1 Bibliography Primary Sources Cobb, Jerrie. Letter to John F

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Cobb, Jerrie. Letter to John F. Kennedy, March 13, 1963. Accessed December 12, 2019. https://www.jfklibrary.org/asset-viewer/archives/JFKWHCNF/0515/JFKWHCNF-0515- 002?image_identifier=JFKWHCNF-0515-002-p0059. In this letter addressed to President John F. Kennedy from the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Jerrie Cobb reveals to the president her efforts to get the United States to send the first woman to space and to do so before the Soviet Union. Cobb notes that she has met with high-ranking government officials and important space scientists to discuss sending a woman to space and emphasizes that most have accepted her proposal on the grounds that the United States must surpass the Soviet Union, with the exception of James Webb, NASA's administrator. She urges Kennedy to take action and send the first woman to space, reiterating that doing so reflects the wishes of the American people. Cobb's letter to Kennedy is useful because it reveals how the Space Race caused Americans to begin considering sending a woman to space and thus illustrates the beginnings of the efforts to break the barrier against integrating women in NASA's space program. Cobb's letter was used to explain the roots of the movement to integrate women into the Astronaut Corps.

Cochran, Jacqueline. Letter, "Letter from Jackie Cochran to Last Class of WASP Students regarding Requirement to Disband," October 12, 1944. Accessed November 24, 2019. http://www.libertyletters.com/resources/pearl-harbor/cochrans-letter-to-wasp.php. In her letter addressed to the members of the 43-W-3 class from Liberty Letters, Jacqueline Cochran reveals that the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) program has been dissolved. The WASP program was an organization made up of female civilian pilots who ferried airplanes, tested airplanes, and taught other pilots with the purpose of freeing male pilots for combat during World War II. Cochran expresses her sorrow to the class that women will no longer be able to participate in army flying and pilot military aircraft. Cochran's letter is helpful because it illustrates a secondary barrier in addition to the main barrier against integrating women in the U.S. space program: the barrier that prevented women from becoming military pilots. Because military pilot experience was a primary qualification for NASA astronauts and the army stopped accepting female jet pilots, women were unable to meet the minimum astronaut qualifications. Cochran's letter reveals that the barrier aspiring female astronauts faced was multi-layered. Her letter will be used to explain why women did not meet the astronaut requirements and to provide background information on women's efforts to join NASA's space program.

Day, Dwayne A. "Transcript of Presidential Meeting in the Cabinet Room of the White House." November 21, 1962. Accessed January 27, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/JFK-Webbconv/pages/transcript.pdf. This source is a transcript of Kennedy's meeting with various NASA and other government officials discussing funds for NASA. This source is helpful because contains

a quote from Kennedy that reveals his belief that the United States' should only spend substantial money on the space program if NASA prioritizes landing men on the moon. We use Kennedy's quote in our website to explain how NASA's priority of landing a man on the moon led to women's exclusion from NASA's Astronaut Corps.

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Roy W. Johnson. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.darpa.mil/attachments/DARPA_Directors_Sheet-web.pdf. This source is a photograph of Roy W. Johnson, director of the Advanced Research Projects Agency, from a file containing the pictures of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) directors from 1958 to today on DARPA's official website. This photograph serves as an accompanying image to Johnson's remark that the space program must proceed as fast as possible, which is how we used this photo on our website.

Fisher, Anna L. "NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project: Edited Oral History Transcript: Anna L. Fisher: Interviewed by Jennifer Ross-Nazzal Houston, Texas – 17 February 2009." By Jennifer Ross-Nazzal. National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Johnson Space Center. Last modified February 17, 2009. Accessed November 8, 2019. https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/FisherAL/Fi sherAL_2-17-09.htm. This source is an interview with Anna Fisher, a Group VIII member, and it was found on the Johnson Space Center website as part of its Oral History Project. Some of the things discussed are her application process into the space program, the media's reaction to the diversity of the class, and how her male colleagues interacted with her. Also, Fisher received extra media attention when she was accepted because her husband also applied and got rejected. So, this interview provides us with information about media coverage of women in direct comparison to men, which is something that none of our other sources offers. This source can therefore offer us a unique perspective on this particular facet of our historical event, which can help us develop a well-rounded view of our event.

"G17108407." MP4 video, 03:49. YouTube. Posted by AP Archive, July 30, 2015. Accessed January 27, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_dFPnxG7hSA. This source is a clip from AP Archive of Kathryn Sullivan's historic spacewalk. The footage is useful because it emphasizes how the Group VIII women paved the way for historic firsts by American women in space, and it is used in our website as an example of the historic firsts by the Group VIII women.

Hearing before the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences United States Senate Ninety-Third Congress Second Session on Review of NASA's Equal Employment Opportunity Program, 93d Cong., 2d Sess. (1974). Accessed December 13, 2019. https://books.google.com/books?id=6rvPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&dq=#v=one page&q&f=false.

This source is the transcript of a 1974 Senate hearing reviewing NASA's equal employment opportunity program, and it was found on Google Books. NASA's equal employment opportunity program is thoroughly reviewed, and among the witnesses they interviewed were George Low, representing NASA (who also represented NASA in the 1962 hearing discussing sexual discrimination at NASA), and Ruth Bates Harris, who was the deputy assistant administrator of NASA's equal employment opportunity program before being fired and sparking a national debate about equality at NASA. This source is useful because it gives us more detail about the steps NASA did or didn't take in order to increase equality in their agency. Knowing more about this can provide us with a better perspective of NASA's views on equality, which is important to know when we are trying to understand the actions that lead to the gender diversity of Group VIII.

Higher Education Act of 1965, Pub. L. No. 89-329, 79 Stat 1219. (Nov. 8, 1965). Accessed December 12, 2019. https://legcounsel.house.gov/Comps/Higher%20Education%20Act%20Of%201965.pdf. This source is the Higher Education Act of 1965, and it was found on the U.S. House of Representatives website. It was created to encourage more students to get higher education degrees, and it attempted to accomplish this by giving more federal money to universities, creating scholarships, and giving other forms of financial aid (like loans) to students who wanted to get these higher degrees. This source is useful as it further describes a large push by the Cold-War-era U.S. government to increase the amount of people who could help the U.S. compete with the Soviet Union on an intellectual and scientific level. U.S. actions like this also could explain why more women in this era started graduating college with advanced degrees in the scientific fields, which also helped them become better candidates for NASA's astronaut program.

Johnson, Lyndon Baines, and Liz Carpenter. Letter, March 15, 1962. https://books.google.com/books?id=bT8HU-BpiwkC&pg=PA90-IA7&lpg. In this unsent letter addressed to NASA administrator James E. Webb and drafted by then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson's assistant Liz Carpenter from the book Right Stuff, Wrong Sex: America's First Women in Space Program by Margaret A. Weitekamp accessed via Google Books, Johnson asks how women should be integrated into the space program, seemingly encouraging NASA to open up the Astronaut Corps to females. However, at the bottom of the letter, Johnson handwrites "Let's stop this now! File," revealing his personal opposition to integrating women in the Astronaut Corps. Johnson's letter is useful because it represents a form of political opposition to women in space and reveals how some of the resistance to integrating women in the Astronaut Corps was hidden and invisible. This letter was used to explain the resistance aspiring female astronauts faced, identify their resistors, and describe the roles these resistors played in preventing women from entering the space program.

Killian, J.R., Jr. Memorandum, "Memorandum on Organizational Alternatives for Space Research and Development," December 30, 1957. Accessed December 11, 2019. https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/iv1.html.

This memorandum authored by J.R. Killian, Jr. is a primary source from the official website of the NASA History Division. Killian discusses several proposals on how to most effectively form a space program that will result in the best space research and development. He analyzes multiple factors surrounding these recommendations, such as the role the Department of Defense will play in the new space program and whether military-related components of space research should be controlled by the Department of Defense or the military. Killian also emphasizes that only the best scientists should engage in space research if the United States is going to win the Space Race. Killian's memorandum is helpful because it illustrates how scientists were believed to be crucial in helping the United States win the Space Race and reveals why the United States began to place great emphasis on STEM education. This memorandum was used to explain how Sputnik I impacted the United States' attitude towards STEM education. The nation's newfound emphasis on STEM education helped women attain degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and finally be able to meet one of NASA's basic requirements (candidates must hold degrees in STEM) for astronaut candidates, so Killian's memorandum will also likely be used to explain the roots of the increase in women with STEM degrees.

La Guardia and Wagner Archives. New York Times, October 12, 1957. October 21, 2009. Photograph. Accessed April 13, 2020. https://www.flickr.com/photos/laguardiaandwagnerarchives/4032949292/in/photostream/ . This source is an image of a newspaper article from 1957 that discusses how Sputnik's launch led the United States to enact rigorous educational reforms. This source was helpful because it illustrates how Sputnik was the major instigator of STEM educational reforms in the United States, and we use this photograph in our website to highlight how Sputnik led to the National Defense Education Act, which was passed in 1958.

Library of Congress. Jerrie Cobb (left) and Janey B. Hart Appearing before a Special House Subcommittee Investigating the Future Role of Women in Space. 1962. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/item/98512125/. This source is a photograph from the Library of Congress of Jerrie Cobb and Jane Hart during the 1962 congressional hearings. We placed this photo next to Cobb's quote (from the hearings) describing why women should be allowed to join NASA's Astronaut Corps. This photo helps place Cobb's statement in context and serves as an accompanying image to Cobb's quote.

———. Walter Henry Moeller 1910. 1910. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2003672721/. This source is a photograph from the Library of Congress of Walter Moeller, a member of the Special Subcommittee on the Selection of Astronauts of the Committee on Science and Astronautics in the 1962 congressional hearings on whether NASA's astronaut requirements discriminated against women. This photograph is serves as an

accompanying image to Moeller's remark made during the hearings about how women should be patient and first allow NASA to land men on the moon, which is how we use this photo on our website.

Lloyd, O.B., Jr. Letter to Linda Halpern, "Letter from NASA," March 13, 1962. Accessed October 28, 2019. https://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/13027hjpg. This letter, accessed on the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's official website, from O.B. Lloyd, Jr., Director of NASA's Office of Public Services and Information, was addressed to Linda Halpern and was a response to Halpern's inquiries on how she could become an astronaut. Lloyd reveals that NASA does not plan to send women to space as a result of the intense flight and scientific training required to become an astronaut in addition to the mandatory physical characteristics that women lack. The letter is useful because it emphasizes NASA's resistance to women joining the Astronaut Corps and highlights the fact that women were banned from the nation's space program; therefore, this letter was used to illustrate the barrier that American women faced in becoming astronauts. The letter to Linda Halpern revealed that not only was NASA discriminating against women, it also completely banned them from joining the Astronaut Corps, revealing the rigidness of the barrier that these women faced.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 41G Crew Activities. October 5-13, 1984. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-41g-102-003. This source is a photo from the NASA Image and Video Library of three crew members of space shuttle mission 41-G on Challenger's mid-deck. Kathryn Sullivan, one of the Group VIII women, is in the center, and this photo was helpful because it revealed that the Group VIII women did actually go to space and NASA did not accept female astronauts merely for show. This photograph is used in our website as an example of the spaceflights of the Group VIII women.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Astronaut Anna Fisher Pictured near the Aft Flight Deck of Discovery. November 12, 1984. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-51A-20-004. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Anna Fisher, one of the Group VIII women, on Space Shuttle Discovery. The photograph was helpful because it revealed that the Group VIII women did actually go to space and NASA did not accept female astronauts merely for show. This photograph of Fisher is used in our website as an example of the spaceflights of the Group VIII women.

———. Astronautical and Aeronautical Events of 1962. By National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963. Accessed October 28, 2019. https://history.nasa.gov/AAchronologies/1962.pdf. This report from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, a standalone online PDF, provides a detailed chronology of all events from around the world pertaining to technology and space science that occurred in the year 1962. The report documents events such as symposiums, launches, aviation affairs, and more importantly

for this project, the congressional hearing on whether NASA's astronaut requirements discriminated against women that began on July 17, 1962. This report is useful because it places the 1962 congressional hearing in context with other events and provides a picture of what was happening around the time of the hearing; in other words, the report provides valuable contextual information pertaining to the hearing. Therefore, it will be used to provide context and background information for the 1962 congressional hearing in the final project.

———. Astronaut Shannon Lucid Monitors Payload Bay Activities. June 18, 1985. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-51g-17-005. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Shannon Lucid, one of the Group VIII women, on Space Shuttle Discovery. The photograph was helpful because it revealed that the Group VIII women did actually go to space and NASA did not accept female astronauts merely for show. This photograph of Lucid is used in our website as an example of the spaceflights of the Group VIII women.

———. Astronauts Hoffman and Seddon Demonstrate Effect of Weightlessness on Slinky. April 14, 1985. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-51d-06-015. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Rhea Seddon, one of the Group VIII women, and fellow crew member Jeffrey A. Hoffman on Space Shuttle Discovery. The photograph was helpful because it revealed that the Group VIII women did actually go to space and NASA did not accept female astronauts merely for show. This photograph of Seddon is used in our website as an example of the spaceflights of the Group VIII women.

———. Earthrise. December 24, 1968. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/history/this-week-in-nasa-history-apollo-8-captur es-earthrise-dec-24-1968.html. This source is a photograph of Earthrise (the Earth rising behind the moon) taken by the crew of Apollo 8. This photograph serves as the background of our banners on each page of our website, which is why this source was helpful.

———. Female Astronaut-Candidates (ASCAN)'s - JSC. March 23, 1979. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-s79-29592. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of all six Group VIII women posing with an extravehicular mobility unit (EMU) from the Apollo era and a mock-up of the personnel rescue enclosure (PRE), also known as the "rescue ball." This photograph is helpful because it demonstrates how the barrier that had previously excluded women from NASA's Astronaut Corps was broken, and we use this photograph in our website to illustrate how that barrier was broken when the Group VIII women were accepted into NASA's Astronaut Corps.

———. George M. Low, Director of Spacecraft and Flight Missions. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Biographies/low2.gif.

This source is a photograph of George M. Low, Director of Spacecraft and Flight Missions from the NASA History website. This photograph serves as an accompanying image for Low's claim that sending an American woman to space would interfere with NASA's current plans, which is how we used this image on our website.

———. iss061e006837. October 18, 2019. Photograph. Accessed May 22, 2020. https://images.nasa.gov/details-iss061e006837. This source is from the NASA Image and Video Library. The source is a photograph of Jessica Meir and Christina Koch, the women who performed the first all-female spacewalk, donning their spacesuits to prepare to exit the International Space Station for their spacewalk. This source was helpful because it reveals the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women astronauts, and we use this photograph in our website to explain how the women of Astronaut Group VIII paved the way for historic firsts by today's American women in space.

———. Launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis / STS-129 Mission. November 16, 2009. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-sts129-s-093. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Space Shuttle Atlantis' launch from the Kennedy Space Center on mission STS-129. This photograph is helpful because it illustrates how the space shuttle is larger and more flexible than previous spacecraft, and we use the photo of Atlantis' launch to emphasize the space shuttle's versatility.

———. NASA Astronaut Group 15. Photograph. Accessed February 2, 2020. http://www.spacefacts.de/groups/photo2/nasa-15.jpg. This source is a photograph of NASA Astronaut Group 15 from the SPACEFACTS website. The photograph is helpful because it illustrates the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this photograph to demonstrate how the Group VIII women astronauts led to gender diversity in NASA's Astronaut Corps.

———. NASA Astronaut Group 21. August 20, 2013. Photograph. Accessed January 27, 2020. https://www.nasa.gov/content/introducing-the-2013-astronaut-class. This photograph from NASA's official website is a portrait of NASA Astronaut Group 21. The photograph is helpful because it illustrates the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this photograph to demonstrate how the Group VIII women astronauts led to gender diversity in NASA's Astronaut Corps.

———. Official Astronaut Candidate Class of 1996 Group Photograph in T. November 5, 1996. Accessed February 2, 2020. https://images.nasa.gov/details-s96-18546. This source is a photograph of NASA Astronaut Group 16 from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The photograph is helpful because it illustrates the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this

photograph to demonstrate how the Group VIII women astronauts led to gender diversity in NASA's Astronaut Corps.

———. Official Portrait of Eileen M. Collins, STS-93 Commander. October 30, 1998. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-S99-00858. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Eileen Collins, the first female space shuttle pilot and commander. This photograph was helpful because it reveals the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this photograph to illustrate how the women of Astronaut Group VIII paved the way for historic firsts in space by American women.

———. Official Portrait of Peggy Whitson. November 28, 2001. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-JSC2001-03044. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Peggy Whitson, the first female International Space Station commander. This photograph was helpful because it emphasizes the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this photograph in our website to illustrate how the women of Astronaut Group VIII paved the way for historic firsts in space by American women.

———. Official Portrait of STS-47 Mission Specialist Mae C. Jemison in LES. July 1, 1992. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-S92-40463. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Mae C. Jemison, the first African American woman in space. This photograph is helpful because it emphasizes the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this photograph in our website to illustrate how the women of Group VIII paved the way for historic firsts in space by American women.

———. Pilot Jerrie Cobb Trains in the Multi-Axis Space Test Inertia Facility. April 1, 1960. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-GRC-1960-C-53088. This source from the NASA Image and Video Library is a photograph of Jerrie Cobb during Mercury 13 astronaut tests. This photograph was helpful because it suggests that although the Mercury 13 did well on the astronaut tests, they never got to officially train as astronauts, and we use this photograph in our website to highlight how the Mercury 13 program was a false start in the efforts to open up NASA's Astronaut Corps to women.

———. Portrait - Astronaut Group - Newly Selected - MSC. October 18, 1963. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-s63-18765.html. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of NASA Astronaut Group 3. This photograph was helpful because it illustrates how the various barriers excluding women from NASA's Astronaut Corps caused NASA's first seven astronaut classes to include only men. We use this photograph to depict the lack of gender diversity in NASA's Astronaut Corps as a result of the resistance against women joining the nation's space program.

———. Portrait - New 19. May 1, 1967. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-s67-30404.html. This source is a photograph of NASA Astronaut Group 5 from the NASA Image and Video Library. This photograph was helpful because it illustrates how the various barriers excluding women from NASA's Astronaut Corps caused NASA's first seven astronaut classes to include only men. We use this photograph to depict the lack of gender diversity in NASA's Astronaut Corps as a result of the resistance against women joining the nation's space program.

———. Report of the Space Task Group, 1969. By Space Task Group. September 1969. Accessed December 18, 2019. https://history.nasa.gov/taskgrp.html. This source is an official report from the Space Task Group from the NASA History website. As a result of the extortionate costs of NASA, President Richard Nixon established the Space Task Group in February 1969 to find a more economical means of space research and exploration. In its report, the Space Task Group sets forth their recommendations for the future of NASA's space program; among their proposals was the construction of a reusable shuttle, leading to the start of the space shuttle program. This report is helpful because it explains why and how the space shuttle program was created, and we use this source to explain the origins of the space shuttle in our website.

———. SS-6 Sapwood. September 1, 2009. Photograph. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13939.8. This source is a photograph of the Soviet Union's SS-6 Sapwood missile, which we found in Catledge and Powell's research report Space History on JSTOR, was taken by NASA. The photograph is helpful because it illustrates how the Soviet Union was already developing missile technology before the Space Race in order to demonstrate its technological superiority over the United States. We use this photograph in our website to explain the causes of the Space Race.

———. STS-7 - Ride, Sally (Inflight). June 24, 1983. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-S83-35763. This is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of Sally Ride, one of the Group VIII women and the first American woman in space, on space shuttle Challenger during mission STS-7. The photograph was helpful because it revealed that the Group VIII women did actually go to space and NASA did not accept female astronauts merely for show. This photograph of Ride is used in our website as an example of the spaceflights of the Group VIII women.

———. 2017 ASCAN Tour of KSC. May 1, 2018. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-KSC-20180501-PH_KLS02_0026. This source is a photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library of the 2017 NASA Astronaut Class. This photograph is helpful because it illustrates the long-lasting and enduring legacy of the Group VIII women, and we use this photograph to

demonstrate how the Group VIII women astronauts led to gender diversity in NASA's Astronaut Corps.

———. View of Mission Specialist Judith Resnik on the Middeck. September 8, 1984. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-41d-13-025. This photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library shows Judith Resnik, one of the Group VIII women, on the mid-deck of Space Shuttle Discovery. This photo was helpful because it revealed that the Group VIII women did actually go to space and NASA did not accept female astronauts merely for show. This photograph is used in our website as an example of the spaceflights of the Group VIII women.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and Bill Ingalls. Space Shuttle Discovery Is Prepared for Launch. February 23, 2011. Photograph. https://images.nasa.gov/details-201102230004HQ. This photograph from the NASA Image and Video Library shows Space Shuttle Discovery on the launchpad at the Kennedy Space Center. This photograph is helpful because it illustrates how the space shuttle is larger and more flexible than previous spacecraft, and we use the photo of Atlantis' launch to emphasize the space shuttle's versatility.

National Defense Education Act, Pub. L. No. 85-864, 72 Stat. 1580 - 1605 (Sept. 2, 1958). Accessed February 9, 2020. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-72/pdf/STATUTE-72-Pg1580.pdf. This source is a transcript of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958 from the official website of govinfo, which is part of the United States Government Publishing Office (GPO). The NDEA allocated federal funds for STEM education in schools in the United States and provided financial assistance for higher education in order to strengthen national security and increase the number of individuals educated in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which was perceived as vital to winning the space race. This transcript of the NDEA is useful because it illustrates how the space race led to reforms in education and explains why Americans believed such reforms were necessary. Such efforts to increase nationwide education in STEM allowed more and more women to receive degrees in STEM, one of NASA's requirements for astronaut candidates, so this source also reveals how the NDEA was a major step to opening the astronaut corps to women. This source was used to explain how the United States' reacted to the Soviets' launch of Sputnik I and how the nation's encouragement of STEM education ultimately allowed women to join the astronaut corps.

National Women's Hall of Fame. Jacqueline Cochran in 1943. 1943. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.womenofthehall.org/inductee/jacqueline-cochran/. This source is a photograph of Jacqueline Cochran in 1943 from the official website of the National Women's Hall of Fame. This photo serves as an accompanying image to Cochran's statement during the 1962 congressional hearing that training women

astronauts may slow down the American space program, which is how we used this image on our website.

The New York Times. Long Island Students Prepared to Release a Weather Balloon in 1957. 1957. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/25/science/space/25educ.html. This source is a photograph from The New York Times of students preparing to let go of a weather balloon. This source is helpful because it illustrates what STEM education was like in the United States, which is how we used this photograph in our website.

"1983: Sally Ride Is First U.S. Woman in Space." MP4 video, 01:59. YouTube. Posted by ABC News, July 24, 2012. Accessed January 27, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bWaIHWWHbc4. This source is a video clip from ABC News of Sally Ride's historic launch in which she became the first American woman in space. The footage is useful because it emphasizes how the Group VIII women paved the way for historic firsts by American women in space, and it is used in our website as an example of the historic firsts by the Group VIII women.

Qualifications for Astronauts: Hearings before the Special Subcommittee on the Selection of Astronauts of the Committee on Science and Astronauts, U.S. House of Representatives; Eighty-seventh Congress, Second Session, July 17 and 18, 1962, Volume 2, 87th Cong., 2d Sess. (1962). Accessed November 11, 2019. https://books.google.com/books/about/Qualifications_for_Astronauts.html?id=xGIVAA AAIAAJ. This source is a transcript of the 1962 House of Representatives hearing on the question of sexual discrimination at NASA, and it was found on Google Books and then downloaded onto a PDF for reading. Some of the things discussed included NASA's requirements for astronaut applicants, how many women would potentially drop out of the program due to marriage, and if training women for space would impede the U.S.'s progress in space exploration and therefore give the Soviet Union an advantage in the Space Race. This source is extremely valuable as it contains the arguments of both the witnesses (women of the FLATs program who saw NASA's rejection to train them for the space program as discrimination) and the committee members on why women should or shouldn't be allowed to become astronauts. Being able to read the exact dialogue between the witnesses and the committee members is also important, as it can help us make inferences on why committee members were ultimately not convinced of womens' potential in space, which can better help us evaluate the immediate and historical impact of the hearings in relation to other events of the time period (for example, the Civil Rights Act). Furthermore, arguments that various witness and committee members brought up for or against women in space (for example, a high dropout rate of women due to marriage) can lead to new paths for us to explore in order to better understand the eventual diversity of Group VIII.

Richard Nixon. "President Nixon's 1972 Announcement on the Space Shuttle." NASA History. Last modified January 5, 1972. Accessed February 4, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/stsnixon.htm. This source is a transcript of President Richard Nixon's announcement of the start of the space shuttle program and NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher's statement on the space shuttle. This source is helpful because Nixon discusses how the Space Shuttle program will expand access to space, explaining how the space shuttle allowed women to join NASA's Astronaut Corps. We use Nixon's announcement in our website to explain how the versatility of the space shuttle opened NASA's Astronaut Corps to women.

Richard Nixon Foundation. Nixon and Fletcher Discussing the Proposed Space Shuttle. 2020. Photograph. Accessed January 22, 2020. https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/01/dawn-space-shuttle/. This source is a photograph from the Richard Nixon Foundation of President Richard Nixon and NASA Administrator James Fletcher discussing the proposed space shuttle. This source is helpful because it serves as an accompanying image for our description of the introduction of the space shuttle, which is how we used this photograph in our website.

Ride, Sally K. "NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project Edited Oral History Transcript." Interview by Rebecca Wright, Jennifer Ross-Nazzal, and Sandra Johnson. National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Johnson Space Center. Last modified October 22, 2002. Accessed October 28, 2019. https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/RideSK/Rid eSK_10-22-02.htm. This source is a transcript of an oral interview with Sally K. Ride (one of the female astronauts of Group VIII, and the first American woman to fly in space), and it was found on the Johnson Space Center's website, where they have archived a large number of interviews with astronauts as part of their Oral History Project. In this interview, Ride discusses different aspects of her experiences at NASA. Some things discussed are why she applied to be an astronaut, how the media response to her acceptance affected her, what preparations NASA made to accommodate female astronauts, and how male colleagues reacted to having her as a colleague. Ride's experience is a first-hand account of what being one of the first females in the astronaut program was like, and so her interview can be used particularly for short-term changes and impacts of the 1978 Astronaut Class. As it is an account of a single person, it's also useful for discovering things that other more general accounts may not cover, like how male colleagues reacted to her and other women in the space program (for example). While other accounts (like newspaper articles, or NASA administration documents) are better for giving us the big picture, personal interviews like these can help shine a light on little details that are less covered or less known.

Science Students 1958. 1958. Photograph. Accessed April 13, 2020. http://brynmawrcollections.org/traces/items/show/320. This source is a photograph of science students, notably of which many are female, performing science experiments in a classroom. This source is helpful because it illustrates Sputnik's impact on STEM education in schools, and we use this photograph in our site to demonstrate what STEM education looked like in the classroom as a result of Sputnik's successful launch.

Sullivan, Kathryn D. "NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project Edited Oral History Transcript Kathryn D. Sullivan Interviewed by Jennifer Ross-Nazzal Columbus, Ohio – 10 May 2007." By Jennifer Ross-Nazzal and Rebecca Wright. National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Johnson Space Center. Last modified May 10, 2007. Accessed October 31, 2019. https://historycollection.jsc.nasa.gov/JSCHistoryPortal/history/oral_histories/SullivanKD /SullivanKD_5-10-07.htm. This source is the transcript of an oral interview with Kathryn Sullivan (one of the female astronauts of Group VIII, and the first American woman to walk in space), and it was found on the Johnson Space Center's website as part of their Oral History Project. The interview covered her experience at NASA, and some of the topics that were discussed included media coverage (more specifically, who out of the female astronauts the media covered and why), how/if the female astronauts formed a distinct group, and some examples of the awkwardness that came with male and female astronauts working together. This account also covers some short-term impacts of the 1978 Astronaut Class. Sullivan's experience can also help us put together a picture of what went smoothly with the first women in the space program and what didn't. This can help us better highlight both the progress and the shortcomings of this barrier, such as social problems between the men and women. For example, Sullivan recounts that the large amount of men versus women created some social problems; the men could, for example, all go out to a bar together for team bonding (and they did), but they weren't comfortable doing that with women. These personal experiences that cover the social aspect of NASA can help us create an objective view of this barrier with more perspectives, which leads to a more accurate project.

Unidentified Photographer. John F. Kennedy and James E. Webb, White House, Washington, DC. January 30, 1961. Photograph. Accessed April 12, 2020. https://www.icp.org/browse/archive/objects/john-f-kennedy-and-james-e-webb-white-ho use-washington-dc. This source is an image of President John F. Kennedy meeting with NASA Administrator James Webb. This photo helps place Kennedy's quote about the moon landing being a top priority for funds in context and serves as an accompanying image to that quote on our website.

United States Army. Redstone Missile. September 1, 2009. Photograph. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13939.8.

This source is a photograph of the United States' Redstone Missile, which we found in Catledge and Powell's research report Space History on JSTOR, was taken by the United States Army. The photograph is helpful because it illustrates how the United States was already developing missile technology before the Space Race in order to demonstrate its technological superiority over the Soviet Union. We use this photograph in our website to explain the causes of the Space Race.

United States Congress House Science and Astronautics. 1973 Nasa Authorization Hearings before the Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972. https://books.google.com/books?id=3F0VAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs _ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. This source is a transcript of the hearings before the Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications of the Committee on Science and Astronautics in the U.S. House of Representatives, accessed via Google Books. The hearings were about NASA's fiscal year 1973 authorization request. The transcript is useful because it provided us with a quote from NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher that revealed NASA's plans to send both men and women to space on the space shuttle. This source is used in our website to explain how the Space Shuttle program opened NASA's Astronaut Corps to women.

United States House of Representatives. John Edward Roush Handbill. 1970. Photograph. Accessed February 1, 2020. https://history.house.gov/Collection/Detail/15032449995. This source is a photograph (from a handbill) of John Edward Roush, a member of the Special Subcommittee on the Selection of Astronauts of the Committee on Science and Astronautics in the 1962 congressional hearings on whether NASA's astronaut requirements discriminated against women. This photograph is an accompanying image to Roush's statement during the hearings that sending an American woman to space at that time would interfere with NASA's current plans, which is how we used this photo on our website.

Walsh, John. "Education: President's Program Provides More Room at Top." Science 139, no. 3554 (February 8, 1963): 474, 475, 510. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1709438. This source is an article in a journal that focuses on science-related research and news, and it was found on JSTOR. It was written as Congress was debating how to best improve U.S. education for national security reasons. The National Defense Act of 1958 had already been passed, but at the time this article was written, it was going to expire soon, and other education-related bills in Congress had yet to be agreed on.This article mostly discusses how there was a lack of higher-level science degrees (such as PhDs) in the U.S., even though the demand for these careers was quite high due to space and military programs--during the Cold War era, these fields were given a lot of attention. This article is useful as it helps draw a definite line between education reform and the space race--more specifically, education was given large amounts of funding in order to increase the amount of people in the U.S. who were skilled in EMP (engineering, math, and physical) sciences in particular. These funds based on a need for educated scientists

could prove to be a reason why more women started graduating with degrees in the science field, leading to them being more qualified for space travel.

The Washington Post. "Racism, Sexism and Space Ventures." The Washington Post, Times Herald (Washington D.C. , U.S.A.), November 24, 1973, A14. https://search.proquest.com/docview/148348573/E196578ADE15489FPQ/1?accountid=1 282. This source is a Washington Post article reporting on the firing of a top official of NASA's equal opportunity programs, and it was found on ProQuest's Historical Newspapers database. Not only does this article cover the firing itself, it also describes and comments on NASA's response to the national that followed. It also comments on "the incongruity of a nation's able to send men to the moon and bring them safely back again without being able to deal very effectively with its [equality] problems here on earth." This source is useful as its commentary on NASA's equality programs helps us better put the Space Race into context with other events happening at the same time, like the Civil Rights movement and the bills that were passed because of it, like the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1964. This context-building can also help improve our understanding of our topic and lead to a more accurate final result.

Wolfe, Frank. Signing of the Higher Education Act. November 8, 1965. Photograph. Accessed January 30, 2020. http://www.lbjlibrary.org/mediakits/highereducation/p6.html. This source is a photograph from the LBJ Presidential Library of President Lyndon B. Johnson signing the Higher Education Act (HEA). This source is helpful because it serves as an accompanying image for our discussion on how the HEA helped open NASA's Astronaut Corps to women, which is what we used this photograph for in our website.

Secondary Sources

Barber, Chris. "The Dawn of the Space Shuttle." Richard Nixon Foundation. Last modified January 5, 2017. Accessed January 22, 2020. https://www.nixonfoundation.org/2017/01/dawn-space-shuttle/. This article from the Richard Nixon Foundation describes the beginnings of the Space Shuttle program and how the concept of the shuttle was developed. This source was helpful because it provides us with context regarding how the Space Shuttle program, an integral step in helping women enter NASA's Astronaut Corps, came about. Barber's article is also used in our website to describe the origins of the space shuttle.

Buchholz, Katharina. "Number of Female NASA Astronauts Rises." Chart. Statista. January 16, 2020. Accessed April 12, 2020. https://www.statista.com/chart/17487/number-of-female-nasa-astronauts/.

This source is a chart that shows the percent of men and women of each astronaut class, from NASA Astronaut Group I, where all members were male, to NASA Astronaut Group 22, where women make up nearly half of the astronaut class. The chart was helpful because it illustrates how the number of women astronauts in NASA's astronaut classes are increasing and emphasizes the legacy of NASA Astronaut Group VIII; every astronaut class since Group VIII has included women. We use this chart in our website to highlight Astronaut Group VIII's legacy.

Catledge, Burton, and Jeremy Powell. Space History. Montgomery, AL: Air University Press, 2009. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13939. Catledge and Powell's research report is Chapter 1 of the "AU-18 Space Primer" report accessed through JSTOR. This source describes the early missile and rocket developments of the United States and Soviet Union prior to the Space Race, U.S. and Soviet space programs, international space collaborations such as the International Space Station, and space initiatives of various countries. This source is useful because it provides context necessary to understanding the origins of NASA's space program, contains photographs of rockets and missiles, and has a quote from Lyndon Johnson emphasizing the power of space, all of which are used to explain the causes of the Space Race in our website.

"The Class of 1978 and the FLATs." NASA. Last modified August 7, 2017. Accessed October 28, 2019. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/history/features/flats.html. This source is a web page on NASA's website that summarizes the history of the FLATs (the first group of women to be tested for space travel) and the class of 1978, and it was found on NASA's official website under the "History" tab. It discusses the accomplishments of the women of Group VIII (for example, Sally Ride was the first American woman to go to space and Kathryn Sullivan was the first American woman to walk in space), and it describes some of the "humorous situations" that the women faced, such as NASA's engineers assuming women would want a makeup case in space and then endeavoring to build one -- this particular anecdote is yet another example of gender stereotypes that the women of Group VIII encountered and eventually helped resolve. A history of the FLATs program and a description of the historical importance of the 1962 hearing on sexual discrimination at NASA is also included. This source is useful because not only does it continue to fill in key details about the timeline of women in the space program and the struggles that they faced, it also contains a number of valuable primary images of the FLATs training that can both better help us understand the the historical event and the time period in which it occurred.

Dean, Cornelia. "When Science Suddenly Mattered, in Space and in Class." The New York Times. Last modified September 25, 2007. Accessed December 11, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/25/science/space/25educ.html. This source is an article discussing, in part, the impact of Sputnik on U.S. education, and it was found on the New York Times' website. It explains how the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik prompted an education overhaul in the United States, as it

made U.S. officials realize that in order to match the Soviet Union technologically, they would need more people capable of pushing the boundaries of science. It also discusses the passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1958, and how it offered scholarships to students aspiring to work in the sciences. Also discussed is how U.S. scientists worked on remodeling how the sciences were taught in school. This information is useful as it describes a bigger push in the U.S. to encourage young children, including possibly women, to follow the sciences, which further develops a link between the Space Race and the increased number of women graduating with degrees in the sciences. More women with scientific degrees could be a reason why Group VII was more diverse--more women were meeting NASA's requirements for astronauts.

Dickson, Paul. "Sputnik's Impact on America." PBS Online. Last modified November 6, 2007. Accessed April 12, 2020. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/sputnik-impact-on-america/. This article from the Public Broadcasting Service discusses the United States' reaction to Sputnik, explaining how Sputnik's successful launch impacted American attitudes and public life. This source is helpful because it highlights how Sputnik caused a large jolt in American public life and explains how it fully pushed the United States into the Space Race. We pulled a quote from historian Walter A. McDougall from this source and use it in our website to explain how Sputnik was a shock to the United States.

Foster, Amy. "The Gendered Anniversary: The Story of America's Women Astronauts." The Florida Historical Quarterly 87, no. 2 (Fall 2008): 150-73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20700213. This source is a journal article from the Florida Historical Quarterly and was found on JSTOR, an online database that has a large number of articles from scholarly journal. It provides a detailed history of women in the NASA space program. Not only does it go over the bare facts, it also ties in other happenings in U.S. and global history that influenced the breaking of this barrier (like the Civil Rights movement and the resulting Equal Employment Opportunity Amendment). Topics covered include the testing of the FLATs (First Lady Astronaut Trainees), Cobb and Hart's Congress hearing on "the question of sexual discrimination at NASA" after their program was shut down, the increase of women getting STEM degrees (due to Sputnik and the Space Race) which made women more eligible for the space program, and the eventual Group VIII astronaut class itself (153). The source then covers some of the problems NASA encountered with having women in the space program--such as having to modify equipment for women, discrimination in the workplace, and media coverage. The source then evaluates the impact of the Group VIII astronaut program in the history of space exploration and U.S. history as a whole. This source can be very useful when it comes to describing how historical events affected the eventual acceptance of women into Group III, which is important when it comes to building an accurate, nuanced project on a historical event. This source also, like my primary sources, discusses short-term changes NASA had to implement in order to accommodate women astronauts, which is also important to consider; the breaking of the barrier is what our project is primarily about, but what

happened as a result of the broken barrier is important as well. And, while my other sources (Ride's and Sullivan's interviews) mostly discuss social impacts of women in the space program, this source covers the design modifications of equipment that were needed, like toilets and space suits, which is another perspective on short term changes that can be useful. Finally, as this source is also a history of women in the space program, it can be used to put other information into context and structure a timeline of our event, which is helpful when constructing an argument and presenting research.

Garcia, Mark, ed. "Sally Ride – First American Woman in Space." National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Last modified June 18, 2018. Accessed December 14, 2019. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/sally-ride-first-american-woman-in-space. In this article from NASA's official website, the agency recounts Sally Ride's historic launch on June 18, 1983, in which she became the first American woman in space. The article also provides a brief summary of the mission (STS-7), listing the crew members and describing the events of the six-day flight. NASA's article is helpful because it describes the impact of the space shuttle on women in space; the source reveals that the space shuttle allowed engineers and scientists to join the Astronaut Corps and not just pilots, which consequently opened the space program to women. The article also describes a historical event (Ride's spaceflight) that happened as a result of women being accepted into the Astronaut Corps, another reason why it is useful. This source was used in the final project to explain both the impact of the Space Shuttle and the impact resulting from the barrier that had prevented women from joining the Astronaut Corps being broken.

Jolly, Jennifer L. "The National Defense Education Act, Current STEM Initiative, and the Gifted." Historical Perspectives 32, no. 2 (Spring 2009): 50-53. Accessed December 12, 2019. https://doi.org/10.4219/gct-2009-873. In her journal article from Historical Perspectives, Jennifer L. Jolly, who holds a Doctor of Philosophy degree and works as a gifted education professor at the University of Alabama, explains how various initiatives that came about as a result of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) impacted STEM education in the United States. Such initiatives included the allocation of funds for loans, scholarships, and fellowships and the creation of accelerated science programs in schools, and Jolly discusses how the NDEA led to an increase in the number of rigorous STEM classes available to students and provided students with more opportunities to enter careers in STEM. Jolly's article is useful because it clarifies the direct consequences of the passage of the NDEA, namely an increase in rigorous STEM courses, changes in curricula, and improved training for teachers. These direct consequences are necessary and will be used in the project to explain how students, especially women, were able to gain greater opportunities in the STEM field and thus fulfill NASA's requirement that astronaut candidates must hold a STEM degree, ultimately allowing women to finally join NASA's astronaut corps.

Kaiser, David. "The Physics of Spin: Sputnik Politics and American Physicists in the 1950s." Social Research 73, no. 4 (Winter 2006): 1225-52.

https://search.proquest.com/docview/209670948/9F03DAEB905B45A2PQ/1?accountid= 1282. This source discusses the involvement of physicists in the political discussions during the 1950s as they tried to increase federal support for scientific education. Also discussed is the Soviet Union's increase in students working in the sciences, and the U.S.'s response to this, including the passage of the National Defense Education Act. It also describes the numerous advancements to education that the NDEA funded, such as graduate-student fellowships, funding to states, and funding to universities to expand their graduate programs. And, it explains this aid was restricted to areas like science and math. This source is useful because it provides further evidence that the NDEA was created in an attempt to match the Soviet Union's growing technological and scientific achievements.

Koren, Marina. "Why Women Weren't Allowed to Be Astronauts." The Atlantic, March 10, 2017. Accessed November 24, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/03/women-in-space/498833/. In her article from the website of the magazine The Atlantic, Marina Koren describes the rationale adopted by critics of women in the space program, listing reasons such as menstruation, impact of radiation on fertility, and the social stereotype that women should be away from the action and front lines, and explains how eventually the Space Shuttle program helped integrate women into the Astronaut Corps. Koren's article is helpful because it elaborates on the perspective of opponents against women in the Astronaut Corps and reveals how the introduction of the Space Shuttle program was a major turning point in breaking the barrier that prevented women from joining NASA's space program for decades. This source was used to provide a more detailed picture of the rationale of the resistors and illustrate how the barrier was finally broken.

Lathers, Marie. "'No Official Requirement': Women, History, Time, and the U.S. Space Program." Feminist Studies 35, no. 1 (Spring 2009): 14-40. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40607922. Lathers explains the history of women in America's space program with a specific focus on the 1962 congressional hearings by the special subcommittee of the Committee on Science and Astronautics in the House of Representatives in this journal article from Feminist Studies accessed on JSTOR. She documents the major proceedings of the hearing and explores the arguments posited by the opposing sides: Jerrie Cobb and Jane B. Hart claimed that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) qualifications for astronauts were discriminatory towards women while Jackie Cochran, George M. Low, Scott Carpenter, and John Glenn argued that the time to integrate women into the Astronaut Corps had not yet arrived. Lathers' journal article discusses how the resistors to women in space attempted to establish the legitimacy of their argument and briefly explains the roots of such resistance. The information this source contains is useful because it reveals that women faced a wide range of obstacles in joining the nation's space program and explains each of these hurdles in depth, providing a more full and well-rounded picture of the barrier excluding women from the Astronaut

Corps. Lathers' article will be used to illustrate and explain the causes of this barrier and the rationale adopted by those who were opposed to opening the space program to women.

Loff, Sarah, ed. "1978 Astronaut Class." NASA. Last modified August 6, 2017. Accessed October 28, 2019. https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/1978-astronaut-class. This source is a collection of images of Group VIII, and it was found on NASA's official website under the history section. It gives the names and images of everyone in the class, which is quite useful for finding other avenues to explore. For example, we can research different members of the class, male and female, to learn their perspective on the diversity of the class and their general experience in the space program. A picture-centered source also helps us better put into perspective the male-female ratio of the class. A better perspective of the class itself as well as a list of people we can research to get more information can help us to have a better final product as it increases our knowledge of the class and helps us better evaluate the impacts of the events that lead to it.

Logsdon, John M., and Roger D. Launius, eds. Human Spaceflight: Projects Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. Vol. 7 of Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program. The NASA History Series. Washington, DC: NASA History Division, 2008. Accessed January 27, 2020. https://books.google.com/books?id=HXN0UcqKggMC&ppis=_e&printsec=frontcover&s ource=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false. This is a collection of primary documents from the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs accessed via Google Books. The collection includes memorandums, letters, and reports, among a variety of other documents. This source was helpful because it provided us with a quote ("…[N]o time should be lost in launching an aggressive Man-in-Space Program….") from Roy W. Johnson, the director of the Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency, in his memorandum for NASA administrator T. Keith Glennan. Johnson's quote is used in our website to illustrate how NASA's priority of sending men to space and the moon caused it to view training women astronauts as an impediment to achieving that goal and prevented women from joining NASA's Astronaut Corps.

Mutschler, Max M. Keeping Space Safe: Towards a Long-Term Strategy to Arms Control in Space. Research report no. 98. Frankfurt, Germany: Peace Research Institute Frankfurt, 2010. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep14496.3. This source is the introduction of a research report accessed through JSTOR that explains the events leading up to the debate on how to keep space safe in light of a possible arms race conducted in outer space. Mutschler takes a stance on this issue, arguing that creating an "international arms control regime for space" is the most effective way to keep space safe. Mutschler's research report was useful because it describes how in the midst of the Cold War, space emerged as the new frontier in which

the United States and Soviet Union could demonstrate their superiority, and it is used in our website to explain how the Space Race began.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Sputnik 1. Photograph. https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/sputnik1.jpg. This is a photograph of Sputnik I from the NASA History website. This source helps us explain how Sputnik I's launch pushed the United States to enact educational reforms in STEM, which is how we used this source in our website.

———. "Women in Space." NASA History. Last modified July 21, 2017. Accessed January 12, 2020. https://history.nasa.gov/women.html. This source is a list of historic accomplishments by female astronauts in the history of spaceflight from the NASA History website. This source is helpful because it contains the historic firsts by the Group VIII women and later American women astronauts. We use this source in our website to describe the accomplishments of the Group VIII women and explain how the women of Group VIII paved the way for later historic firsts in space by American women.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and Kennedy Space Center Information Technology Directorate. "Selection and Training of Astronauts." Kennedy Space Center. Accessed January 23, 2020. https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/msfc/crew/training.html. This source is an article from the Kennedy Space Center's official website that describes the role of the space shuttle pilot, mission specialist, payload specialist, and describes astronaut training in addition to the Shuttle Mission Simulator. This source was helpful because it defined the role of the mission specialist, and we use this article in our website to describe what a mission specialist does.

Powell, Alvin. "How Sputnik Changed U.S. Education." The Harvard Gazette. Last modified October 11, 2007. Accessed December 9, 2019. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/10/how-sputnik-changed-u-s-education/. This source is a news article written by writers of the Harvard Gazette, and it was found on their website. It discusses how the Soviet launch of Sputnik spurred an education overhaul in the U.S., as U.S. leaders realized that Soviet technology was advancing quickly, and in order to stay an equal to the Soviet Union, they would require more people able to develop more advanced technology. This is useful because a Space-Race-induced education reform could explain the rise in women graduating from colleges with scientific degrees, could be a main reason why more women qualified for space travel--these new STEM-based degrees made them more prepared for the job.

Robbins, Catherine J. "Women in the Space Age." Educational Horizons 42, no. 4 (Summer 1964): 235-37. Accessed December 14, 2019. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42923452. In this journal article from Educational Horizons on JSTOR, Catherine J. Robbins discusses society's expectation that women should play a supporting and passive role in the space age and then proceeds to explain how this expectation is unjustified, citing

reasons such as the increasing number of women in leadership positions and improvements in women's education. Robbins' article is useful because it reveals a secondary barrier preventing women from joining the Astronaut Corps: the societal stereotype that women merely watch, wait, and pray during the Space Race. This source also reflects the changing attitudes and growing acceptance in the United States about women in professional workplaces such as the Astronaut Corps, another reason why it is useful. Robbins' article will likely be used to describe the resistance that initially prevented women from joining NASA's Astronaut Corps and explain how and why the American public's perception of female astronauts changed during the Space Race.

Rose, Deondra Eunique. "The Development of U.S. Higher Education Policy and Its Impact on the Gender Dynamics of American Citizenship." PhD diss., Cornell University, 2012. Accessed December 12, 2019. https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/handle/1813/31009/der33.pdf?sequence=1&isAll owed=y. In her dissertation at Cornell University for her Doctor of Philosophy degree, Deondra Eunique Rose discusses the impact of higher education public policy on the college degree attainment of women, focusing on the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) of 1958, the Higher Education Act (HEA) of 1965, and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Rose explains how the NDEA allowed women to become equal beneficiaries of financial aid and thus led to the substantial increase in the number of women attending college and earning degrees. Rose's dissertation is useful because it reveals how the NDEA expanded college access for women and illustrates how the federal policy broke the barrier that had prevented women from attaining STEM degrees, which had previously prevented them from becoming astronauts at NASA. This source was used to describe the impacts of the NDEA on higher education for women and explain how women were finally able to attain college degrees in STEM and ultimately allowed to join the astronaut corps.

Ross-Nazzal, Jennifer, Shannon Lucid, and Helen Lane. "Social, Cultural, and Educational Legacies." In Wings in Orbit: Scientific and Engineering Legacies of the Space Shuttle, 1971-2010, edited by Wayne Hale, Helen Lane, Gail Chapline, and Kamlesh Lulla, 459-69. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2011. Accessed December 14, 2019. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/584743main_Wings-ch6a-pgs459-469.pdf. In this section from NASA's book Wings in Orbit: Scientific and Engineering Legacies of the Space Shuttle, 1971-2010, NASA historian Jennifer Ross-Nazzal, former NASA astronaut Shannon Lucid, and NASA senior scientist emeritus Helen Lane discuss how the Space Shuttle changed the role of women and minorities in NASA's space program, starting with a description of their role before the space shuttle and then transitioning into an explanation of how the Space Shuttle impacted women and minorities. Ross-Nazzal, Lucid, and Lane also describe how the space shuttle influenced American culture, explaining the shuttle's impacts on music, film, consumer culture, and more. This source is useful because it explains how the Space Shuttle's versatility

allowed female American astronauts to finally travel in space; specifically, it discusses how factors such as the increase in the size of the flight crew and introduction of the position of mission specialist allowed those without jet-pilot experience to apply and thus opened the Astronaut Corps to women. Another reason why this source is useful is that it compares the role of women in NASA's Astronaut Corps before and after the introduction of the space shuttle, which highlights the magnitude of the shuttle's impact on women. This section from Wings in Orbit: Scientific and Engineering Legacies of the Space Shuttle, 1971-2010 will be used in the final project to explain how the space shuttle broke the barrier that had prevented women from joining the Astronaut Corps and how women's role in NASA's space program changed as a result of the barrier being broken.

Shayler, David J., and Ian A. Moule. Women in Space — Following Valentina. London: Praxis Publishing, 2005. Accessed January 27, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-84628-078-8_5. This source is a chapter called "Shuttlenauts" from the book Women in Space — Following Valentina accessed via Springer Link. The authors examine the role women play in the exploration of space by describing the history of women in aviation, conducting personal interviews with women astronauts and cosmonauts, and highlighting women's accomplishments in space. This source is useful because it describes how the space shuttle program removed the requirement that NASA's astronaut candidates must have jet test pilot experience. We use this source in our website to explain how the space shuttle program opened NASA's Astronaut Corps to women.

Weitekamp, Margaret A. "NASA's Early Stand on Women Astronauts: 'No Present Plans to Include Women on Space Flights.'" Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Last modified March 17, 2016. Accessed October 28, 2019. https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/nasa%E2%80%99s-early-stand-women-astrona uts-%E2%80%9Cno-present-plans-include-women-space-flights%E2%80%9D. This source is an online article on the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's website. It mainly focuses on putting the events of the FLATs into context with other national and global events of the time period. For example, the "cultural excitement" of space that the Space Race helped fuel, the absence of any Equal Employment Act (that would only be published in 1964, with the passage of the Civil Rights Act), and the 1962 Congressional hearing on sex discrimination in NASA are all mentioned, and more importantly, the author explains how each of these events affected the FLATs. This source also contains images that can help us better picture the time period in which these events took place, which helps to create a more accurate product. And, the source's extensive overview of how different events connected to the struggles of the FLATs can better help us create a complete and nuanced picture of the event we are researching.