The Re-Politicization of in : The Next Ten Years Author(s): Jytte Klausen Reviewed work(s): Source: Perspectives on Politics, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Sep., 2005), pp. 554-557 Published by: American Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3689030 . Accessed: 28/11/2012 10:49

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Friedberg,Aaron. 1993-94. Ripe forrivalry: Prospects JytteKlausen for in a Asia. International peace multipolar Security The Re-Politicizationof : 18 (3): 5-33. The Next Ten Years Glaser,Charles. 1992. Political of consequences military In the decade willbecome an and the and deter- coming religion increasingly strategy:Expanding refining spiral salientissue in This runs rencemodels. World Politics 44 (4): 497-538. Europeanpolitics.' prediction counterto the conventionalwisdom that Europeans are Goldstein,Avery. Forthcoming. Rising to thechallenge: "post-Christian."When comparingEurope to theUnited China'sgrand strategy and internationalsecurity. States,observers note thatchurch pews are empty,that Stanford,CA: StanfordUniversity Press. fewerpeople profess to believein God, and thatEurope- Ericand RichardJ. Samuels.2003. Heginbotham, ans are moralrelativists who from In Asia 2002-03: Asian ed. shyaway principled . Strategic aftershocks, authoritariancountries. In the Richard and AaronL. withMi- positionsagainst European J.Ellings Friedberg view,modernization ,and this chaelWills, 87-121. Seattle:National Bureau of implies by standard are modernwhile Americansare, AsianResearch. Europeans dependingon who theobserver is, eitherpostmodern or Jr.James E 2004. A shiftin the Hoge, globalpower irrational.2 thenare we floodedwith evidence of the Is theUnited States 83 Why making: ready?Foreign Affairs of 2-7. "re-Christianization"Europe? (4): showrecent in thenumber of G. 2004. American and East Surveys growth Europe- Ikenberry, John. hegemony ans who an measureof com- Asianorder. Australian International express increasing religious Journalof Affairs mitment.It is in Sweden and the formerEast 58 353-67. only (3): thatnonbelievers are the When the David C. 2003. Asia The need majority.3 Kang, Getting wrong: newconstitution of the Union(EU) wasdrafted, fornew frameworks.International 27 European analytic Security German,Italian, Polish and Slovakian 57-85. delegatesargued (4): thata referenceto "God" and to "Christianvalues" should -. 2005. China reassuresEast Asia: and Hierarchy be in thetext, and were in internationalrelations. incorporated they supportedby stability Unpublished theformer French Giscard a Dartmouth president,Valkry d'Estaing, manuscript, College. RomanCatholic.4 Greece, Denmark, and Ireland Andrew.1997. Game and the fought Kydd, theory spiral to includea (Article [3]) that model. WorldPolitics 49 371-400. preemptiveparagraph I-51 (3): church theconvention's . 2005. Trustand mistrustin internationalrelations. protectedexisting privilegesagainst antidiscriminationclauses, arousing the ire of theBritish Princeton:Princeton University Press. HumanistSociety and the InternationalAssociation of Martin,Lisa. 1993. costs,and institutions: Credibility, Non-Confessionalsand Atheists(Internationaler Bund on economicsanctions. World Politics 45 Cooperation derKonfessionslosen und Atheisten) a German-based asso- 406-32. (3): ciation.5The of theBBC criticizedthe Michael.2003. governors corpo- Mastanduno, Incompletehegemony: rationfor A Danishsocial The UnitedStates and orderin Asia. In Asian cuttingreligious programming.6 security democratand formerNew Left historian,Karen Jes- securityorder, ed. MuthiahAlagappa, 141-70. Stan- persen,has declaredthat she does not wantto live in a ford,CA: StanfordUniversity Press. multiculturalsociety and prefersto stickto thenational Mearsheimer,John. 2001. Thetragedy of greatpower valuesarticulated by N. E S. Grundtvig,a nineteenth- politics.New York:W. W. Norton. centuryLutheran reformer. The Norwegianpress is sud- Powell,Robert. 2002. Bargainingtheory and inter- denlyfilled with references to .7 nationalconflict. American Review of Political Science Beforewe pronouncea Christianrevival to be on its 5:1-30. way,we shouldpause to considerif the original reports on -. 2004. The inefficientuse of power:Costly con- the dearthof faithwere perhapsnot exaggerated.The flictwith complete information, American Political empty-pewscomparison presumes that if you do not go ScienceReview 98 (2): 633-48. to churchon Sunday,you do notcare about religion. But Shambaugh,David. 2004-5. China engagesAsia: Re- religionmatters more to Europeansthan theirSunday the order.International Security 29 shaping regional behaviorlets on. Europeanspay their governments to sup- (3): 64-99. porttheir churches and quite rightly assume that the church Womack,Brantley. 2003-4. China and SoutheastAsia: willbe therewhen they need it. The consumptionof essen- Asymmetry,Leadership, and Normalcy. Affairs Pacific tialreligious services-baptisms, confirmations, weddings, 76 (4): 529-48.

JytteKlausen is associateprofessor of comparative politics at BrandeisUniversity (klausen @brandeis.edu).

554 Perspectiveson Politics

This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.229 on Wed, 28 Nov 2012 10:49:55 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions and funerals-hasbeen remarkablyresistant to change. burg,which established the principle that subjects would Denmarkand Swedenare often described as theepitome havethe faiths of theirrulers. Among the countriesthat ofEuropean secularism, but 85 percentof the population haveboth constitutionally established confessions andpub- in the two countriesbelong to the nationalProtestant liclysubsidized faiths are Austria, Denmark, Norway, Fin- churches.Swedes are more prone to churchweddings (61 land, Greece,and .The Churchof Englandis an percent)than are Danes (43 percent);however, Danes are establishedchurch, although it receivesfew direct subsi- morepartial to confirmations(80 percent).About three- dies.If we countfunding for faith-based educational insti- quartersof the newborns in bothcountries are christened, tutions,the education of Christian clergy at thetheological and theyget christenedeven if theparents are not mar- facultiesat publicuniversities, and publiclyfunded Chris- ried.8The Danishand Swedishnational churches provide tiansocial and healthservices as examplesof publicsup- 90 percentof thepopulation with a religiousburial. One portfor religion, the self-portrayalof Europeas deeply has to concludethat many Swedes and Danes whoprofess committedto secularvalues and stateneutrality crumbles not to believein God neverthelessturn to thechurch for evenfurther. assistancethroughout their lives. France,Germany, the Netherlands, and Swedenare con- But ifEurope is stillChristian, and perhapsbecoming stitutionallysecular states but providedirect or indirect moreso, it is also grapplingwith new issuesof religious subsidiesfor institutions associated with recognized faiths, pluralism.Fifteen million live in westernEurope forexample, religious schools or socialand healthservices. today.The new insistenceon Christianvalues is clearly In Sweden,Belgium, and the Netherlands, funding oppor- linkedto a backlashagainst . Angela Merkel, the tunitiesare de jureavailable to all ,but state neu- leader of Germany'sChristian Democratic Party, has tralityremains an elusiveand not fullyaccepted goal. In said thateveryone who livesin hercountry must accept Germany,the Protestantand RomanCatholic churches, that it is based upon a Judeo-Christianvalue system. as wellas ,but not Islam,the third largest faith, AnnetteSchavan, the Christian Democratic culture min- are entitledto federallycollected church taxes and the isterin -Wiirttembergwho was responsiblefor rightto runstate-subsidized religious social services and pushingthrough legislation prohibiting teachers from wear- hospitals.Spain's 1978 constitution,created after the over- ing the Muslim headscarfin public schoolsin Baden- throwof theFranco regime, declared the state to be sec- Wiirttemberg-astate that also mandates placing crucifixes ular and ended the Roman 'slong- in publicclassrooms-gave as thereason for the apparent standingassociation with the state.Yet the government inequityin the treatmentof Christianityand Islamthat continuedto fundthe Catholic Church following an infor- Christianityis an essentialpart of the value systems of the mal agreementreached in 1979 and stillin effect.The "occident."It is, in herview, a matterof publicethics to Netherlandsand Sweden "privatized"but fullyfunded keep Christianityin the classroom:"We cannotallow a clergysalaries and pensionsin 1983 and 2000, respec- spiritualvacuum to emergethat would leaveour society tively.Even in France,where the law of 1905 and the withoutguidance," the Minister warned, "We muststand principleof laicitehas been invokedto prohibitMuslim byour cultural and religious traditions as theyare expressed girlsfrom covering their heads in school,churches are in our Constitution."9Academics have also voiced the municipalproperties and are lentfree of chargeto par- viewthat the moral identity of Europe rests upon secular- ishes,cemeteries are owned by municipalities but runby ized Christianvalues, which other faiths (for example, parishcouncils, and 25 percentof Frenchstudents go to Islam)are perceived not to share.10 Catholicschools, which are publicly funded. No publicly The problemwith Muslims, it is widelyargued, is that fundedMuslim school exists. theyare too religiousand do not distinguishproperly Twentieth-centuryEuropean states modernized reli- betweenprivate faith and publicvalues. Last fall, Helmut gion but theynever embraced constitutional principles Schmidt,the former , expressed his about stateneutrality and the separationof churchand regretthat under his stewardship,Germany had opened state.Secularization in Europewas achievedby meansof thedoors to Muslimlabor migrants. In retrospect,he said, statecontrol of religion.Germany and Francestill main- ithad beena mistake,because it was now clear that Chris- tainlists of bannedsects. Stein Rokkan's theory of path- tiansand Muslimscould not tolerate each other. Schmidt dependentnation-building since the sixteenthcentury blamedthe Christianchurches for having indoctrinated and thesubsequent "freezing" of partisan cleavages in the Germanswith resentment against Muslims, but he said age of masspolitics depended upon theunacknowledged also that peacefulaccommodation between Islam and but assumedstability of basicreligious affiliations, of the Christianityis possible only in authoritarianstates." cuiusregio, eius religio principle.12 Political scientists have WesternEuropean states are not secular.Nor are they fora decade debatedthe consequences of thecollapse of neutralin mattersof religion.On thecontrary, Europe is theWestphalian order-so namedafter the 1648 Treaty riddledwith Christianprivileges. Existing state-church of Westphalia,which establishedthe sovereignnation- frameworkscarry the imprint of the 1555 Treatyof Augs- state as the basic unit of the internationalorder-for

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This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.229 on Wed, 28 Nov 2012 10:49:55 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Symposium I TenYears from Now internationalrelations, but we have neglectedthe atten- negotiatingbetween the rocks of xenophobic parties mobi- dant consequencesfor the Augsburgprinciples of Reli- lizingon nativistsentiments about the dilution of national gionsfriede.13Migration is one of manyconsequences of "values"caused by immigration and theshoals of the EU's the new internationalorder, and it means that many effortsto endowthe federalist project with a billof rights subjectsno longerbelong to theofficial faiths of states. based upon principlesof nondiscriminationthat reach Conflictover the role of religionin westernEurope beyondmere mercantilism. I predictthat in a decade, does not pit Christiansagainst Muslims, but secularists Europeanswill no longerbe able to accuseAmericans of againstthose who want public policyto endorsefaith. beingthe ones to mixpolitics and religion.Governments Muslimsare as dividedas Christianson theseissues. Lale facea choiceof fundingIslam or allowingforeign spon- Akgiin,the SPD memberof the , told me that, sorsto continueto providemoney for mosques and sup- in herview, when historians come to explainhow Mus- plyimams and religiousinstruction. Muslim associations, lims changedEurope, they will concludethat Muslims communitygroups, and politicaland civicleaders, who promotedthe belated separationof state and church. stronglyfavor dismantling the tiesto the Islamiccoun- "Becauseof [theheadscarf bans], we arehaving a discus- tries,have found an allyin nationalsecurity agencies. At sionabout secularism. I do notsay that things will change the same time,growing public sentiment that Islam is a in two months,but we are lookingfor a new parityof threatto nationalidentities and thepopulist embrace of stateand secularismand religionin Germany.It is very Christianityas tool for mobilizing voters guarantee height- interestingthat Islam has brought a newdimension to the ened conflictover the place of religionin publicpolicy. discussionin thiscountry. It is a verybig difference,and whenyou look in fiveyears, in tenyears, what will have Notes changedwill be becauseof thisdecision." 14 Nonetheless,many religious Muslims prefer a Chris- 1 The argumentpresented here is basedupon Klausen tianstate to one thathas no publicreligion. A youngman 2005. ofTurkish origin, native-born and a Germancitizen, who 2 Anderson2004; Kagan2002; Cooper 2001. was electedas a ChristianDemocrat to a stateparliament, 3 Basedon the 1990-91 WorldValues Survey, Mattei explainedto me thatMuslims like himself, who draw their Dogan (2002) pronouncedvictory for the non- civicvalues from their faith, see nothingwrong with a believersin Europe.Nonetheless, even in thissurvey partyprogram that mentionsGod. But when religion 62 percentof theFrench said thatthey believed in comesto meanexclusively "Christianity" and "occidental God. The 1999 WorldValues Survey revealed a values,"then Muslims have to object.'5The managerof a significantincrease in believers,even in themore controversialGerman association of mosqueshesitated secularcountries. See Lambert2004. whenI askedwhich party Muslims like himself could best 4 TerrenceMurray, "Europe Debates God's Place in expectto workwith in thefuture. "Many people say the New Constitution,"Christian Science Monitor, Greens,"he said,"I am not so sure.Probably, the Chris- April10, 2003, http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/ tian Democratsare better."16His hesitationwas under- 0410/p07s01-woeu.html. standable,since he and his associationhad just been 5 See Ladwign.d.; Stinsonn.d. subjectedto yetanother volley from the Christian Dem- 6 The Guardian,May 9, 2005. ocratsabout Germancommitments to "occidental"and 7 Gullestad2002. "Christian"values. The Greenshave attracted support from 8 StatistiskArbog 2002, Denmark;Stiftslista 2000, manyMuslims for their strong support for human rights www.svenskakyrkan.se. and strengthenedantidiscrimination enforcement, but the 9 Land Baden-Wiirttemberg,communication of April partyis also secularist. 1, 2004. Religiouspluralism is a new socialfact that European 10 Seidentop2001, 191. stateshave yetto engage.Europeans have to reexamine 11 Quoted in HamburgerAbendblatt, November 24, thetwentieth-century "stability pacts" between church and 2004. state.New nationalconversations about religion and pub- 12 Rokkan1968. lic policycannot be avoided.The EuropeanUnion is a 13 Marchand Olsen (1998) describedthe rigid domes- centralactor in thesedebates for two reasons.First, the ticorder associated with the Westphalian system, awkwarddebates on the ratificationof the European but theirargument about the post-Westphalian Constitutionand 'saccession will soak up thesim- systemfocused exclusively upon thechanges to the meringconflict. Second, the EU is based upon a post- internationalorder. Augsburgconstitutional framework. The EU has no one 14 Interviewwith Lale Akgiin,, November 8, "national"religion and mustremain neutral with respect 2004. to all the religionswithin the Europeanspace. Europe's 15 Interview,Boston, June 15, 2004. largepolitical parties are facedwith the difficulttask of 16 Interview,Berlin, November 26, 2004.

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This content downloaded by the authorized user from 192.168.72.229 on Wed, 28 Nov 2012 10:49:55 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions References Taeku Lee Anderson,Brian C. 2004. SecularEurope, religious BringingClass, Ethnicity, and Nation Back to America.Public Interest 155:143-58. Race: The ColorLines in 2015 Cooper,Robert. 2001. The nextempire. Prospect 67: Much has been made of the dramaticinflux of immi- 22-26. grantsto the United Statessince the mid-1960s.This Mattei.2002. Accelerateddecline of Dogan, religious "FourthWave" of migration is remarkablenot just for its beliefin 1 Europe.Comparative Sociology (2): sheernumbers, but also forits ethnic diversity, with new- 127-49. comersdisproportionately arriving from Asia and Latin Gullestad,Marianne. 2002. Invisiblefences: Egalitarian- America.Much too has beenmade of the changes in how nationalism,and racism. the ism, Journalof Royal thestate classifies and countsby race and ethnicity.Most Institute8 45-63. Anthropological (1): recently,the Officeof Managementand Budget(OMB) Robert.2002. Powerand weakness. Kagan, PolicyRe- issued DirectiveNo. 15 in 1977, requiringall federal view113. http://www.policyreview.org/JUN02/ agenciesto collectdata for at leastfive groups-American kagan.html. Indiansand AlaskaNatives, Asians and PacificIslanders, Klausen, 2005. The Islam:Politics and Jytte. challengeof non-Hispanicblacks, non-Hispanicwhites, and His- in western Oxford:Oxford religion Europe. University panics-thenrevised this directive in 1997to include "mark Press. one or more" responsesthat would allow for self- N.d. EU constitutionArticles Ladwig,Rudolf. I-51- identificationwith multiple races/ethnicities. The faceof statusof churchesmust not hinder the defence of Americais changingbefore us. human rights!http://www.ibka.org/en/articles/ag03/ These changes have inspired some to conjurePangloss- euconst.html. ian reveriesof a multiracialcity on thehill, while others Lambert,Yves. 2004. A in evolu- turningpoint religious portendthe rise of Manichean "race wars" and "culture wars" tionin 19 Europe.Journal of Contemporary Religion and theend of our national identity as we knowit. Several (1): 29-45. pointedquestions prefigure these debates. Will Asians March, G., and P. Olsen. 1998. The insti- James Johan increasinglybe "honorarywhites"? Will Latinosincreas- tutional of international orders. dynamics political inglybe racialized,assimilated, or fragmented?Will Afri- International 52 (4): 943-69. Organization can Americansremain relatively unified, or will theybe Rokkan,Stein. 1968. The of mass in structuring politics increasinglydivided by class,political ideology, or some- thesmaller democracies:A European developmental thingelse? What effectwill the multiracial population of Studiesin and typology.Comparative Society History Americahave on thesetrends? Lastly, what can thework of 10 (2): 173-210. socialscience tell us aboutthe likely configuration of race 2001. in New York: Seidentop,Larry. Democracy Europe. andethnic politics over a finitefuture, say, ten years hence? 1 ColumbiaUniversity Press. Stinson,Hanne. N.d. Stillfighting to keepreligion out of theEU Constitution!http://www.humanism. Demographyas destiny.A fineline separatesforecasting org.uk/site/cms/contentPrintArticle.asp?article=1398. from fortune-telling in a domainas complexand dynamic as racialand ethnicpolitics. But thereare some obvious predictionsto drawover a timehorizon of ten years. Fore- most among theseis the persistenceof currentdemo- graphictrends. In the comingdecade we can expectthe foreign-bornpopulation and, withit, the proportionof Asiansand Latinosin the UnitedStates to continueto rise. Sometimein thiscentury, we are told,whites (as conventionallydefined) will no longercomprise a major- ityof the voting-agepopulation. Based on the last two ,moreover, the migrationof Asians and Latinos to theUnited States is likelyto spreadwell beyond "gate- way"cities like New York,Los Angeles,and Miami into moregeographically dispersed locales. Thus fewerAmer- icans in 2015 will be able to claimno directencounter withan Asianor Latinoperson.

TaekuLee is assistantprofessorofpolitical science at theUni- versityof California at Berkeley([email protected]).

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