofoutcomes ofthe Johannesburg Summit relating to the main theories on sustainable development.
28 Figure 2-3 Cover ilIustration for the World Summit (online)
2.6.1 Key Outcomes of the Johannesburg World Summit.
a. Combating poverty, improving drinking water supplies and establi shing energy
supply structures worldwide based on renewable energies
b. Clear recommendations for taking action with regard to resource protection and
resource efficiency; supporting developing countries in the development of
environmentally compatible technologies
c. Protection offorests
d. Strengthening of UN structures for environment and development
e. Financing (funding ofthe GEF, expansion of its sphere ofresponsibility)
f. Consumption and production patterns.
g. Elimination of socially and ecologically problematic subsidies.
h. Market access for developing countries
(From Rio to Johannesburg 2002)
The outcomes ofthe Johannesburg World Summit relate to this research project in several ways:
a. Conservation of indigenous flora and fauna.
29 b. Job creation through secondary industries arising from the clearance ofinvasive
species.
c. The development ofa new cultural industry that could access several
international markets.
2.6.2 Government's Involvement with Sustainable Development
The WSSD recognized the links between poverty reliefand sustainable development
through global trade, finance and debt. The New Partnership for African Development
(NEPAD) works on the basis that both poverty reliefand environmental issues work on
a global and local basis. The problems ofthe environment must be based on
international initiatives, otherwise any discussions on poverty and environment are
futile. (The Long Walk to Sustainability, 2002: 14). The Johannesburg World Summit
showcased a number ofSouth African initiatives which apply the fundamental idea of sustainable development in their programmes. Through these initiatives poverty and environmental issues are addressed, along with environmental education, eco-tourism, gender equality and HIV/AIDS.
The Working for Water (WFW) programme is one project that is achieving sustainability while addressing poverty. The main focus ofthe programme is the clearing ofinvasive plant species. The programme also has a strong focus on social development, as the workforce comprises marginalized groups in the South African society.
30 Figure 2-4 Women comprise 54% ofthe work force of the Working for Waterprogramme. Photograph, The Workin g for Water programme Annual Report 200 I
The 313 projects in the programme employ over 20000 people. WFW is a government- led initiative and has three core departmental partners: Water Affairs and Forestry (the lead agency) , Environmental Affairs and Tourism, and Agriculture, as well as additional
NGOs and organizations from the private sector (Department of Water Affairs and
Forestry, 2002).
The Working for Water programme has provided the impetus for hand paperrnaking and the utilization ofinvasive plant species. WFW also addresses the benefits ofsecondary industries. The production offurniture and building materials are some ofthe industries that have evolved through this initiative.
31 Figure 2-5 Secondary industries that optimize the use of wood from the cleating programmes. Crafts such as furniture and garden screens are made from the cleared invasive species. Ph otograph from: The Working for Water programme Annu al Report 200 1
"Invasive species are certainly one ofthe least recognized threats to the concept of
sustainable living, and to the goals ofthe WSSD" (Department ofWater Affairs and
Forestry, 200 I: Ill). Invasive plant species affect most ofthe issues that have been
highlighted in Agenda 21, and should be a matter ofimportance if sustainable
development is to reach the masses and affect the environment. Figure 2-7 represents
the interaction between humankind and the environment, while Figure 2-8 represents
the interaction ofinvasive plant species, the environment and development.
2.7. HAND PAPERMAKING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The criteria concerning the main principles ofsustainable development gave rise to the need to apply this knowledge for the use ofinvasive plant species. The following section ofthis chapter uses a model to show how research into invasive plant species can be implemented, to ensure that the structure fulfils the criteria for successful sustainable development. The following three points will be addressed:
32 1. Environmental conservation: invasive encroachment.
2. Social development: skills transfer and practical papermaking.
3. Economic development: poverty alleviation through product development
and small business enterprise.
Figure 2-6 suggests a basic format for this research problem to proceed. The diagram lays out the basic problems ofthis hypothesis and the required end results.
The integrated approach towards invasive eradication is important to note, because it has increased benefits for the environment and for the population ofa developing country. The format is also country-specific so that similar eradication in another country may not have the twin focus ofinvasive control and poverty relief.
33 The Problem Twin Focus / -. Eradication of alien Poverty relief plant species
~ ~ The Action Hand papennaking utilizing invasive plant waste
The Outcomes ,
.. Skills transfer and Environmental social development Economic development conservation • Environmental • Poverty alleviation • Eco-tourism education • Small business • Invasive • Empowerment enterprise eradication • Appropriate • Secondary industries • Sustainable technology • Product livelihoods transfer development for a • The development niche market ofnew industries
The result Economic development, empowerment, poverty alleviation and conservation of natural heritage.
Figure 2-6 Format for hand papermaking and sustainable development
34 The main constituents ofthe environment revolve around an interactive system. One reaction affects the next so that, when the population increases, the impact and pressure on the environment also increase.
Resource scarcity and price rises
Decreased environmental quality, impacts on health
Figure 2-7 The interaction between people, resources and pollution. (Park, 1997: 5)
35 Figure 2-8 proposes the use ofinvasive plant vegetation and how hand papermaking can
be adapted to fit into an interactive system which, ifimplemented properly, can respond
to the needs ofa more positive system.
The use ofan unwanted resource (invasive plant species) curtails the utilization ofindigenous exhaustible resources and empowers through the creation ofjobs. ~ I Human Resource Output Invasive plant vegetation Eradication of Hand invasive plant papermaking and --. species. small business "Green Product" enterprise
II.
Eradication ofinvasive plant species positively affects the ecosystem and environment in which we live.
Figure 2-8 The interaction between the utilization ofinvasive plant species and human activity
36 2.8 INVASIVE ENCROACHMENT
"South Africa currently has approximately 1.6 million hectares of delinquent 'jungle'
plantations, mostl y wattle", demonstrating the destruction that invasive encroachment
can have on a single environment (Business and Sustainable Development, Special
edition 2002).
Invasive encroachment affects everyday life in several ways, and greatly contributes to
the loss ofSouth Africa's natural fauna and flora. The following aspects are divided up
into sections relating to the problem caused by invasive plants and the effect they have
on people living in South Africa.
PEReS'IT I~N ASION o O% iNo Data 00.1-1.0 01.1 - 5.0 05.1 - 10.0 010.1 - 20.0 ;. 20%
Figure 2-9 Estim ated distribution of invading alien plants in South Afric a. (DWAF, 2002 , online)
37 Invading alien plants have been introduced into South Africa from various countries.!
Plants introduced from Australia are particularly invasive; almost 45% ofthese have
become important pests. (DWAF, 2002).
Alien plant species are not problematic in their country oforigin, but when introduced
into South Africa, their characteristics are invasive in a local context:
a. They come from parts ofthe world that share a similar climate to South Africa,
which enables them to survive and spread.
b. Invasive plants have the ability to produce a large amount ofseeds, grow fast
and reach maturity quickly.
c. Alien vegetation benefits from "man's disturbance to the soil as he cultivates
crops and builds roads"(Henderson et aI., 1987:11).
d. Alien plants grow rapidly and some establish deep sinker roots
e. Seeds are spread easily by wind, air, birds and water.
f. In the country oforigin there are a series ofnatural predators that keep the
population down.2 These natural predators are non-existent in South Africa
unless introduced to eradicate the population ofinvasive plants. (Environmental
Impacts ofInvading Alien Plants, 2002: 5)
I 64 species from South and Central America, 14 from north America, 26 from Australia, 19 from Europe and 25 from Asia. 2 The introduction ofspecific natural predators, usualIy fungi or insects help to keep certain populations down. This is calIed 'biological control'.
38 2.9 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES
2.9.1 Mountain Catchments and Water Reduction
Weed invasions are found in many mountain catchment areas and decrease a large
amount ofthe water flow from mountains. "Mountain catchment areas are a vital water
source for the lowlands" (Environmental Impacts, DWAF: 7).
Alien trees reduce water levels to a far greater extent than shrubs or indigenous species.
Data ofwater used by pines and eucalyptus trees have been measured at 40-50 litres of water per tree per day on an average site. No data on other species are available. "The current estimate is that invading aliens cover 10 million ha, and use 3.3 billion m3 of water in excess ofthat used by native vegetation every year". (Environmental Impacts,
DWAF: 8). Under South Africa's new Water Law the supply ofclean drinking water at
RDP minimum rates provisionally set at 25 litres per person per day (EDA 1 et al
2001:31). "The water losses will increase as alien plants invade the remaining, uninvaded areas. A lack ofaction is therefore one ofthe most serious threats to the sustainability ofwater yields from our catchments" (Environmental Impacts, DWAF: 8).
Aquatic invasive species can cause great bodies ofwater to virtually cease to exist, because species such as water hyacinth and water lettuce deprive the water ofoxygen and light.
I EDA Environmental and Development Agency Trust
39 Figure 2-10 The introduction of biological agents to control water lettuce with positive effects . Photographs by the Working for Water Programme (ARC PPRI. 2002)
2.9.2 Fire and Erosion
Invasion ofgrasslands and shrub lands increases the amount ofplant material , which therefore increases the fuel load that can bum. The increased fuel loads leads to several detrimental factors, such as:
a. Physical damage to the soil and soil erosion.
b. A reduction ofindigenous seeds. Port Jackson (Acacia saligna) seeds are able to
tolerate intense heat, while some indigenous fynbos species are killed by
exposures to extreme heat.
c. Extreme invasions make certain areas almost impenetrable, making fires difficult
to control.
40 2.9.3 Bio-diversity.
"The current rate ofglobal loss ofbio-diversity is one ofthe most serious problems
ofthe modern era" (DWAF: 13). South Africa is a considered to be one ofthe mega-diversity countries in the world, an important impetus for tourism. Invading alien organisms are widely regarded as the second largest threat to bio-diversity after direct habitat destruction. 1 1 900 ofthe 3435 plant species listed in the "Red Data
List" for Southern Africa are threatened wholly or in part by alien invading plants
(DWAF,2002: 14).
Number ofspecies per 1000 km2
South Africa Africa World
Vascular plants 16 1.5 1.7
Amphibians 0.07 0.02 0.03
Reptiles (excluding marine 0.23 0.03 0.04 species).
Birds (breeding) 0.47 0.05 0.06
Birds (non breeding) 0.10 0.01 -
Mammals (excluding marine 0.18 0.03 0.03
species)
Figure 2-11 Species nchness ofselected groups III Southern Afnca, Africa and the world.
(DWAF, 2002: 13)
41 2.9.4 Economic Impact of Invading Plant Vegetation
The effect ofinvading vegetation has had enormous impact on the economy. Loss of
bio-diversity could mean a decrease in the amount oftourists South Africa has per
year. The loss ofpotentially productive land leads to the loss ofgrazing land and
livestock production. The cost offire protection and the damage to the wilderness
and infrastructure leads to huge financial loss.
2.10 GOVERNMENT LEGISLATION ON INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES
During the zo" Century human travel opened up the borders between countries.
Planes, ships and other forms oftransport increased the movement ofspecies from
all over the globe into South Africa. Some plant species were deliberately introduced
for timber and garden ornaments. The government has drawn up specific drafts in
order to effectively control invasive plant species and to be able to manage the
problem. The Draft Act (Act No.43 of 1983) states that landowners are legally
responsible for the control ofinvasive species on their properties (Henderson,
2001:4).
Draft legislation was drawn up again in 1997 and sent out to various institutions and
stakeholders for comment. In November 1999, the amended draft regulations were
published for comment in the Government Gazette and copies were sent out to a
large group ofstakeholders. (Environmental Impacts, Ashpole, 2000).
I Deforestation, desertification and pollution.
42 The 198 alien species are listed in the draft and have been divided up into specific
categories1 so that eradication and control can be undertaken in a way that conforms
to the legislation.
2.10.1 Methods of Control.
Invasive plants are vigorous growers. They are tough and can withstand unfavorable
conditions; they're also easily spread with efficient dispersal methods, and produce
an abundance offertile seeds with efficient methods ofdispersal. The strongest
characteristic ofan invasive species is that they are very difficult to control.
There are four main methods ofcontrol:
1. Mechanical harvesting (chopping, slashing, bulldozing and cultivation).
2. Cultivation (crop rotation, winter ploughing, irrigation management and the use of
fire).
3. Biological controls (the use ofnaturally occurring biological agents, such as insects
that eat the foliage and seeds).
4. Chemical control (man-made herbicides and chemicals) (Henderson, 2001).
1 Category One plants: • Are prohibited and must be controlled. • Plants should be removed by land users unless they are in a specifically designated area dedicated to research and other forms ofcontrol. Category Two plants: • Commercially-used plants may be grown in demarcated areas, providing there is a permit and that steps are taken to prevent spreading beyond the demarcated area. • Species that are ofcommercial value fall under this category. Category Three plants: • Ornamental plants may no longer be planted. • Existing plants may remain as long as precautions are made to curtail spreading. • Plant species in this category may not be sold.(Henderson, 2001 :4).
43 2.11 SECONDARY INDUSTRIES AND: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT.
2.11.1 Human Resource Development
The Human Resource Development Strategy, which was approved by Cabinet early in
2002, has its roots in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), which
has declared as one ofits key principles that:
"Our people, with their aspirations and collective determination, are our most
important resources. The RDP is focused on our people's most immediate needs, and
it relies, in turn, on their energies to drive the process ofmeeting these needs.
Development is not about delivery ofgoods to a passive citizenry. It is about active
involvement and growing empowerment. "
President Thabo Mbeki spoke about a vision for South Africa in the State ofthe Nation address on the 14th February 2003. He spoke ofSouth Africa as "a nation at work for a better life for all. Work is defined as a full range ofactivities that include self sufficiency, freedom from hunger and poverty, self-expression and full citizenship".
(Sunday Times, February 16, 2003)
Large numbers ofphysical structures have been put in place to improve quality ofliving in South Africa. Since 1994, over one million houses have been built, clean water has been supplied to 6.5 million people, and nearly 400 000 electricity connections were
44 made in 2000 alone. (Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa, 2002).
These developments, however, cannot be sustainable ifproper social development has
not taken place. The potential ofSouth Africans needs to be maximised through the
transference ofskills and knowledge in order for each individual to be a productive, self
sufficient person, who can work in ways that increase his/hers quality oflife.
"South Africa has a population ofapproximately 43 million people ofwhich about 12.6
million are economically active" (Human Resource Strategy for SA, 2002:38). The
SMME economy is highly diverse, as it encompasses a wide range ofbusiness activities.
The two characteristic types of SMMEs include established, formal small and medium
enterprises (primarily under white ownership), and informal enterprises that are mainly
operated by South Africa's historically disadvantaged communities. This latter group is
currently the fastest growing component ofthe SMME economy in SA (Department of
Labour, 2001). The economic importance ofthese SMMEs is critical to the growth of
the South African economy. Most ofthe people involved in micro enterprises are
women and youth.
In his State ofthe Nation address, Thabo Mbeki also stated that "sustained and correctly focused work in the area ofhuman resources development, together with the varied economic interventions, will help the country in the effort to attend to the important challenge ofunemployment" (Sunday Star, 2003:24).
45 2.11.2 The Use of Plant Vegetation in Developing Sustainable Cultural Industries
Control ofinvasive plant species can lead to various initiatives that involve intensive
labour and therefore job creation. The Working for Water programme has a primary
focus ofcontrolling invasive vegetation through an integrated approach. 1 The
programme also incorporates poverty reliefand social development. The theory that,
through a problem, such as invasive plant species, an opportunity arises, has been
adopted by several initiatives in South Africa. Through proper implementation, the
economy, the people ofSouthern Africa and the environment can benefit.
Economic growth is accepted as the only way to tackle poverty and, hence, to achieve
environmental and developmental objectives.
Technologies utilized in hand papermaking can also extend to other areas ofindustry:
for example, the Chembe Trust in Malawi has implemented the production offuel
briquettes as a sustainable economic alternative to deforestation in the Lake Malawi eco-
region.
I The integrated approach is comprised ofchemical, mechanical, biological and environmental control in order to attain better results.
46 Figure 2-12 Cooking with fuel briqu ettes on a cement stove. Photograph : Business and Sustainable Development (A Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development Special Edition)
The fuel briquettes are made from local organic waste materials such as sawdust, grass,
leaves and other vegetation, animal dung, and waste paper. Deforestation is threatening
much ofthe Lake Malawi Watershed ecoregion, as a growing population depends upon
its finite forest resources. Therefore it was necessary to find an alternative fuel for cooking. The briquettes are made from local waste vegetation. The briquettes are also easily transported and easier to obtain than the alternative wood source. The techniques involved in producing them are much the same as the preliminary techniques used in papermaking: the waste is turned into a pulp by retting' and then pounded into a pulp, before being put into a simple metal mould (Wiklund, McKaye, Mponda, Stauffer,
2002:105).
47 Figure 2-13 A pit with dried cornstalks waiting for water and lime solution to start the retting process . Photograph: Business and Sustainable Development (AJohannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development Special Edition)
Hand papennaking programmes in South Africa could apply this technology to the process and create an alternative market for paper pulp. This product could be marketed to people living in cities and in rural areas.
The major constraint for the Chembe briquette project was that local villagers had to learn that free wood fuel was not sustainable, due to environmental pressures. (Wikland, et al ...2002: 105).
I~ order to gain full support for projects such as hand papennaking communities need to understand environmental issues. Hand papennaking, for example, utilizes a large amount ofwater and the importance ofrecycling and preservation is therefore
I A form of fermentation that breaks down certain properties of the fibre.
48 significant. The problem ofinvasive plant species also needs to be highlighted during the education process.
Not all environmental goals can achieve the social and economic objectives of development, and the environmental and development goals should be incorporated into those ofother sectors such as education, health, energy and industry.
Environmental factors, along with the social and economic effects ofsustainable development, have contributed to a framework that addresses hand papermaking specifically. In order to successfully attain the standards and goals mentioned in this chapter, a basic outline for the implementation ofsmall business enterprise in hand papermaking has evolved. The outline has provided the impetus to implement a case study in Ivory Park, Midrand, Gauteng, which is utilizing milkweed (Asclepias fruticosa) as a base for handmade paper. (Refer to Chapter 3).
The format can be likened to Figure 2-6 and Figure 2-7, emphasizing the various segments in sustainable development and hand papermaking listed, such as 'human',
'resource' and 'output'.
49 CHAPTER THREE
CASE STUDIES
The following chapter discusses two projects ofPhumani Paper which currently
successfully utilize invasive plant species for job creation and small business
development. The projects are described separately: Kuyasa, a project based in
Kommetjie in the Western Cape, is an example ofthe successful application ofPort
Jackson willow; and Twanano, a project based in Ivory Park, Midrand, Gauteng, is a
direct application ofthis research project.
Kuyasa will be considered in tenus ofthe possibilities ofusing a Category One invasive
plant species in the craft marketplace. Twanano is reviewed in terms ofthe
implementation ofthis research project into the workplace, and is based on the
framework described in the previous chapter.
3.1 THE KUYASA PAPER PROJECT
3.1.1 Project Background
The Western Cape papermaking project called Kuyasa, situated in Kommetjie, was
established in 2000 by Phumani Paper. It produces paper from Port Jackson willow
(Acacia saligna), mixed with recycled waste paper, to produce a unique, strong and beautiful paper suitable for packaging in the wine industry. Port Jackson is originally from Australia and poses an extreme threat to indigenous plant life in the Cape. It was introduced in1848 to anchor loose soil that could cover the new road being built between
50 Cape Town and Bellville. "Port Jackson produces a large amount ofseeds and is
germinated by animals, birds, fire and human activity" (Bromilow, 1995:192).
The Kuyasa project provides employment opportunities to 151previously-unemployed
women from the communities ofMasepumel ele and Ocean View near Kommetjie. The
unit where the project is housed is fully equipped as a papermaking unit' and has
received thorough foundation training by the papermaking team from the Technikon
Witwatersrand (TWR). The project is monitored by a skilled on-site paper trainer and is accountable to the Western Cape regional co-ordinator for Phumani Paper.
Figure 3-1 Kuyasa participants received extensive Figure 3-2 The wood chipper used training on the Hollander beater for chipping the bark Photogra phs by Mandy Coppes 2002, Kuyasa, Western Cape
This unit was set up in partnership with local environmental and community organizations, namel y Kommetjie Environmental Action Group (KEAG) and Wildlife
I This figure is variable as participants may leave without being replaced or the group may become larger according to needs ofthe unit.
2 The Kuyasa unit has been equipped with papermaking equipment that could run a complete paper making mill i.e. Hollander beater, whiz mixer, drying cabinets and a hydraulic press.
51 Environmental Society of South Africa (WESSA), whose focus is the harvesting ofalien
vegetation and the collection ofrecycleable waste paper. Kuyasa also supports the local
harvesters who have access to the raw material. The stripped bark is sold to Kuyasa at
RIO per garbage bag. A partnership with Working for Water has also been investigated,
which could include the pulping ofwood fibres from Port Jackson for additional paper-
based products. This could benefit both programmes.
3.1.2 Product Development and Marketing
The Kuyasa project utilizes the bark fibre and residual dye that is left after cooking the
Port Jackson fibre. The project has produced marketable products from this fibre, such
as wine boxes, photo albums and books . Their products have distinctive patterns, which
are produced by bleach-painting patterns into the dark brown paper with household
bleach. The stained and bleached paper has become a trademark for Kuyasa and has proved to be extremely successful.
Figure 3-3 Hand-crafted products made from Port Jackson willow fibre and recycled waste paper, Kuyasa, W Cape. Photograph by Bronwyn Marshall 2002.
52 Figure 3-4 Kuyasa products boast a distinct trademark, as a result ofthe produ cts' unique design. Photograph by Bronwyn Marshall 2002.
The project was also represented on the Klein Karoo Nationale Kunstefees (KKN K) in
Outdshoo m . This generated much media and client interest.
They have also become a part ofthe Western Cape craft community, which facilitates invitations to various shows and exhibitions, as well as inclusion on the Craft Map and coverage in local media. Examples of these would be their recent invitation to
parti cipate in the North Sea Jazz Festiva l in Cape Tow n.
Figure 3-5 The North Sea Jazz festivals craft showcase brochure, 2002
53 3.1.3 Community Development and Project Management
"The participants are seen by local community as owning a business, which is a
source ofpride to them and their community." (Anne Weyer, Western Cape
project co-coordinator 2002)
Community involvement has elicited a network of support, for example Noordhoek
Valley Training Centre and Two Oceans Craft Centre have asked Kuyasa to present its
work at public forums such as the Ukuvuka annual gathering and craft fairs. The project also supports local woodcutters who provide the project with stripped bark, creating additional income for unemployed local residents. Two other Phumani Paper projects, also situated in the Western Cape, purchase handmade paper from Kuyasa for the manufacture oftheir own paper products. This relationship that can be lucrative in many ways, such as the sharing of large orders, etc. The network of support is extremely important to economic development as it provides partnerships with other ventures in similar situations. The Kuyasa project has completed a business training course and has effectively implemented their own organizational constitution.
3.1.4 Key Indicators of Progress Within the Project
a. Kuyasa allocates 30% oftheir sales to savings and, as at 30th April 2002, their
total savings amounted to R13 431.90.
54 b. Attending the Spier Summer Festival put Kuyasa on the craft map ofthe Western
Cape, and was a confidence booster for the group.
c. In March 2002 the month's turnover ofR19 000 boosted the group's morale, and
demonstrated the viability and sustainability ofthe business.
d. Kuyasa is recognized within the Western Cape craft community.
(Anne Weyer, project co-ordinator, 2002: Annual Phumani Paper Report)
3.2 THE TWANANO PAPERMAKING PROJECT IN IVORY PARK,
MIDRAND, GAUTENG.
3.2.1 Project Background
Research ofinvasive plant fibres for a new cultural industry was implemented at the
Twanano papermaking project in Ivory Park, Midrand, Gauteng in April 2002. The
Twanano papermaking project, as part ofthe Phumani Paper Poverty reliefprogramme,
was set up in 2000 to make paper from recycled waste paper. Twanano is linked to the
Iteke Waste Co-operative', which is part ofthe EcoCities2 initiatives. The project was showcased as one ofthe focus projects for the WSSD in 2002. "Four in ten people in
Ivory Park live in shacks, with the rest in small brick homes. Unemployment afflicts four in ten adults" (The Eco-City Concept, 2002:3). During various site visits to
I The Iteke Waste project currently employs people who collect waste in the community and bring it to the center for cash. 2 EcoCities was bom in the early nineties through a community struggle against a waste dump. The initiative is a partnership between the City ofJohannesburg and an NGO called EcoCity Trust (The Johannesburg EcoCity Initiative, 2002:4).
55 Twanano, a weed known as milkweed (asclepias fruticosa) was found to be plentiful.
After preliminary research, the fibre was found to be uniquely suited to the project.
Active research and training was then undertaken.
Inorder to ensure sustainability, the methodology for introducing invasive plant fibres
into an existing, functioning paper recycling project had to be co-ordinated and
managed. The following methodologies outline the process for implementing invasive
plant species into hand papermaking programmes, with reference to the Twanano project
as a pilot project.
3.2.2 Fibre Distribution
Fibre distribution is possibly the most important factor when deciding on the type of
fibre to be utilized in any given project. Phumani Paper, has established paper projects in
seven ofthe nine provinces, and used the available biological resources ofeach region as the determining criteria for setting them up. The invasive species found in the area therefore determined what type offibre would be used.
56 Figure 3-6 Harvesting milkweed (asclepias fruticosa)
Photographs by Mand y Coppes 2002, Ivory Park, Midrand
Milkweed (asclepias fruticosa) is located in the direct vicinity of Ivory Park. Problems
occur in the production ofpaper, however, ifthe fibre is not freely available. The
Tswaraganang paper project in Winterveld is a case in point: the project was utilizing mielie husks and river-reed as a resource for their paper. This posed a cost to the unit, as large quantities of the fibre could not be accessed without transport and other related costs; as a result, productivity decreased and costs increased.
Chapter 5 outlines the area distribution ofeach ofthe selected invasive fibres; areas are linked to the accessibility of existing production units, not only with one fibre, but with several that have a large coverage over South Africa.
57 3.2.3 Access to Specific Communities.
Access to a community with the necessary infrastructure, or the means to set up its own small business, is another important criterion in implementing a research project such as this. Phumani Paper initiated papermaking in Ivory Park in 2001, in partnership with
Ivory Park as part ofthe Johannesburg EcoCity Initiative. The partnership used local, unemployed members ofthe community to build an infrastructure to house the manufacturing unit. The eco-village theory is based on eco-friendly ways ofliving and the creation ofjobs to benefit the people living in the area. EcoCities were started in the early nineties in partnership with the City ofJohannesburg and an NGO, the EcoCity
Trust.
"EcoCity takes the form ofseveral innovative projects which interlink with the long term goal ofcreating a self-sufficient and ecologically friendly community. In the short term, all the projects run on the principles ofpoverty alleviation and job creation" (South
Africa, Johannesburg EcoCity Initiative, 2002:4). Twanano is physically linked to the
Iteke glass recycling plant.
The identification ofinvasive plant species as a resource for recycling waste enhances the principles and objectives of the Eco-City initiative.
58 Figure 3-7 Sorting through harvested milkweed. Figure 3-8 Stripping milkweed fibre from the inner Core. Photographs by Mandy Coppes 2002 , Ivory Park, Midrand
3.2.4 Transfer of Skills and Curriculum Development.
Curriculum development (refer to Annexure A) provides the outline for facilitating
paper technologies and processes, specifically for invasive plant fibres. Environmental
education is an important factor in the implementation ofsmall business enterprises and
should be incorporated in the initial training methodologies. The environment in rural
areas is very important to small business entrepreneurs as many ofthem utilize natural resources for the production ofhandicrafts. Grasses, palms and wood represent the base material for many livelihoods in rural communities.
59 Figure 3-9 Several crafts utilizing grasses and reeds are being sold in the nation al parks. Photo fro m:The Long Walk to Sustainable Deve lopment 2002
Sound environmental practices, such as water recycling and minimal use ofchemicals,
are introduced in specific learning areas. The reasons for utilizing milkweed and other
invasive plant species should be highlighted through the training process.
The participants ofTwanano were trained to conduct their own research on milkweed.
They keep data sheets in order to ascertain how many kilograms offibre are needed to
fulfill specific orders. Training and research is directly related to small business
development, with measurable outcomes in accordance with productivity and orders.
Recipes and swatches are recorded in order to maintain consistency for repeat orders.
Twanano successfully conducted independent research into colouring the milkweed fibre. The results have led to empowerment and ownership of this technology, and possibilities for the copyright of this product can be pursued.
60 · ,.
~
I . "
c: ..
Sample 3-3 Milkweed hand beaten Sample 3-4 Milkweed machin e beaten
\
Sample 3-5 Green dyedmilkweed. Sample 3-6 Blue dyed milkweed
61 3.2.5 Appropriate Technology Transfer
Figure 3-10 Cooking milkweed by gas. Figure 3-11 Hand beating milkweed with wooden mallets. Photographs by Mandy Coppes 2002, Ivory Park , Midrand
Several small manufacturing units have been set up in rural areas where there is limited access to electricity; it is therefore very important to identify a fibre that requires low technology at the processing level. Milkweed is best suited for Ivory Park, as it requires low beating and cooking times and can be beaten by hand, resulting in energy saving and cost effectiveness. Twanano did not have access to electricity until September 2002.
Most ofthe cooking of the fibres is still done on gas stoves or in oil drums over fires.
The resulting paper has unique and marketable properties.
The milkweed fibre is comparable in strength and length to the fibres found in Japan , and similar technologies to those used in Eastern sheet-forming techniques are utilized .
62 Figure 3-12 Twanano participants hand-beating milkweed fibre.
Photographs by Mandy Coppes 2002, Ivory Park, Midrand
Figure 3-13 Participant forming a sheet of milkweed.
Photographs by Mand y Coppes 2002, Ivory Park, Midrand
"Twanano has progressed cons iderably from their early days, working without even shelter, to their official launch on 4 Jun e, hosted in partnership with Eco Cities where they showcased their new building. This launch was attended by senior members of
63 TWR, DACST and members of the press" (Extract from the Phumani annual report
2002).
Twanano is now producing milkweed paper of exceptional quality, and very high production levels in terms of quantity. The milkweed paper is different from the other papers produced by Phumani projects, and offers the Twanano project a unique trademark for its business as well as the potential to be self-sufficient.
Processing the milkweed fibre is extremely labour-intensive and the option to employ additional harvesters or beaters can be reviewed in accordance with market demands.
Employment opportunities within the community will be increased. The fibre is freely available to the unit, making it a viable natural resource, as the paper can be produced at relatively low cost. In terms of market response, the milkweed paper is similar to paper produced in the East in terms of strength and finish. Papers from the East are in great demand on the South African market. South African papers that share Eastern sheet characteristics and qualities are beneficial both to the economy of the country and job creation.
The milkweed paper was voted Phumani Paper's "Best Paper" at the National Workshop in 2002.
64 Paper sample 3-7 2003 Range of milkweed papers produced by the Twanano project.
"J can see the progress made by the participants. They have achieved skills though training offered. They call 1I0 W take care of their own administrative duties, through the experience gain ed at the business training. Hands 0 11 exposure to shows and exhibitions, such as Gardenex, have had a strong impact, which is showing in their project. They always respond positively during the weekly meetings.
They all f eel that the project has changed their lives in some way and are enthusiastic about its future, especially with the new building. They have targeted growth areas such as quality control, dealing with clients, and marketing skills as their f ocus. They have had exposure to factories in the industry and appreciate the value ofowning their own business. ..
David Tshabalala about Twanano Station Manager and (PRDU) res earcher. (Extract from the Phum ani Paper Annual Report , 2002)
65 CHAPTER 4
PAPER RESEARCH AND PROCESSES
4.1 WHAT IS PAPER?
"Paper derives its name from the reedy plant, papyrus. The ancient Egyptians produced the world's first writing material by pasting together thin layers ofthe plant stem"
(Smook, 1986: 1). However papyrus is not classified as paper because complete fibre extraction has not taken place. Although the definitions for commercial papennaking and hand papermaking are slightly different, the basic theory behind papennaking on a whole stays the same.
"To be classed as true paper, the thin sheets must be made from fibre that has
been macerated until each individual filament is a separate unit; the fibres are
then intermixed with water, and, by the use ofa sieve-like screen, are lifted from
the water in the form ofa thin stratum, the water draining through the small
openings of the screen leaving a sheet of matted fibres upon the screen surface.
This thin layer ofintertwined fibre is paper"(Tumer, 1998: 13).
"True paper is made from a raw material that has been macerated and broken
down into tiny fibres, mixed with water, and formed into sheets on a screen
surface that catches the fibres as the water drains through it. The individualfibres
interlock and form a sheet ofpaper when pressed and dried" (Hiebert, 2000: 1).
Helen Hiebert and Sylvia Turner define what paper ultimately is, regardless ofwhat raw material is used. By analyzing these two statements, several focus areas can be isolated in
66 terms ofprocess and fibre. There are four different focus areas that are necessary to
produce a sheet ofhandmade or machinemade paper. These areas are divided into
sections relating to this particular investigation in order to achieve the most effective
method ofdata capture and fibre research:
3. Processing 1. Raw material. technologies. Specific fibre types Beating methods with reference to according to fibre type. chemistry and fibre Hydrogen bonding. behaviour.
., 1 4. Finishing. 2. Pre-processing Evaluation and drying methods. methods. Stripping, cooking and fermentation.
Figure 4-1 Focus areas for hand papermaking processes.
4.2 RAW MATERIAL
Paper can be made out ofa variety ofmaterials ranging from recycled waste paper to plant materials, such as flax, cotton, vegetables, com husks and cotton linen. There are several alternative types ofpaper that use different ways ofprocessing different raw materials to achieve different end products. For example:
67 a. Papyrus is kind ofpaper made from a reed. It was used as a writing surface by the
Egyptians, Romans and Greeks, and was one ofthe early materials used for
recording history. The reeds are soaked and laid across each other in several
layers. The layers are then pressed and formed into sheets. The fibres in this case
are not separated into separate elements and so cannot really be classified as true
paper. b. Tapa is a kind ofbark paper. It can be utilized as a fabric or paper depending on
its end use. Tapa is related to paper because ofits use offibres, however, it cannot
be classified as true paper, as the fibres are beaten but not separated. c. Huunand and Amatl are made from the inner bark ofmulberry and hemp. The
bast fibres are first cooked and laid side by side and beaten with a stone to form a
sheet. The fibrils when beaten will join with the fibrils in the strip closest to it and
formation occurs. d. Vegetable papyrus is made with vegetables. The vegetables or fruit contain
cellulose, which bonds when pressed. The vegetables are sliced thin and then
cooked for a short time, before being pressed between fabrics. The fabric is
changed regularly as rotting occurs, which will affect the end product. e. Washi, wa- Japan, Shi- paper is a kind ofhandmade paper, originating from
Japan. Papers are individually made by hand, using the inner bark ofindigenous
fibres such as kozo, mitsumata and gampi. This fibre constitutes some ofthe
longest fibres utilized in the hand papermaking industry (Keller, 1978) (Turner,
1998).
68 None ofthe above processes would be possible, however, ifthere was insufficient raw
1 material i.e. not enough fibre •
4.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF HAND PAPERMAKING AND THE UTILIZATION
OF SPECIFIC FIBRES
Paper has been produced for many different purposes and end uses, for several centuries.
Commercial paper is utilized every day by people and is one ofthe reasons handmade
paper became a specialized craft. In the consumer society in which we live, machinemade
paper has superseded handmade paper for reasons such as a multiplied need (growth in
population), which led to mass production and cheaper raw materials and labour.
Machinemade papers provide quality papers in terms ofstandard uniform sheets and
availability. Sheets are rated according to thickness and weight and are processed according to the end use 1. However, the nature ofthe process and the chemicals utilized result in deterioration over time: the paper does not last as long as its handmade counterpart. In a hand papermaking mill, fibres are cooked in small batches and beaten.
Inthe commercial mills, fibres are beaten and cooked on a much larger scale and the batches are treated with chemical additives, leading to faster deterioration ofthe final product. Machines have been developed to reproduce the handmade sheet, but the final product can never be as strong as the original. Sheet strength is determined by the way
1 Fibre n. 1. One ofthe thin strands ofwhich animal and vegetable tissue or textile substance is made.
69 the sheets are formed and the fibre types used. Handmade papers are formed using a
mould and deckle that is shaken four ways, thus allowing the fibres to cross and interlock
in four different directions, which makes it stronger. Machinemade paper is fanned by means ofa side-to-side action as it travels along the wire and results in the fibres forming in one direction. It is for this reason that machine made paper has a grain2 and tears easily in one direction but hand made papers tear with equal resistance in all four directions
(Hunter, 1974:453).
Papers made by hand encompass several different qualities due to the nature ofthe fibre.
The use offibres offers a broader spectrum ofquality, colour and appearance.
"Artists have gone beyond the paper surface; a desire to manipulate the pulp into
aesthetic statements has resulted in the need for a broader spectrum ofpulp qualities
than has been offered by the use ofrag pulps alone" (Bell, 1995:13).
Plant fibres can also be processed by hand, and this process offers a viable option because it creates jobs, which is an important factor in a developing country. It is true to say that hand papermaking is difficult to mass produce because it is time-consuming and labour- intensive: however, the growth in population offers a source ofmanpower that could fulfil that requirement. In a country such as South Africa, which has an abundance of invasive plant vegetation, a wide range ofpapers can be offered that address environmental concerns and unemployment. Handmade papers from around the world
I Grammage (gsm or glm2) The weight ofpaper and board expressed in metric terms as gramrnas per square meter. 2 Grain. The alignment of fibres in a sheet ofpaper caused by the flow ofthe web ofwet paper in a cylindrical mould. (Turner, 1998:218)
70 service a particular niche market which requires a product which is strong, of good
quality and uniquely distinctive in character.
4.4 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT FIBRES
Fibres that are deri ved from plants are defined as strands of individual cells (e.g. hairs
and trichomes) or groups ofcells (e.g. fibres and sclerenchyrna) that have varying
textures, lengths, widths, and degre es of tensil e strength. Thi s distinguishes them from
animal fibres, such as hairs from sheep and the prot ein fibre produced by silkworms
(Corbman, 1975).
4.4.1 Sclerenchyma tiss ue.
Sclerenchyma functions primarily as support and protection for the plant. One type of
sclerencyma is designated as fibre and comprises They are greatly elongated cells with
very thick cell wall s. Fibres occur in groups and are common in leaves and stems. It is
these fibre cells that make up the natural fibres utilized in hand pap ermaking (Kaufman,
1989).
Individual fibres from the wood ofan oak tree (Quercus). The fibre has been separated by a chemical treatm ent that has dissolved the middle lamella.
Figure 4-2 Sclerenchyma ce lls (Kaufman. 1989:31)
71 4.4.2 Trichomes.
Many plant surfaces, including the surfaces ofstems and leaves, have epiderma l hairs, known as trichomes . They are single or multiple-cell extensio ns of the epidermis. The epidermis covers the surface ofall young land plants. Cotton fibres are the elongated epiderma l cells that form the trichomes on the surface of the seeds contained within the bolls (fruits) (Kaufman, 1989).
Tric homes, viewed with a scanning electron microscope
Figure 4-3 Variety of trichomes found on hemp (Cannabis) (P. Dayanandan and P. Kaufman).
4.5. REQ UIREMENTS OF FIBRES FOR HAND PAPERMAKING
In order for fibres to be effective for pap erma king they mu st be conformable, i.e. cap able ofbeing matted into a uniform sheet. They must also develop strong bonds between fibres at the point of contact. The degree of fibre conformability can be measured as:
1. Sheet formation: The degree to which fibres are suspended in water durin g sheet
form ation. A uniform distribution is described as "close formation", while an
irregular distribution is described as "w ild formation".
2. Bonding: The degree ofbonding is measured by the strength of the finished sheet
(Smoo k. 1986).
72 Confonnability is determined by certain fibre characteristics, such as:
1. Fibre yield.
2. Fibre length.
3. Fibre type.
4. Amount ofcellulose within the cell wall.
5. Amount ofunwanted non-fibrous materials left within the pulp.
6. Methods ofprocessing.
These factors rely heavily on the fibre type chosen, making it necessary to understand the
chemistry offibre and the behavior offibre when processed.
4.6 FIBRE CHEMISTRY
Pulp fibres can be obtained from almost any vascularl plant, but a high yield offibre is
necessary for the plant to be ofvalue to the papennaker. Vegetable fibres 2 (except seed
hair fibres) are embedded in a matrix ofnon-fibrous material (mostly lignin, but also containing hemicellulose', resins and gums) (Smook, 1986:4). Chemicals such as soda ash I are added to the fibre during cooking to free the fibres from the lignin. Lignin is a substance that rejects water and resists bonding and therefore must be removed from the fibres before the papermaking process begins. In general, the presence oflignin in paper has an adverse affect on the end sheet. Pulps with high lignin content are slow to beat and decrease fibre bonding (Casey, 1980)."Ifit is not removed from the pulp, the resulting
I Vascular plant. A plant possessing xylem and phloem as conducting tissue. 2 Of, from or relating to plant life. 3 By contrast to cellulose, which is a polymer only ofglucose, the hemicelluloses are polymers offive different sugars.
73 paper is subject to rapid deterioration" (Turner, 1998:4,219). The greater the requirement
for purity, the lower the fibre yield will be.
4.6.1 Cellulose.
"In plant fibres, it is the substance 'cellulose' that determines the character ofthe fibre
and permits its use in papermaking. Cellulose is a carbohydrate, meaning that it is
composed ofcarbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with the latter two elements in the same
proportion as water" (SmookI986: 4). Cellulose molecules fit together tightly along long
segments, making it a very powerful compound which dictates the overall strength ofthe
finished sheet.
4.6.2 Properties of cellulosic fibre.
Cellulosic fibres display a number ofproperties that benefit the papermaking process,
such as:
1. High tensile strength'. Cellulose affects the strength ofthe paper due to the nature
ofthe fibre. Strength is important in many aspects ofthe hand papermaking
industry in terms ofprintmaking, box making and creative processes with pulp
that require strength.
2. Suppleness (flexibility). Paper becomes brittle and breaks ifa certain amount of
flexibility is not present.
1 Soda ash, an alkali = sodium carbonate. 2 Resistance to breaking under tension.
74 3. Water-insoluble. Lignin is water-soluble, making it easy to rinse from the fibre
base. The fact that cellulose is water-insoluble is ofbenefit to the fibre as, once it
is cooked, it does not flush out with the lignin.
4. Hydrophilic. The fact that cellulose can be wetted by water allows the fibres to
swell during the beating process, and this induces flexibility and strength.
5. Inherent bonding ability. Cellulose molecules attract water molecules. When the
cellulose fibres are tiny, beaten fibrils are raised from the surface ofthe fibre;
these attract tiny water particles that aid in hydrogen bonding.
6. Ability to absorb modifying additives. Hand papennaking requires certain
chemical inputs such as sizing', dyes and formation aids'', These chemicals fulfil
certain requirements for specific papers, such as printing and mouldmade papers.
7. Chemical stability. Cellulose on its own is chemically stable and this lends itself
to quality archival papers'.
8. Relatively colourless (white) (Smook, 1986:7).
4.7 HYDROGEN BONDING
Generally, we can say that the most ideal characteristic for hand papennaking is when
the lignin in the fibre is completely removed and the cellulose content remains intact.
The quality ofthe cellulose is optimized by the beating action as the outer wall ofthe
fibre is partially removed. When the outer wall is removed, the fibre absorbs water,
which increases bonding activity and flexibility and ultimately, strength. The
I A chemical or chemicals used in papennaking to control the absorbency ofthe paper. 2 A slimy substance added to the pulp during Japanese sheet forming techniques, slowing down the drainage ofthe pulp.
75 hydrophilic nature ofcellulose fibres plays an important role since the papennaking
process occurs in an aqueous medium. When the lignin has been removed, the fibres
readily absorb water and can then disperse themselves in the suspension ofthe water.
When wet fibres are brought together during sheet formation, the fibres bond.
Bonding is promoted by the magnet-like attraction ofthe water molecules for each
other and for the hydrogen and oxygen groups (hydroxyl groups) that cover the
cellulose surface. As the water is evaporated, the hydroxyl groups ofcellulose
ultimately link together by means ofhydrogen bonds. The strength in any paper is
related to the hydrogen bonding between cellulose molecules ofneighboring fibres or
fibrils ofthose fibres. The interlocking offibres as they lie together in a mat is only a
secondary reason for strength (Smook, 1986) (Barrett, 1983).
Cellulose Module
Figure 4-4 Hydrogen Bonding. (Smook, 1986:8»
4.8 FIBRE TYPES.
A plant fibre is usually classified in two ways:
1. According to cellular or tissue type and the part ofthe plant and kind ofplant
from which it is obtained.
1 A term used to describe paper which is long-lasting, acid- and lignin-free and often has good colour retention.
76 2. According to its uses.
First Classification Second Classification
1. Wood fibres, utilized 1. Textile fibres, which are
by the commercial fine, soft and pliable.
paper industry. 2. Cordage fibres, which
2. Soft stem or bast fibres are coarse and have
found between the core considerable tensile
and the bark, such as strength.
milkweed. 3. Brush or braiding fibres
3. Hard leaf or structural (fibres that are quite stiff,
fibres, such as sisal. yet flexible enough to
4. Surface fibres (hairs or break when bent).
trichomes) from the 4. Filling fibres (fibres that
surfaces ofstems, are fluffy, often soft in
leaves, fruits and seeds, texture and not prickly).
such as cotton and
moth-catcher.
(Kaufman, 1989:695)
77 4.8.1 General Fibres employed in the hand papermaking industry.
Different plant fibres have varying characteristics, for example fibre length and fibre
width. Each fibre type has its own colour, shape and size before and after processing,
therefore it is important to understand the distinctiveness ofeach type in order to
ascertain the processing requirements.
For the purpose ofthis investigation, the main types offibres that are utilized in the paper
industry will be discussed in a broad sense, with significant emphasis on the raw,
unprocessed fibre types.
4.8.2 Recycled fibres.
Recycled fibres can be characterized into different types namely:
a. Recycled waste paper.
Recycling commercial paper can conserve the natural resources ofa country by
reducing the number oftrees harvested for this specific purpose. Most ofthe species
utilized for the production ofcommercial paper are alien to Southern Africa, and are
depleting the countries water reserves. Recycling waste paper reuses and re-processes
commercial waste paper. Commercially-made paper (paper made from certain soft
woods and wood chips) remains the largest source ofpaper in the world and is one of
the world's biggest problems in terms ofpollution. Commercial paper mills
themselves, such as Mondi and Sappi, have implemented waste paper collection sites
as part oftheir waste management and job creation strategies. The participants are
paid per kilogram for waste paper collected, and the waste is then distributed to
various mills. Ifquality and strength are required, recycled paper is not an option, as
78 the fibres get shorter and shorter every time they are processed; they also contain
certain contaminants which cannot be extracted.
b. Cotton Rag
Jeans and other natural fabrics can be recycled and processed to form paper. The
fabric is cut into strips, cooked and then beaten. Several kinds ofartists' papers are
made from recycled cotton rag.
4.8.3 Processed Fibres.
Fibres that fall under this category are partially processed and sold in the form of sheets.
These fibres are first cooked and then partially or completely beaten. The pulp is then
formed into thick sheets and is sold to the public to re-hydrate or beat further into a pulp.
This can be extremely useful when there is no Hollander beater and units can utilize the
whiz mixer' to rehydrate and mix the pulp.
4.9 RAW, UNPROCESSED INVASIVE PLANT FIBRES SUITABLE FOR HAND
PAPERMAKING
Raw, unprocessed fibres are those that have been harvested, and processing therefore starts from raw plant vegetation. This vegetation can be subdivided into groups and classified according to the part ofthe plant that is utilized. The classification ofthese specific fibres has become extremely important for this investigation, as they have certain characteristics that affect the end use and quality ofthe paper. Within the different fibre
1 Whiz mixer: a beater designed to re-hydrate and beat recycled waste paper.
79 categories, the invasive equivalent has been sought to identify other species with similar
attributes.
The main fibre types are divided up into four key areas, namely:
1. Bast fibre.
2. Leaffibre.
3. Grass fibre.
4. Seed-hair fibre.
The descriptions that follow include examples ofinvasive plant species that are
accessible to some ofthe Phumani Paper business units and are incorporated in this
research project as the main invasive species that have been investigated.
4.9.1 Bast Fibres
The phloem or inner bark ofwoody plants, which occur in the outer ring ofthe vascular tissue. Bast fibres serve to conduct liquids down from the leaves in the plant, while the inner woody portion ofthe plant offers support and carries liquid up from the roots
(Kaufman, 1989).
Common bast fibres such as kozo, mitsumata, gampi, flax, hemp and jute fall into this category. Bast fibres are thought to be the most superior ofthe fibre types, as they are long and can be stripped from the inner core easily with no contaminants. They are frequently stronger than other fibre types and offer a lustrous feel and shine. Kozo is a full growth the branches reach over three meters. Kozo is easy to cultivate and produces bast fibre that is utilized to a large extent in Japan. It is part ofthe mulberry family and at
80 an annu al crop (Barrett, 1993). Bast fibres such as these can be utilized annually without
cutting back the entire tree and are extremely beneficial in terms of conservatio n.
Because the fibre is thick, long and strong, it can be used for products such as sliding
doors and mounting paper (Japan Handmade Washi Association, 1991).
On average , the length of bast fibres is between 3mm and 120mm, making them some of
the longest fibres utilized in hand paper making (Bell, 1995 :37)
Milkweed (asclepias fruticosa) is an invasive example ofbast fibre. Milkweed is an indigenous species; widespread in Africa that becomes a troubl esom e weed on roadsides, waste places and occasionally in land s. It is poisonous to stock. The bast fibre of milkweed is white.
Figurc4-S Milkweed (asclepias fruticosa) Figurc4-6 Bast fibre Ivory Park, Gaut eng Photograph by M Coppes, KZN, 200 I Photo scan of actual fibre 2003
4.9.2 Leaf Fibres
Leaf fibres are found in the leaf vascular bundl es I ofplants (Kaufman, 1989). With certain plants the entire leafcan be used but, with some spec ies, the fibre needs to be extracted from the fleshy part of the leaf. Fibres such as giant reed (arundo don ax) can be utilized entirely, but if the leaves are fresh and green, most of the fleshy material will disintegrate while coo king.
I A strand of vascular tissue containing both xylem and phloem.
81 "Mother in law's tongue" (sansevieria trifasciata) and sisal (agave) have a tough outer
sheath, which must be scraped to separate the fibre from the flesh.
The average fibre length in leaf fibres is 3mm to 7mm. (Bell, 1995:89) ,------, The fibres found in water hyacinth (eichomia crassipes) are reasonably long and comparable with that of straw, sugar cane and jute. The cell walls are weak and rigid and beating should be minimal so as not to damage the fibre. The pure fibre content is 50%; however, water hyacinth also contains large amounts of lignin, pectin fats and Figure 4-7 Water hyacinth (eichornia crassipes) Figure 4-8 Leaf fibre Photograph by M. Coppes KZN Lake Nse leni . 2002 Photo scan ofactua I fibre resin. (Teygler, 2000)
4.9.3 Grass Fibres
Grass fibres such as sugar cane, bamboo, esparto and straw can be utilized for paper.
They are generally the easiest fibres to process, but they usuall y break down significantly, yielding the least amount of fibre (Hiebert, 2000). According to J.N.
Poyser, in his book "Experiments in Making Paper by Hand"(1989), grass fibre s tend to be much higher in lignin content than bast and leaf fibres and so yield a smaller amount ofcellulose . The smaller the amount of cellulose the weaker the paper. The fibre length ranges from 1.5mm to 7mm , makin g grass fibres considerably shorter than certain bast fibres for example. The fact that some grass fibres may be weak does not exclude them
82 from the papennakin g practice; however ifheavy, translucent papers are required, grass
fibres are not optimal as they typically produce a transparent, crisp paper when refined.
Pampas grass (cortadeira selloana) is used in some parts of South America for making pap er. The leaves reach up to 1800 mm high and 10 mm wide. Pamp as grass was introduced into South I, .., I Africa from South America for mine dump stabilization and ornamental purposes.
Figure 4-9 Pampas grass . Figure 4-10 Grass fibre Photograph by GR Nichols, 200 1 Photo scan ofactual fibre, 2003
4.9.4 Seed-hair fibres
Seed-hair fibres, such as cotton, differ from many plants in that, in their natural state, the fibres freely yield pure cellulose without requiring much preliminary treatment (Turner,
1998). Seed-hair fibres are attached to the seeds ofplants, whic h permit them to be propagated by the wind. Pure fibres can be extracted from the fruits of certain plant spec ies: for example kapok is pure, in that there is no lignin and other contaminants in the flesh surrounding the fibre, so the seed-hair fibre should, in fact yield a 100% fibre.
83 The moth catcher (araujia sericifera) contains silky fibres, each about 25mm long, that are found in the fruit of the creeper. The . The species is a native of Peru and is commonly found in South African gardens as a weed. The plants seed prolifically, so the spread is rapid, causing damage in young plantations ifallowed to flourish unchecked (H enderson, 1966:240). It was introduced into South Africa for ornamental Figure 4-11 Moth catcher Figure 4-12 Seed hair fibres purposes. . Photograph by LHenderson , 200 I Photo scan of actual fibre, 2003
4.10 PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF FIBRE-YIELDING PLANTS
The fibre types that have been described are basically the main categories of fibres in the hand papermaking industry, but this does not necessarily mean that plant species within these categories will all yield exactly the same characteristics. The fibre yield and strength may differ, as will the amount ofcellulose. The fibre types listed are merely a guideline when searching for new species to refine and investigate. For example, pampas grass yields a better fibre than kikuyu grass. While this is an obvious example, the fact remains that kikuyu is still a grass and, when searching for new fibres , it must be carefully ascertained whether a specific species can, in fact, produce an adequate fibre.
There are various features to look for in the actual plant to assess the quality of the fibre.
By scrutinizing each plant one can obtain information such as:
84 a. High yield. Does the plant look as ifit has a good fibre volume i.e. does
the bast or leaf fibre make up most ofthe plant wall? Is there more fleshy,
unwanted plant material surrounding the inner core?
b. Strength. Once the fibre has been stripped from the core, is it easy to
break with your bare hands? The tougher it is the stronger the fibre is.
c. Flexibility, fineness, length. The longer the fibres, the better. When
stripping the fibre from the core, it should not break offthe core before the
end ofthe branch or leaf. This equates with a good fibre.
d. Colour. The whiter the fibre, the better. Ifthe fibre darkens when exposed
to air or water it could contain tannin, which darkens with time. Tannin is
an undesirable property as it contains acid.
e. Availability. Is the fibre freely available? In the case ofinvasive plant
species and the implementation ofthis research into rural papermaking
projects, this aspect is an important one. In terms oftransport and access,
the invasive species needs to be in close proximity to the projects for the
production ofpaper. f. Ease ofpeeling. The outer bark should come away from the inner core in
one motion. It should not break into pieces.
g. Thickness ofinner bark. The thicker the inner bark, the better; a thickness
ofunder 1.5 millimeters is probably too thin.
h. Resin content. Some bark contains resins and oils that are water resistant
making it difficult to process, as the individual fibres will not hydrate
(Barrett, 1983:242).
85 4.11 TOOL A 'DM ETHODS
4.11.1 Western tradition versus Eastern tradition.
Although both these techn iques are involved in the produ ction ofpap er, they are different
in terms of mat erials used and the end result . This investigation invol ves both traditions,
using techniques from each region simultaneously. Certain characteristics of the Eastern
tradition are beneficial to the types of paper produ ced and the fibre type investigated.
Simultaneously, certain Western techniques are necessary as some ofthe materials used
in the Eastern tradition are unavailable in South Africa. The followin g table will
distinguish the genera l differences and correlations between the two traditions.
Eastern Tradition Western Tradition
Method
1. Date papermaking -A.D . 105, in China. - 1151, in Xati va, Spain. was introduced into the two cultures.
2. Paper uses. -Religious ceremoni es. - Printing paper for industry and - Clothing, household products, artists, no significant religious umbrellas, printing papers for artists, connotation, artists manipulate money etc. paper pulp etc.
3. Fibre util ized. - Local fibres such as kozo, -Cotton rag, jute, flax, sisal, and mitsumata and gampi. soft wood.
Figure 4-13 Cross section of Was hi (Kozo Figure 3-14 Cross section ofwestem paper) style paper Photograph All Japan Handmade Washi Ass. 1991 Photo ra h All Ja an Handmade Washi Ass, 1991
86 4. Fibre length. -Mostly long without shortening. - Long strong fibres are used but are sho rtened in the beatin g rocess b the machin er used.
5. Equipment. -Sugeta. Su is the screen and is -The mould and deckle. The flexibl e. It is made from bamboo mould is a scree n stretched across splints wove n together with silk or some sort of frame, metal or nylon threads. Keta is the hinged wood. Th e deckle is a second frame that holds the suo frame that sits on top ofthe mould to contain the pulp.
-Naginata, a beater used in Japan for - Hollander beater, the most teasing the long fibres. commo n beater used in the west, macerates and cuts fibres shorter.
Figure 4-16 Hollander beater, Wits Figure 4-15 Naginata beater Technikon Dard Hunter , 1974 Photogra ph by M. Coppes, 2002
6. Action. -Nagashi-zuki "Nagasu , meaning to -Is known in the east as tame flow or slosh ," plus suku, meaning zuki. "Tameru, meaning to retain "to make pap er". The flowing or or to fill and hold ," plus suki, "to sloshing way to make paper. make paper." The fill and hold way to make a er. \
Figure 4-17 Scooping up the pulp Figure 4-18 Casting Paper All Japan Handmade Washi Ass, 199 1 Photograph by M.Coppes, Free State . 2002
7. Additives. -Tororo-ao i, form ation aid, used in - Mostly synthetic formation aids the production of very fine, thin are used. sheets.
87 8. Couching surface. - Traditionally Japanese papers are - A post is made with felts laid on top ofone another with a dividing each form ed sheet. piece of thread. An entire post is formed with no felts.
Figure 4-19 A post of Japanese papers Photograph by M.Coppes. 200 1 Figure 4-20 Couching paper onto a couching table Photograph by M.Copp cs. Free State. 2002
9. Drying paper. - Paper is either dried on the keta or -Restraint drying, a drying system is brushed onto a smooth flat surface. that dries the paper in a stack In modem Japanese techniqu es they between felts under a weight. dry paper on steel surfaces that are Loft drying is al so used and is the heated by steam. traditional way of drying sheets by hanging them in a loft and drying by evaporation.
Figure 4-21 Brushing paper onto a heated steel cylinder. Photograph by M. Co ppes, Japan 200 1
s, Holland 2000 Figure 3.22 Comparisons between Weste rn and Eastern techniques
88 4.12 PROCESSING
All plant fibres need a certain amount ofprocessing before they can be beaten into a
pulp. Bast fibres need to be extracted from the bark and inner core ofthe plant and the
fleshy part ofleaffibres need to be scraped, leaving behind the useable leaf fibre. The
processes for fibres differ according to the specific type offibre. The processes
undertaken change the overall texture and quality ofthe end sheet. The steps vary
according to the fibre type, but the four main processing methods remain the same in
the manufacture ofpaper. For the purpose ofthis investigation, samples have been
taken from the invasive plant species to illustrate the methods ofprocessing.
These methods are divided into sections such as:
1. Pre-processing: harvesting and stripping.
2. Cooking.
3. Beating.
4. Pressing.
5. Drying.
4.12.1 Harvesting
Harvesting can take place at any time ofthe year, but the characteristics ofthe paper
may vary due to the fact that most vascular plant species are seasonal. Also, when
searching for invasive species, it is best to harvest in Spring and Summer, when they
are more easily identified by the colour ofthe plant and its flowers. In winter, the
plant may have different colour characteristics than in the Summer, when the plant
89 may be gree ner. When picking bast fibre in the winter, some plant s may dry out,
making them difficult to peel. Milkweed (asc lepias fruticosa) is an herba ceou s,
perennial bast fibre that becom es difficult to strip when dr y. There are various
established meth ods of rettin g utilized in the fabric and papermaking indu stry.
Retting' allows the tissue or woody bark surrounding the fibre to decompose, thus
loosenin g the gum that bind s th e fibre to the stem. This ferm entation or decomposin g
is called retting (Co rban, 1975: 283). There are various methods of retting.
4.12.2 Retting
4.12.2.1 Dew retting
The branches or leaves are laid out on the grass and exposed to the elements for three
to four weeks. Thi s form ofrett ing produces a stronger fibre as no chemicals have
been used that would break down the cellulose fibres.
I Figure 4-23 Dew retting milkweed (A RC , Rustenberg) Photograph by M. Coppcs 200 I
I Retting loosens the cellulose and breaks down the non-cellulose material (Hiebert,2000:5 0).
90 4.12.2.2 Pool or dam retting
This method requires less time than the dew retting, i.e.15 days. Stagnant pools of
water are employed which can cause over-retting, making the fibre brittle and weak
(Corbman, 1975:283).
4.12.2.3 Stream retting
This method produces the best fibre characteristics, as fermentation can be retarded
and easily controlled. Bundles offibre are weighted down with bricks and left in the
flowing stream for up to 15 days (Corban, 1975:283).
4.12.2.4 Chemical retting
Chemical retting generally shortens the retting process, but the chemicals can affect
the strength and colour ofthe fibre. Soda ash, oxalic soda and caustic soda, and wood
ash diluted in warm water, are the chemicals used in this method.
4.12.2.5 Steam retting
The branches or stems ofplants are placed in steam baths to ease the outer bark off
the inner core. Once properly steamed, the bark shrinks back about a centimeter from
the end ofthe wood (Barrett, 1983). According to Timothy Barret, who has
performed research on a different species ofMilkweed (asclepias siriaca), the bark
I ARC (Agricultural Research Council
91 can be stripped without steaming, but it needs to be peeled no sooner than 30 minutes
thereafter, and no later than three hours after cutting. This technique worked well for
the milkweed plant, but the outer bark ofthe milkweed is very thin, especially when
the plant is young. This can become a problem when the need for pure white fibre
arises. The bark can also offer an individual colour if left, but the pulp then becomes a
B-grade pulp as some ofthe lignin is left behind. Alternatively stalks can be steamed
in big oil drums placed over a fire with another tin drum placed on top to control the
release ofsteam.
4.13 FIBRE SEPARATION
Fibre from all four categories needs to be separated from the inner core or the fleshy
part ofthe leaf. The fibre content is one ofthe most important properties required for
sheet production. Different fibre types require different stripping methods.
4.13.1 Stripping bast fibre
Bast fibre can be stripped from the inner core by beating the widest end ofthe stalk
with a mallet. This action loosens the bark from the inner core. Ifthe bark remains on
the fibre, the inner fibre needs to be cleaned. This is done by scraping the bark from the pure white fibre. "The bark should also be wiped ofany black residue before peeling. This black residue is produced by aphids drinking the sap ofthe milkweed, which turns black on exposure to air" (Barrett, 1983:262). Some plant fibres have several layers ofinner bark e.g. mulberry fibre has two layers offibre, a green and
92 white inner bark . The whiter the bast fibre the better, as it will ensure there are no
impurities in the stoc k.
Figure 4-24 Stripping bug weed, Figure 4-25 Bast fibre in Kenaf. Siyathutuka, KZN. Photograph by Kevin Mansfield, 2003. Photograph by M.Coppc s 2002.lvory Park. Mid rand.
4.13.2 Extracting seed fibres.
Separating the fibre in seedpods cannot really be classified as stripping, as one doesn 't physicall y strip the fibre from an inner core. The mothcatcher (araujia sericifera), a Ca tegory I invasive spec ies, consists of an outer she ll, or fruit., which is a large spongy capsul e containing seeds. Th e see ds are covered with fine silky hairs
2-5 em long, which are the fibres utilized in this investigati on. Within the capsules these seeds are attached to an almost free placenta . Thi s plac enta must be remo ved as it creates impurities in the pulp and the fibres cannot then be kept for future use as the placenta rots and turns the fibres grey .
93 Th e white hairy filaments are taken from the bod y ofthe plant. These are the seed-hair fibres.
Fi gure 4-26 Seed-hair ext raction Photograph by Mand y Coppes. 200 I
4.13.3 Leaf fibre separation.
Leaf fibres such as iris and water hyacinth do not need much preparation, beyond
being cooked in a strong alkali solution, as they do not have thick skin surrounding
the fibre. "However, there are many leaf fibres with thin, strong outer skins which
need removing before the inner fibres can be released for example sisal, and pineapple leaf. A decorticator l does this process commercially. The machine scrapes off the upper and lower skin, thus releasing the fibre. In rural areas where there is no access to a machine of this nature, decortication of the fibre can be done by scraping the leafwith a knife until all the chlorophyll and skin is removed. The outer fi bre can also be scraped with a broken plate making a softer abrasion" (Asao Shimura, Nov
2002). The fibres are then washed, rinsed and hung out to dry. If the plant is left to dry before decortication it becomes very difficult to extract the fibres (Bell, 1990:21).
94 Water hyacinth (eichornia crassipes) needs to be pressed before it is coo ked, as the
fibres contain large amounts of air, causing the fibres to float when coo king.
Figure 4-27 Extracting fibre from the pineapple Figure 4-28 The fibres of sisal can clearly be leaf. seen when the leaf is scraped with a knife.
Photographs by Kevin Mansfield. 2003
4.13.4 Grass fibre separation
Pampa s grass needs no pre-retting. Generally this is the case with most grass fibres.
However, pampas grass is a strong, hardy plant and should be soaked and pre-cooked
for about an hour before cooking in soda ash. Harder grass species, for example
bamb oo stems, are pounded with a hammer or crushed between rollers in ord er to get
rid of the air bein g held in the stems. Alternatively the bamboo can be soft ened in a
pit by placing layers ofbamboo on top of each other with lime betw een each layer.
The pit is covered with wat er and left for several months to ferment (Bell , 1998:2I).
I A decorticator extracts the fibre from leaf fibre in a mechanical action.
95 4.14 COOKING
Cooking the various plant fibres is one ofthe most important parts ofthe process as it
swells the cellulose fibres, allowing even more water to be drawn into the fibres
during beating, resulting in a stronger sheet ofpaper. The time and method taken for
cooking fibres can strongly affect the end result. Lignin and other non-cellulose fibres
are water soluble, allowing them to be rinsed from the mass offibre after cooking.
There are several different alkali types such as:
a. Caustic soda, sodium hydroxide. This can be bought in most
supermarkets and is used to clean drains. It is the most powerful alkali and
can be used on fibres that are tough and difficult to ferment.
Environmentally this chemical is hazardous and can be very harmful to
skin and lungs; it is therefore not essential for this investigation.
b. Trisodium phosphate is much less powerful than caustic soda; it is
available in most hardware stalls and is used as a wall and wood cleaner.
c. Soda ash, sodium carbonate. This is an even weaker solution than
trisodium phosphate, and is most commonly used for hand papermaking.
This substance as not always ideal, as it may leave sodium attached to the
fibre which remains in the solution with residual water molecules on the
fibre. If the pHI ofthe paper is over 8.5, the fibre continues to decompose
over the years and deteriorates at a premature rate (Barrett, 1983) (Bell,
1995).
I "Doneness": when the fibre is cooked adequately in preparation for refining.
96 d. Wood Ash is environmentally friendl y and made by burning wood to
form an ash, then soaking the ash in water. The lye or residue that is left
after stra ining the ash is the compound that breaks down the fibre .
The fibre sho uld be pla ced in a stainless steel, glass or ena mel-coa ted pot, because these pots do not contain trace elements that could be introduced into the pulp at a later stage and affect the end product.
The amount of lye or caustic soda used is based on the weight of the dry fibr e. An acc urate rati o measurement for mixing soda ash and water is 20 grams ofsoda ash per
100 grams o f fibr e. A more basic measurement has been introduced into the rural units where measuring equipment is not freely available: the fibre is packed into a pot and covered with water, then a tablespoon of lye is added for every litre of water used.
Figure 4-29 Fibre cooki ng in a stainless steel pot. Photograph by M.Cop pcs. 2002
97 When using a 40% solution of soda ash in the fibre, cooking should take no longer
than two hours otherwise it could seriously damage the fibre strength and yield.
Overcooked fibre becomes brittle after beating, while undercooked fibre becomes soft
and fluffy after the beating process. The fibre should be stirred and tested for
"doneness") every 30 minutes by pulling the fibre in the direction ofthe plant's
growth. Ifthe fibre breaks easily it has been cooked long enough (Hiebert,2000). The
fibre must then be rinsed thoroughly to get rid ofany impurities before beating.
4.15 BEATING AND REFINING
Beating is described as a mechanical action which, together with water, turns fibre
into slurry or pulp. The objective is to modify the fibre into an optimal state for the
manufacture ofpaper. Beating methods vary according to the fibre and the machinery
used. For the purpose ofthis investigation two methods ofbeating have been
undertaken: hand-beating and machine-beating using a Hollander beater. Although
both methods achieve a similar effect, certain fibres react better to one method than
another.
In general, beating strengthens the paper by increasing the bonding area between the fibres, so that they become more flexible and can interlock with one another when a sheet is cast. When cellulose molecules are beaten, tiny fibrils are raised from the macerated outer cells ofthe fibre walls, creating sites for maximum water absorption, and for other fibres to lock into. The fibres are also bent by the shearing action that
98 takes place between the roller and the bedplate, thus enabling furth er absorption of
water to take place.
The beating acti on on fibre is critical to the preparation of forming a sheet. Not only
does it increase the bonding potential , it also deflocculates and hydrates the fibre. In
the process, the fibres are also shortened so that they can be evenly distributed when
casting a sheet. If the fibre is too long, it becom es entangled and knotted, producing a
"wild" formation/ in the end sheet.
In summary, the more fibres that have been separated and refined, the bigger the area
for hydrogen bonding and the stronger the sheet.
Figure 4-30 Bad sheet formation in a sheet is caused by under beating the fibres. Photograph by Kevin Mansfield. 2003
During the pressing process, water is removed from the fibres and they are pulled
closer together, enabling bond s to form between the fibre molecul es (Heller, 1978).
'Irregular distribution of fibres within a sheet.
99 4.15.1 Hand Beating.
Plant fibres can easi ly be beaten by hand , although it is a labour intensive process.
Some fibres, however, are conducive to hand-beating, as they are too hard y. Black wattle (acacia meansii) is an example o f a very hard fibre that can be beaten by hand to form a pure wattle shee t but takes many hours to beat. The Eas tern Cape Phum ani
Paper unit, "Rising Sun", utilizes black wattl e to strengthe n and enrich the recycled waste paper pulp. The wood is mulch ed though a "Hammer Mill", then the fibre is sorted, cooked and beaten by hand before being added to the pulp. Extended cooking times of this fibre would be detrimental to the fibre. Hand-beating is on e of the earliest methods of macerating fibre and was utilized by the Chinese.
Figure 4-31 Examples of hand beating tools. Photograph by Kevin Mansfield. 2003
Currently, mo st hand pap ermakers that utilize the hand beating process, beat with wooden mall ets on a hard surface. The fibres are macerated slowly and are not shortened.
100 Figure 4-32 Hand beating fibre in Ivory Park (Gauteng) and Flower Valley (Wes tern Cape) Photographs by M.Coppes. 200 I
Hand beating has several advantages: for example the probl em ofover beating
(which results in slow drain age and over-shortened fibre), rarely occurs. However the fibre choice and preparation are very important, as it is very difficult to reach good fibre disp ersion . If the fibre is not cooked properly, no amount of beating wi II disperse the fibres evenly. If the fibre is not conducive to hand beating, the end sheets will often have a stringy effect. Durin g the beating process, the fibre can be evaluated or measured, using a glass jar filled with water. This is called the "freeness test" and it is conducted by placing a pinch ofbeaten fibre in the jar and shaking it. If the fibres are still clumping tog ether and are not evenly distributed, they need to be beaten further (Barrett, 1983).
101 Figure 4-33 Freeness test: Hand beating after 10 Figure4-34 Freeness test: Hand beating after 20 minutes minutes.
Figure 4-35 Hand beating after 30 minutes
Photographs by Kevin Mansfield. 2003
4.15.2 The Hollander beater.
Japanese paperm akers maintain that fibres beaten by hand are ofa superior quality to
those beaten by machine. Hand beating draws out the fibre, without breaking and
shortening them. The Hollander beater, on the other hand, cuts the fibres , thereb y
shortening fibre length , while fibrillation shreds and bruises offibre walls, and
hydration allows the fibres to absorb water. Thes e factors can all be adjusted
according to the individual requirements. For example, opaque, translucent, crisp or
limp paper can be produced by varying the beating times and control. The fibre type
also dictates the character of the paper. Generally, Hollander beaters work with fibre
102 of between 3 and 6mm in length as longer fibres lose their ' free ness' and knot up in the roller before they are able to disperse. Ce rtain fibres differ in their beatin g times,
However, proper beating times can be attained from the freeness test referred to in hand beatin g.
If the fibr es appear to be taking a long time to separate, beating tim e should not be extended to enhance the freeness as the pulp , as it may fall below the minimum freeness allowed. If the fibres have been ove r-beaten, drainage during the sheet formation will be very slow and problems with parting and dr ying paper will occur
(Barrett, 1983).
Some fibres require a more aggressive beating, e.g. pampas grass, which is a slightly hardier fibre than other bast fibres. If fibres are long and stringy they could be cut before they are put into the beater in order to reduce entangleme nt in the roller.
Figure 4-36 The Duplex Hollander Beater at the PRD UTWR I Photogra ph by M.Coppcs 2002, Tcc hnikon Witwatcrsrand.Gauteng,
103 4.16 SHEET FORMATION
The most important factor influencing sheet formation is the way in which the fibres
are dispersed in water i.e. they should separate from one another in order to disperse
evenly in the liquid, thus ensuring a uniform sheet ofpaper. Fibres that have not
separated properly will flocculate to form a cloudy, clumpy paper with an uneven
appearance (Smook, 1986). In some cases, formation aid is added to the finished pulp
in order to slow down drainage and allow time for manipulation ofthe mould. While
thin sheets require more formation aid than thick sheets, some fibres - such as cotton
and kenaf, which have slightly shorter fibres than milkweed - do not need formation
aid. When making thick sheets, the mould is blocked with fibre through the drainage
process, thereby slowing down the drainage rate and creating a thicker sheet ofpaper.
4.16.1 Formation Aids.
'Neri' is a clear, gum-like ingredient made from the crushed root ofthe Totoroai
plant, and is commonly used in Japan. Neri improves sheet formation, enhances the
lustre that some bast fibres yield and enables very strong thin sheets ofpaper to be
made. It prevents the long bast fibres from becoming entangled in the vat, and slows
down drainage ofthe pulp through the screen. "Thanks to this glutinous solution, very
ancient paper has withstood the ravages ofbad weather and humidity" (Turner,
1998:88). It is known that papermakers in Japan, in the event ofa fire, can throw their
important documents in a pool of water and retrieve them later, all intact.
Although this formation aid is not available in South Africa, the basic principles and
method can be utilized with other synthetic and alternative formation aids.
I (PRDU) Paper Research Development Unit, Technikon Witwatersrand.
104 Substitute plants can be used as an indigenous equivalent, although they do not
provide the best qualities. Okra (hibiscus esculentus) root is an acceptable substitute,
while the pod or fruit ofthe plant, used frozen or fresh, will also produce a fair
quality ofaid. Okra can be purchased at some vegetable shops but must be used
within a few days to avoid them rotting. Pods should be crushed and placed in a
bucket ofwater; the next day they will yield a thick gum-like texture.
4.17 PRESSING
Pressing the post' ofpaper compacts the fibres tightly together. Western
methodologies utilize interfacing or felts to separate the sheets, to prevent them
bonding together during the pressing process. There are various ways ofpressing a
stack ofpaper but the general rule is "the slower the better" (Barrett, 1993:64). Paper
that has been pressed has a good wet strength' and is therefore easier to handle when
it is transferring to the drying system. Thin papers need more pressure than thick
sheets so that they are dry and strong enough for parting. (Barrett, 1993).
There are various methods ofpressing papers, but the basic method is to add weight
to the post in order to get rid ofunwanted water. A sponge can be used but this does
not promote sufficient bonding action. Heavy buckets ofwater can be placed on top
ofthe post, and this technique has been successfully used in projects with no
equipment or resources. In more established mills, vacuum tables are used to extract
the water and, in this way, form larger sheets.
I Post or stack ofpapers 2 The strength of a finished sheet when it is saturated with water.
105 Figure 4-38 Vac um pressing sheets of different sizes. Bob Matthysen Photograph by M.Coppes 2000, Rangst, Belgium
4.18 PARTING AND DRYING
4.18.1 Dryin g on th e Mould
In some countries, paper is not pressed but dried directly on the mould. When the
paper is dry the sheets are peeled offthe mould. Although no press or drying system
is needed, this method requires many screens. It is, however, a useful process in arid climates, where the sun dries the paper quick ly so that the mould can be used again.
Figure 4-39 Drying directly onto the mould, Flower Valley, W Cape Photograph Kim Berman 200 1
106 4.18.2 Loft Drying
Figure 4-40 Loft dryi ng, Holl and , Photograph by M.Coppcs, 2000, Verfmolen de Kat, Holland
During the earliest days of papermakin g in Europe, a system called Loft Drying was
utilized. Sheets of paper were hung out to dry in lofts or on the top story of a buildin g,
as these were considered to be the cleanest and warmest areas (Hiebert, 2000).
4.18.2 Board or Wall Drying.
In Japan, paper is brushed onto steam-heated, stainless steel drums. Board dr ying can be done on severa l different surfaces but the type ofsurface will affect the texture of the paper: the smoo ther the surface it is dried on, the smoo ther the surface ofthe actual sheet ofpaper. In India the wa lls are heated by the sun allow ing the paper to dry faster.
107 Figure 4-41 Brushing a sheet of paper onto a stainless steel drum , Japan 200 1 Photograph by M.Coppes, 200 I .
4.18.3 Drying Boxes.
The "rest raint dr y box sys tem' is probably the most practical and sophisticated method and requires little technology and low investment. The paper is dried individu ally on blotting paper which is placed on doubl e-fluted, corrugated cardboard that allows the air to flow from a fan placed at the rear ofthe stack. Th e entire stack is covered in plastic shee ting, allowing no air to escape. The fan is placed at the rear of the stack. Once the paper is dry, which should take a day depending on thickness, it is removed. The corrugated cardboard should then be dried off under weight, as it warps when we t, and wo uld affect the next batch ofpapers. A restraint-drying box, which effectively speeds up drying times and improves on quality, has been designed by the PRD U for use in Phumani Paper proj ects.
108 4.19 PAPER PROCESS AND INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES
The paper processes and techniques described in this text combine information from
existing literature as well as information gathered from two international exchange programmes to Japan and Belgium.
The knowledge gained about hand papermaking and the exposure to Eastern papermaking technologies during the visit to Japan, have influenced and benefited this research project. These experiences have been directly applied to projects utilizing invasive plant fibres for sustainable development. Many Japanese papermakers also produce paper in the traditional manner and this lends itselfto the rural environment where grass roots technologies are applicable and sustainable (refer to Annexure B).
109 CHAPTER FIVE
SPECIFIC METHODS AND PROCEDURES
PRACTICE-BASED RESEARCH
The aim ofthis investigation is not to produce any form ofspecialized papers, but to
demonstrate which paper can be made from any ofthe invasive plant species
described. No additives, such as sizing, colour or fillers I, have been added to the
papers. This investigation focuses on implementation in rural areas: therefore, the
addition ofalternative chemicals like as sizing which is added for specialized papers
used in printmaking, is not ofrelevance here.
The end-product is a new handmade paper which is strong and environmentally
friendly, as well as viable and attainable for a small business enterprise.
The following points outline the main methods I have investigated to reach a final
conclusion:
!h The formulation ofa specific data sheet. The data sheet is a way ofrecording the
relevant information that applies to this research and has provided a means of
extracting important data in order to compare the different fibres in terms of
fibre yield and productivity.
110 b. Map distribution ofthe species investigated. The map displays the main areas
where the invasive species investigated, are located. Species distribution is an
important factor in terms of availability and viability in rural areas.
f.:. Fibre yield. The information retrieved from the data sheets provided the amount
offibre extracted from a specific species. The yield was recorded in order to
determine the viability ofthe resource.
d. Productivity level. The productivity level indicates the efficiency ofa given
species in the production and manufacture ofpaper in a small business
enterprise.
5.1 THE FORMULATION OF A SPECIALIZED DATA SHEET
The data sheet is a common form ofrecording information in the hand papennaking
industry. The data sheet in this research has been derived from previous data sheets
ofLillian Bell (1995: 65) and Timothy Barrett (1983:445), and provides a basic
outline in which relevant information can be recorded. However, the purpose ofthis
research project ultimately has different objectives.
The data sheet required revision and adjustment in order to meet the requirements of
this investigation. Issues regarding the invasive status ofspecific species and the
methods ofcontrol needed to be included in the revised data sheet. Invasive
encroachment was a priority of this investigation, and relevant information had to be
I "(Also called a loading agent.) A substance, such as china clay or calcium carbonate, usually added to the beater, which will fill in the pores ofa fibre and change the opacity, weight and surface ofthe finished sheet". (Turner, 1998:218)
III recorded. The invasive species which were identified and investigated in this
research project all possess different characteristics and properties.
a. The fibre yield is different in any given species.
b. Tensile strength changes according to the fibre types and species.
c. Cellulose content affects the paper quality and is different in every plant
species.
d. Colour changes in accordance with the seasons and the processing methods
affect the appearance ofthe finished product.
The data sheet has been divided up into six main sections namely: a. Plant background. b. Fibre collection record. c. Pre-cooking preparation. d. Cooking preparation. e. Beating methods. f. Production output.
112 5.2 REVISED 0 T UNE OFT HE DATASHEET.
5.2.1 Plant Ba ckground.
Photo Id entiflcation.
Figure 5-1 Water hyacinth. Dra wing by Rita Weba (Henderson. 200 1:2 1)
Photographic identi fication ofspecifie species was important for easy reference to
the plant bein g investigated, and colour photograph s aided identification ofa
partic ular species through the colour of the flower or leaves. Hand drawings, which
often show the plant up close, also made identi fication easier - for exa mple, the wattle spec ies, which look similar but have slightly different leaf structures.
This research project deals with the problem of the invasive plant, and it was therefore extremely important to identi fy the exac t invasive spec ies and not an indigenous equiva lent.
11 3 Common name of plant
Given to assist those unfamiliar with the Latin name. Also used in a country such as
South Africa where several names are given for one plant in different languages, for
example the Ivory Park project gives the name "makoosha" for the milkweed plant.
Botanical name of plant
Used to identify the exact species being investigated; this information also ascertains
what family the plant comes from.
Family name of plant
This is included because, ifone member ofthe family yields a good fibre, it is
possible another genera I and species in the same order will do so, too.
Area of distribution
The area ofgrowth was important to this investigation, especially in the case of
Phumani Paper and other such projects wanting to utilize invasive fibres to improve
productivity. It would be preferable to utilize a fibre which is easily obtainable in the
vicinity ofthe project.. The information given in the maps has been recorded in the
SAPIA2 database and includes surveys back to 1979 (Henderson, 2001 :278)).
I Genus,A group ofanimals or plants with common characteristics, usually containingseveral species. 2 SAPIA,Southern African Plant InvadersAtlas. It is a projectof the Plant Protection ResearchInstitute and aims to collect information on the distribution, abundance and habitat types of alien plant invaders in all countriesof the SouthernAfrican Development Region.
114 • Water Hyacinth Figure 5-2 Map distribution of water hyacinth Henderson. 2001:21
Historical reference
Indicates how the plant was utilized with regard to fibre, and the environment in
which they are likely to grow , making identification and locating easier. For example
sisal was utilized in the manufacture ofcarp ets, so it could be possible to utilize the
waste from a parti cular company, i.e. by making use ofthe shorter fibres which form
part of the waste. Other uses can also be found: for example, water hyacinth can used
for fodd er for certain animals, as it is high in prot ein (Torl ey, 2000 :183).
Origin
As far as invasive vegetation is conc erned, this was a point of interest , as this
information enabled us to determin e why the particular plant was introduced into
South Africa. By providing particular reference to the plant's uses, it also led to a
better understanding of this specific fibre.
11 5 Invasive status
Included so as to differentiate between the species, and their different levels of
invasiveness; the category list was consulted. Information was also acquired on
methods ofcontrol for each, as different invasive plant species required different
forms ofcontrol. For example, some species should not be cut as this actually
promotes growth.
5.2.2 Fibre collection record
Date collected
Indicates the season in which the plant was harvested. During the different seasons plant vegetation tends to change in terms ofcolour, thus changing the appearance of the end result. The harvesting time differs for different plants, and processing methods vary according to the season in which the fibres are picked. Milkweed is best picked in September, after the pods have formed; ifthey are picked when the plant is flowering, it exudes a white milky sap that taints the final product. It also leaves brown stains on the hands and is very difficult to work with. "Also many plants do not develop their greatest fibre yield or strength until late in the season"
(Barrett, 1983:246).
Weight of fibre
This refers to the weight ofthe dry harvested material. It was recorded as to whether the weight was taken from a dry or wet sample, as this affected the final fibre yield
116 calculated from the dry sheet. Initial, unstripped fibre weight assisted in calculating
the fibre yield and productivity levels.
5.2.3. Pre-cooking Preparation
Pre-preparation
Data on whether or not the plant went through the fermentation process, and whether
it was pre-soaked, were also recorded. These two different methods have different
effects on the final paper, and the method was noted so that it was not overlooked or
forgotten. Ifthe plant was pre-soaked before cooking, it decreased the cooking time
and could also considerably change the colour ofthe fibre. Data recorded in this
section included whether or not the outer bark was scraped off the stem, as the bark
also changed the colour ofthe final product, and the information would affect the
production process for repeat orders.
Weight of stripped fibre
The weight ofthe stripped fibre was subtracted from the weight ofthe bare stems to
give the amount of the initial fibre yield.
5.2.4 Cooking Preparation
Type of chemicals used and amounts used
This information is important in terms ofthe kind of fibre used. Some fibres do not need soda ash in the breaking down process, and the use ofthis chemical is not environmentally sound. Tougher fibres needed a stronger solution or a more active
117 chemical ingredient, such as caustic soda. In this research I attempted wherever possible to eliminate the use of strong chemicals for environmental reasons. In addition, some chemicals are difficult to acquire in rural areas.
Cooking time
The time taken for cooking was carefully recorded, as this affected the strength of the fibre and the Ph levels. Cooking the fibres broke down the cellulose; if cooked for too long, however, the cellulose became weak and made the paper brittle and fragile.
4.2.5. Beating methods
Method
These results indicate the methods which worked better on different fibres. Different beating methods gave different characteristics to the final product; for this reason it was important to record this information. Where possible, hand beating was used.
Beating tests
The length of time it took for the changes in fibre maceration and separation to take place. These results were produced using a deckle box, taking the same amount of fibre for each test and recording the times between each test.
118 3hrs beating 5hrs beating time
Figure 5-3 Beating tests ofblack wattle 3-5hrs Photoscan M. Coppes 2003
Beating tim e
The overa ll time for the fibre to completely de-flocculate and the req uired time for
even fibre dispersion. Th e length of time taken for beating is important when trying
to manufacture specific pap ers, such as speciality papers, as in some cases a long
fibre must be left visibl e against shorter fibres.
Forming meth od
Some fibres performed better with Eastern and oth ers with Western sheet formation.
The inclu sion of formation aid, in terms of the amo unt and kind , was also record ed : some fibr es needed more formation aid than others, and some did not require any at all.
5.2.6. Production Output.
Amount of sheets produced
The number o f sheets produced were recorded, as well as the average weight per shee t. Using this inform ation , it was possibl e to determ ine the paper yield and to
11 9 relate producti vity levels to a spec ific fibre. Knowing how much paper a fibre ca n
prod uce is especially important for small business enterprises wh en fulfilling ord ers.
Pressing
This refers to how long the post was pressed for and the kind of press used.
Dr ying
It was important to standardize and record the dr ying method, espec ially in view of
the fact that sun-drying lightens the paper and drying on boards changes the surface
of one side of the paper.
Cha racter istics of final she et
The co lour of the paper and qualiti es such as strength and pliability.
Number of pages produced:
\ Paper Sample: ., . "
• •
. }
Paper sample 5-1 Milkweed (asclep ias fruticosa)
5.3 EXAM PLE OF A DATA SHEET (Refer to An nexure C for complete set of data sheets).
Plants common name: Black Wattle
Plants botanical name: Acac ia meamsii
120 Plant family: Fabaceae
Figure 5-4 Drawing ofblack wattle leaf structure, Figure 5-5 Photo docu mentation of black Drawing by Peter Weber wattle (Henderson. 2001:222.251) Photograph by. G.R. ichols, 200 I (Henderson. 2001:222,251)
Are a of Distribution: Widespread in Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Limpopo
Province, Swa ziland and Mpumalanga
Historical r eference: Cultivated for shelter, tanbark, woodchips, shade, firewood
and co nstruction poles.
Origin: S.E. Australia and Tasmania
1 Categ ory: Category one and is a transformer •
I Plants that domi nate or repl ace a layer of natural or semi natural ecosystem, thereby altering its structure, (Henderson, 2001:253).
121 FIBRE COLLECTION RECORD
Date collected: September 2000
Where was it harvested: Western Cape
Part of plant used: Stripped branches.
Weight of fibre: 1.2-kilo branches already stripped
PRE-COOKING PREPARATION
Retting: N/A
Cooking time: N/A
Weight of stripped fibre: 1.2 kilo
Weight of bare stem: unknown
COOKING PREPARATION
Chemicals used: 40% Soda ash =400grams
Cooking time: 2 hours
BEATING METHOD
Method: Hollander beater
Beating tests: tests were taken every halfhour for the last 2 hours
Beating time: 5 hours
Beater comments: Hard and heavy fibre
122 3 hrs 3-Y2hrs 4hrs 5-12 hrs
Figure 5-6 Beater tests ofblack wattle take n every half hour. (Act ua l sca n of paper)
SHEET FORMATION
Additives: formation aid 2 cups
Sheet formation: Western
Pressing: hydraulic press
Drying: restraint drying
Sizing: N/A
Sheet size: A4
Quantity: 52 sheets
Paper description: Walnut colour
Paper Sample:
Paper Sample 5-2 Black wattle
123 5.4 Ma p Distribution of Investi ga ted Invasive Plant Species
Milk weed (Ascl epias Pampas grass ( ortaderia Mo th ca tcher fruticoas) se lloana) (Araujia seric ifera)
r--- I 2L1 ~ - --- I
/
Black wa ttle (A cacia Watcr hyacinth Mearnsii) ( Eichhornia crass ipcs)
124 5.5 FIBRE AND PAPER ANALYSIS
By recording on the data sheets the information regarding the viability ofspecific
fibres, data could be retrieved, such as:
I. Fibre yield.
2. Waste percentage.
3. Productivity levels.
The information for each given fibre has been recorded on graphs for comparisons
and easy reference.
5.5.1 Fibre Yield
The fibre yield ofeach fibre was calculated from the recorded information on the
data sheets, by subtracting the weight ofthe useful fibre from that ofthe stripped
inner bark. Although calculation was made with the use ofvery basic research tools,
it enabled comparisons ofall fibres in terms ofthe amount offibre extracted from
each species, to be made. This information was also important in terms ofshowing which species contained higher fibre percentages, as this made them more viable than others.
125 FIBRE YIELD 4,------.
-Cl ··1---- ~ 3 -I- J: 2 -- r--,------..--,-- e iii :: 1 . - o Moth Catcher Pampas Water Moth Ca tcher Grey Poplar Milkweed (Seed ) Grass Hyacinth (Bast) D Weight of Fibre (Kg) 2 1.3 0.5 2 3.5 --- - - Weig ht of Stripped Fibre (Kg) 1 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.5 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES
Figure 5-7 Comparative graph of fibre yield.
Invasive Plant Species Yield percen tage per species
Moth Catcher (seed) 50 %
Grey Poplar 31 %
Pamp as Grass 100 %
Water Hyacinth 100 %
Moth Catcher (Bast) 10 %
Milkweed 14 %
The table abo ve assessed the percentage of useful fibre in eac h given plan t. One can clearly see that the milkweed fibre contains the lowest amount of fibre in comparison with the rest of the plants. However, this did not, in fact, mean that milk weed is an unproductive plan t, as wi II be show n later on in the investigation. pecies such as water
126 hyaci nth and pampas grass have a good fibre yield, but a lot of the useful fibre is \ as hed away during the cooking process.
5.5.2 Fibre Waste.
The ove rall outco me o f this investigation into the utilizat ion of and unwant ed,
invasive plant spec ies, was a produ cti ve one, with as much of the unwant ed plant
used in the process as possibl e. The fibre waste was calculated by subtrac ting the
weight of the useabl e fibre from the we ight of the waste.
WASTAGE %
150 ,------, w C) ex: 100 -j------,.--,---- r-...,------j Iz oW 0: 50 w a. o Moth Catcher Water Moth Catcher Grey Poplar Pampas Grass Milkweed (Seed) Hyacinth (bast) 14 o Percentage fibre yield f----50 -j-----31 I----100 -+-----100 I 10 IIPercentage wastage 50 69 0 o 90 86 INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES
Figure 5-8 Comparative study of fibre waste %
The was tage rate of eac h species varied considerably, with moth catcher bast fibre
being the highest. Once again the pamp as grass and water hyacinth proved to have
no waste, but wastage which occurred through the cooking process only became
vis ible once productivity levels were revealed.
127 5.5.3 Productivity Leve ls
Altho ugh some spec ies co ntained more useful fibres than others, the fibres were
broken down faster. This produced a less effective pu lp and therefore decreased
producti vit y levels and output. The productivity levels reflected the number of shee ts
prod uced as well as the fact that, although some species had a high fibre yield, this
did not necessari ly mean they were produ cti ve. This fact is important when
producing pap er in large quantities. Th e amounts show n below do not reflect the
amount ofsheets in weight , but rath er how man y sheets were produced with ease and
uniform formation from 500 grams of useful fibre.
INVASIVE PLANT PRODUCTIVITY LEV EL COMPAR ISON
550
540
530
520
grams I 510 shee ts
500
490 500 500 500 500 500 500 480
470 Moth Wa ter Moth Poplar Pampas Milkweed seed Hyacinth Bast roduced 27 17.5 12 36 1.5 41 fibre 500 500 500 500 500 500 INVASIVE PLANTS SPECIES
Flgurc 5-9 A comparison of productivity levels with different invasive species.
128 Productivity levels were calculated by dividing the amount ofsheets produced by the
amount offibre utilized. In this case the initial fibre weight was equalized to 500
grams in order to ascertain comparative figures. Therefore, we could calculate how
many sheets ofpaper were produced for every 500 grams ofuseable fibre.
Interestingly, milkweed - which had a very poor fibre yield - was the most
productive. The pampas grass yield was considerably lower, due to a large amount of
fibre which had to be broken down during the cooking process. The fibre characteristics in milkweed allowed for Eastern sheet formation: thinner sheets were produced, and it was possible therefore to cast more sheets. The different fibre construction ofpampas grass meant that sheets were slightly thicker to acquire an even sheet formation.
5.6 PAPER TESTING
"The wide variety ofpaper grades and properties ofpaper necessitates a multiplicity oftest methods" (Smook, 1986:313). The testing ofpaper becomes important when designing value-added products such as wrapping paper or handmade paper bags, where strength and pliability are important features. Although paper testing was conducted on various invasive plant fibres, it did not form a large component ofthis project, as it is a dedicated science and the end-use of the papers did not require the type ofextensive testing demanded ofcommercial papers.
Paper testing can be grouped under two headings namely;
129 1. Subjective and qualitative tests - the evidence from one's five senses. As
access to testing equipment was limited, this was the preferred form oftesting for
the purpose ofthis research project,.
2. Objective and quantitative tests - involving the use ofinstruments and
scientific equations (Gilmour, 1967). These tests have been undertaken at the
Sappi Research Unit.
5.7. SUBJECTIVE AND QUALITATIVE TESTING
One can learn a lot about the product by using sight, fingers tongue and cars. These tests are especially beneficial to small paper business, as they do not require expensive machinery or scientific data - only hands-on experience with the medium.
The "spit and finger test" (Gilmour, 1967:169) depends on experience and can only provide the user with measurements such as 'weak' or 'strong', and not specific numbers to indicate strength. Some examples ofmanual testing are:
5.7.1 Weight
By rubbing a sheet ofpaper between the fingers, one can judge the weight and thickness ofthe sheet. This experiment can be performed when the person conducting it has prior knowledge ofpaper weight and thickness.
130 5.7.2 Tear Strength
Tearing the paper in a slow and steady manner will give an idea ofstrength and
composition ofthe paper. Chemical papers have a harsh tear and some resistance,
while others offer a strong resistance when tearing.
5.7.3 Quality
The finish ofthe paper gives an indication ofthe furnishings of the paper. A well
beaten, hard sized paper will have a good "rattle'", but this also depends on the type
of fibre used. For example, pampas grass has a good rattle ifbeaten properly. The
quality can also be judged by the general look ofthe paper. The paper, when held up
to the light should have a uniform appearance. For example, ifthe fibres re not
beaten enough, they tend to flock together or "flocculate'" and will appear in the
finished sheet. Freedom from specks or shives 3 can be seen at this stage, showing the
purity and grade ofthe paper. Small businesses can grade their papers into A grade
and B grade papers in this manner.
5.7.4 Burst strength
An easy way to assess the strength ofa paper is to push the second finger through the
sheet by stretching the paper over the fingers while, at the same time, forcing the
I The sound produced byshaking a pieceof paper, indicating the hardness of the sheet (Turner, 1998:220). 2 To clump together during the making ofa sheet 3 Small bundles of fibres that have not beenseparatedcompletelyin the pulping process (Smook. 1986:394).
131 fingers through the sheet. The burst strength is important when making products
such as bags.
5.7.5 Sizing
The amount ofsizing added to the sheet can be judged by applying the tongue to one side ofthe sheet. The ease with which the paper takes up the saliva should be noted.
If the paper has not been sized, it will draw in the saliva quickly. Other tests can be conducted, such as applying heavy strokes ofink to the surface in a criss-cross fashion. When the ink remains firm and does not seep through to the other side, it has been sized well (Gilmour, 1967).
5.8 OBJECTIVE AND QUANTITATIVE TESTING
Various tests measure a wide range offactors that are important to the overall appearance and use ofthe paper and these tests have been undertaken at the SAPPI
Research Mill in Springs, Gauteng. The tests completed by machine have been put into graph form for ease ofreference and only show the differences - for example, the difference in strength between each plant species
The following tests were completed at the Sappi Mill;
1. Paper weight
2. Burst strength - the strength ofa paper
3. Tensile strength - the strength ofpaper under a certain amount oftension.
132 5.8.1 Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is determined by measuring the force required to break a narrow strip of paper. A strip of paper is placed between two clamps that slowly and gradually pull apart. The stretch of the paper can also be measured at this point
(Smook, 1986: 315). Information regarding strength is an important factor in this investigation, as weak paper cannot be used for certain product designs such as paper bags and, ultimately, the paper dictates the products' uses.
Width ofpaper 15rnm
Figure 5-10 The tensile strength reading is a guide to the performance ofpap er when subjected to tensional pull ing forces .
133 Tensile Strength 5-,------3.9 4 ------2.977 E 3 · - _ 2.427 ~ 2 1.568 _ 1.358 __ 1 _ 0.7233 o -1-_ -1..-'-..---_ -LlW-..---__ Moth Mo th Milkweed Pamp as Black Water Catcher Catcher grass Wattl e Hyacinth (Machine) (Hand) Invasive Plant Species
Figure 5- 11 Th e higher the tensi Ie rate the stronger the paper und er tension .
Water hyacinth mixed with pampas grass is the stronges t, wit h pure pampas grass bein g
the seco nd strongest. These fibres wo uld, therefore, be suitable for pap er bags and other
products that require strength in terms ofcarrying capacity.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES AND COTTON
14 -,-- -!.L-!-'-__-, 12 ··1------10 , ------, E 8 - --5.12 ~ 6 - - 2 427- - 2 977 3.94 --2 A6Z-- 4 - 1.568-0.7233- . . 1.358-- -- ,,. -- 2 ------=---1 o -,--- -,....---'-''-r----''''''"-.,.-- INVASIVE PLANT SPECIES AND COTTON Fig ure 5- 12 The ten si le strength ofthe invasive plant species in comparison with cotton rag papers. produced by Bronwyn Marsha ll. 134 Comparisons were made with the cotton rag paper investigated by Bronwyn Marshall. The cotton rag paper that was not soaked, was comparatively stronger than any ofthe other papers. This could have been for a number ofreasons: one is that the invasive plant paper sheets were considerably thinner than the cotton sheets produced by Bronwyn. The soaked cotton rag was weaker in comparison because it was soaked for an extended period oftime, thereby breaking the fibres down considerably. 5.8.2 Weight The weight ofa specified area is measured by cutting out a square piece ofpaper by means ofa template and then weighed. The weight is the mass per square metre and this is measured in the grammage per ml2. The weight for each species was as follows: 1. Water hyacinth and pampas grass 93 g/m2 2. Moth catcher (hand beaten) 79 g/m2 3. Moth catcher (machine beaten) 71 g/m2 4. Black wattle 60 g/m2 5. Pampas grass 70 g/m2 5.8.3 Bursting and Tearing Strength. Bursting strength is determined by placing the papcr over a rubber clamp through which pressure is applied at a specific rate. The pressure value at rupture determines the bursting strength. The higher the rate ofpressure, the stronger the paper. 135 Burst Strength Test 'iU"iii' 200 ·,,.------ll3, --. o ~ 150 102 113 ~ 100 1---- .---. g 50 [ 0 .+ ..1--'--.--_ _ :ll:: W ater Hyacinth Molhcatcher Black Walli e Pampas grass Milkweed Molhcatcher (Machine (Hand beaten) beaten) Invasive Plant Speci es Figure 5-1J Burst strength tests vary according to the fibre and method of processing. Pampa s grass, and wa ter hyacinth and pampas gras s, are strongest in term s of burst strength.This may be due to the fact that they were formed usin g the Western method of casting. Th ere are no gaps between the fibres, as shorter fibr es fill the gaps so that no air can ge t through to crea te pressu re. Milkweed and moth catcher are formed using the Eastern technique of casting, and contain longer fibres interlinking with each other. T his leaves large gaps or thinner areas in the shee t, allowing air to see p throu gh the sheet and causing the pressure to drop during testing. BURST STRENGTH WITH COTTON PAPER "iii' 452 ~ 500 -.------..:.=-- -176 ~ 400 .j------1 g- 300 . --173'------~ 200 · --102--67.4-- 54-1 - - .--:.-=--- - 1 - 100 · -- . ;t 0 .+__-'-....,._ -JIE:L-r-_ _ "'-,__J.-J'-,- .,.--_-L-....,._ _ ~ Qi 01 £'O c a::ro - C C1l 13 ro iii ~ ~ !. 1: ::::E 8 INVASIV E PLANT SPEC IES AND COnON Fig ure 5- t4 T he burst strength ofthe invasive plant species in comparison with colton rag papers produ ced by Bron wyn Marshall. 136 The results were comparatively lower in the invasive species, due to the fact that the invasive species contained no fillers or sizing. This factor led to stronger burst strengths as pressure built up, allowing no air to escape through the paper. The cotton rag papers also contained titanium dioxide and external sizing, which contributed to their strength. Although testing was conducted in a very simplistic manner, the outcomes were very interesting in terms of the various properties and characteristics ofthe paper. No sizing or additives for strength were added to the pulp in any ofthe samples. Many factors influenced the strength or the burst strength, such as beating times, sheet thickness, additives for strength, etc. For this reason the results during testing showed a large degree ofvariability. Averages should be calculated by testing large quantities ofthe same paper. The test results depicted in the invasive plant species were not taken from an average of several tests and, ifbeating times were changed for each given species' tensile strength and burst strength, the results may change considerably. It must be noted that this investigation set out to determine ifthese particular species could, in fact, form a sheet ofhand made paper. The papers were not meant for a specialized market but rather for the craft sector. Further research could be undertaken on some of the more successful species such as milkweed and pampas grass, in order to produce paper that qualifies for a specialized sector, such as acid-free printing papers. 137 CHAPTER IX PRODU T DESIG A DDEVELOP IET TILIZING HA D MADE PAPER AS A MEDI M Paper possesses a versatility that not many other mediums offer. The grass roots Icvel at which paper can be manufactured lends itself to the rural environment with little costs incurred lo r the production of sophisticated objects and marketable goods. Paper can be formed into moulds, spun or woven, turned into paper rnache or cast over three- dimensional armatures to create specialized lighting. Figure 6-1 Shades made from paper offer a warm light and, by using wire armatures, no high tech machinery is needed for the production of the armature. Photograph and designs by Mand y oppes 2003 138 Paper and fibre offer a vast range of options that need to be harnessed and utilized in a country such as SA where there is an abundance of natural vegetation as well as a large portion of the population skilled in traditional crafts. Through the manipulation of paper, South Africa can offer a product or item that is both environmentally sound and culturally innovative. WHAT' S HQT __ l~A I ' l:ii I ~ lUG :'II1:\\'''i ~' R E AI) AU . /\ BOUT 11 Figure 6-2 Various innovative technologies based on paper, ranging from a paper chair to pap er jewellery. (House and Leisure. March 2002 :24) The designs that have been produced as a result ofthis investigation have been utilized in art works and various once-off craft items, as well as some designs being implemented into selected Phumani Paper units. (Refer to Annexure D)The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development bears testimony to a large range of eco-friendly 139 products that were designed specifically for the summit. The products designed for the World Summit had to adhere to strict rules on the use ofenvironmentally friendly materials. For example, products were not allowed to contain plastics such as cellophane packaging. This led to some multi-purpose designs, such as the recyclo-frame (refer to Annexure D). The recyclo-frame is a form ofpackaging that houses embroidered cushions produced by the Paper Prayer Campaign'. Once the packaging has been utilized, the box transforms into a picture frame, eliminating the need to throw the packaging away. Certain methods ofimplementing environmental design into the manufacturing sector can be based on eco-efficient principles. These principles should be adhered to ifone wants to produce an environmentally sound product. 6.1 ACKNOWLEDGING THE IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION WHILE SUPPORTING INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. "Today we live in an age ofheightened environmental awareness, fuelled by public interest groups and the media. The process involved in manufacturing and supporting most products may have adverse impacts on the environment, I The PaperPrayers campaign is a programme wherebycommunities produce hand-embroidered articles, which are auctioned or sold in order to collectmoneyfor AIDSawarenessand communitydevelopment. 140 ineluding the generation ofwaste. the disruption ofecosystems and the depletion ofnatural resources "(Fiksel, /996:/.) . 6.1.1 Eco-efficiency "Eco-efficiency is a term that does not yet app ear in the dictionaries, but has already ga ined cons ide rable force in shaping the env ironmental poli cies and pra ctices of leading corporations" (Fikse l, 1996 :49). Altho ugh craft production relating to hand papermaking is not on an industrial level, it ca n relat e to these eco -efficient principles through the wise use o f natural resources, as well as ceo -friendly method s of manufacture. Eco efficiency ca n be broken up into three categori es, nam ely: Cleaner Process Technologies sho uld ge ne rate less pollution and waste during manufacture. Cleaner Products Th e actual product should be red esigned so that it generates less waste and pollution. Sustainable Resource Use The use of invasive plant species lend s itself to this kind of design . Figure 6-3 Approaches to ac hieving ceo-efficie ncy (Fikscl, 1996:50) 141 6.2 ECO-EFFICIENT CRAFT The model utilized in industry could be adapted to suit the craft sector. This would ensure that the manufacture is eco-efficient, thereby gaining the advantage in the marketplace. The model is adjusted to address issues such as product design, material access, market access and resource use in the production ofcrafts. 142 Sustainable use of Manufacture resources. • Eco friendly manufacture • Energy • Labour intensive, ensuring efficient Product Design community involvement. • Use of • Culturally based. • Use ofnon-toxic chemicals and invasive plant • Innovative methods. species. • Seasonal • Low technology • Use of • Access to materials recycled and agro waste. Figure ~ Model for ceo-efficient craft production 143 6.3 l' EXAM PLE OF AN E O-EFFI IEI'T PR OD TT ILIZEDBY PH MA l ' I PAP ER 6.3. 1 T hc Box Frame lnnovar lve C uiturally- bused T hc box frame is a Th e box frame was different form of designed to package thc packaging. Th c Zulu plates produced in packaging can be turned KZ . Siyathutuka, the into a picture frame once pap er unit in Eshowe, thc platc has been KZN wo rks with thc rem oved . Th e product is local potters by solid and can be sold at a packagin g plates and rca onabl y high price as pots in a uniq ue man ncr , thc frame is not part of thereby addi ng va lue to thc packaging but the end produ ct. The instead offers anot her initial packa ging did not prod uct. ensure safe cushioning for thc product and thc plates were arriving at their designations broken. Manufacture Low Techno logy T he entire box is die Th e product is made cut and eac h part is a from ca rdboard, separate piece, The handmade pap er and two middl e sections woo d glue and is easi ly arc die-cut boxes that asse mbled. 0 can be utilized machinery othcr than the se parately for other die-cut process is items such as necessary, stationery se ts. Thi s factor allows for a wid e range of products to be packaged by one simple design . / i\latcrials Th e window is made with Perspe. . Although not an cnt irel y ceo -efficient mat erial , thc nature ofthc product is not that of throwaway packa ging but that of a utilitarian obj ect. l.c, picture fram e. The pap er u ed for laminating is produced from banan a lea ves (agro-wa te) and can be manu factured in various degrees offering a wide ran ge of texture . 144 6.2.1 Pr odu ct Design Harnessing craftrnaking skills has never been a problem in outh Africa, as a large portion of the population possesses skills in traditional handicrafts. Traditional cra fts are now becoming unique and fashionable: for example, terms likc'tAfro hie" are used to symbolize African design. A significant problem which is yet to be overcome, is that of bridging the gap between remote rural areas and the metropolitan and international arenas; this lack of access to markets has been the cause ofcollapse of many poverty relief programmes. Designers working within the rural areas need to create new, innovative and ceo-friendly products which respond to seasonal and local trends, but can be produced by craftspeople. Flg ure 6-5 Plastic bag crafts (llouse and Leisure. March 2002 :19) 145 Local community groups, together with Alison outras of the Mine Workers Development Agency, produced the recycled plastic products illustrated in F i ~ I JrC 6-5. The bedspreads and bags are made using traditional hand-hooking methods. Figure 6-6 Paper vessels. (Produced By Mandy Coppes, 2002) The paper vessels above were designed for a jewellery company to use for display purposes. These designs reflect traditional African basketry and pottery, utilizing minimal materials such as paper, beads and wire. 6.2.2 Manufac ture and the sustaina ble usc of resou rces The manufacture of craft items should be based on the use of materials that are accessible to the community, rather than those that deplete natural resource - like the use of porcupine quills as design clements, by various craft initiatives. This has resulted in a 146 major outcry by environmental groups and animal anti cruelty groups, as porcupines are killed for the quills alone. I ernand is such that the species could soon be decimated. .~ Figure 6-7 Milkweed spun and knitted. Fig ure 6-8 Paper has been transfonncd into 2 (By Mandy Coppcs, 2002) dim ensional form s as part ofa backdro p in a display of local crafts. (Produced by Mandy Coppes and Bronwyn Marshall. 2003) Paper products, such as the designs in Fig ure 6-7 and 6-8, are produced from invasive plant species and agro waste, thus utilizing resources that are free and available, and that would otherwise be causing destruction to the environment. Packaging such as the box frames are designed to eliminate the throw-away notion of packaging and tum the material into a useable item, such as a picture frame. 147 J Fig ure 6-10 A rtwork by Peter Jentenuar (Photograph by Mandy Coppcs, IlollaI1l1 20()() Paper and fibre offer freedom and creativity to create a wide variety of products, and new products arc continually being designed and put onto the market. The concept o f designing new, ceo-friendly packaging for Phumani Paper units is now being investigated. In addition, further studies arc being conducted into the design and manufacture ofother paper-based products, such as materials for low cost housi ng and briquettes. Inspiration could lead the modern designer back to the methods of the ancient hinese and Japanese in the production ofdoors, and even as far back as paper houses. The unlimited scope of paper and fibre has the potential to provide products not only for the craft and luxury market but also for the building and ceo-friendly packaging market. 14 CONCLUSION The investigation into hand papermaking examined specific invasive plant species that could be utilized within the hand papermaking industry in South Africa. Various aspects have been covered that embody an overall theme: a. The need to create a cultural industry utilizing invasive plant species as a resource. b. The manufacture ofpaper and products that is eco-efficient in terms of production and materials used. c. Sustainability in terms ofresource use. d. Profitabilityin terms of products for the developmentofsmall business enterprise, i.e. innovative productdevelopment. The followingquestions were posed in order to formulate a hypothesis: a. Can invasive plant fibres be used for the production of hand made paper? Lilian Bell states that "... the portionofa plant that papermakersare interested in is the cellulose fibre. All plants contain cellulosefibre, some containing higher percentages than others" (DeIl1995: 19). Deriving information from various papermakingjournals leads one to the conclusion that, if a speciescan be found with an adequate amount of cellulose fibre, hand made paper can be produced. Also, if one species reveals a good fibre, other species from that family may also yield a good fibre, thus broadening the research base. 149 The fibres utilized in this research project were taken from those species that are invasive to the South African environment. The important factor in this investigation was that the species selected were from Categories 1 and 2 invasive plant species, meaning, those plants that are prohibited and must be removed by all land users, unless otherwise stated. Each fibre contained its own characteristics. Initially the fibres were tested purely to see ifthey could produce paper and then tests were conducted for strength, pliability, yield and productivity. The fibres differed and some were more viable than others. a. Water Hyacinth Water hyacinth, initially had a high yield with 0% waste, but was not productive in terms ofthe amount offibre that was retrieved after the cooking process. The bulk therefore had to be mixed with pampas grass in order to produce an adequate amount for sheet formation. Water hyacinth also had a high tensile strength, with pampas grass being the strongest. It can be deduced that, because pampas grass was added to the water hyacinth, it strengthened the paper. Compared with the cotton samples provided by Bronwyn Marshall, the water hyacinth sample was considerably weaker. The added strength in the cotton samples could be due to the fact that the cotton pulp had certain additives and fillers that ensured it was stronger than those with no additives. Further investigation is recommended on a site ncar to a body ofwater containing large amounts ofwater hyacinth: for example, the work could be undertaken in conjunction with a clearing programme, which would enable the collected hyacinth to be harvested. Methods ofstockpiling fibre without the fibre 150 rotting, should also be looked at. An investigation into wrapping and plaiting the dry stalks for production offurniture for new product development could be another area ofresearch for industrial designers. b. Milkweed Milkweed had a significantly low initial fibre yield but was increasingly productive in terms ofthe amount ofsheets produced. It had an average tensile and burst strength when compared to the other invasive species, but has proved to be very strong in the production of lampshades and other three-dimensional products. This extremely versatile fibre could be hand-beaten or machine-beaten, with each method creating contrasting textures. The ability to handbeat a fibre is important: some units - especially those in rural areas - do not have access to electricity and, in addition, the hand-beating process also produces a paper with different qualities to that of machine-beating. Cotton dyes adhere effectively to the milkweed fibre, allowing for the production ofa wide range ofcolours and products. c. Moth catcher (bast fibre) The bast fibre contained very little fibre and was very difficult to extract, as it attaches itselfto fences and posts which also make it difficult to harvest. The entire plant could be mulched and added to a pulp, but it contained large amounts of unwanted properties, such as lignin. It could, however, be utilized in the production offuel briquettes or other similar products. The strength tests were not conducted on this fibre as there was not enough paper produced to complete the tests. 151 d. Poplar Poplar was not a very productive paper, as it did not produce enough fibre per 500 grams to produce paper. Riverreed was added to the bulk in order to form sheets. The fibre was difficult to extract as the layer ofbast fibre appeared to be very thin. It was also retted for a long time. The fibre was pure white, which is a sign ofpure cellulose fibre, making this species viable in terms offibre properties. Extensive research on the retting process should be undertaken in order to find a way to extract the fibre with ease, as this plant is increasingly invasive and should be utilized. e. Moth catcher (seed fibre) The moth catcher seed fibre had a good fibre yield and was also very productive in terms ofamount ofsheets produced. The plant exists in small pockets in most ofthe provinces but, as a seasonal plant, the pods only produce seed-hair fibres between April and July. Investigation into stockpiling and storage ofthe fibre is recommended, to allow for production throughout the year. The fibre produced a beautiful, unique paper which could be suitable for a niche market at a higher price. Moth catcher had an average tensile strength compared to the other invasive plants. f. Pampas grass Pampas grass had a high yield with 0% waste. The productivity was average in terms ofsheets produced. The paper had a, above-average tensile strength when compared with other invasive species but, again, below average when compared with cotton rag. Further research on specialty translucent papers could be investigated. Several plants can produce paper if they yield the right amount of fibre. The underlying objective as far as the development ofsmall business is concerned is 152 the fibre's ability to be a productive resource for the creation ofemployment. The fibres investigated in this research project cover new ground and the outcomes and results are new to the paper industry creating papers which offer different qualities and textures, and allowing for new product development. b. Can the utilization of invasive plant vegetation in the papermaking industry assist in the eradication of invasive plant species? The mechanical harvesting and utilization ofinvasive species for the hand papermaking industry could be an active component in efforts to control the invasive species problem in South Africa, through mechanical harvesting. Mechanical harvesting works together with other methods, such as biological and chemical control, to cut back on an invaded area. Today it is widely understood that the eradication process is only successful ifall control methods are used simultaneously in a combined, or integrated approach. According to Henderson et al. (1987:9) "The control ofweeds and plant invaders can only be achieved through the expenditure oftime, energy or money, which are all precious items in an increasingly competitive society". It can take several years to gain control over a certain environment for eradication purposes, e.g. water hyacinth seeds can lie dormant in riverbeds for up to 15 years. Continued research and follow-up control is important. The word "control" is mostly used in terms ofmanagement ofthe offending plant by not allowing it to spread or transform to larger areas ofproductive land. The benefits ofhaving a small business unit which utilizes the invasive plant as it grows, can aid in the control ofthat species in a small area. Certainly, ifbusiness units were placed under specific mechanical harvesting 153 programes, such as the Working for Water programme, the industry could grow and develop. The notion oftotal eradication is a naive one, and should rather be looked at in terms ofcontrol through preventing the spreading-out ofplantations. "The first and very important lesson ofweed and plant invader control, is that it often demands perseverance - hence the need for sound motivation" (Henderson et aI. 1987:9). The incentive for this investigation is to review whether the utilization ofinvasive resources could conserve natural, indigenous habitats, while at the same time providing free raw materials to generate income for the production ofcrafts. c. Can hand papermaking and the use of invasive plant species lead to the creation of a new cultural industry? "Art and Culture are, in fact, often used to help revitalize and improve the economies ofinner cities, suburbs and rural areas. Art and Culture are also successfully used to help achieve educational goals and ameliorate some ofsocieties most pressing problems. Although arts and culture can be a source ofcontroversy, they are morefrequently aforce for enhancing community identity and making communities more vibrant and prosperous" (Strom. E. n.d: 9) Historically, hand papermaking is not an integral part ofthe South African culture: the origins ofpaper, in fact, stem primarily from China and Japan. Today a large part ofthe South African population is involved in the production of traditional crafts, which utilize different natural resources found in the South African environment. The craft sector is 154 remarkablysmall in South Africa, bearing in mind the number of people who are skilled in using their hands. Most crafters work on a commissionbasis and operate in the small business industry. South Africa has an abundanceof talent, good ideas and cultural capital, but a concerted effort is needed to capitalizeon these. A new contemporarycraft such as hand papermaking that responds positivelyto environmental pressures, can lead to the growth ofan otherwise under-developed industry. Hand papermaking provides an alternativeopportunityto develop a new kind of industry in South Africa. Due to the unsophisticated nature of the process, it is a craft that can be utilizedand developed by all communities. The introduction ofinvasive plant speciesas a natural resource, could benefit the economyof a small community. In addition, the productionofquality handmade productsin a communityserves to unite that community in a common purpose, and put the area on the tourist map as a place ofinterest. The fact that the resource is invasive, is compatiblewith the trend towards a "greener", more environmentally-conscious future. Developingcountriesare often considered to lack understanding on environmental issues,and to put the environment low on the agenda of economicimprovement. The fact that invasiveplants are being utilized in this investigation could lead to the developmentof new types ofpaper. Other countries may not have the access to particular invasiveplant fibres, either because they are not a problem there, or they do not exist in those countries. These new papers can gain access to the paper market purely because they are prevalent in South Africa and nowherecise. Hand papcrmaking in South Africa has taken a differentdirection to that ofits Western and Easterncounterparts. The way in which paper is made in South Africa, for example, 155 has a very different look and appeal to paper made by Mapepa, in Zimbabwe. Mapepa paper is very rough in texture and almost takes on the characteristics ofthe actual plant. For example, the Baobab paper has an African appeal, as opposed to a distinctive, fine, long-fibred Eastern sheet ofpaper. These changes and differences in papers made in different parts ofthe world, add to their distinctive quality; there is also room for a uniquely 'African paper' to enter the global market in its own cultural right. d. Does this research project relate to the four pillars of sllstainahle development? According to most current theories on sustainable development, Broad-Based Sustainable Development (BBSD), has four main components.. These are: 1. A healthy growing economy operating on a global basis and not being country specific. The healthy economy constantly transforms itself to maintain and enhance the standard ofliving. 2. The benefits ofthe economic growth are equitably shared: women, minorities, the poor and the handicapped all get a fair deal from economic growth. 3. Respect for human rights, good governance and a healthy civil society. 4. Sustainability i.e. in the process ofeconomic growth, the environment is not destroyed (Leach.M, Mearns, R& Scoones. I, 1997: I). These pillars ofdevelopment form part ofthe outcomes ofthe Johannesburg World Summit held in South Africa in 2002, and relate to issues which governments from all over the world have set out to accomplish in the coming years. 156 "Government policies are necessary to protect inalienable rights, to promote good governance and democracy, to provide opportunities for all people to participate, and to protect the environment" (Weaver. H, Rock. T & KustererK. n.d: I). Sustainabledevelopment can then be furtherdivided up into three main categories in order to ascertain if this investigation does in fact relate to sustainable development, namely: 1. Environmentalconservation 2. Social development 3. Economic development Environmental conservation through the sustainable use of resources If the concept of 'invasive encroachment' was lookedat in a positive, instead of a negative, light it could make a direct contributionto all categories ofsustainable development. At present, invasive specieshave a negativeimpact South Africa's natural fauna and flora which, in tum, impacts negativelyon the tourism industry and farming and, ultimately, on the country's economy. This investigation aims to help control specific invasive species by utilizing them in the production ofhandmade paper. Utilizingthis natural resource, which is not requiredby any other industry, enhances the bio-diversityofSouthern Africa through helpingto curtail invasive species, and promoting the use of the land and its resourcesin a more equitable and sustainable manner. 157 Hand papermaklng and social and economic development In the past, economic growth in South Africa ignored the development ofthe people, leaving a legacy of uneducated, unmotivated people living in communities with few amenities and fewer resources. Community-based programmes, such as hand papermaking, help to elicit interest from the South African public as well as the international public in a specific community. This helps empower the community and develop the local economy. With the advent of community-based initiatives such as hand papermaking, skills like numeracy and literacy are developed in order to learn the basics ofbuilding a successful small business. As the economy within a small community develops, spending power is increased, environmental awareness increases, more skills are developed, and the community is empowered. Milkweed and Port Jackson willow have recently been introduced into the Phumani Paper programme's manufacturing units, and have proved to be successful in terms of marketability and sustainability. Twanano currently manufactures small amounts ofthe milkweed paper, which brings in an income ofbetween R400 and R600 per month per person. The participants have reached their initial goal in terms ofsalary and now wish to grow both the industry and their income. They have certainly captured a niche market, as the kind ofpaper which milkweed produces is not currently being made by anyone else in SA and is distinctly Japanese in texture. The product needs to access a larger market through marketing strategies and product development. The milkweed fibre is both unique and diverse in that it can be produced by hand or machine to allow for 158 different textures and densities. The Twanano paper project has developed unique papers from this investigation through dying and manipulation oftexture and colour. Relative importance of this investigation. This research project opens several doors for other initiatives which could arise from the utilization ofinvasive plant species. The methodsofpulping and refining ofplant fibres in the hand papermaking industry can lead to other commercial industries. For example, the fuel briquettes that are manufactured in Chembe, Malawi utilize a similar process to hand papermaking to refine agro-waste. These briquettes directly benefit the people living in the vicinity and help to curb the destruction of natural forests for fuel. The hand papermaking industry in South Africa could be part ofthe process by adopting a progamme ofthis nature. In Japan paper has been made into fabric that can be waterproofed and strengthened. Initially worn by the poor, the fabric was greatly valued for its warmth in winter. Sliding doors, lamp shades and hot air balloons are just a few ofthe other products produced from paper in Japan. Paper and fibre perform a key role in the construction ofthe distinctive housing which is part ofthe Japanese culture. Today there is a renewed interest in the traditional ways ofhand papermaking the world over. Asao Shirnura,in November 2002 introduced the art ofmaking Pina Shifu (paper thread made from pineapple leaf fibre) to the PRDV.This renewal ofancient crafts incorporates a new direction and process to hand papermaking,and could lead to the development of a new industry in South Africa. The fact that invasive plant species could also be a major 159 resource for other industries, would further benefit the control and sustainable use of such resources. Hand papermaking can be taken to a different level in South Africa, one that relates to the South African culture and is viable enough to sustain a small industry. Products such as vacuum-formed vegetable trays and three-dimensional sophisticated design could penetrate a completely different sector in the public domain. Industrial designers, for example, could develop paper pulp into products such as biodegradable doors and other retail products which could in tum stimulate furtherresearch on low cost housing and utilitarian products that benefit the larger South African community. Products of necessity could be produced by empowerment schemes locally, thus boosting the spendingpower ofcommunities, improvingthe economyofSouth Africa. It is of major importance to develop the small business industry in South Africa, as the craft sector does not provide jobs for the craftsperson. This is largely due to the fact that South Africa has a history of traditional craft production.The creative sector in South Africa is small, with fewjob opportunities which makes it important to develop the small business industry. This investigation addresses issues of the environment, practical craft production, empowerment, skills and job opportunities, through the identification of invasive fibres that are able to produce paper. These outcomes add to the skilled workforceand allow the small business to expand. With further investigation, other industriescould be targeted through product developmentand the innovative use of fibre. 160 ANNEXURE A SKILLS DEVELOPMENT 161 THE RANGE OF SKILLS INVOLVED WITH HAND PAPERMAKING Obiectives Lesson Methodolozv Materials MODULE 1 Theoretical Understanding of Papermaking: - Theoretical lesson, including visual Glossary. slides, samples of paper - Introductionto Papermaking communication(slides/images&& products, overhead,flip-chart - Historyand Traditions samples) and pens. - BasicTerminology - Group discussions,tasks and - Importance of eco-efficient presentations utilizationofresources Basic Studio Equipment & Set-up: - Tour & Demo All necessary studioequipment in - Studio lay-out - Group discussion,tasks and report- workingorder. - Basic understanding of how back paper is made - Developmentof working methodology: Studio rules Production of moulds & - Demo ofhow to construct, Wood, nails, hammer, mesh, deckJes then groups oftwo assisting varnish, comer clamps, each other in making nlue, Technical Training: - Fibrepreparation: sourcing, - Fieldtrips (sourcing materials) Scissors & clippers, bags, mall- cutting, soaking & cooking - Practicalworkshops& demo's on etc, cooker, pot, stove, shredder. - Beatingprocesses: By hand beating& sizing techniquesas well water, containers, Aquapel& and Whizz mixer as methods of testing pulp Whizz mixer. - Sizing techniques: Internal Sheet forming: - Practical workshops, demos & Mould & deck-les, vat, water, - Pulling, couching, pressing discussions containers, tab-les, interleaving & parting material, felts. dryingsystem and - Finishingprocesses: drying blotters. methods Quality control & - Groupdiscussions and trouble- Finished sheets made by group & evaluation: shooting troubleshooting notes. - sorting & grading Operational Systems: - Practical exercises in team-working Basic studio equipment - Productionlines and - Groupexercises and discussions streamlining - Team working and productivitytargets 162 Objectives Lesson Methodology Materials MODULE TWO Introduction to Fibre Theoretical lesson including visual Cutters. bags. visual material and Technologies: - communication (slides/images & samples. pot. stove. water and Basic History and - samples) vats background of fibre - Group discussions. tasks and - Fibre Types and Analysis presentations Fibre preparation: - - Practical exercise in the field harvesting. retting, steaming looking at specific fibre types & stripping Technical Training: Prelimenry preparation - Practical workshops in cooking Advanced studio equipment. data Cooking, handbeating additives fibre. using chemical additives and sheets, paper chemicals: sizing & - Beating processes: The testing fibre methyl-cellulose Hollander Beater - Introduction to the Hollander Beater: - Improving quality through operation, safety and care paper properties and Practical workshop in the production increasing fibre %'s - ofvarious fibre papers. including - Streamlining Production: production in teams additional additives, draining racks, etc - Recording data and - Introduction to data collecting and formulating recipes formulating recipes Creative Processes: . Dying paper pulp: Natural - Practical workshops and Acetate, squeeze bottles. paint and chemical dying demonstrations in the production of brushes, dyes, Methylcellulose, - Pulp painting: stenciling, free coloured paper pulps polystyrene. knives & tape hand and decorating (shaped - Group projects on creative papers and embedding) applications with paper pulp 163 Objectives Lesson Methodology Materials MODULE THREE - Theoretical lesson, including visual Glossary, slides, samples of paper Introduction to the communication(slides/images&& products, overhead, flip-chart Applications of paper: samples) and pens. - Product development: - Group discussions,tasks and Historyand background in presentations the hand papermaking industry Technical Training: · Paper in Practice: Handling - Through experimentation and tasks Bone folder. ruler. scissors, glue, and using paper knives. cutting mat · Paper adhesives: natural and chemical Paper products: · Bookbinding(Pamphlet, stab . Practical workshopsand Bone folder. ruler, scissors. glue. and sewn bindings) demonstrations knives, cutting mat. cardboard - Envelopes and sewingtools · Boxes (handmade and die-cut) Marketing and Business Skills: Practice based workshopping - Pricing - Practicalworkshopsmad Marketingand location of demonstrations. with all the necessary items such - as; ledgers, invoice books, retail outlets - Practicebased facilitation. - Order facilitation - Completionofa phantomorder. registers, order books. - Datasheets · Recipes · Ledgers - Invoicing - Bankaccount details - Customer care 164 ANNEXURE B INTERl'\TATIONAL EXCHANGE PAPERMAKING One of the main areas of the study visit to Belgium was that of papermaking and its applications. Europe and America are in the forefront of hand papermaking using it not only for production purposes but also as a means of expression. Belgium and Holland have a wealth of paper artists and mills to visit. we were fortunate enough to attend the Holland Paper Bienale 2000 in Ryswyk. Bronwyn and I are involved with the development of the Paper Research and Development Unit at the Technikon by developing new techniques and methods for the successful operation of a paper mill. We both gained important knowledge and experience through working with and meeting various paper artists. Bob Mat sen We attended a one week papermaking workshop with Bob Mattysen at his studio in Ranst, along with a student from Karel de Grote. Bob has been developing different techniques and application in papermaking for the last 20 years. He has taken part in the Holland Bienale and has studied with the leaders of papermaking in Japan. He is presently working with Flax, a fibre which Bob uses to create sculptures, some of them amazingly large, he then adds pigment and glazes. adding another dimension. In one week we concentrated on working with 3 dimensional forms made from Flax and Abaca (a paper used in cigarette manufacturing). This was a new technique to Bronwyn and I, opening new doors in papermaking as an art form. We produced several sculptures and I intend to research a fibre in South Africa which is equally as strong as Flax but indigenous to South Africa so that this technique can be transferred to other students. 166 Bob uses a vacum table to produce the large sheets needed to cover his very large sculptures. The vacum table is a versatile piece of equipment and allows for artistic freedom in papermaki ng. The table is ideal for pulp painting and printing relief objects into paper pulp. I had never used a vacum table for the production of paper, opening a new field in the making of art through paper. Working with Bob Mattyhsen broadened our knowledge in papermaking and practice. He allowed us to beat more fibre at anytime in his studio. which we then produced sculptures for our final evaluation at the end of our study visit. BOB MA TTYHSEN AND VEERLA ROOMS Pulp Is poured onto the vacum tablo making larg o she ot form ation much oasl r. 167 Peter GentenaarandPatricia Torle -Gentenaar Peter Gentenaar studied sculpture and printmaking at art colleges in the Hague. Milan and Californi a. Since then he has made his own paper for his diverse art forms. In addition he developed papermaking techniques which fall somewhere between the traditional method and modern mechanical production. He has designed a vacum table. a press and drying equipment as well as a hollander beaterfor beating long fibres. which is sells. Patricia Torley-Gent enaar makes art through pulp painting, creating intricate images using different colour pulps . using the vacum table to produce the end results . Veeria Rooms and Bob Mattyhs en took Bronwyn and Ion a field trip to Peter Gentenaar's home and stud io where we saw the endless possibilities of papermaking, and artistic expression. Pulp Painting byPatricia Torley-Gentenaar 16 HOLLAND PAPER BIENNAL 2000 Peter Gentenaar and his wife Patricia Torley co-ordinate the Holland Siennal, and on our visit to their studio we were fortunate enough to be invited to the opening exhibition. The exhibition showed the works of 24 paper artists from all over the World, eight of whom specia lize in paperjewelry. All the artists use paper as the basis for their work which is both two-dimensional and three-dimensional. They manipulate it in all sorts of different ways and either make the paper themselves from plant fibres, or use machine-made paper. Nel Linssen NelLinssen'sjewelry, composed of forms thatrepeat themselves is made of different coloured craftpaper SusanCutts Susan Cutts' sculptures of shoes aremade out of Abaca. PeterGe e aar II...., ...J displayingpulppainting at theopening exhibition of the Holland Slennal 2000 169 PAPERMAKING WORKSHOP IN GERMANY ID Images are carved inlo linoleum creating arelief image whichisthen appli ontobags and folder cove Bronwyn Marshall, Ivan Durt and myself were invited to facilitate a workshop in papermaking at Esther Sellner's studio in Badlangansalza in Germany. As Karel de Grote was closed for a 2 week holiday we went to Germany to teach bag making and applying relief printing to paper products. We worked with 10 women who work in the studio producing paper goods for the craft industry. The press visited the sludioduring Ihe workshop and covered the process 10 documentit in the local newspaper 170 .lAll A \VA HI .1 PAl EE HA TD PAPERM KIJ C Drying paper in Japan onto stainless steel drum s, Photogaph by Mandy oppes 200I, Japan Hand made paper is deeply rooted into the Japanese way of life and has been very important in its cultural development. Though the demand for hand made paper has decreased, it is still indispensable to the Japanese tradition. Ino-cho Public Papermaking Museum The lno-cho Paper Museum. The museum held a wealth of knowledge and portrayed paper making through the ages, not only in Japan but throughout the world. Photograph by Mandy oppcs, Japan, 2001 171 ANNEXURE C COMPLETE LIST OF DATA SHEETS SPECIFIC [NYASIYE PLANT FIBRES 174 PA IPA RA HI T ORI AL BA KGRO ID Plants com mo n name: Pampas russ, silwergras . Pla nts bot anicul name: ortadc ria selloana. Plant family: Poaceae. Wilma raux 1989 Henderson. 200I :12 Area of distribution: Wid espread in the Western ape, Eastern ape, orth ern Province, Swaziland and Mpumalan ga. Historical referen ce: Ornamental and mine dump stabilization. Origin: S Am erica (Braz il, Argentina and hile). Ca teg ory: atego ry one, potential transform er. '" ~ . ~ '4 I NOITMII'N . '1' .. j ...... "" • PR O VIN e ! L-- '.! ) I .....~ . ", ~ _ e ,. ) NOR fH WI I' 1" r' MPUMA· , " IJ~VI HC ~~ i.'" \ l _ J*. 1 .• I "'---u ...... ' OAUflNO ' -" J ! 28 I, ...... ,.... • .t'\. . .."" J . 1 . ' , , ...... ,. 'lfll ' f ATI .. " ---'" ' I _~ ,~ ""O f k W: ' JO \ ~. .. HO,A1HIAN C AP . t I ~ J JX.~ l •. •t " J t I ... , J> '\ • • -;• • "" .1 • ,., • ...... , ...... ' ....;..;.\' ...... ". .. ' ('... .. '" w llnlt". C A" • 3.1 , .• r .' ~ II " .Ie ' ;~ 16 JO Mapdi tributionof pampas gras (Henderson. 200I :12) 17 FIBRE OLLE '1'101' RE ORO. Retting: fA Dut e collected: s" August 2002 Wh er e was it harvest ed: Doornl ontcin, rauteng. Part of the plant used: tcms. Weight of fibre: I kilo PR E OOKING PR EP RATI ON Retting: fA ooking tim e: fA Weight of strip ped fibre: I kilo Weight of bare stems: fA OOKING PR EP R T IO I! hernicals used: 20% ada Ash = 200 grams Cooking time: 4 hrs BEATI G METHOD Me thod: Hollander beater Beating tests: Tes ts taken after 5 hours every 30 minut es and then after one hour eve ry 15 minut es. Beating tim e: 6 hours Beater comments: Pampas grass is a hardy and very heavy fibre; it kept on sinking to the bottom of the beater. Did not get dra wn up into the roller. SHEET FO RM nON Additives: Y2 cup formation aid. Shee t formation: Western , Pressin g: Hydrau lic press. Dr yin g: Restraint dryin g. Shee t size: A4 Qu antity: 24 Pap er description : Go lden yellow, crispy and strong. 176 M ILKWE ~ D III TORI L BA K . RO 1'1) Plants co mmon name: 'Iilkwccd. Balbos Pla nt s botanical name: Asc lepias frutico sa . Plant fa mily: sc lcpiadaccac Area of Distribution: Gauteng and Orange Free tate. Historical r efer en ce: Accid entally introdu ced to outh Africa. Origin : Austra lia at egory: nknow n, declared weed . ~::~:' N-. "_re I ",aV INC.' ( \ I Milkweed. . ( .... I r ~~~: . J ___ I, ,. , f I' ..- . • • • NO_THIIH CApt .10. ... "...... ,.... • L .. .,...... 'A'lI'N . .,..""....., CAP' . ....- '\.I ...... WUnlN CA',' e. • • ,'a " 177 FIBRE OLLE TI O ' RE ORD Dat e collec ted: Jun e Wher e wus it liar es ted '! Freestate. Pa rt of plant used : Bast fibre We ight of fibr e: 3 Y2 kilo I)RE OO KI I'G PR EP ARATI OI T Rettin g: soaked for three days in water. oo ki ng time: fA Weight of str ip ped fibre: Y2 kilo Weight of bare ste m : 2.8 kilo COO KING PR EPARATIO T C he mica ls used: Soda ash 40%, =200 grams Cooking tim e: One hour BEATIl G M E I-ITO D Me thod: Hand beating with a meat mall ot Beating tests: Tests taken every 10 minutes Beating time: On e hour Beater comments: Beats easily similar to kozo SHEET FORMATIOI Additives: Y2 cup forma tion aid Shee t formation : Western in the use o f a western deckle and mould but Eastern in being ab le to cast thin sheets with the use of form ation aid . Pressin g: hydraul ic Dryin g: restraint drying izin g: fA Shee t size : A4 Quantity: 4 1 Paper description : cream with a golden glint • Paper sa mple: Milkwc rd. 17 MOTH AT II .R ( EE D HBRE) HI TORI LBK ,RO j'D Plants common name: Moth catcher, bladder flower, Plants botanical name: Ara ujia scricifera Plant family: Asclcpiuda ccae L Henderson, 200I: 234 Area of Distribution: orth West and in small amoun ts in auteng and coastal region Historical reference: Invades forest clearings, wood lands, plantat ion s and \ astelands, urban open spaces, wa tercourses and wooded kloo fs. Origin: So uth America Category: I (smothering, poisonous) ~. , -~ ~ I • • loth catcher ( eed fibre) 1ll . :lO. 31 .\)-_. .:. _ _ ., ...... ;w .... I . ~ G1 ,).t r ...... • WU flRH CAP. I ...... _ .:: - • •8 ;to n ?~ IIcndcrdson, 200I:(,7 179 FIBRE OLLE T IO ' REORD Dat e collected: April 200 1 W here wa . it harvest ed '!: auteng Part of plant used : ccd fibre Weight of fibre: 2 Kilo PR E OOKII PREI)ARATI Oi r Rett in g: / ooki ng time: /A Weight of stripped fibre: I kilo Weight of bare stem: I Kilo COOKI G PREP AR ATIO hemi cals used : 40% oda ash =200 grams Coo king time: three hours BEATI G IETHO D Method: Hand beating with a mallot Beatin g tes ts: beater tests taken every 15 minutes. Beating time: 1- Y2 hours Beater comme nts: Beatin g took a long time as the waxy layer on the seeds fibre took a long time to separate. SHEET FO RMATIO Additives : form ation aid 2 cups. heet formation: Western in style but Eastern according to the amount of formation aid used. Pressing: hydraulic press Dryin g: restraint drying izin g: fA Sheet size: A4 Quantity: 54 Pap er description : Go lden yellow and shiny. Pa ller sa mp le: moth catcher ( e d fibre) I 0 MOTH AT II ER (BA TFIB RE) HI TORI LBA K RO I'D Plants common name: moth catc her. bladd er flower, motvangcr Plants botanical name: Arauj ia serici fera Plant family: Ascleiadaccac L Hende rson. 200 I: 234 Area of Distribution: orth west and in small amounts in Ga utcng and coasta l regions. Historical reference: Invades forest clearings. woodland s, plantations, urban space, watercourses and wooded kloofs. Origin: So uth Am erica. Category: I ""'...... ,. Moth ca tcher (Bast - fibre) • JO I I, ...... -...., J' L . , ~ . ~ . "" . ~ ,1.1 c••• I. WU II RN C AP• • • ' ' .. ' ...... II. ;0 " Hcndcrdson, 200I :(,7 FIB RE OLLE TIOI' RI~ ORO Date coll ected: Ma y 200 I Where wa s it harvested'? autcng Part of plant used: talk s II Weight of fibre: 2 kilogram s PR E OOKIN PRE PAR '1'10 I Retting: oa king coking time: fA \ eight of str ipped fibre: 200 grams , eight of bare stem: 700 grams OOKII T PR ' PAR TlOI T hemi cal s used : 40% soda ash = 80 grams coking time: One hour BEATI GM ETHOD lethod: 1·land beatin g with meat mallot. Beating test s: Tes ts were taken every 15 minutes Beating tim e: One hou r Beater comme nts : The fibre did not separate easily and the pulp had hard bits ofbark in it, which was not desirable. ot enough fibre to cast in a vat. Deckl e box formation ha to be utilized . HEET FOR I TIO Additives: Y2cup formation aid Sheet formation:Deck le box casting. Pressing: hydraulic press Dr ying: restraint drying izin g: fA heet size: AS Quantity: 10 Paper description : Browny green \ ith hard bark. Pap er sample: loth catch r (bast Fibr ) I 2 BI.A 1( ' ATTI.E 1-1I TORI AI. B I( RO i 'D Plants commo n name: Back \ attic, wartv attel Plants botanical name: Aca cia rncarnsii Plant family: Fabaccae GR Niehols:2001 Gill Condy, 2001:21'1 Henderson. 2001:251 Henderson, 2001:222 Are a of Distribution: W ape, E ape, KZ , Mpulllalanga and orthern Province Historical r eference: Invades grassland forests, roadsides and watcrcoa rse throughout its range. ultivated for shelter, tanbark, woodchips and firewood. Origin: E Austra lia and Tasmania Category: 2 Black Wattle lIender on. 200I:222 FIB RE OLLE '1' 10 1 REORD Dat e collec ted: epternbcr 2000 Wh er e wa s it harvested'! Western .ape Part of plant nsed: tripp ed branches W eight of fibre: 1.2-kil o bran ches already stripped PRE OOKINC PREPAR ATI OI' Rctting: f A ooking time: fA Wei ght of str ipped fibre: 1.2 Kilo W eight of bare stern: fA OOKINC PREPAR '1'101' hemi cal s used: 400 grams ooking time: Two hour s BE TINC J\IET IIOD Me thod : Hollander beat er Beating test s: Taken every hal f hour a fter the first two hours Beating time: 5 hours Beater comments: Hard, very heavy fibre to beat SHEE T FORMATIO Additives: formation aid , 2 cups heet formation: Western Pressin g: hydraulic press Dryin g: restra int drying izin g: fA heet size: A4 Quantity: 52 Paper description: dark walnut brown Paper sa mple: Black \ attlc I 4 WAT ER II YA IJ 'Til Al 'I> PAMP A RA HI TORI A LBA K GRO '0 Plants com mo n name: wa ter hyacin th Plants botanical name: Eichhornia crass ipes Plant family: Pontederiaccac C.J Cilliers 200 1 Henderson. 200 1:229 Ar ea of Distribution: KZ, W ape and orth West Province Historical reference: Ornamental, Invades dam s and slow flowing rivers. Origin: Tropical S Am eri ca, Brazil, Venezuela, Argentina and Paragu ay C ategory: I • Wa ter Hyacinth .-- HOltH"N CA." j 'Wlt' · - ~ , I f MAo A1 ...... • "" It ~ .l' • 1 IAI'UN CA" . ~ , '...... Henderson. 200 1'21 FIBRE OLLE '1'10 1' RE ORO Dat e coll ected: Jul y 200 I Wh ere wa s it harvested '! atal , seleni Richard s Bay Part of plant used : Stems and Leaves Weight of fibre: Y2 Kilo PR E OOKING PREP AR ATIO 1 Retting: fa Cooking tim e: fA W eight of str ippe d fibre: Y2 Kilo W eight of bare ste m: fA COOKING PREPARATIOJ 1 Che micals used: 200 grams Cooking time: One hour BEATING METHOD Me thod : Hollander Beater Beating tests: 6 Hours for Pampas grass and Water hyacinth was added. A test was taken every 15 minutes. Beating time: 7 hours and 15 minut es Beater comments: there was not enough water hyacinth for the fibre to be pulled thou gh the roller so pampas grass was add ed first and then water hyacinth was added in the last hour. SHEET FOR IATION Additives: none Sheet formation: Western . Pressin g: hydraulic press Dryin g: restraint drying izin g: fA Sheet size : A4 Quantity: 36 Paper description:Avocad o gree n with golden yellow " :111 'r sample: Water hyacinth and pampas gms I 6 R EV POPLAR HI T ORI L B K CRO ND Plants co mmo n name: rey popl ar Plants botanical name: Popul us X cancsccns Plant family: alicaceae Henderson. 200 1:249 Area of Distribution: orth West, aut eng, KZ, Mpumalanga, W ape, I ape and ECape Historical referen ce: ultivated for timb er, shelter and orname ntal. Invades river bank s, vleis and do ngas. Origin: Europe and Asia at egory: 2 I Poplar ,I lO • " ~ ...... Iocrt . y ...... Wl lfI.N.... CAPI '. .. Henderson, 200 1'1H9 I 7 FIB RE OLLE '1'101 REO RD Date collected: A ugust 200 I \ her e was it harvest ed ? Middleburg Part of plant used : Bast W eight of fibre: 1.3 Kilo PREOOKING PR EP RATI O! ! Retting: coking Cooking tim e: one hr W eight of str ipped fibre: 400 grams Wei ght of bare ste m: 900 grams COOKING PREPARATION C he mica ls used : 80 grams C oo king tim e: 3 hours BEATI NG M ETHOD Me tho d : Holland er beater. Beat in g tests: Test taken eve ry 5 minutes afte r 3 Y2 hours Beating tim c: 4 hours Beat er com me nts: A very hard fibre to beat and most of the fibre disapp eared during the bea ting process so the end resu lt was very little fibre for sheet formation. SHEET FORMATIO I Additives: Y2 Kilo river reed into the beater for the last half hour Shee t formation: Western Pressin g: hydrauli c press Dryin g: restra int dr ying Sizing : N/A She et sizc: A54 Qu antity: 14 Paper description : green with bro . n specks Paper sample: Poplar and river reed ANNEXURE D PRODUCT DESIGN Product Image Dc scrlptlon licnt I. Hut bo xes for Afr ica a fc The client requested Africa afe round boxes to pa kagc ape '1'0\ n plates, cups and various other ceramic items. Because they \ ere round they \ ere to be made utilizing mass made cardboard tubes. The closing mechanism acts as a handle and is part of the design A r~ ' ~I ... Logo, to be displayed on packaging. clement with an Africa afe bead attached. The boxes were to be produced by Kuyasa in the Western ape. The Logo was bleached onto the packaging. Product Imagc Description licnt 3. Lifestyle / Tigers Eye Range The Tigers Eye range \ as Tiger Eye designed for a ophisticated and spe ific market. The Phurnani Paper. de igns \ ere different to any other de igns of Phumani in Lifestyle retail that they addres ed lifestyle outlet . is lies and were the start of a different range. Designs by landy oppes and I3 ronwyn Marshall 2002 190 Designs by Mandy oppes and I3 ronwyn Marshall 2002 Product Image Description lient 2. Oro Africa Oro Afri ca jewellery boxes Oro Africa were design ed in 2002. Th e company wanted bo xes that had dual purposes and wanted the items of'je v ellery to be displa yed in a paper mould within each box. T he boxes were to be sophi ticatcd and mass-produced. The boxes were to portray a feeling of Africa. 191 Designs by Bronwyn Mar hall 2002 192 Product Image De cri ption licnt 5. Kwaito .Jewellery Boxes The boxes needed to be mass ukani buntu produced, therefore they were die-cut. The paper was to be very colourful to portray the Kwaito culture. The logo \ as designed by a graphic design student. Ivory Park and ids Link produced the order. Designs by Mandy oppcs 2002 Product Image Description lient 6.Desk set ran ge The desk set was designed for Phurnani Paper the World summit, and has been designed so that several projects World ummit can utilize the die-cuts in the future. This specific design has been designed using Pfuxanani paper. 19 Product Image De rc r'iption Iient 7. E1II"th ununit Products The earth summit products WWSD had to be completely bio degradab le. Plastic cellophane, not cellotape or anything synthetic was allowed in the design. We combined Paper prayers and Artist Proof with Phumani products to add value to each itcm. Designs by Mandy oppes and I3 ronwyn Marshall 2002 Product Image Dc cription Iient 8. Eshowe Pot Boxes The Eshowc project has been Eshov e Paper Project producing flip top lid boxes that while during transport arc being completely ruined. We designed boxes that could be die-cut and produced a new range of prints to portray KZ and that would \ ork \ ith the sugar cane paper. 194 Product Image Dc. cription licnt 9. KZl ' O ven Mitt Desi gns. The oven mitt designs Eshowe Paper Project \ ere designed in order to add value to the KZ products and utilize the scv n items that the project produces. ccording to market feedback the KZ paper needed a little more in the way of pattern. as the paper can be bland when seen in high volume . The packaging the project was producing was breaking and was not of a good quality. Product Image Description Iient 10. Pictu re fr a mes The AFrame picture Phumani Paper design frames have been designed committee. utilizing the eshcshwc fabric. This was ultimately designed for the Freestatc projects, creating an identity for the projects. The AFrame can also be produced by other projects, but other design clements hould be added in order to change the identity and Designs by I3 ronwyn Marshall 2002 appearance. Perspex has been used instead ofthe acetate. 196 Product Image Description lient II . Bookma rk The bookmark was Artist Proof tudio designed as a corporate gin utilizing print and hand made paper. The inside of the bookmark is closed with a papcr thin magnet to hold the pages together. 12. Recycle-fram e The recycle-frame was 2002 World Summit on designed for the 2002 ustainable World ummit on Development ustainable Development. The Phumani Paper frame answers to the needs of the strict environmental controls required for the summit. The frame is initially a form of packaging for hand embroidered cushions and then transforms into a picture frame. 197 13 Pillow Box The pillov box was Mon key Puzzle designed to hou se hand-e mbroi de red Phu man i Paper cushions and hand painted clo ths. The box 2002 Wo rld urnmit on had to collapse lor ease • ustainable of transport to the Development international market. Th e boxes also needed to be manufactured util izing enviro nmentally fri endly materia ls such as ac id free glue. 14. Lamp tands and Bases. The lamp shade is Phurnani Paper mad e from Milkweed and wire. Th e Lifestyle retail outl ets. milkweed is scaled with Plascon wat er based scaler. The ba se was designed around one initi al die-cut design. Alternative paper and decoration can be used to design different looking bases for future seaso ns. 19 BIllLlOGRAPIIY 1. "Hand Papcrmaking" 1997. Papcrmaking Inc, Winter Edition. Washington DC, USA. Hand Papermaking Inc. ISSN 0887 1418 2. A World Summit Publication. "l1le Long Walk to Sustainability ", 2002. Johannesburg. Michael Bateman. 3. All Japan Handmade Washi Association. 1991. "Iland Book on the Art ofWashi ". Tokyo. Wagami-do K.K. 4. Barrett. T. 1983. "Japanese Papcrmaking ". Traditions Tools and Techniques, NY. Wcathcrhill Inc, ISBN 0 8348 0255 4 5. Bell, L. A. 1995. "Plant Fibres for/land Papcrmaking ". s" edition. USA. Liliaccae Press. 6. Casey. P. J. 1980. "Pilip and Paper, Chemistry and Chemical Technology". NY. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471 03175 5. 7. Corbman, B. 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