Chinese Tourists’ Ecotourism Experiences: Some Antecedents and Outcomes
Ting (Tina) Li
This thesis is presented for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Western Australia
UWA Business School
Marketing Department
2021
THESIS DECLARATION
I, TING (TINA) LI, certify that:
This thesis has been substantially accomplished during enrolment in this degree.
This thesis does not contain material which has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution.
In the future, no part of this thesis will be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university of other tertiary institution without the prior approval of The University of Western Australia and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree.
This thesis does not contain any material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text and, where relevant, in the Authorship Declaration that follows. This thesis does not violate or infringe any copyright, trademark, patent, or other rights whatsoever of any person.
The research involving human data reported in this thesis was assessed and approved by The University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Committee (RA/4/1/8905). Written tourist consent has been received and archived for the research involving tourist data reported in this thesis.
This thesis contains published work and work prepared for publication, all of which were co-authored.
Date: 14/09/2020
i
ii ABSTRACT
This research examines Chinese tourists’ ecotourism experiences as well as the antecedents and outcomes of these experiences. Tourism experiences are constructed through tourists’ interactions with destinations’ offerings and reflect tourists’ mental states during these interactions. Understanding tourists’ experiences is important, as they guide tourists’ perceptions and behaviours. However, the area of tourism experience is understudied, especially in the emerging ecotourism sector and some important tourist segments, Chinese tourists in this case. Consequently, the four empirical papers that form the heart of this thesis sought to examine what tourism experiences are and how they are influenced by tourists’ expectations and how they influence tourists’ perceived value, destination image, satisfaction, revisit behaviour and environmental learning.
The first paper studied ecotourism experiences and an important antecedent (expectations) by examining potential expectation-experience gaps in China. Expectancy disconfirmation theory was used to develop an understanding of these potential gaps.
Before comparing experience and expectations (attitude and motivation), three constructs
(attitude, motivation, and experience) were explored using a qualitative approach. Forty participants who had taken ecotourism trips in China provided the needed data, which were analysed by the Leximancer program. The study identified confirmation (of aspects such as scenery appreciation) and negative disconfirmation (of pro-environmental aspects) between tourists’ expectations (attitude and motivation) and experiences assessment, suggesting some prominent attitude-behaviour and motivation-behaviour gaps in ecotourism contexts.
iii The second paper examined an important outcome of tourism experience (perceived value). The study examined perceived value from a multi-dimensional perspective and looked at the different effects different types of experience had on different aspects of perceived value. The data were collected from outbound Chinese tourists who took an ecotourism bus tours to the Pinnacles, a well-known Western Australian ecotourism site.
The data were analysed using the SPSS and WarpPLS 6.0 programs. The results suggested tourists’ experiences impacted on perceived value in a number of ways. In particular, all of the experience dimensions impacted on one or more of the five value dimensions examined (economic, functional, emotional, social and novelty value), while entertainment, relating, and education experiences impacted on each of these five value dimensions.
The third paper examined how tourism experience influenced tourists’ loyalty within an experience-image-satisfaction-loyalty framework. The paper used multidimensional experience and image constructs and added ecotourism loyalty to the model. The results suggested acting, fun learning and emotional experiences influenced attribute-based and holistic destination image. In addition, tourism experiences had an indirect effect on loyalty (including destination loyalty and ecotourism loyalty) through the mediating effects of destination image and satisfaction.
As a side study, the fourth paper examined ecotourism experiences’ impacts on environmental learning, which is a key ecotourism objective. The results suggested education, thinking, relating, entertainment, sensory and acting experiences contributed significantly to environmental learning, while aesthetic, escapism, or emotional experiences did not.
iv In summary, this thesis adds to our understanding of Chinese tourists’ tourism experiences by examining what they are and how they are linked to some important antecedents and outcomes. Thus, the thesis contributes to the literature on tourist experiences, perceptions, and loyalty. In doing this, the thesis has important implications for tourism policy makers, as well as for tourism providers, especially those wishing to attract Chinese tourists to ecotourism activities.
v
vi Table of Contents
THESIS DECLARATION ...... i
ABSTRACT ...... iii
Table of Contents ...... vii
List of Figures ...... xiv
List of Table ...... xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 1
AUTHORSHOP DECLARATION: CO-AUTHORED PUBLICATIONS ...... 3
CHAPTER ONE ...... 5
INTRODUCTION ...... 5
1.1 Research Background ...... 5
1.2 The Research Context: Chinese Tourists Taking Ecotourism Tours ...... 6
1.4 Tourist Expectations and Experiences ...... 9
1.5 Tourism Experiences and Perceived Trip Value...... 11
1.6 Tourism Experiences, Destination Image and Some Outcomes ...... 13
1.7 Tourism Experiences and Environmental Learning ...... 14
1.8 The Project’s Research Design and Methodology...... 15
1.9 Expected Contributions ...... 17
1.10 The Structure of the Thesis ...... 18
CHAPTER TWO ...... 19
LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 19
2.1 Experience Research in Marketing ...... 19
2.2 Categorisation of Experience in Marketing ...... 20
2.2.1 Consumer (or Customer) Experience ...... 20
2.2.2 Consumption Experience ...... 21
vii 2.2.3 Product Experience ...... 22
2.2.4 Brand Experience ...... 22
2.3 Two Suggested Experiential Frameworks ...... 23
2.3.1 Pine and Gilmore’s Framework ...... 23
2.3.2 Schmitt’s (1999) Framework ...... 27
2.4 Experience Research in Tourism ...... 32
2.4.1 Background ...... 32
2.4.2 The Use of Pine & Gilmore’s Framework in Tourism...... 35
2.4.3 The Use of Schmitt’s Framework in Tourism ...... 38
2.5 Experience Research in Ecotourism ...... 42
2.5.1 Background ...... 42
2.5.2 Entertainment Experiences in Ecotourism ...... 44
2.5.3 Educational Experiences in Ecotourism...... 45
2.5.4 Aesthetic Experiences in Ecotourism...... 45
2.5.5 Escapist Experiences in Ecotourism ...... 45
2.5.6 Sensory Experience in Ecotourism ...... 46
2.5.7 Feeling Experiences in Ecotourism ...... 46
2.5.8 Thinking Experience in Ecotourism...... 46
2.5.9 Acting Experiences in Ecotourism ...... 47
2.5.10 Relating Experiences in Ecotourism ...... 47
2.6 Expectations and Experiences...... 48
2.6.1 Expectations in Marketing ...... 48
2.6.2 Expectations in Tourism ...... 49
2.6.3 Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT) in Marketing ...... 50
2.6.4 EDT in Tourism ...... 50
viii 2.6.5 EDT in Ecotourism ...... 51
2.7 Experience and Perceived Value ...... 51
2.7.1 Perceived Value ...... 51
2.7.2 Consumer Value Frameworks ...... 52
2.7.3 Types of Perceived Value ...... 54
2.7.4 The Influence of Experience on Perceived Value ...... 55
2.8 Experience, Destination Image and Visit Behaviour ...... 58
2.8.1 Destination Image ...... 58
2.8.2 Dimensions of Destination Image ...... 59
2.8.3 Experiences and Destination Image ...... 60
2.8.4 Experience and Loyalty ...... 61
2.8.5 The Experience–Satisfaction–Loyalty Relationship ...... 61
2.8.6 The Image–Satisfaction–Loyalty Relationship ...... 62
2.8.7 The Experience–Image–Satisfaction–Loyalty Relationship ...... 62
2.9 Experiences and Environmental Learning ...... 64
2.9.1 Experiences and Learning ...... 64
2.9.2 Experiences and Learning in Marketing ...... 64
2.9.3 Experiences and Learning in Tourism ...... 65
2.9.4 Experiences and Environmental Learning in Ecotourism ...... 65
2.10 Summary ...... 67
CHAPTER THREE ...... 69
3.1 Abstract ...... 69
3.2 Introduction ...... 70
3.3 Theoretical Background ...... 73
3.3.1 Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory ...... 73
ix 3.3.2 Attitude ...... 75
3.3.3 Motivation ...... 76
3.3.4 Experiences ...... 78
3.3.5 The Influences of Personal Factors ...... 79
3.4 Research Approach ...... 80
3.5 Analyses and Results ...... 82
3.5.1 Attitude towards Ecotourism ...... 84
3.5.2 Ecotourism Motivation ...... 87
3.5.3 Ecotourism Experiences ...... 90
3.5.4 Confirmation, Disconfirmation and Satisfaction ...... 96
3.6 Discussion and Conclusions ...... 97
3.6.1 Summary and Theoretical Implications ...... 97
3.6.2 Practical Implications ...... 100
3.6.3 Limitations and Future Research ...... 101
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 103
4.1 Abstract ...... 103
4.2 Introduction ...... 104
4.3 Literature Review ...... 107
4.3.1 Experience ...... 107
4.3.2 Perceived Value ...... 108
4.3.3 Experience and Perceived Value ...... 110
4.4 The Present Study ...... 112
4.4.1 The Sample ...... 112
4.4.2 The Site ...... 112
4.4.3 Data Collection ...... 113
x 4.4.4 The Measures ...... 113
4.5 Analysis and Results ...... 114
4.5.1 Sample Profile ...... 115
4.5.2 Stage 1- Reliability and Validity ...... 115
4.5.3 Stage 2- Ecotourism Experiences and Perceived Trip Value ...... 117
4.6 Discussion and Conclusions ...... 119
4.6.1 Experience ...... 119
4.6.2 Perceived Value ...... 120
4.6.3 The Experience-Value Relationship ...... 121
4.6.4 Practical Implications ...... 124
4.6.5 Limitations and Future Research ...... 125
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 127
5.1 Abstract ...... 127
5.2 Introduction ...... 128
5.2 Conceptual Background and Hypotheses Development ...... 130
5.2.1 Tourism Experience ...... 130
5.2.2 Destination Image ...... 132
5.2.3 Satisfaction ...... 133
5.2.4 Loyalty ...... 134
5.3 Methods ...... 137
5.3.1 The Study Setting ...... 137
5.3.2 The Sample and Data Collection ...... 138
5.3.3 The Measures ...... 140
5.3.4 Data Analysis ...... 140
5.4 The Results ...... 141
xi 5.4.1 The Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Tourism Experience Items ...... 141
5.4.2 The Measurement Model ...... 143
5.4.3 The Structural Model ...... 147
5.5 Discussion and Implications ...... 151
5.5.1 Theoretical Implications ...... 151
5.5.2 Practical Implications ...... 155
5.6 Limitations and Future Research ...... 155
CHAPTER SIX ...... 157
6.1 Abstract ...... 157
6.2 Introduction ...... 158
6.3 Questionnaire and Data Collection ...... 159
6.4 Analysis and Results ...... 162
6.5 Discussion...... 164
CHAPTER SEVEN ...... 167
7.1 Summary of the Four Papers ...... 167
7.1.1 Paper 1: Tourist Expectation and Experience ...... 167
7.1.2 Paper 2: Tourism Experience and Perceived Value of a Trip ...... 171
7.1.3 Paper 3: Experience, Destination Image, Satisfaction and Loyalty ...... 174
7.1.4 Paper 4: Experience and Environmental Learning ...... 177
7.2 Further Contributions Built on the Four Papers ...... 179
7.3 Future Research Directions...... 183
7.4 Conclusions ...... 184
References ...... 185
LIST OF APPENDICES ...... 221
Appendix A. Article front page (Current Issues in Tourism) ...... 222
xii Appendix B. Article front page (Tourism Recreation Research) ...... 223
Appendix C. Interview protocol ...... 224
Appendix D. Survey questionnaire (in Chinese) ...... 226
xiii List of Figures
Figure 2.1: The Experience Economy Framework (Pine and Gilmore, 1998) ...... 23
Figure 2.2: Schmitt’s (1999) Experiential Framework ...... 28
Figure 3.1: The Complete EDT Model ...... 74
Figure 3.2: The Concept Map of Tourist Attitude towards Ecotourism ...... 84
Figure 3.3: The Concept Map of Motivation behind Ecotourism ...... 87
Figure 3.4: The Concept Map of Ecotourism Experiences ...... 93
Figure 5.1: The Conceptual Model ...... 137
Figure 7.1: Experiential framework ...... 182
xiv List of Tables
Table 3.1 A Thematic Summary of Tourists’ Attitude towards Ecotourism ...... 85 Table 3.3 A Thematic Summary of Motivation behind Ecotourism ...... 87 Table 3.5 A Thematic Summary of Ecotourism Experiences ...... 91 Table 3.2 The Top Five Concepts for Background Categories (Attitude) ...... 95 Table 3.4 The Top Five Concepts for Background Categories (Motivation) ...... 95 Table 3.6 Top Five Concepts for Background Categories (Experiences) ...... 95 Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Properties for the Constructs ...... 117 Table 4.2: Paths from the Experience Dimensions to the Perceived Value Dimensions ...... 118 Table 5.1: Participants’ Backgrounds ...... 139 Table 5.2: Factor Loadings for the Ecotourism Experience Scale ...... 142 Table 5.3: The Constructs’ Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Properties ...... 144 Table 5.4: The Hypothesized Path Coefficients ...... 149 Table 6.1: Respondents’ Backgrounds ...... 161 Table 6.2: Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Properties for the Constructs ...... 163 Table 6.3: Paths from the Experiences to the Environmental Learning ...... 164
xv
0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely thank my principal and corresponding supervisor Associate Professor Fang Liu for her ongoing and dedicated teaching and guidance over my Ph.D. research. When I was accepted by her to be her Ph.D. student, I knew little about research. She’s been very patient with me, as I was literally learning from scratch. She has taught me every aspect of research, from conceptualization, critical thinking, writing, to addressing reviewers’ comments. She has equipped me with the essential knowledge and skills needed for completing a nice piece of doctorial research. Without her, I would not start my research journey, neither would I be able to graduate. I would always be grateful for her supervision in my research career.
I also sincerely thank my co-supervisor Emeritus Professor Geoff Soutar for his supervision. He helped each of the four papers in their conceptualisation, data analysis, proofreading and addressing reviewers’ comments, especially in the data analysis. He gave the project a clear guidance and offered solutions to difficult problems. I am privileged to be guided by him with his vast knowledge and research expertise. Besides research, I was moved by the passion he has for research and also what wrote in the whiteboard in his office: passion for research = curiosity for the world.
I would also thank Associate Professor Dave Webb who helped me immensely with the first paper (Study One). He helped me with the conceptualization and the theoretical side of the paper. Besides, he offered one-to-one meetings to specifically addressing some writing issues as well as dealing with reviewers’ comments. During this process, I have learned so much about critical thinking which enables us to conduct rigorous research.
1 I would also thank UWA and China CSC for offering me a ‘UWA-CSC scholarship’ to cover my tuition fees and living allowances for three years (Year 2 to Year four). Without the support of scholarships, I could not be able to support myself and concentrate on research. In addition, I appreciate UWA Business School and BHP for funding the tourism research project that my Ph.D. thesis is based on, under ‘BHP Billiton-UWA Research
Development Award’ (PG68802662/Chief Investigator: Fang Liu/Co-investigator: Geoff
Soutar).
Another important acknowledgement is to the industry partners who assisted me in data collection. These partners included Western Safari, Travocation, and Wisdom Travel.
Special thanks to Western Safari who has assisted me to collect most of the data used in my Ph.D. project. Peter Wang, CEO of Western Safari, kindly allowed me to join in his tourist groups for more than one year, as he hopes he could contribute to the tourism research in Western Australia.
Last but not least, I would also thank my families and friends who support me in this four- year Ph.D. journey. The four years are difficult and yet rewarding. Without the encouragement and company from my parents and my friends Sunny and A Ming, I would not be able to make it. They made me feel that I was not alone in this challenging journey.
2 AUTHORSHOP DECLARATION: CO-AUTHORED PUBLICATIONS
This thesis contains published work and work prepared for publication.
Details of the work: The paper entitled ‘Understanding the Attitude- and Motivation- Behaviour Gaps in Ecotourism in China: An Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory Approach’ by Li, T., Liu, F., Soutar, G. N., & Webb, D. (2020) is presently under the review of Tourism Management Perspectives. Location in thesis: Chapter 3 (Paper 1) Student contribution to work: Tina Li contributed to the paper’s conceptualisation, data collection and analysis and writing. Prof. Liu supervised Tina in developing the initial manuscript and revising submissions for publications (e.g., conceptualisation, paper development and revisions, and project/grant management. Prof. Soutar also supervised Tina and contributed to review the analysis and editing. Prof. Webb contributed to the paper by helping to improve and strengthen the conceptual development (i.e., expectancy disconfirmation theory used in the paper). Co-authors’ signatures and dates: Signature (Fang Liu): Signature (Geoff Soutar): Signature (Dave Webb):
Date:03/10/2020 Date: 17/9/2020 Date:
Details of the work: Li, T., Liu, F., & Soutar, G. N. (2020). Experiences and value perceptions of an ecotourism trip–an empirical study of outbound Chinese tourists. The paper is in press in Tourism Recreation Research (2020). DOI: 10.1080/02508281.2020.1804736 Location in thesis: Chapter 4 (Paper 2) Student contribution to work: Tina Li contributed to the paper in conceptualisation, data collection and analysis, and writing. Prof. Liu supervised Tina in this paper’s conceptualisation paper development & revisions, and grant/project management. Prof. Soutar also supervised Tina and especially contributed to the data analysis and writing. Co-author signatures and dates: Signature (Fang Liu): Signature (Geoff Soutar):
Date: 03/10/2020 Date: 17/9/2020
3 Details of the work: The paper entitled ‘Experiences, Post-Trip Destination Image, Satisfaction and Loyalty: A Study in an Ecotourism Context’ by Li, T., Liu, F., & Soutar, G. N. (2020) has been submitted to Journal of Destination Marketing & Management and is under third-round review. Location in thesis: Chapter 5 (Paper 3) Student contribution to work: Tina Li contributes to the paper’s conceptualization, data collection and analysis and writing. Prof. Liu supervised the paper’s development, and contributed especially to its conceptualisation, paper development and revisions, and project/grant management. Prof. Soutar also supervised Tina and especially contributed to the data analysis and writing. Co-author signatures and dates: Signature (Fang Liu): Signature (Geoff Soutar):
Date: 03/10/2020 Date: 17/9/2020
Details of the work: Li, T., Liu, F., & Soutar, G. N. (2020). Connecting tourism experience and environmental learning. Current Issues in Tourism, 1-6. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1754354 Location in thesis: Chapter 6 (Paper 4) Student contribution to work: Tina Li contributes to the paper’s conceptualisation, data collection and analysis and writing. Prof. Liu supervised the paper’s development, and contributed especially to its conceptualisation, paper development and revisions, and project/grant management. Prof. Soutar also supervised Paper 4 and especially contributed the data analysis and writing. Co-author signatures and dates: Signature (Fang Liu): Signature (Geoff Soutar):
Date: 03/10/2020 Date: 17/9/2020
4 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of the thesis. It begins with some background to the research, in which the research problem and gaps are discussed. The chapter then presents a summary of the project’s research objectives, design and methodology, and potential contributions.
1.1 Research Background
There is no universally accepted definition of tourism, due to the difficulty and complexity to define it (e.g., its product is not clear, and it incorporates many industries) (Yu et al.,
2012). However, the most widely adopted definition is the one suggested by the United
Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2008) that suggests ‘tourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes’.
Accordingly, in order for tourism to happen, the displacement involved should meet both geographical (outside one’s usual environment) and temporal (no more than one consecutive year) criteria and the travel purpose is not limited to leisure.
Tourism has become a leading and resilient industry worldwide. In 2019, tourism directly contributed approximately 2.9 trillion U.S. dollars to GDP globally (Statista, 2020), with
4% growth which outpaced the global economy (UNWTO, 2020). The United States’ travel and tourism industry contributed the highest amount to global GDP (580.7 billion
U.S. dollars) (Statista, 2020). This was followed by the fastest growing tourism industry,
5 which is in China (403.5 billion U.S. dollars), which is approximately two times more than the third-largest sum to GDP (143.4 billion U.S. dollars from Germany) (Statista,
2020). All regions had an increase in international arrivals in 2019, although some saw slower growth for reasons such as political tensions (UNWTO, 2020).
Although traditionally leisure-oriented, tourists have recently shown an increased interest in eco-friendly travel (Ballantyne, Packer, & Falk, 2011), as they realized the negative impact their trips might have on the environment. As a result, some have adopted more environmentally friendly travel behaviours to reduce their impact. One example is staying at eco-friendly accommodations, which helped the rapid development of some accommodation companies, such as Airbnb (Statista, 2020). Another example is the emergence of ecotourism, which is the fastest growing tourism sector in China (National
Development and Reform Commission of PRC, 2016).
1.2 The Research Context: Chinese Tourists Taking Ecotourism Tours
Although its definition varies, ecotourism is generally defined as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education (The International Ecotourism Society, 2019). A trip has to meet at least three key requirements (i.e., it is nature-based, it offers environmental education, and it is ecologically sustainable) before it is considered an ecotourism tour (Beaumont, 2001).
Increased environmental awareness and concern has meant ecotourism has become increasingly popular in recent years. The latest industry research report by Market Reports
World (2020) suggests the global ecotourism market was worth around US$300 billion in
6 2019. As one of the fastest-growing tourism sectors, it is expected to reach around
US$760 billion by the end of 2026, with a compound annual growth rate of 14% from
2021 to 2026 (Market Reports World, 2020). Despite its importance, ecotourism is an understudied research area compared to other tourism forms, such as sports tourism and sustainable tourism.
Ecotourism is growing especially fast in China, after ecotourism development became a deliberate part of Chinese government policy for sustainable economic development in
2016 (National Development and Reform Commission of PRC, 2016). Aside from government support, the development of ecotourism in China has historical and cultural roots. The principles and philosophies behind this travel form have been practised by
Chinese people for centuries (Buckley et al., 2008) through ideologies such as ‘Tao follows nature’ and that there should be ‘harmony between man and nature’ derived from
Taoism and Confucianism respectively (Wen & Ximing, 2008). In addition, Chinese people’s interest in ecotourism may also be explained by some personal factors. For example, Chinese people believe they can improve their overall wellbeing through ecotourism tours, as they can detach themselves from the negatives of city living and immerse themselves in a seemingly recuperative natural environment (Fu, Cai, & Lehto,
2015).
As noted previously, China is one of the biggest markets for outbound tourism and many of these people want ecotourism experiences. In 2018, 23 percent of outbound Chinese tourists chose to stay in eco-friendly hotels and a top five preferred activity was taking ecotours (Ipsos, 2018). Not surprisingly, they are a priority target for many ecotourism planners. However, there has been little research into this segment, although an increasing
7 number of studies have examined Chinese tourists taking ecotourism trips domestically
(e.g., Wang et al., 2012; Shi et al., 2019).
To understand this group of tourists (or any group), the key is to understand their experiences during ecotourism trips. An understanding of people’s tourism experiences is fundamental to the study of tourism consumption and, thus, has received increasing attention in recent years. Tourists construct their unique tourism experiences through interactions with destinations’ offerings (Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Tourism experience may reflect tourists’ expectations and the consistency or inconsistency between expectations and experiences is likely to influence tourists’ satisfaction (Oliver, 1980). Tourism experiences also impact on their evaluations (e.g., perceived value and destination image) and behaviours (e.g., environmental learning, satisfaction, and loyalty) (Lee & Moscard,
2005; Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007). However, tourism experiences and their relationship with tourist expectations, evaluations and behaviours are not fully understood, which led to the present research project, which is discussed in subsequent sections.
1.3 The Research Questions
The present project was undertaken to answer one overall research question, namely:
• What are the ecotourism experiences of Chinese tourists?
In order to have a comprehensive understanding of this research question, the study attempted to answer several more micro research questions, namely:
• What is the relationship between expectations and experiences?
8 • How do experiences influence perceived trip value?
• How do experiences influence image and loyalty?
• How do experiences influence environmental learning?
1.4 Tourist Expectations and Experiences
Expectations can be defined as consumers’ ‘desires or wants…i.e., what they feel a service provider should offer rather than would offer’ (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry,
1988, p. 17). According to this definition, expectations can be decomposed into attitude
(‘should offer’) and motivation (‘desires or wants’) (Gnoth, 1997). Expectations are an important antecedent to experience. Cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1957) suggests people’s experiences during an event will be biased towards their beliefs prior to an event. Such relationships can easily be understood through the well-known placebo effect (i.e., some patients experience a beneficial effect from a treatment only due to their belief in that treatment). Thus, people’s consumption experiences, although surely impacted by product or service attributes, is influenced by what they expect to consume
(Lee, Frederick, & Ariely, 2006). Such relationships are also found in tourism consumption. For example, if tourists expect certain destination attributes or local culture, they are more likely to feel they have had such tourism experiences (Chen, Bao, & Huang,
2014; Matolo & Salia, 2017).
A widely adopted framework used to understand the relationship between expectations and experience is expectancy disconfirmation theory (EDT), which suggests satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the result of confirmation or disconfirmation between consumers’
9 expectations and experiences (Oliver, 1980). Confirmation or positive disconfirmation is likely to lead to satisfaction, while negative disconfirmation is likely to lead to dissatisfaction.
Previous studies have found disconfirmation between tourists’ expectations (attitude and motivation) and experiences in ecotourism contexts. For example, while tourists believed ecotourism should focus on environmental conservation, very few paid attention to environmental conservation during their ecotourism trips (e.g., minimising resource uses or reducing energy consumption) (Li & Xie, 2008). Wearing et al. (2002) suggested that, while natural features and conservation motivated tourists to take ecotourism trips, travel behaviours rarely matched these motivations. Clearly these issues need to be better understood (e.g., determining which aspects of expectation are confirmed and estimating the influence of confirmation and/or disconfirmation on tourists’ evaluations).
Consequently, some questions emerged in terms of tourist expectations and experiences that influenced the present study, namely:
a) What are Chinese tourists’ attitudes towards ecotourism?
b) What are their motivations behind taking ecotourism trips?
c) What are their ecotourism experiences?
d) Is there attitude- and motivation-experience disconfirmation?
e) What are meaning of the potential disconfirmation?
These issues were explored and answered in Paper 1 (Chapter 3 in this thesis).
10 1.5 Tourism Experiences and Perceived Trip Value
Understanding consumers’ perceptions of the value of a product and/or a service is vital to any type of marketing (Woodruff, 1997), including tourism marketing, because value is a key indicator of consumers’ (tourists’) future behaviour (Parasuraman & Grewal,
2000). Perceived value is generally understood as a ‘consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given’ (Zeithaml,
1988, p. 14). Initially, only the functional aspect of value was emphasised. However, more recently, a multi-dimensional approach has been suggested to better understand value (e.g.,
Sheth et al., 1991; Holbrook, 1994; Petrick, 2004; Sánchez et al., 2006), as social and psychological aspects also play a role. For example, the PERVAL framework suggested by Sweeney and Soutar (2001) has four dimensions (i.e., emotional, social, quality/performance and price/value for money aspects).
Value is an important concept in the study of tourism consumption and understood from different perspectives. It is most often examined as the perceived value of a trip, which is the perceived utility from taking a trip overall (Williams & Soutar, 2009) and this construct has been examined for volunteer tourism trips (Lo & Lee, 2011), cruise vacations (Duman & Mattila, 2005), festival tours (Yoon, Lee, & Lee, 2010), heritage tours (Chen & Chen, 2010), visiting foreign countries (Hallak, Assaker, & El-Haddad,
2018) and temple stays (Song et al., 2015). The value of a specific tourism product or service, such as tourism packages (Moliner et al., 2007), souvenirs (Lin & Wang, 2012), local food (Choe & Kim, 2018) and destination services (Jin, Lee, & Lee, 2015), have also been researched. Tourists’ perceived value has also been examined using a
11 multidimensional approach in recent tourism studies (e.g., Lee et al, 2007; Lee et al., 2011;
Petrick 2004; Gallarza & Saura, 2006).
The Means-End Theory suggests perceived value is constructed from tourist’s experiences as the ‘means’ that help them achieve desired ‘ends’ (i.e., value) (Gutman,
1982). Previous studies have examined value’s construction based on tourists’ experiences and have found different experiences impact differently on perceived value
(e.g., Duman & Mattila, 2005; Song et al., 2015; Prebensen & Xie, 2017).
Perceived value has also been examined in ecotourism contexts, but solely from a value for money perspective (e.g., Lee, Graefe, & Hwang, 2013; Chiu, Lee, & Chen, 2014).
However, conceptualizing and examining perceived value solely on a functional aspect may be inappropriate, especially in ecotourism contexts, as tourists often pay attention to other aspects of consumption (e.g., social value, as they create self-identities of being environmentally responsible). In addition, to the best of our knowledge, the influence ecotourism experiences have on value has not been studied. Without knowing how perceived value is constructed from ecotourism experiences, we cannot provide a solid foundation for understanding ecotourism consumption, as value is a primary mechanism that influences behaviour (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000).
This led to some additional research questions that were examined and answered in paper two (Chapter 4 in the thesis). These research questions were:
a) What is the perceived value of an ecotourism trip from a multi-
dimensional perspective?
12 b) What is the differential effect ecotourism experiences have on perceived
trip value?
1.6 Tourism Experiences, Destination Image and Some Outcomes
Experience may also lead to other key outcomes that are essential to tourism marketing
(e.g., destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty). Destination image has been widely studied, as the beliefs, thoughts and impressions tourists have about destinations influences their decision making, word of mouth, satisfaction, and loyalty (Chi & Qu,
2008). Destination image is dynamic and can change across different phases of the tourist experience (i.e., pre-, during and post-trip) (Dann, 1996). As previous research has focused on pre-trip image and its influence on travel decision making (e.g., Baloglu &
McCleary, 1999; Assaker, Vinzi, & O’Connor, 2011), post-trip destination image and how it is shaped by tourists’ experiences is much less studied.
In addition, tourists’ loyalty is critical to the success of any destination, as retaining existing tourists cost much less than acquiring new tourists and loyal tourists are more likely to spread positive word of mouth about a destination (Gursoy, Chen, & Chi, 2014).
Loyalty antecedents have been widely examined (e.g., service quality, involvement, and past experience) and experiences have been found to be important antecedents (Prayag,
Hosany, & Odeh, 2013). However, few studies have examined how ecotourism experiences influence loyalty.
Destination image has been found to be a mediator between tourism experiences and loyalty in a few studies (e.g., Prayag et al., 2017; Kim, 2018). Despite Prayag et al. (2017) and Kim (2018) examined the relationships between experience, image, satisfaction and
13 loyalty, these relationships are not fully understood. Prayag et al. (2017) examined experience only as emotional experience, while Kim (2018) examined a memorable experience. In both studies, destination image was measured as a unidimensional construct. As both experience and image are holistic and multi-dimensional constructs, they should be examined in this way. Consequently, paper three (Chapter 5 in this thesis) used a multidimensional approach and tried to answer another research question, namely:
What are the relationships between tourism experiences, destination image,
satisfaction, and loyalty?
1.7 Tourism Experiences and Environmental Learning
There are other emerging issues and topics surrounding experiences in tourism, with recent attention turning to the ways tourism influences the environment. One aspect of this is the question of whether tourism experiences help learning, which led to a side study that is presented in Paper 4.
This issue is of importance, as environmental learning is a key feature and objective of ecotourism (Fennell, 2004). Despite an ongoing debate about ecotourism’s contribution to environmental learning and conservation, it has been found that, after taking ecotourism trips, tourists increased their knowledge of environmental issues, developed positive attitudes towards environmental protection and behaved in more environmentally friendly ways (Orams, 1997; Tisdell & Wilson, 2005; Ballantyne et al., 2011; Walker & Moscardo,
2014). Thus, environmental learning could be facilitated by ecotourism experiences.
14 However, how ecotourism experience facilitates environmental learning is not well understood, partly because some salient ecotourism experiences (e.g., escapism, aesthetic and relating experiences) have not been examined in previous studies. In addition, this aspect has not been studied in the world’s largest international tourist market (i.e., outbound Chinese tourists). Facilitating environmental learning in this group is likely to contribute significantly to environmental conservation worldwide. Therefore, paper four which is a research note (Chapter 6 in this thesis) was undertaken to answer another research question, namely:
How do ecotourism experiences impact on outbound Chinese tourists’
environmental learning?
1.8 The Project’s Research Design and Methodology
To answer these research questions, a mixed-method approach was adopted. A qualitative inductive research approach was used to answer the first set of research question in paper one. The qualitative data examined in this paper also informed the development of theories, hypotheses, and scales for the later quantitative studies that were undertaken to examine the relationships in paper two, paper three and paper four.
Phase 1: The Qualitative Phase
The first paper examined potential expectation-experience gaps relating to ecotourism in
China. Expectancy disconfirmation theory was used to develop an understanding of these potential gaps. Before comparing experiences and expectations (attitude and motivation), the theory’s three constructs (attitude, motivation, and experience) were explored using a
15 qualitative approach. Forty in-depth interviews were undertaken in South-Western China with participants who had taken ecotourism trips in China and who were selected to be reasonably representative of the population of tourists taking ecotourism trips in China.
The data were analysed using the Leximancer program, a computer-based qualitative data analysis program. Results and interpretations went through peer debriefing with external experts (tourism researchers and practitioners) and checking among the participants.
Phase 2: The Quantitative Phase (the main studies)
The second paper examined tourists’ perceived value from a multidimensional experience-value perspective, while the third paper examined an experience-image- satisfaction-loyalty framework. The fourth paper examined ecotourism experiences’ impacts on environmental learning. Since the three papers examined relationships between constructs, quantitative research was considered more appropriate. A structured questionnaire was designed to measure the constructs of interest and to examine the hypothesised relationships.
The data used in this phase were collected from a valid sample of 375 outbound Chinese tourists who were passengers on 19 bus tours over a 12-month period. Respondents were surveyed on the bus immediately after completing an ecotourism trip to the Pinnacles (a well-known Western Australian ecotourism site). The data were analysed using the SPSS and WarpPLS 6.0 programs. A PLS-SEM approach was used because of its advantages in prediction, which was the prime concern in this research project, and concerns about a probable lack of normality in the data (Hair et al., 2016).
16 1.9 Expected Contributions
The key role tourism experiences play in tourism consumption has been acknowledged and has received increasing attention in tourism in recent years. However, tourism experiences and their relationships with tourist expectations, destination image, loyalty and learning are not well understood, especially in the emerging ecotourism context and in the important Chinese market segment. This research project was expected to contribute to the body of knowledge about ecotourism experiences and to have important implications for the tourism industry.
The first paper was designed to examine tourists’ expectations as an antecedent to their ecotourism experiences. In order to better understand the relationships, an EDT framework was used, and expectations were decomposed into attitude and motivation aspects. It was hoped the results would improve our understanding of Chinese tourists’ attitude towards ecotourism, their motivations behind taking such trips and their experiences during these trips as well as to see if there were gaps between expectations and experiences, and the meaning of these gaps. Such results should advance knowledge about the attitude- and motivation-experience gaps and also provide important insights for DMOs in their policymaking and tourism operators in their strategy development.
The second paper examines multidimensional experience-value relationships in an ecotourism context. Ecotourism studies have focused on tourists’ pro-environmental behaviours. Understanding what experiences are valued by tourists should improve our understanding of such behaviours, as value influence behaviour, as has already been mentioned. This paper should also have practical implications for ecotourism operators
17 attempting to tailor their experiential offerings so as to deliver value to tourists, as delivering value is a desired outcome for any tourism operator.
The third paper is the first reported study to use a multi-dimensional approach to examine the Experience-Image-Satisfaction-Loyalty model. The study examined the indirect effects tourism experiences had on loyalty through destination image and satisfaction.
Practically, the findings should enable DMOs and tourism planners to develop strategies that promote the key experiences that can help achieve a positive destination image and loyalty in their target markets.
The fourth paper is one of only a few empirical studies that have examined tourists’ environmental learning. It was hoped the study would help tourism operators design effective experience strategies that facilitate Chinese tourists’ environmental learning.
1.10 The Structure of the Thesis
This thesis has seven chapters including this introductory chapter. This thesis is by publication and thus its main body is a series of papers (Chapter 3 to 6). Since the four papers were submitted to different journals, each of the four chapters is presented in different structures, styles, and formats. In order to develop an in-depth understanding of the underpinning theories in the four chapters, Chapter 2 summarizes these theories and also offered necessary detailed explanations of them. The final discussion and conclusion chapter (Chapter 7) synthesizes the four papers and presents overall theoretical and practical implications.
18 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter Two provides a review of literature relevant to this research project. The Chapter begins with an outline of ‘experience’ research in marketing, as this is the main theoretical underpinning for this project. The studies relating to experience are reviewed from three perspectives (marketing, tourism, and ecotourism). This is followed by a review of literature relevant to each journal paper included in the PhD thesis, namely:
• Expectations and experiences (Paper 1).
• Experiences and perceived trip value (Paper 2).
• Experiences, destination image and loyalty (Paper 3).
• Experiences and environmental learning (Paper 4).
2.1 Experience Research in Marketing
Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) recognised the significance of experience to marketing.
They viewed consumption from an experiential perspective, as they believed consumption was more than information processing and consumers were not only rational, as consumption also involved fantasies, feelings and fun. Experience has received increased attention since the 1990s, as researchers gradually recognised the significance of the experiential aspects of consumption (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016). This has become increasingly important, as consumers increasingly desire unique and especially memorable consumption experiences in addition to simply purchasing goods and/or
19 services (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). Further, experience is difficult for competitors to imitate, as every consumer looks for unique consumption experiences (Schmitt, 1999). Despite the increased attention, recently scholars such as Hoffman and Novak (2018) and Sit,
Hoang, and Inversini (2018) have argued experiences have received too little attention and that more studies, especially in different contexts, are needed to better understand its role in marketing.
Academics and practitioners, responding to this consumer trend, have paid increasing attention to experience (Grewal et al., 2009). Consequently, numerous marketing-related articles have discussed the creation and management of experience over the last two decades (e.g., Zeithaml & Bitner, 2000; Puccinelli et al., 2009; Palmer, 2010; Homburg,
Jozić, & Kuehnl, 2017). Further, more businesses have developed marketing strategies that ‘stage’ experiences to engage consumers, create memorable events and differentiate themselves from competitors (Pine & Gilmore, 1998).
2.2 Categorisation of Experience in Marketing
From a marketing perspective, experience can be defined as a personal occurrence created through a customer’s interaction with stimuli in consumptions of products or services
(Carù & Cova, 2003). Considering different touchpoints (or contact points), experience is often described using different terminologies, such as consumer or customer experience, the consumption experience, product experience or brand experience.
2.2.1 Consumer (or Customer) Experience
Consumer, or customer, experience comes from consumers’ interactions with a product or a brand, or any object offered by an organisation that can arouse a reaction (Schmitt,
20 1999). Consumer experience can occur in different phases of consumption, including before, during and after consumption (Arnould, Price, & Zinkhan, 2002). Some researchers view the consumer experience from a prospective perspective (e.g., Carù &
Cova, 2003; Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004). In this type of research, the emphasis is on consumers’ anticipations of potential experiential interactions. Others examine consumer experience from a reflective perspective, focusing on phases during and/or after consumption (e.g., Berry, Carbone, & Haeckel, 2002; Grewal et al., 2009). Since the consumer experience involves different marketing elements, such as a product or brand and different consumption phases, it is one of the broadest terms used in marketing
(Schmitt & Zarantonello, 2013).
2.2.2 Consumption Experience
Consumption experience is another term used in marketing that focuses on experiences within the consumption process (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). Holbrook and
Hirschman (1982) viewed the consumption experience from a hedonic perspective and identified three aspects (fantasies, feelings and fun) that come from playful leisure activities and include a wide range of positive and negative emotions, aesthetic enjoyment, and daydreams. They developed the ‘TEAV’ model that suggested four dimensions of consumption experience (i.e., thoughts (cognitive thinking), emotions (feelings, expressive behaviours, and psychological make-ups), activities (behavioural activities and action) and value (economic and social value)). This model has been validated by a number of studies (e.g., Lofman 1991; Seabra et al., 2018).
21 2.2.3 Product Experience
Product experience generally refers to a consumer’s interaction with a physical product
(Hoch, 2002). These interactions can occur before and/or after purchase and can be direct or indirect (Hoch, 2002). Direct interactions are physical interaction between consumers and products, while indirect interaction occurs through mediators such as product advertising (Kempf & Smith, 1998). The focus of product experience is the product itself.
Consequently, product experience research centres on how consumers process a product’s attributes and how such interactions with a product influence consumer attitudes and behavioural intentions (Honea & Horsky, 2012).
2.2.4 Brand Experience
Brakus et al. (2009, p. 52) defined brand experience as ‘responses evoked by brand-related stimuli [including] a brand’s design and identity, packaging, communications, and environments’. Brand experience emerges from consumers’ interactions with a brand as a whole and with sub-components of a brand (Schmitt & Zarantonello, 2013). Brand experience has been increasingly studied, with the attention being paid to branding issues.
However, brand experience is distinct from other branding constructs that can be cognitive
(e.g., attitude towards a brand), affective (e.g., brand attachment and brand involvement) or associative (e.g., brand attributes and brand benefits) (Park & MacInnis, 2006; Brakus et al., 2009; Ning et al., 2020). Brand experience occurs when there is an interaction between a consumer and a brand, and thus is conceptually distinct from other branding constructs.
22 2.3 Two Suggested Experiential Frameworks
2.3.1 Pine and Gilmore’s Framework
Pine and Gilmore (1998) were among the first to demonstrate the importance of experience, suggesting what they termed the emergence of the experience economy. They argued people consume products or services not merely for the sake of consumption, but also to enjoy unique experiences (Pine & Gilmore, 2002). Pine and Gilmore (1998) suggested four aspects of experience, which they termed the 4Es (i.e., entertainment, educational, escapist, and (a)esthetic experiences). These aspects were related to two dimensions (participation and connection), as can be seen in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: The Experience Economy Framework (Pine and Gilmore, 1998)
23 These four aspects were also classified based on two dimensions (absorption versus immersion and passive versus active participation). Absorption, in this case, refers to occupying or catching a person’s attention, while immersion refers to consumers becoming physically or virtually a part of the experience (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). Another way of understanding experience is through passive versus active participation. When consumers passively participate in an event, they tend to play the role of a listener or observer; while when actively participating, they act more as creators of the experience
(Pine & Gilmore, 1998).
2.3.1.1 Entertainment Experiences in Marketing
Entertainment experience is probably the oldest form of experience in marketing (Oh et al., 2007), which involves elements of fun, joy, excitement, curiosity, and fantasies (Tsai,
2010). Entertainment is considered to be passive absorption, as offerings capture consumers’ attention and readiness (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Entertainment experience plays a critical role in any marketing success, particularly in the sale of products or services (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003). More specifically, entertainment experience influences consumers’ memories, arousal and satisfaction and intention to recommend a product or service (Casalo, Flavián, & Ibáñez-Sánchez, 2017). For example, if social media users have an entertainment experience, they are more likely to re-use the media forum. Entertainment experience can be facilitated through carefully designed cues, such as introducing fun games during consumption. Consumer characteristics, such as age, seem to influence responses to such designed cues (Moss, 2007).
24 2.3.1.2 Educational Experiences in Marketing
Pine and Gilmore (1998) suggested consumers of educational experiences actively interact with an offering but are less immersed in such experiences. Such consumers attempt to increase their knowledge or skills through these types of activities, which suggests active participation is necessary (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). In marketing, the objective of providing educational experiences is usually to increase consumers’ knowledge about an offering (Armstrong et al., 2016).
Past research has found educational experience can be very influential on consumers’ evaluative and behavioural outcomes (Armstrong et al., 2016). Educational experiences also seem to have a positive impact on such constructs as pleasantness, arousal, perceived quality, memory, satisfaction and can improve people’s intentions to behave in an environmentally friendly manner (Oh et al., 2007; Zsóka et al., 2013). The level and effectiveness of educational experiences are strongly influenced by consumers’ involvement (Lee, 2010) and seem to also be influenced by consumers’ education, which influences their comprehension ability (Morris, Hastak, & Mazis, 1995).
2.3.1.3 Aesthetic Experiences in Marketing
Pine and Gilmore (1998) suggest aesthetic experience involves consumers having more passive participation, but greater immersion. Thus, consumers do not need to participate actively to have an aesthetic experience, although they are more immersed than people engaged in entertainment or education experiences. Other researchers have suggested such an experience comes from the ‘presence or absence of beauty’ (e.g., Charters, 2006, p. 236). This seems central for products that have aesthetic factors in their consumption,
25 such as wine (Charters & Pettigrew, 2005). Aesthetic experiences are often examined in the design of retailing experiences (Nuttavuthisit, 2014) and product packaging (Li, Li, &
Wu, 2013), and research suggests aesthetic experiences are formed by the varied patterns of consumers’ subjective perceptions (i.e., from sensory and intuitive perceptions).
Aesthetic experiences are an important contributor to a consumer’s memory, arousal, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions (Oh et al., 2007; Hoyer & Stokburger-Sauer, 2012;
Cuny, Fornerino, & Helme-Guizon, 2015). Previous research suggests consumers’ aesthetic experiences may be influenced by personal factors, such as taste for aesthetics, and contextual factors, such as retailing environments (Choi, 2019).
2.3.1.4 Escapist Experience in Marketing
Compared to other experience aspects in Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) framework, escapist experiences require greater immersion and participation (Keng, Ting, & Chen, 2011).
Escapist experiences have often been studied in virtual contexts, such as in virtual communities on social media or product development (Herz & Rauschnabel, 2019).
Escapist experiences appear to be related to nostalgia intensity, as well as to satisfaction and behavioural intentions (Triantafillidou & Siomkos, 2014). Consumers’ escapist experiences are influenced by factors, such as brand performance, multi-channel communication, service interfaces, the environment (physical and virtual), price and promotions (Fatma, 2014).
26 2.3.1.5 Summary
Pine & Gilmore’s framework has been examined in many marketing areas, such as small businesses (Fiore et al., 2007), hospitality marketing (Walls et al., 2011), food services
(Johns & Pine, 2002), luxury products (Atwal & Williams, 2017) and retailing (Yu &
Fang, 2009). However, as this framework only considers immersion and participation, it cannot fully capture the complexity of consumers’ experiences that involve other aspects, such as social interactions and sensory experiences, which led to the decision to also examine Schmitt’s (1999) experiential framework that has also been examined in marketing contexts.
2.3.2 Schmitt’s (1999) Framework
Schmitt’s (1999) framework (shown in Figure 2.2) suggests marketers should provide an integration of five individual experiences (i.e., sensing (sensory experiences), feeling
(affective experiences), thinking (creative cognitive experiences), acting (physical and behavioural experiences) and relating (primarily social-identity experiences)). This framework was developed based on Dewey’s (1938) suggestion that experiences involve perceiving (through the senses), feeling and doing (acting). However, Schmitt (1999) extended Dewey’s framework by adding cognitive (thinking) and social (relating) aspects.
All of these aspects are discussed in subsequent sections.
27
Figure 2.2: Schmitt’s (1999) Experiential Framework
2.3.2.1 ‘Sensing’ (Sensory) Experience in Marketing
Sensory experiences are created from sight, touch, sound, smell, and taste (Schmitt, 1999), a definition supported by other marketing scholars (e.g., Hepola, Karjaluoto, & Hintikka,
2017). Sensory experiences have been widely examined for products that have strong sensory attributes, such as wine (for which the taste and smell are very important attributes)
(Siegrist & Cousin, 2009), and for product packaging, for which the sense of sight can be very important (Rebollar et al., 2012).
Sensory experiences are found to have a direct impact on customer satisfaction and an indirect impact on customer loyalty (through satisfaction or brand personality) (Brakus et al., 2009). Some studies have found sensory experiences also impact on brand equity (e.g.,
Iglesias, Singh, & Batista-Foguet, 2011), while others suggest sensory experiences positively influence constructs such as happiness, pleasure, and engagement
(Zarantonello et al., 2012). Not surprisingly, therefore, sensory experiences are often used as a differentiation tool to attain a competitive brand advantage (Schmitt, 1999).
28 2.3.2.2 ‘Feeling’ (Emotional) Experience in Marketing
‘Feeling’ marketing (emotional experience) can help marketers satisfy customers’ feelings and emotions of customers by establishing positive affective experiences
(Schmitt, 1999). For example, a coffee shop could market itself by suggesting ‘drinking coffee is a way to experience romance,’ which may enhance consumers’ affective experiences (Verbauskiene & Griesiene, 2014). The feeling experience seems to be culturally specific, as the same messages may produce completely differently affective experiences in different cultures (Seva & Helander, 2009).
Emotional experiences are an important predictor of brand personality, as well as consumers’ satisfaction, loyalty, and continuance intentions (Brakus et al., 2009). When there are strong positive emotional experiences, consumers depend less on cognitive processing and such experiences may change consumers’ behaviour (Molinillo et al.,
2020). However, affective marketing is hard to manage, as consumers may not respond in the ways marketers expect and consumers may have negative affective experiences if marketing strategies are not effective (Jun et al., 2001).
2.3.2.3 ‘Thinking’ (Cognitive) Experience in Marketing
‘Thinking’ in Schmitt’s (1999) experience framework refers to cognitive experiences.
Chen and Lin (2015) found cognitive experiences directly influenced perceived value and satisfaction and indirectly influenced continuance intention through perceived value.
Cognitive experiences can be influenced by the shopping environment and by consumers’ characteristics (Hong, Thong, & Tam, 2004). For example, cognitive experiences in an online shopping context were influenced by factors, such as interactive speed between
29 consumers and staff, tele-presence, challenges that occurred during online shopping as well as consumer characteristics such as skill in online shopping (Rose et al., 2012).
Some scholars (e.g., Stephens & Gwinner, 1998) have examined consumer experience from both cognitive and emotive perspectives, although these two types of experiences are not mutually exclusive (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016). Consumers could have both cognitive and emotive experiences, or they could be cognitive at one time and emotive experiences at another time (Shiv & Fedorikhin, 1999).
2.3.2.4 ‘Acting’ (Physical) Experience in Marketing
The objective of acting marketing is to assist customers to enrich their lives through physical experiences that offer them physical experiences (Schmitt, 1999). As these are physical experiences that occur during product consumption, they are not applicable to all kinds of products (Verbauskiene & Griesiene, 2014). Acting experiences influence brand attachment (e.g., Lee, Jeon, & Yoon, 2010), brand commitment (e.g., Das et al., 2019), brand trust (e.g., Huang, 2017) and brand loyalty (e.g., Jung & Soo, 2012), as well as satisfaction and continuance intention (e.g., Chen & Lin, 2015; Yu & Yuan, 2019).
2.3.2.5 Relating (Social) Experience in Marketing
Relating experience refers to social interactions or social-identity experiences (Schmitt,
1999). This project took the social interaction perspective, as this is related more to the present research context. Social interactions are a critical experience during tourist trips, as tourists interact with other people (e.g., tour guides, locals, and other tourists) (Wang,
Yu, & Fesenmaier, 2002).
30 Relating experiences have an impact on satisfaction and loyalty (Yoon, 2010). In addition, relating experiences influence consumers’ perceived social value of an offering (Butcher,
2008) and their subsequent intentions to pay a price premium (Loureiro & de Araújo,
2014). Relating experiences are influenced by quality, and other non-product related attributes, such as service and the shopping environment (Ehbauer & Gresel, 2013). Such experiences may also be influenced by customers’ motivations (Kaminakis, Karantinou,
& Boukis, 2014).
2.3.2.6 A Summary of Schmitt’s Framework
Schmitt’s (1999) framework has been examined in many different areas of marketing, including online shopping (Youn, 2012), retailing (Srinivasan & Srivastava, 2010), hospitality (Yang, 2009), event marketing (Wood, 2009), and services marketing
(Chanavat & Bodet, 2014). However, the framework does not include important aspects of the consumer experience, such as immersion and absorption, which were identified by
Pine and Gilmore (1998). Jurowski (2009) strongly recommended integrating Pine and
Gilmore’s and Schmitt’s frameworks because of potential links between the two frameworks (e.g., educational experience is linked to thinking experience, escapist to acting, and aesthetic to sensory and emotional experiences), which led to the decision to take this approach on the present project. As the project was undertaken in a tourism context, the research into experiences in such contexts is discussed in the next section.
31 2.4 Experience Research in Tourism
2.4.1 Background
Similar to the consumption experience concept in marketing, experiences in tourism
(often termed ‘tourism experience’) come from tourists’ interactions with a destination’s offerings (Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Indeed, Oh et al. (2007, p. 120) suggest ‘[each] experience tourists goes through at a destination, be it behavioural, perceptual, cognitive, or emotional (expressed or implied)’ can be regarded as tourism experiences. Similarly,
Walls et al. (2011) have proposed tourism experiences can be generally understood from four perspectives:
1. Cognitive and emotive: This is the internal perspective of understanding
experience. Both cognition and emotion are internal factors and experience is
seen as internal responses to stimuli (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016).
Tourists use their own cognition and emotion to form subjective experiences
in response to the objective reality of travel (e.g., destination attributes)
(Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). The two components are largely independent
of each other and are widely accepted as basic components of the tourism
experience (Aho, 2001; Oh et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2008; Kim, Ritchie, & Tung,
2010). Even when experience is understood from other perspectives, it is a
unique combination of cognitive and emotive processes (Walls et al., 2011).
For example, flow experiences lead to high level of cognitive absorption and
positive emotions (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Kim & Thapa, 2018).
32 2. Physical experiences and human interactions: The external perspective of
understanding experience is important, as external factors (the physical and
relational environment) have a direct impact on experience consumption
(Bitner, 1992). Physical experiences are largely based on the tangible
environment, while human interactions are based on intangible interpersonal
relationships (Schmitt, 1999). Thus, physical experiences are often related to
sensory, cognitive, behavioural, and aesthetic experiences, which are more
likely to be formed when tourists encounter objective and tangible items.
Experiences of human interactions may include relatedness or social
dimensions (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016). The external perspective is
especially important when the environment is carefully designed to involve
some physical features and facilitate group communication, such as when on
a cruise (Huang & Hsu, 2010) or wildlife tour (Ballantyne, Packer, & Falk,
2011).
3. Individual characteristics and situational factors: Sharpley and Stone (2010, p.
7) argued tourism experiences ‘can only be understood by exploring specific
contexts within which it occurs.’ Such contextual factors may include
individual characteristics (e.g., tourists’ backgrounds, prior experience, and
personalities) and situational factors (e.g., tourism types, travel companions,
and the nature of the destination) (Huang & Hsu, 2009). These factors
influence tourists’ overall experiences (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016). For
example, tourists taking ecotourism trips in China are more likely to seek
tourism activities that are beneficial to their health when taking an ecotourism
33 trip compared to Western counterparts (Kerstetter, Hou, & Lin, 2004). In
addition, Chinese tourists’ experiences when visiting domestic ecotourism
sites may be different from their experiences when visiting outbound
ecotourism destinations. Ecotourism destinations in China often use human
art and artefacts to enhance nature, while foreign ecotourism destinations are
often pristine natural environments (Buckley et al., 2008).
4. Ordinary and extraordinary: Tourism experiences include both ordinary and
extraordinary aspects and can be seen as a continuum ranging from the
ordinary to the extraordinary (Mossberg, 2008). Extraordinary experiences
are intense and positive and can change a tourist’s life after he or she returns
home (Arnould & Price, 1993). The domain of extraordinary experience also
includes peak (Abrahams, 1986; Maslow, 1964), flow (Csikszentmihalyi,
1990), immersion (Carù & Cova, 2006), and transcendental experiences
(Schouten, McAlexander, & Koenig, 2007). The essence of tourism is
allowing people to escape from the routine and perform something unique or
out of the ordinary (Dann, 1981). Delivering extraordinary experiences or
transforming ordinary into extraordinary experiences is a desired goal of
tourism operators. Consequently, extraordinary experiences and their
analogous terms have received considerable attention in tourism (e.g., Laing
& Crouch, 2009; Ryan et al., 2003; Wu & Liang, 2011; Hansen & Mossberg,
2017; Tsaur, Yen, & Hsiao, 2013).
34 Although tourism experiences have been examined and understood from different perspectives, limited studies have examined the different facets of tourism experiences.
In other words, tourism experiences have often been understood from only one or two perspectives. However, as Adhikari and Bhattacharya (2016, p. 312) commented that ‘to identify and develop an experiential consumption, practitioners need to know how the customer experience can be measured in a way to capture all facets of consumption experience in tourism industry.’ This project will be focused on the first three perspectives of tourism experience.
2.4.2 The Use of Pine & Gilmore’s Framework in Tourism
Pine & Gilmore’s (1998) experience framework has been widely examined in tourism contexts, such as hospitality (Oh et al., 2007), cruise travel (Hosany & Witham, 2010), wine tourism (Quadri-Felitti & Fiore, 2012), rural tourism (Loureiro, 2014; Sidali,
Kastenholz, & Bianchi, 2015), and nature-based tourism (Lee, Jan, & Huang, 2015). The framework has also been used in different cultural contexts, including China (Xing, 2007),
Thailand (Apivantanaporn & Walsh, 2013), Portugal (Loureiro, 2014), the U.K., the U.S. and Australia (Hosany & Witham, 2010).
2.4.2.1 Entertainment Experiences in Tourism
Entertainment experiences are one of the most important types within the tourism sector, as it is from activities during travel that often delight tourists (Xu et al., 2016). Virtually, every form of tourism, not only leisure-based tourism, has these types of experience (Tan,
2018). Entertainment experiences are important even for temple stays, for example, even
35 though they offer more passive entertainment experiences, such as observing Buddhist rituals and making paper lanterns (Song et al., 2015).
Entertainment experiences are influential, as they allow tourists to evaluate a trip
(Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Song et al., 2015). For example, entertainment experiences are found to not only influence tourists’ perception of the emotional value of a trip, but also its functional value (Song et al., 2015). They also influence tourists’ behaviour (e.g., their revisit intentions and word of mouth (WOM) intentions) (Ali, Hussain, & Ragavan,
2014) and can influence other constructs, such as brand (destination) identification
(Hwang & Lyu, 2015). Entertainment experiences may be influenced by destination attributes, such as service quality, infrastructure, and tourists’ characteristics such as prior place attachment (Kim, 2014).
2.4.2.2 Educational Experience in Tourism
Educational experiences have always played a central role in tourism. From the 17th and
18th century when travelling started becoming popular, education was seen as a major purpose of travelling, although it was neglected to some extent in the 19th and 20th centuries when tourists started paying more attention to leisure-based tourism (Falk et al.,
2012). However, people’s increasing awareness of culture, environment, and social responsibilities, has meant educational experiences have recently received more attention from tourists, tourism operators and governments (Ballantyne & Packer, 2011). These types of experience are often seen in niche tourism sectors, such as sustainable tourism activities (Tarrant et al., 2014), religious tourism (Cohen, 2006) and heritage tourism
(Charters & Ali-Knight, 2000).
36 Education experiences are important for destinations. Positive educational experiences make trips memorable and improve tourists’ satisfaction with a destination (Kastenholz et al., 2018). In addition, educational experiences improve tourists’ well-being perceptions, further contributing to their satisfaction and loyalty (Hwang & Lee, 2019).
Tour guides’ interpretations are important to such experiences, as they are major source of education during trips. Tourists’ comprehension capabilities also impact on their overall education and experience (Io, 2013).
2.4.2.3 Aesthetic Experiences in Tourism
Aesthetic experiences are very important for nature-based tourism, as appreciating natural beauty is a key element in this form of tourism (Zhang & Xu, 2020). This type of experience is also important for other forms of tourism, as sightseeing is a common tourist activity worldwide (Ross & Iso-Ahola, 1991; Taylor, 2003).
Aesthetic experience can be critical to tourist destinations, as they influence visitors’ perceived trip value, satisfaction, memory, and loyalty (e.g., Manthiou et al., 2012; Song et al., 2015). Such experiences can be facilitated by various aspects of a destination’s environment, such as its novelty or uniqueness, the balance between human and nature, its diversity and the conditions encountered (Kirillova et al., 2014). Consequently, the design and management of destination environments are very important, if operators are to deliver optimum aesthetic experiences.
37 2.4.2.4 Escapist (or Escapism) Experience in Tourism
Tourists enjoy some type of escapist experience in almost all of their activities. The essence of tourist travelling is to escape from the routine and to seek something different
(Tung & Ritchie, 2011). In such trips, tourists have different activities from their everyday life and may even behave differently (Holmes, Dodds, & Frochot, 2019). Tourists are often immersed in the new environment and may actively participate in different activities so as to distance themselves from their daily lives (Pine & Gilmore, 1998).
Escapist experiences influence tourists’ satisfaction and behavioural intentions (e.g., Park et al., 2010; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011). They also influence tourists’ memories and place attachments (Loureiro, 2014). For example, tourists taking rural holidays in the
South of Portugal who had stronger escapist experiences become more attached to the destination they visited (Loureiro, 2014).
2.4.3 The Use of Schmitt’s Framework in Tourism
Schmitt’s (1999) framework has also been used in different areas in tourism, such as in leisure tourism (e.g., visiting a zoo) (Tsaur, Chiu, & Wang, 2007) and in wine tourism
(Lee & Chang, 2012). Each of the framework’s five experience dimensions is discussed in detail in subsequent sections.
2.4.3.1 Sensing (or Sensory) Experience in Tourism
Agapito, Pinto, and Mendes (2012) claimed that sensory experiences were central in tourism offerings. Tourists experience diverse forms of senses during their trips (e.g., feeling the wind’s breeze, smelling fresh air, tasting local food, watching ocean water
38 waves and hearing animals’ sounds) and these may all have an impact on tourist behaviour
(Agapito, Valle, & Mendes, 2014). Similarly, sensory experiences can influence responses to destination advertising and promotions. For example, Jimenez-Barreto et al.
(2019) found tourists were persuaded by both pictures (sight) and sounds (hearing) in video advertisements.
Sensory experiences are vital to tourists’ memories of their tourism experiences. With sensory stimulus, memories can be better stored, searched, and retrieved, thereby improving the sensory tourism experience (Ballantyne, Packer, & Sutherland, 2011).
Positive memories recalled after tourists have left a destination can enhance their attitude towards the destination and increase their desire to revisit or recommend the destination to others (Agapito, Pinto, & Mendes, 2017).
2.4.3.2 Feeling (Affective) Experiences in Tourism
During travel, tourists may have positive or negative affective experiences (Sharpley &
Jepson, 2011). For example, they might be relaxed and pleased with a trip, or feel unsafe while on-board. Affective experiences have been examined in different tourism contexts.
Research suggests different forms of tourism and different destinations have different affective responses (Vittersø et al., 2000). For example, in dark tourism (e.g., travelling to the Berlin Wall), tourists may have negative affective responses, such as sadness or pity (Lennon & Continuum, 2002).
Affective tourism experience influences satisfaction, which further influences tourists’ loyalty (Hosany & Witham, 2010). Affective experiences’ influence on satisfaction can be explained by the nature of tourist satisfaction, which is an affective rather than
39 cognitive construct (Coghlan & Pearce, 2010). In addition, affective experiences influence tourists’ affective commitment and story-telling behaviour (Zhong, Busser, &
Baloglu, 2017) and perceived value (Duman & Mattila, 2005). Affective experiences are influenced by tourists’ expectations, as they tend to have more positive affective experiences if their expected affection is positive (del Bosque & Martin, 2008).
2.4.3.3 Thinking Experiences in Tourism
Tourists may have cognitive experiences during trips if they encounter situations that lead them to use their mental processes to solve a problem (Lee & Chang, 2012). Cognitive experiences are usually studied as a part of the cognitive-emotive experience paradigm
(Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016). In some situations, tourists have more cognitive than emotional experiences, such as when technology is involved in travelling (Raptis, Fidas,
& Avouris, 2018).
Cognitive experiences are central and are often seen as an intangible resource for a destination (Chen, Chen, & Lee, 2010). Indeed, Tsaur, Chiu and Wang (2007) suggest cognitive experiences influence satisfaction and loyalty, although their influence on satisfaction is not as strong as those of affective experiences (Yan et al., 2016). Tourists’ cognitive experiences can also improve tourists’ memories of their experiences (Larsen,
2007). Cognitive experiences may be influenced by their encounters (e.g., a tour guide’s interpretation is thought-provoking (Io, 2013)) or involvement in the tip (Ma, 2013).
40 2.4.3.4 Acting Experiences in Tourism
In the present world, tourist activities are varied and have shifted from merely sightseeing and hop-on and hop–off tours. Tourists might have various activities, such as hiking, sand sliding, canoeing, and snorkelling (Uriely, 2005). These activities are important in shaping experiences, especially if trips are designed with some adventurous or natural aspects (Morgan, Moore, & Mansell, 2005). Traditionally, tourists’ acting experiences have been examined through questionnaires. However, more advanced technologies, such as smartphone-based GPS technologies are being used to better monitor tourists’ dynamic acting experiences (Hardy et al., 2017).
Tsaur, Chiu and Wang (2007) found acting experiences were important, as they influence tourists’ satisfaction, intentions to revisit and to offer recommendation, as well as their perceptions of well-being. Acting experiences seem to be influenced by tourists’ culture
(Sthapit & Coudounaris, 2018). For example, more masculine younger tourists tend to be involved in more active acting experiences (Pizam & Fleischer, 2005).
2.4.3.5 Relating Experiences in Tourism
Relating experiences during tourism trips occur when tourists interact with their families or friends, other tourists, tour guides, local residents, or destination staff. Relating experience can also occur in a tourists’ virtual community (Wang, Yu, & Fesenmaier,
2002). Such experiences are especially more important on package trips, as tourists usually travel in a group with other tourists and tour guides. In such settings, they have more interactions, which can impact on their overall tourism experience (Chang, 2009).
41 Relating experiences during trips may build cohesion and intimacy, which can help tourists form relationships with others and improve their satisfaction (Lin et al., 2019). In addition, relating experiences can also increase tourists’ engagement and improve their affective state, which subsequently influence their loyalty (Tsaur, Chiu, & Wang, 2007).
Relating experiences may be also influenced by the type of tourism (e.g., package tours offer more opportunities for tourists to communicate and, thus, have more relating experiences) (Chang, 2009).
2.5 Experience Research in Ecotourism
2.5.1 Background
Studies of ecotourism experiences are scarcer than in general tourism. A limited number of ecotourism studies have interpreted experiences in very different ways, which has made comparisons difficult. However, the following discussion provides a background to the research in ecotourism.
• Ecotourism experiences have often been examined from an internal perspective
(cognitive and emotive). Ryan et al. (2000) found ecotourism experiences were
more affective and hedonistic than cognitive, primarily because tourists were often
not involved in environmental learning during such trips. Staus and Falk (2013)
found that, even though environmental education is a key ecotourism feature, the
more important roles played by emotional and hedonistic experiences, rather than
cognitive experiences, were not a concern as they influenced people’s responsible
environmental attitudes.
42 • Ecotourism experiences have also been examined from an external perspective
(which includes physical experience and human interactions). For example,
Walker and Moscardo (2014) examined four ‘experience attributes’ (staff
expertise, staff dedication, experiential activities, and facilitation) that correspond
to the already mentioned external aspects. On the other hand, Higham and Carr
(2002) found ecotourism experiences had five dimensions (non-specific focus of
ecotourism visitor experiences, ecological interpretation, human impacts,
conservation advocacy and awareness of environmental issues). These identified
ecotourism experiences have a focus on sustainability and education from the
perspective of destination management rather than being based on tourists’ mental
states.
• Ecotourism experiences have also been studied from a multi-faceted perspective.
For example, Chan and Baum (2007) found ecotourism trips might result in
positive and negative experiences. They divided the positive experiences into six
dimensions (hedonic, interactive, novelty, comfort, stimulation, and personal
safety) and the negative experiences into four dimensions (things hated,
unpleasant things frustrating things and disappointing things). Wang et al. (2012)
used Schmitt’s (1999) experiential framework (sensing, feeling, thinking, acting,
and relating) to develop three ecotourism dimensions (aesthetic, action and
emotional experiences).
As already noted, there is considerable variation in the way ecotourism experiences have been viewed, showing a clear gap for the current project. The variation in our understanding of people’s ecotourism experiences may be due to the use of various
43 research contexts. For example, participants in Ryan et al.’s (2000) study were Australians, while participants in Wang et al.’s (2012) study were Chinese. Further, Higham and Carr
(2002)’s research was undertaken in an ecotourism destination in New Zealand, while
Chan and Baum’s (2007) study was set in Malaysia. As already mentioned, experiences are contextual and vary in different contexts. Thus, it is crucial to specify the context within which experiences occur.
Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) and Schmitt’s (1999) frameworks have been examined in ecotourism settings, although in a limited way. Chan and Baum (2007) suggested ecotourism experiences included novelty (escape, something new, and different), hedonistic (excitement and enjoyment) and stimulatory (education and challenges) aspects, which are similar to Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) aspects. Further, Wang et al.
(2012) used Schmitt’s (1999) framework to suggest three ecotourism dimensions (acting, emotion, and aesthetics). Each dimension in the two frameworks will be discussed in detail as follows.
2.5.2 Entertainment Experiences in Ecotourism
Although ecotourism does not concentrate on entertainment (The International
Ecotourism Society, 2019), tourists still have entertainment experiences during their eco- tours, from activities such as hiking in a national park and tour guides’ fun interpretations about the local environment (Ryan et al., 2000). Entertainment experiences not only influence tourists’ evaluations of the ecotourism trips and loyalty, but also influence their sustainable behaviour (Kimmel, 1999).
44 2.5.3 Educational Experiences in Ecotourism
Educational experiences are a key factor in ecotourism (TIES, 2019). No matter how ecotourism is defined or practised in different countries or destinations, education about the local culture or environment is a must-offer (Orams, 1997). Ecotourism studies have found educational experiences influence tourists’ satisfaction and revisit intentions
(Walker & Moscardo, 2014). More importantly, prior research suggests educational experiences lead to environmental learning (Walker & Moscardo, 2014) and even have short-term and potentially long-term effect on tourists’ behaviours (Ballantyne, Packer,
& Falk, 2011).
2.5.4 Aesthetic Experiences in Ecotourism
Aesthetic experiences are also crucial for ecotourism, as it is a key requirement for those travelling to nature-based destinations (TIES, 2019). However, there are few studies on these types of experiences in ecotourism. However, Gray and Campbell (2007) did examine such experiences and found they delivered perceived value to tourists.
2.5.5 Escapist Experiences in Ecotourism
Escapist experiences are also important, as tourists are motivated by escapist factors and experience escapist activities in ecotourism trips (Sharpley, 2006). For example, Palacio
(1997) found tourists in ecotourism trips had more escapist experiences than other segments and were more related to environmental learning.
45 2.5.6 Sensory Experience in Ecotourism
Sensory experiences have been examined in a few ecotourism studies (e.g., Zhang, 2019;
Wang et al., 2012) and seem to influence tourists’ satisfaction directly and indirectly through perceived value (Lin, 2019). It seems sensory ecotourism experiences can be facilitated by improving the conditions of ecotourism destinations and improving tour activities (Wang et al., 2012).
2.5.7 Feeling Experiences in Ecotourism
Ecotourism experiences provoke a complex array of emotions, such as pleasure from recreational activities, excitement when seeing wildlife, sadness when learning some animals are endangered or extinct, guilt about environmental issues and a fear of climate change (Staus & Falk, 2013). However, emotion comprises more than mere reactions to experiences. Studies in different areas have found they are a primary mechanism to attitudinal and behavioural changes (Nabi, 1999). Although previous ecotourism studies have identified the importance of some emotions (e.g., sad or angry about environmental problems) and suggested ecotourism operators should pay more attention to emotional factors in environmental education (Ballantyne et al., 2011), the study of emotion in ecotourism contexts is limited.
2.5.8 Thinking Experience in Ecotourism
Thinking or cognitive experiences are also important in ecotourism which, in its very nature, is thought-provoking, as tourist personally interpret the environment and culture of the destinations they visit. Tourists taking ecotourism trips are usually environmentally
46 friendly and often keep thinking about the environment throughout their trips (Zografos
& Allcroft, 2007). Although some researchers believe ecotourism trips may involve more hedonic (affective) than cognitive elements, cognitive experiences are still widely regarded as more important in ecotourism than in leisure-based tourism (Ryan, Hughes,
& Chirgwin, 2000; Staus & Falk, 2013). Cognitive ecotourism experiences seem to influence people’s perceived trip value, satisfaction, and behavioural intentions (Lin,
2019; Wang, et al., 2012; Zhang, 2019).
2.5.9 Acting Experiences in Ecotourism
Ecotourism trips often involve acting experiences, as tourists undertake activities such as trekking and cycling in nature-based destinations (Chan & Baum, 2007). Such acting experiences influence tourists’ perceived trip value, satisfaction, recommendation, and revisit intentions (Lin, 2019; Zhang, 2019). Tourism companies can improve tourists’ acting experiences by ensuring that recreational tour activities have a sustainability element (Wang et al., 2012).
2.5.10 Relating Experiences in Ecotourism
Relating experiences are also important in ecotourism, as tourists, no matter whether on individual or packaged tours, usually travel with tour guides (Hughes & Ballantyne, 2001).
Such guides play a key role in defining the nature of the experience by their interpretation of the local environment and culture (TIES, 2019). In addition, ecotourism trips are often in remote areas. Hence, tourists rely on tour guides and their expertise for an optimal relating experience (Weiler & Ham, 2001). Relating experiences influences tourists’ perceived trip value, satisfaction, and loyalty (Lin, 2019; Zhang, 2019).
47 Experiences are influenced by many factors, as already mentioned, one of which is expectations (Lee, Frederick, & Ariely, 2006; Matolo & Salia, 2017). The next section discusses how experiences are influenced by expectations in marketing, tourism, and ecotourism contexts.
2.6 Expectations and Experiences
Expectations influence experiences through assimilation and dissimilation. For example, people’s experiences can be biased towards their expectations, so higher (lower) expectations lead to positive (negative) experiences (Sumer & Knight, 1996). Such bias is known as an assimilation effect. Assimilation, based on cognitive dissonance theory, emphasises the reluctance of an individual to acknowledge discrepancies from a previously held position (Festinger, 1957).
Conversely, a contrast effect is a tendency to exaggerate an expectation–experience discrepancy (Oliver, 1997). Thus, contrast judgements are driven by discrepancies
(disconfirmations). Assimilation occurs when an experience is close enough to expectations, while contrast occurs when an experience differs substantially from expectations (Anderson, 1973). Consequently, expectations have been studied as an antecedent to experience (e.g., Lee, Frederick, & Ariely, 2006; Matolo & Salia, 2017).
2.6.1 Expectations in Marketing
There are different types of expectations in marketing. Consumers interpret expectations differently according to the desirability of the experience: the ideal or normative level (i.e., the optimal performance or what a performance should be), the predictive level (i.e., what
48 a performance will be) or the minimum tolerable concept (i.e., what a minimal performance must be) (Teas, 1993). The normative level is more appropriate for less experienced consumers, as their expectations tend to come from what they are promised
(e.g., from promotional messages), unlike experienced consumers, who are able to predict performance based on their past experience (Oliver, 1997). Expectations can also differ according to the different phases of consumption (i.e., pre-, during and post-purchase) because expectations are dynamic (Iacobucci, Grayson, & Ostrom, 1994). Expectations have been widely studied in different areas of marketing, such as in relationship marketing
(Buttle, 1996), web-based marketing (Sharma & Sheth, 2004), services marketing (Ho &
Zheng, 2004), and B2B marketing (Bhowal & Paul, 2014).
2.6.2 Expectations in Tourism
Expectations are also important in tourism (Dann, 1996; Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2014), as they influence tourists’ satisfaction (Weber, 1997) and behaviour (Dickson & Hall, 2006). Not surprisingly, therefore, expectations have received considerable attention in tourism studies. For example, Morgan, Moore and Mansell (2005) examined adventure tourists’ expectations and found expectations impacted on the likelihood of injury, while Khan
(2003) examined tourists’ service quality expectations in ecotourism contexts and found they expected an ecotourism operation to be environmentally friendly and service providers to be courteous, informative and trustworthy. Hsu, Cai, and Li (2010) examined outbound Chinese tourists’ expectations and found they impacted on their attitudes and motivation.
49 2.6.3 Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT) in Marketing
Among the theories explaining customer expectations, perceived performance
(experience) and satisfaction, Oliver’s (1980) expectancy disconfirmation Theory (EDT) is one of the most widely used (Oh & Kim, 2017). According to EDT (Oliver, 1997), consumers purchase goods, services, and experiences with an expectation about their performance and this expectation acts as a standard against which performance is judged.
If performance matches expectations, confirmation occurs; otherwise, disconfirmation occurs. Disconfirmation can be positive or negative depending on whether perceived performance is better or worse than expectations. Confirmation and positive disconfirmation generally lead to satisfaction, whereas negative disconfirmation generally leads to dissatisfaction. EDT has become a dominant framework used to assess expectation–experience relationships because of its ability to capture complex relationships and predict satisfaction (e.g., Anderson & Sullivan, 1993; Yüksel &
Rimmington, 1998; Hsu, Chiu, & Ju, 2004; Deng et al., 2010; Liao et al., 2011).
2.6.4 EDT in Tourism
As tourism services are generally experiential in nature, tourists are likely to evaluate their experiences (e.g., satisfaction), according to their expectations (Yüksel & Yüksel, 2001).
Not surprisingly, therefore, EDT has been used to assess the relationships between tourists’ expectations, perceived performance and satisfaction (Mazursky, 1989; Pizam & Milman,
1993; Weber, 1997; Hui, Wan, & Ho, 2007; Zehrer, Crotts, & Magnini, 2011). For example, Hui et al. (2007) used the EDT model to study tourists departing from Singapore, and found attributes (e.g., price) were not sufficient to predict satisfaction; rather,
50 experiences and the confirmation or disconfirmation between expectations and experiences better predicted satisfaction. Zehrer, Crotts, and Magnini (2011) also used the
EDT model to examine potential tourists’ expectations when they were browsing previous tourists’ comments on travel blogs and they found the confirmation and positive disconfirmation between the expectations and experiences of previous tourists led to satisfaction.
2.6.5 EDT in Ecotourism
While EDT has not been used ecotourism studies, some ecotourism research has examined
EDT-related constructs (i.e., expectations (e.g., Khan, 2003), experiences (e.g., Wang et al., 2012), and satisfaction (e.g., Lu & Stepchenkova, 2012)) separately. However, without using the EDT framework, these important constructs are not well understood, making one aspect of the present study, which is discussed in Paper One (Chapter Three in this thesis) an important one.
2.7 Experience and Perceived Value
2.7.1 Perceived Value
Providing consumer value has been considered vital for gaining a competitive edge in any industry or company (Parasuraman, 1997), because it is an important indicator of future behaviour (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000). Zeithaml (1988) identified four different meanings for perceived value (i.e., value is low price, value is whatever consumers want in a product, value is the quality consumers receive for the price they pay, and value is what consumers receive (e.g., quality) for what they give (e.g., price)). The fourth
51 meaning is the most often used in the research (e.g., Bolton & Drew, 1991; Sweeney,
Soutar & Johnson, 1999; McDougall & Levesque, 2000; Petrick, 2004; Bajs, 2015).
Consequently, the most widely accepted definition of perceived value is ‘consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given’ (Zeithaml, 1988, p. 14). Perceived value in marketing has also been examined as perceived product value (Snoj, Korda, & Mumel, 2004), perceived service value (Hartline & Jones, 1996), and perceived brand value (Steenkamp, Batra, & Alden,
2003).
2.7.2 Consumer Value Frameworks
Most previous studies on perceived value have operationalised it as a unidimensional construct, generally functional value, which is related to the trade-off between the price paid and the quality obtained (e.g., Monroe & Chapman, 1987; Lapierre, 2000;
McDougall & Levesque, 2000; Oh, 2003). However, conceptualising perceived value in this way may not be sufficient, as consumers also pay attention to the sociological and psychological aspects of consumption, especially in service contexts (Sheth, Newman, &
Gross, 1991). Consequently, a multidimensional approach that can overcome this limitation has received increasing attention (e.g., Sheth et al., 1991; Grönroos, 1997;
Sweeney & Soutar, 2001; Petrick, 2004; Sánchez et al., 2006).
Sheth et al. (1991) identified five consumption values, which they termed functional, social, emotional, epistemic and conditional value. They suggested functional value refers to the perceived utility derived from an alternative’s functional performance, which includes reliability, durability, and price, while social value is the perceived utility
52 acquired from an alternative’s association with social groups. Emotional value is generated from an alternative’s capacity to arouse feelings while epistemic value is derived from an alternative’s capacity to arouse curiosity and to provide novelty and knowledge. Conditional value is as the perceived utility acquired by an alternative as the result of the specific situation facing the choice maker, such as when buying popcorn as a movie theatre snack.
As already mentioned, Sheth et al. (1991) conceptualised functional value as being created by quality (reliability and durability) and price. However, Dodds, Monroe and Grewal
(1991) found quality and price are distinct, as perceived value is positively affected by quality but negatively affected by price. Consequently, quality and price have opposing impacts on perceived value and should be measured separately.
Based on Sheth et al.’s (1991) dimensions and Dodds et al.’s (1991) findings, Sweeney and Soutar (2001) developed a perceived value scale (PERVAL) that has four dimensions
(emotional, social, quality/performance and price/value for money). In the PERVAL model, the epistemic dimension was excluded because it was not seen as a generally applicable aspect, while the conditional dimension was excluded, as it only provides value in specific circumstances.
PERVAL was used by Williams and Soutar (2009) when examining an adventure tour.
They added the epistemic (novelty) dimension, as such tours were felt to a novelty or surprise aspect. The Williams and Soutar (2009)’s model has also been used in some recent tourism studies (e.g., Bajs, 2015; Choe & Kim, 2018; Mohd-Any, Winklhofer, &
53 Ennew, 2015; Prebensen & Rosengren, 2016), and was used here as it was seen as relevant to the present ecotourism context.
2.7.3 Types of Perceived Value
Functional (quality) value, which is the utility derived from the quality of a product
(Williams & Soutar, 2009), is influenced by consumers’ experiences (Gallarza et al., 2015) and what consumers give (i.e., monetary and non-monetary sacrifices) and take (product or service quality) (Thielemann, Ottenbacher, & Harrington, 2018). Quality value is influenced by efficiency, quality, play and aesthetics experiences in a hospitality context
(Gallarza et al., 2015). In addition, high-quality value increases satisfaction and intentions to repurchase and spread positive word of mouth (Lin, Sher, & Shih, 2005; Kumar, 2017).
Value for money is the value received for the price paid (Williams & Soutar, 2009). In various studies, value for money was influenced by perceptions of mall attributes in a retailing context (Stoel, Wickliffe, & Lee, 2004), trust in a brand (Chiou, 2004), and consumer characteristics, such as a variety-seeking and price sensitivity (Lee, Kim, &
Fairhurst, 2009). Value for money increased consumers’ satisfaction and loyalty (Jensen,
2001).
‘Emotional value is a social-psychological dimension that is dependent on (an offering’s) ability to arouse feelings or affective states’ (Williams & Soutar, 2009, p. 417). High emotional value leads to satisfaction, but low emotional value leads to dissatisfaction
(Rockwell, 2008). In addition, emotional value is very important for building brand loyalty, as consumers are likely to develop deep emotional bonds with brands (emotional
54 attachment) if they can gain emotional value from their consumption (Kumar, Lee, & Kim,
2009; Huber, Meyer, & Schmid, 2015).
Novelty or epistemic value is created when an offering creates curiosity or when consumption satisfies consumer needs for increasing their knowledge (Williams & Soutar,
2009). Consequently, this type of value is especially important for offerings that engender curiosity or increase knowledge (e.g., online shopping using smart retail technology).
Novelty value is influenced by consumers’ motivations and ability to use technology, background factors such as education and the perceived complexity of new technologies or knowledge (Sánchez-Fernández & Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007; Rapp, Rapp, & Schillewaert,
2008; Adapa et al., 2020). Perceived novelty value increases satisfaction and loyalty and people’s intention to continue using a newly adopted offering (Pihlström & Brush, 2008;
Adapa et al., 2020).
Social value is obtained from the enhancement of self-identity in a society through consumption (Williams & Soutar, 2009). Thus, social value can be seen in better acceptance by others or through making a good impression on others. This type of value is influenced by motivation, involvement, and knowledge (familiarity and expertise)
(Prebensen, Woo, & Uysal, 2014). Similar to other types of value, social value impacts on satisfaction and intentions (Kumar, Lee, & Kim, 2009; Huber, Meyer, & Schmid,
2015).
2.7.4 The Influence of Experience on Perceived Value
Perceived value is influenced by experience and this relationship is supported theoretically and empirically (Kerin et al., 1992; Babin et al., 1994; Chen & Dubinsky,
55 2003; Gentile et al., 2007; Chen & Lin, 2015). Indeed, Holbrook (2005, p. 45) suggests the essence of perceived value is ‘an interactive relativistic preference experience,’ indicating experience is an antecedent to perceived value. From a means–end perspective, consumption experiences correspond to the attribute level of the three-level hierarchical model product (attributes, consequences of use and personal values) (Kerin et al., 1992), whereas perceived value corresponds to the consequence level of the model (Zeithaml,
1988). Thus, experiences are ‘means’ that helps people achieve desired ‘ends’ and this experience–value relationship has been well studied (e.g., Kerin et al., 1992; Babin et al.,
1994; Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Gentile et al., 2007; Chen & Lin, 2015).
2.7.4.1 Evidence from Marketing
Not surprisingly, consumer experiences’ influence on perceived value has received considerable attention in marketing (e.g., Kerin, Jain, & Howard, 1992; Babin, Darden,
& Griffin, 1994; Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Gentile, Spiller, & Noci, 2007; Chen & Lin,
2015). Further, a few studies have found different types of experience affect perceived value differently. For example, Walls et al. (2013) examined the influence experiences
(physical environment and human interaction) had on perceived value (emotive and cognitive value) in a hotel setting. Three value dimensions emerged (emotive, social/self- concept and cognitive value) and all three were influenced by at least one experience dimension. Experiences of the physical environment influenced all three value dimensions and had the strongest influence on social value. Experiences of human interaction influenced emotive and cognitive value but had a stronger influence on emotive value perceptions.
56 2.7.4.2 Evidence from Tourism
The influence tourism experiences have on perceived value is understudied, especially in terms of the differential effects of different types of experience. An exception is Song et al. (2015), who examined the influence escape, entertainment, aesthetic and educational experiences had on the perceived functional and emotional value of temple stays. They found functional value was influenced by entertainment, education and escape experiences, while emotional value was influenced by entertainment, escape and aesthetic experiences. As another example, Prebensen and Xie (2017) examined the influence co- created experiences (physical and mental participation) had on perceived value (quality, economic, novelty, emotional, social and knowledge dimensions) in an adventure tourism context. They found mental participation (i.e., cognitive experience) influenced all six value dimensions, whereas physical participation (i.e., acting experience) influenced only the novelty and emotional value dimensions. However, these studies focused on certain aspects of experiences (e.g., co-created experiences) and certain aspects of value
(cognitive and emotive dimensions), suggesting further research is needed to examine these relationships in more detail.
2.7.4.3 Experience and Value in Ecotourism
The influence tourism experiences have on perceived value has not been investigated in an ecotourism context. Previous ecotourism studies have focused on its potential benefits to ecology, the economy and society (e.g., Parker & Khare, 2005; Clifton & Benson, 2006) and on promoting tourists’ environmentally responsible behaviour (e.g., Miller et al., 2015;
Walker & Moscardo, 2014), but few studies have examined the value ecotourism trips
57 provide to tourists and how such value might be created through their tourism experiences.
Without knowing which experiences are perceived as valuable to tourists, we cannot fully understand their responsible behaviour toward the environment and society. Consequently, the second paper (Chapter 4 in this thesis) examined the following research questions:
• What are ecotourism experiences from a multi-dimensional perspective?
• What is perceived value from a multidimensional perspective in an ecotourism
context?
• Do ecotourism experiences have differential effects on different aspects of
perceived value?
Besides influencing perceived value, experiences also influence tourists’ behaviour directly and indirectly through destination image, as is discussed in the next section.
2.8 Experience, Destination Image and Visit Behaviour
2.8.1 Destination Image
Image is a reflection or representation of sensory or conceptual information (Boulding,
1956; Lynch, 1960). Thus, it is a mental construct formed from a few impressions. Clearly, image is built on information gained from people’s experiences (Boorstin, 1962). With an increase in experiences, more information is gained, which modifies images more rapidly
(Stringer, 1984). Thus, image is neither static nor objective and is modified by people’s experiences.
58 Although destination image is commonly defined as the sum of beliefs, thoughts and impressions people have about a destination (Crompton, 1979), it has been examined from different perspectives (Tasci & Kozak, 2006). On one hand, destination image is examined from a functional or psychological perspective. Destination image is often conceptualised based on perceptions of its functional attributes, such as price, quality, and service. However, tourists’ feelings and emotions about a destination are important when conceptualising destination image (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). On the other hand, destination image is interpreted as if it were unique or common. Destination image can be unique in terms of functional or psychological characteristics, such as the image of a
‘must-see’ destination or landmark, and can also be common to some extent, such as an image of common destination offerings, such as beaches and hotels (Pearce, 1988).
2.8.2 Dimensions of Destination Image
Destination image has been measured through its attributes or as a holistic construct
(Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). The attribute-based dimensions include individual attributes such as scenery, price levels, and facilities, whereas the holistic approach suggests image is a mental picture (imagery) of a destination based on general feelings and overall impressions. Although understanding destination image based on its individual attributes has been widely used, many suggest destination image should also be examined as a whole
(Gallarza, Saura, & Garcı́a, 2002). The attribute-based approach to measuring destination image is likely to be more relevant to highly involved tourists who are able to process detailed information about activities and attributes (Gartner, 1989; Kotler, Haider, & Rein,
1993), while the holistic destination image is more appropriate to less involved tourists who merely develop a gestalt image of a destination (Tasci, Gartner, & Cavusgil, 2007).
59 2.8.3 Experiences and Destination Image
It seems experiences do impact on destination image. Indeed, Gunn’s (1988) traveller behaviour model suggests travel experience has seven phases, namely:
1. A destination image is developed based on non-commercial sources, such as
education, word of mouth, and general media like news reports, forming what is
called an ‘organic image’.
2. The modification of this destination image through the consumption of
commercial sources of information about the destination, such as advertising and
travel brochures, creating what is called an ‘induced image’.
3. Decision-making about the trip.
4. Travel to the destination.
5. Participation at the destination, which provides primary sources of information
from people’s actual tourism experiences.
6. Returning home.
7. Further modifications based on actual experiences, creating a more realistic,
concrete and stable image than was the case for people’s organic or induced image.
Gunn’s (1988) theory suggests people’s post-trip destination image is influenced by the tourism experiences they gained in Phase 5. These relationships are supported by empirical tourism studies (e.g., Pearce, 1982; Phelps, 1986; Chon, 1987; Dann, 1996;
Beerli & Martín, 2004; Smith et al., 2015; Akgün et al., 2019). In addition, different types
60 of experience influence different types of destination image. For example, Tan (2017) found escapism, aesthetics, entertainment and education experiences influenced a destination’s attribute-based destination image more significantly than they did on the holistic destination image.
2.8.4 Experience and Loyalty
Loyalty is a desired outcome for tourism operators, as it is more cost-effective to retain existing tourists than to attract new tourists (Bigné, Sánchez, & Andreu, 2009).
Experiences have long been recognised as important antecedents to tourist loyalty (Bigné et al., 2005; Prayag, Hosany, & Odeh, 2013; Loureiro, 2014; Ali, Ryu, & Hussain, 2016), influencing loyalty directly and indirectly through tourists’ perceptions (e.g., destination image) and evaluations (e.g., satisfaction) (Gursoy, Chen, and Chi, 2014). When tourists have positive experiences, it is likely they will visit the destination again. In addition, tourism experiences have differential effects on tourist loyalty. For example, Hosany and
Witham (2010) found cruisers’ education, entertainment, aesthetics and escapism experiences directly influenced their intention to recommend a cruise, while Ali et al.
(2016) found creative tourist experiences of escape and recognition, peace of mind, unique involvement, interactivity and learning directly influenced destination loyalty.
2.8.5 The Experience–Satisfaction–Loyalty Relationship
Previous researchers have linked experiences to loyalty by examining the experiences– satisfaction–loyalty relationship. This is not surprising, as it is widely accepted that satisfaction is an important determinant of tourist loyalty (Pritchard & Howard, 1997;
Bigné, Sánchez, & Andreu, 2009; Campo-Martínez, Garau-Vadell, & Martínez-Ruiz,
61 2010; Lee, Jeon, & Kim, 2010). Experiences influence evaluations such as satisfaction, which, subsequently, influences loyalty. Thus, experiences may influence tourist loyalty indirectly through satisfaction (Gursoy et al., 2014). This framework has been well examined in tourism studies (e.g., Hosany & Witham, 2010; Quadri-Felitti & Fiore, 2013;
Ali, Ryu, & Hussain, 2016).
2.8.6 The Image–Satisfaction–Loyalty Relationship
Similar to the experience–satisfaction–loyalty relationship, the image–satisfaction– loyalty relationship has also been supported in tourism research (e.g., Bigné, Sánchez, &
Sánchez, 2001; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Assaker & Hallak, 2013). Tourists with a positive image of a destination are more likely to be satisfied with it (e.g., Bigné et al., 2001; Chen
& Tsai, 2007; Chi & Qu, 2008; Prayag, 2009; Wang & Hsu, 2010; Assaker et al., 2011) and this satisfaction may also influence their loyalty. Consequently, destination image influences tourist loyalty indirectly through satisfaction. However, destination image in the image–satisfaction–loyalty relationship has usually been examined as a holistic construct (e.g., Bigné, Sánchez, & Sánchez, 2001; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Assaker & Hallak,
2013) and, thus, the differential effects destination image aspects have on satisfaction and loyalty are not fully understood.
2.8.7 The Experience–Image–Satisfaction–Loyalty Relationship
Although the importance of destination image has long been recognised in tourism (e.g.,
Chon, 1987; Dann, 1996; Chi & Qu, 2008), previous studies have focused on pre-trip destination image and its influence on destination selection (e.g., Baloglu & McCleary,
1999; Govers, Go, & Kumar, 2007; Assaker, Vinzi, & O’Connor, 2011; Tseng et al.,
62 2015). Post-trip destination image and how it is influenced by tourism experiences has been less studied (Kim, 2018). Therefore, there is a need to better understand how experiences influence destination image.
Although experiences influence destination image, as already mentioned, most previous studies have linked experience and image to behaviour separately (i.e., experience– satisfaction–loyalty and image–satisfaction–loyalty relationships). In the few studies that have linked experiences, image, and tourist behaviour, such as Prayag et al.’s (2017) and
Kim’s (2018) examination of the experience–image–satisfaction–loyalty relationship, experiences or image have not been examined from a multidimensional perspective and, thus, these relationships need to be better understood. In addition, it is important to examine this understudied relationship in an ecotourism context. Tourists taking ecotourism trips may have different experiences, perceptions (image), evaluations
(satisfaction) and loyalty behaviours. Thus, examining the relationship in the ecotourism context may give more insights into the relationships of interest. Consequently, the present project also tried to answer some additional research questions, as can be seen in the Third Paper (Chapter 5 in this thesis), namely:
• How do experiences influence destination image from a multidimensional
perspective?
• Do experiences influence tourist satisfaction through destination image?
• Do experiences influence tourists’ behaviour through destination image and
satisfaction?
63 After examining perceived value, destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty as outcomes of tourism experience, environmental learning was also seen an important outcome of experience. Consequently, this construct is discussed in the next section.
2.9 Experiences and Environmental Learning
2.9.1 Experiences and Learning
One of the most popular definitions of learning is suggested by Kimble (1961), who argued learning is a broad term that covers not only an increase of knowledge but also changes in attitudes and behaviour. This definition originated in psychology, but has been adopted in other areas, such as education (Kimble, Hildreth, & Bourdon, 2008), marketing
(Frisou & Yildiz, 2011), and tourism (Hsu & Wolfe, 2003).
As learning occurs ‘as a result of reinforced practice’ (Kimble, 1961, p. 6), it will be impacted by experience (Olson, 2015). Indeed, most learning theorists (e.g., Pavlov, 1927;
Thorndike, 1932; Hull, 1933; Guthrie, 1935; Tolman, 1949; Estes, 1950; Piaget, 1970;
Bandura, 1973, 1997) view learning as a mediator between experiences and behavioural changes.
2.9.2 Experiences and Learning in Marketing
In marketing, consumers learn about offerings through direct and indirect experiences (Li,
Daugherty, & Biocca, 2003). Direct experiences are the interactions consumers have with an offering, suggesting they are similar to consumer experience, consumption experience and brand experience, as previously discussed (Villas-Boas, 2004). Indirect experiences come from interactions with an organisation’s marketing communications (e.g.,
64 advertising and promotion) and from word of mouth (Hung & Li, 2007). In addition, consumer learning seems to be influenced by consumer characteristics, such as education and interpretation capability (Churchill & Moschis, 1979). Consumers’ direct experience seems to be the most influential antecedent, as knowledge increases as a results consumer’s actual consumption experiences (Hoch & Ha, 1986; Gregan-Paxton & John,
1997).
2.9.3 Experiences and Learning in Tourism
Learning is important for tourism, as tourists can learn practical skills while on holiday.
Examples include golfing on a golf holiday (Tassiopoulos & Haydam, 2008) and acquiring more knowledge on a nature-based holiday (e.g., learning about distinct wildlife species and improving self-awareness and self-development about sustainable lifestyles)
(Falk et al., 2012) or learning about the environment on an ecotourism trip (Ballantyne &
Packer, 2011).
2.9.4 Experiences and Environmental Learning in Ecotourism
Consistent with the widely accepted definition of learning discussed previously, environmental learning is generally defined as an increase in knowledge about environmental sustainability and also the development of positive attitudes towards environmental protection and improvements in intentions to behave in a more environmentally friendly way (Falk, 2005; Ballantyne et al., 2011). Environmental learning is often discussed in ecotourism, as it is a key ecotourism objective (International
Ecotourism Society, 2019). However, prior studies have focused on ecotourism’s
65 capability to contribute to environmental learning (Buckley, 2009; Ballantyne & Packer,
2011) and studies on how to promote environmental learning are scarce.
Environmental learning seems to be influenced by ecotourism experiences (Kimmel,
1999), as can be seen in a number of empirical examples of how ecotourism experiences influence environmental learning, namely:
• Orams (1997) found a well-designed education program with thinking, emotional
and acting experiences can promote environmental learning. For example, an
education program can offer thought-provoking questions that encourage tourists
to think; use activities or stories to arouse tourists’ positive emotions (e.g.,
enjoyment from interacting with animals) or negative emotions (e.g., fear of
environmental threats) and provide acting (behavioural) opportunities, such as
removing litter from a beach that enable tourists to practice environmentally
friendly behaviours.
• Tisdell and Wilson (2005) found educational experiences were the key to
promoting environmental learning. Tourist guides’ interpretations about the
environment during ecotourism trips had a stronger effect on environmental
learning than did recreational activities (e.g., seeing turtles). The key role
educational experiences play in promoting environmental learning was confirmed
by Walker and Moscardo (2014).
Although a few studies have examined how one or two types of ecotourism experiences promote environmental learning, experiences have not been examined in a comprehensive way, which has meant we still know little the relationships between tourism experiences
66 and environmental learning. This project attempted to fill this gap in the Fourth Paper
(Chapter 6 in this thesis). The study reported in the paper attempted to answer the following research question:
Do ecotourism experiences influence environmental learning in an
ecotourism context?
2.10 Summary
Chapter Two reviewed important theories and constructs that were relevant to the present research project, focusing on the background literature, as other more specific prior research is discussed in the four papers (Chapter Three to Chapter Six). The Chapter started with a summary of the experience construct from marketing, tourism and ecotourism perspectives, as experience was a key construct in each of the four papers.
After the review of experience, the Chapter reviewed relevant literature that examined expectations and experiences, and EDT, which provided a theoretical background for the first paper. This was followed by a review of the experiences–value relationship, with a detailed investigation of the literature on perceived value and the influence of experience on value that was relevant to the second paper. The literature relevant to the experience– image–behaviour framework used in the third paper was the discussed, including a careful examination of prior research into the key consequences of tourists’ experience (i.e., destination image, tourist satisfaction and tourist loyalty). Finally, prior research into environmental learning and how it is influenced by experience was examined, as this was the issue examined in the fourth paper.
67
68 CHAPTER THREE
UNDERSTANDING THE ATTITUDE- AND MOTIVATION- BEHAVIOUR GAPS IN ECOTOURISM IN CHINA: AN EXPECTANCY DISCONFIRMATION THEORY APPROACH
The paper entitled ‘Understanding the Attitude- and Motivation-Behaviour Gaps in Ecotourism in China: An Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory Approach’ by Li, T., Liu, F., Soutar, G. N., & Webb, D. (2020) has been submitted to Tourism Management Perspectives and is currently under review.
This chapter presents the first paper included this PhD thesis that answers the first
research question (i.e., What is the relationship between expectation and experience?).
3.1 Abstract
This study examined potential attitude- and motivation-behaviour gaps relating to ecotourism, which is one of China’s most popular travel forms. Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory was used to develop a good understanding of these potential gaps. Before comparing experiences against expectations (attitude and motivation), the theory’s three constructs (attitude, motivation and experiences) were explored using an exploratory qualitative approach. Forty in-depth interviews were conducted in South-Western China and the data were analysed by the Leximancer program, a computerized qualitative data analysis program. The study identified both a confirmation (of aspects such as scenery appreciation) and negative disconfirmation (of pro-environmental aspects) between tourists’ expectations (attitude and motivation) and experiences assessment, suggesting some prominent attitude-behaviour and motivation-behaviour gaps in the ecotourism context. The findings of this study have important implications for both domestic and foreign tourism policy makers as well as for providers wishing to attract Chinese tourists to ecotourism activities.
Keywords: Chinese tourists, Ecotourism, Tourist attitude, Tourist motivation, Tourism experiences, Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory.
69
3.2 Introduction
Although there are many definitions, The International Ecotourism Society (2020) defines ecotourism as ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education’. Choice of definition appears dependent on how ecotourism is viewed along a spectrum from passive to active with respect to environmental responsibility (Weaver, 1998). Nature-based tourism with an educational component is a ‘passive’ form of ecotourism, whereas ecotourism that also contributes to conservation is a more ‘active’ form of ecotourism
(Orams, 1995). These more active forms of ecotourism emerged in the 1980s due to an increased worldwide awareness of and concern for sustainable development (Wood,
2002). In most countries, tourists travel in small groups to relatively untouched and natural places (Weaver, 2001). Consequently, ecotourism is generally regarded as a type of niche tourism (Wood, 2002).
In China, ecotourism has become a major form of tourism (National Development and
Reform Commission, 2016). Indeed, since being introduced to China in the 1990s (Wang,
1993), ecotourism has grown substantially in popularity; making up a significant proportion of China’s domestic tourism revenue. In 2016, 1.2 billion mainland Chinese tourists visited at least one ecotourism site, generating US$100 billion in revenue (Xinhua
News Agency, 2017). In addition to visiting domestic ecotourism sites, Chinese tourists also travel internationally. Indeed, taking ecotourism trips is one of the top five preferred activities for outbound Chinese tourists; the rest being tasting local delicacies, visiting landmarks, visiting theme park attractions and fine dining (Ipsos, 2018). It may be that
70 the Chinese concept of ecotourism can explain its popularity. While similar to its Western counterpart, key differences include a belief in ecotourism’s contribution to human health, a preference for using human arts to enhance nature and no evident limitations on scale
(Buckley et al., 2008).
No matter how ecotourism is defined or practiced in different countries, ecotourism is believed to be more environmentally sustainable than other forms of tourism (Orams,
1995; Higham & Carr, 2002). However, ecotourism still has a negative impact on environmental conservation, particularly if there are undesirable tourist behaviours involved (Buckley, 2004). The key strategy to minimise the negative impact is to facilitate tourists’ environmental behaviour. Previous studies have examined how to facilitate such a behaviour through environmental attitude (Cheung & Fok, 2014) and motivation
(Ballantyne, Packer, & Falk, 2011). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) as well as push-pull theory (Dann, 1977), suggest that, if tourists have a positive attitude towards the environment and are motivated by environmental factors to select ecotourism trips, they will not behave in a way that negatively impacts the environment. However, environmental attitude or motivation does not always elicit or explain such behaviour
(Tarrant & Green, 1999; Antimova, Nawijn, & Peeters, 2012).
Distinct attitude- and motivation-behaviour gaps may exist. While tourists have positive attitudes toward environmental protection, a few studies have found attitudes do not always translate into more environmentally friendly behaviours, such as selecting eco- friendly accommodation (Watkins, 1994), transport forms (Swarbrooke & Horner, 1999) or tourism activities (Juvan & Dolnicar, 2014). Similarly, Wearing et al. (2002) found that, while natural features and conservation motivated tourists to take ecotourism trips,
71 travel behaviours rarely matched these motivations. Although the discrepancies between attitude and behaviour or between motivation and behaviour have been acknowledged, little empirical evidence has been presented (Juvan & Dolnicar, 2014).
In the context of ecotourism in China, Li and Xie’s (2008) study is probably the only one that noticed the attitude- and motivation-behaviour gaps. Their study found that, while
Chinese tourists believed ecotourism should focus on environmental conservation, very few undertook pro-environmental behaviours, such as minimizing resource uses or reducing waste production or energy consumption during their ecotourism trips. Li & Xie
(2008) also found that, while such tourists seem motivated to undertake ecotourism experiences to learn about local nature and culture, their travel behaviour often did not involve learning. Clearly there is a need to better understand these issues.
Here, an Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT) approach was used to see if there was an attitude-behaviour or motivation-behaviour gap in a Chinese ecotourism context.
For example, tourists visiting Australia’s Gold Coast might expect sandy beaches. This expectation may come from their normative perception that the Gold Coast should have such offerings (attitude) and their desire or want for nature (motivation). The perceived performance of destinations (i.e., good and bad levels of destination attributes) is elaborated by tourists’ actual experience during their trips (Chen & Chen, 2010).
The specific aims of this research were to identify: (1) the attitude towards ecotourism in
China; (2) motivations for undertaking ecotourism trips; (3) ecotourism experiences; (4) the influence of demographic factors on tourists’ attitude, motivation, and experiences; (5) attitude-experience gaps; (6) motivation-experience gaps and (7) the meaning of these
72 gaps. Only by understanding potential gaps can they be bridged. Consequently, this study was undertaken to advance our knowledge about environmental attitude, motivation and behaviour in a Chinese ecotourism context. The findings should help domestic and international policy makers and destination marketers better understand ecotourism consumption in China and, consequently, help them develop more effective strategies that cater for the increasing demand evident in this area.
3.3 Theoretical Background
3.3.1 Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory
EDT, developed by Oliver (1980), is often used to understand tourists’ expectations, perceived performance, and satisfaction (e.g., Mazursky, 1989; Pizam & Milman, 1993;
Weber, 1997; Hui, Wan, & Ho, 2007; Zehrer, Crotts, & Magnini, 2011). Parasuraman,
Zeithaml, and Berry (1988, p. 17) suggest expectation can be defined as ‘desires or wants of consumers, i.e., what they feel a service provider should offer rather than would offer’.
The expectations of non-experienced consumers tend to come from what they have been promised (e.g., from promotional messages), which is a normative expectation (Oliver,
1997). EDT suggests affective judgements (e.g., satisfaction or dissatisfaction) are the result of confirmation or disconfirmation between what ‘should be’ (e.g., expectations) and what ‘is there’ (e.g., product or service performance) (Oliver, 1980). Disconfirmation can be positive or negative depending on whether perceived performance is better or worse than expectations. At the ‘desired’ and ‘normative’ expectation standard level, confirmation and positive disconfirmation will likely lead to satisfaction, while negative disconfirmation will likely lead to dissatisfaction.
73 The current study was based on the complete EDT model (Figure 3.1), in which expectation was decomposed into attitude and motivation, and performance was examined as experience. Expectation in most consumption situations arises from consumers’ beliefs about the likelihood of future consumption, and such beliefs are valanced (positive or negative emotions) (Oliver, 1997). Attitude as a cognitive concept represents beliefs (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), while motivation indicates needs and wants
(Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Thus, expectation can be decomposed into attitude and motivation, as has been suggested by other tourism researchers (e.g., Gnoth, 1997). Performance in the EDT model is ‘the perceived amount of product or service attribute outcomes received’
(Oliver, 1997, p. 28). Experience is a proxy for performance, as experience is a personal occurrence created through customers’ interactions with stimuli in the consumption of products or services (Carù & Cova, 2003).
Figure 3.1: The Complete EDT Model
74 3.3.2 Attitude
Attitude is ‘a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object’ (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p.10). The
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) suggests people’s attitude towards a behaviour has two components (beliefs and evaluations of these beliefs) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). A number of studies have examined tourists’ attitudes toward ecotourism in China. For example, some tourists believe ecotourism trips will have positive effects for destinations and tourists (Ren & Pan, 2017). More specifically, tourists believe this form of tourism brings economic (Xu & Wang, 2018), environmental (Hu & Wang, 2010) and social (Li
& Xie, 2008) benefits to a destination. They also believe they can experience nature, relax and learn about local culture on ecotourism trips (Ren & Pan, 2017).
Tourists’ attitudes influence their behaviour (e.g., Um & Crompton, 1990; He & Song,
2009; Quintal, Lee & Soutar, 2010). Indeed, many ecotourism studies have found a favourable attitude toward ecotourism positively influences intention to participate in ecotourism activities and services (e.g., Hultman, Kazeminia, & Ghasemi, 2015; Lu,
Gursoy, & Chiappa, 2016). Although attitude seems to be a good predictor of behaviour, an attitude-behaviour gap has been found in some studies. For example, tourists’ favourable attitude toward the environment may not lead to pro-environmental behaviour on visits. Further, although tourists are concerned about the environment, they are often not willing to pay extra for green products or services (Watkins, 1994) or likely to consider green factors when purchasing products (Wearing et al., 2002). Indeed, Juvan and Dolnicar (2014) found environmental activists who have a high level of
75 environmental awareness do not display pro-environmental behaviours when travelling
(e.g., minimizing resource use).
The attitudes examined in prior studies are attitudes in a broad context (i.e., attitude towards the natural environment), not attitude towards a specific travel form (Kollmuss
& Agyeman, 2002; Jackson, 2007). Even those who are concerned about the environment tend to drive instead of taking public transport on their daily routine trips (Kollmuss &
Agyeman, 2002). Thus, it is important to examine attitude-behaviour gap(s) where attitude and behaviour are related to the same context (e.g., attitude towards a specific travel form and specific travel behaviours associated with that travel form). Li and Xie
(2008) mentioned an ecotourism attitude-behaviour gap, as some Chinese tourists believed environmental conservation was a key feature of ecotourism, but this attitude was not reflected in their travel behaviour (e.g., they paid more attention to entertaining activities than environmental conservation when on a ecotourism trip).
3.3.3 Motivation
Motivation refers to the ‘psychological/biological needs and wants, including integral forces that arouse, direct and integrate a person’s behaviour and activity’ (Yoon & Uysal,
2005, p. 46). Travel motivation, which refers to tourists’ state of mind that disposes them to choose a travel form (Dann, 1981; Luo & Deng, 2008), has been examined in different contexts, such as ecotourism (Eagles, 1992) and rural tourism (Park & Yoon, 2009).
Numerous frameworks have been used to understand travel motivations (Cohen et al.,
2014), including the allocentric-psychocentric approach (Plog, 1974), push-pull theory
(Dann, 1977), disequilibrium theory (Crompton, 1979), the intrinsic-extrinsic framework
76 (Iso-Ahola, 1982), escaping-seeking theory (Mannell & Iso-Ahola, 1987) and the travel- career-ladder approach (Pearce, 1988).
Among these frameworks, the intrinsic-extrinsic framework has been used to examine ecotourism motivations. For example, Holden and Sparrowhawk (2002) found people were motivated by intrinsic (e.g., enjoyment) and extrinsic (e.g., the attractiveness of the destination) factors when deciding to undertake ecotourism trips. Ecotourism motivations in a Chinese context can also be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. On one hand, such tourists might be motivated by intrinsic factors, such as relaxation (Su, 2004), enjoying nature and escaping from daily routine (Chen & Qiao, 2010). On the other hand, they might also be motivated by extrinsic factors, such as good food and activities (Feng,
2010).
Tourists’ attitudes are important for understanding travel motivations (Gnoth, 1997), as they usually set up the conditions that activate motivation (Lindgren, 1969) and serve as sources of motivation for the ways in which people interact with their environment
(Ragheb & Tate, 1993). More specifically, tourists may be motivated by the likelihood of achieving their needs and wants (intrinsic) and also by the attractiveness of a destination or travel form (extrinsic) (Chon, 1989). Beliefs and evaluation (or attitudes) about travel outcomes activate tourists’ motivations to travel or select a travel form (Fishbein & Ajzen,
1975). While tourists’ attitude towards the environment seems to be positively related to travel motivation (Luo & Deng, 2008), the influence of tourists’ attitude towards ecotourism has not been examined in respect to travel motivation.
77 Travel motivation is also a good predictor of behaviour (Cohen, Prayag, & Moital, 2014), influencing information search (Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011), destination choice (Jang &
Cai, 2002), souvenir purchase (Swanson & Horridge, 2006), activity preferences (Rita,
Brochado, & Dimova, 2018), revisit intentions (Campo-Martínez, Garau-Vadell, &
Martínez-Ruiz, 2010) and some ecotourism behaviours (Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2014). However, the influence motivation has on travel behaviour in ecotourism trips has not been examined previously.
Travel motivation does not necessarily translate into travel behaviour. Similar to the attitude-behaviour gaps mentioned previously, motivation-behaviour gaps have been found. As already noted, tourists did not necessarily get involved in learning about nature or local culture when taking ecotourism trips in China, even though they were motivated by such learning factors when selecting this tourism form (Li & Xie, 2008). Although the motivation-behaviour gap has been mentioned, it has not been examined in tourism.
3.3.4 Experiences
Experiences have received increasing attention in tourism in recent years (Adhikari &
Bhattacharya, 2016). Experiences come from tourists’ interactions with a destination’s offerings (Walls et al., 2011). To put it simply, ‘everything tourists go through at a destination can be experience, be it behavioural or perceptual, cognitive or emotional, or expressed or implied’ (Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007, p. 120). Schmitt’s (1999) experiential framework provides a framework for this aspect. Schmitt developed an experiential marketing framework as a contrast to traditional marketing, which focuses on functional attributes, suggesting five experience aspects (sensory (through sight, sound, touch, taste
78 and smell), emotional (inner feelings and emotions), thinking (cognitive and problem- solving experiences), acting (physical and behavioural experiences) and relating (social experiences with other individuals)). Marketers can create any or all of these types of experiences for customers. Not surprisingly, given the experiential nature of tourism, this framework has been widely used in tourism research (e.g., Tsaur, Chiu, & Wang, 2007;
Lee & Chang, 2012), including in ecotourism (e.g., Wang et al., 2012).
Tourism experience has also been examined in Chinese ecotourism contexts. Researchers have examined emotional experiences (e.g., relaxation), acting experiences (e.g., participating in tourist activities) (Wang et al., 2012), relating experiences (e.g., making new friends), thinking experiences (e.g., learning about local culture) and sensory experiences (e.g., enjoying a beautiful view) (Su, 2004). However, prior research has not examined the relationships between ecotourism attitude, motivation and experiences.
3.3.5 The Influences of Personal Factors
Attitudes, motivation and experiences have been found to be influenced by tourists’ backgrounds in Chinese ecotourism contexts. For example, male tourists regarded ecotourism more as nature-based tourism, while female tourists evaluated it more from environmental conservation and educational perspectives (Zhong & Song, 2010). Further, young tourists were more motivated by activities, while middle-aged tourists were more motivated by relaxation and escapism (Li, 2007). Finally, tourists with higher incomes tended to seek more recreational experiences (Hu & Wang, 2010) and undertake more pro-environmental behaviours (Yu, Zhong, & Xu, 2010), while better-educated tourists
79 paid more attention to environmental conservation and the local community (Hu & Wang,
2010).
3.4 Research Approach
A qualitative inductive research approach, based on 40 in-depth interviews, was used to answer the research questions because the research questions were subjective and interpretative in nature in an under-researched field (i.e., limited studies on attitude, motivation and behaviour in the Chinese ecotourism context). The interview questions were semi-structured and followed a logical transition from general (tourists’ attitude towards ecotourism) to more specific (motivations and experiences related to a specific ecotourism trip). After obtaining rapport, the first question asked was ‘What is your attitude towards ecotourism?’ Respondents were then asked to recall their motivations for ecotourism trips. Finally, they were asked to recall their experiences freely on their most recent ecotourism trip. During the process, the researcher asked them to describe experiences as detailed as possible. If there were any unclear or ambiguous descriptions, the researcher would ask them to specify further.
All respondents (N=40), who were obtained from the researchers’ networks in China, had undertaken an ecotourism experience in China, most for the first time. While this meant responses were obtained from a convenience sample, the respondents were willing to provide sensitive background information, such as income and education which was needed for one of our research objectives (i.e., the influence of demographic factors on the attitude, motivation, and experiences of tourists), as such self-reported information may be influenced by cultural values (e.g., saving face) (Wong & Lau, 2001).
80 According to a recent big-data report based on 15 million tourists who had ecotourism experiences in China (Beijing Union University, 2018) and other academic studies (e.g.,
Li, 2007), tourists come from a range of backgrounds and are well-distributed in terms of key demographics (e.g., age, gender, education, and income). Thus, respondents were selected to be reasonably representative of the population. The sample had a good balance of age (40% respondents aged from 20 to 30, 30% aged from 30 to 50, and 30% older than 50), gender (50% males and 50% females), education (50% with high-education and
50% with low-education) and income (50% with high incomes and 20 with middle incomes). People with low incomes (i.e., an annual income of less than 48,000 Renminbi per capita) were not interviewed because they are unlikely to travel at all or, particularly, on ecotourism trips (National Bureau of Statistics, 2017).
Respondent backgrounds were used to divide the sample into four groups (Group 1: high income and high education, Group 2: high income and low education, Group 3: middle income and high education, and Group 4: middle income and low education). Gender and age were evenly distributed. After interviewing 40 respondents, saturation was reached, which led to the decision to stop interviewing. Consequently, each group had 10 respondents (5 male and 5 female respondents, with 3 or 4 respondents aged from 20-30,
3 or 4 aged from 30-50 and 3 or 4 older than 50).
Each interview was conducted and transcribed in Mandarin (Standard Chinese). The transcriptions were translated into English by one of the researchers who has a Chinese-
English translation qualification and the translation was thoroughly rechecked by another of the researchers who is fluent in Chinese and English, as such a process adds credibility to the translation (Lyons & Coyle, 2007).
81 The Leximancer program (Version 4.5), which uses word-association information to determine concepts that emerge from text data, was used to develop concept maps (Smith
& Humphreys, 2006). Leximancer was used because its coding is seen as unbiased and objective, as researchers tailor parameters to facilitate an automated analysis, minimizing researcher bias (Cretchley et al., 2010). The process was iterative. Before the final analysis, generic words (e.g., take, don’t and whole) and words or names that were not meaningful in answering the research questions (e.g., tour and Tibet) were removed. Similar words
(e.g., relaxed and relaxing) and words containing similar content (e.g., knowledge and understanding) were merged. The analysis was repeated until the major themes remained the same, which suggested a stable result had been obtained (Leximancer, 2018). Results and interpretations went through peer debriefing with external experts (i.e., tourism researchers and practitioners) and checking among respondents to ensure a good ‘fit’ between respondents’ perceptions and researchers’ interpretations, enhancing reliability
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Nowell et al., 2017).
3.5 Analyses and Results
This section presents the results obtained in three subsections. In each section, an overview of the themes and concepts is presented first, and each theme is named based on the most prominent concept in the cluster. Theme and concept names are written in italics, but the first letters of the theme names are capitalized to differentiate themes from concepts. A number of indicators were used to interpret the overview of themes and concepts, namely:
82 • The warmness of the sphere colour in the concept map indicates the importance of
themes (red and then yellow indicate high importance themes; green indicate mid-
level importance and blue and purple indicate low-level importance) (see Figures
3.2-3.4).
• Connectivity, which suggests the relative importance (summed co-occurrence of
concepts) of a theme to the most important theme (termed the 100% theme) (see
Tables 3.1, 3.3, and 3.5).
• Prominence, which is a measure of the relative frequency and strength of the most
prominent concept within a category. If a prominence score is more than one, the
concept is not independent, as co-occurrence happens more often than by chance
(see Tables 3.2, 3.4, and 3.6).
• Likelihood, which is indicated by the proximity between concepts. For example, air
quality had a 9% likelihood to nature-based destinations, which means 9% of the
text segments of nature-based destinations contain air quality.
After the overview of themes and concepts, some background differences are presented.
Nine categorical tags (Female, Male, Age: 20-30, Age: 30-50, Age: >50, High Income,
Middle Income, High Education, and Low Education) were created from the four background factors (gender, age, income and education). A separate analysis was undertaken to examine the impact each factor had on attitude. Similar analyses were conducted for motivation and experiences. Lists of concepts were ranked for each demographic group. The importance of concepts for each group was interpreted through their Prominence scores.
83 3.5.1 Attitude towards Ecotourism
3.5.1.1 Themes and Concepts
Six themes were identified, as can be seen in the concept map displayed in Figure 3.2 and the connectivity scores shown in Table 3.1. The most important was Travel, followed by
Sustainable Behaviour and Good Air Quality. Less important themes were Sustainable
Transport, No Pollution, and Local Culture.
Figure 3.2: The Concept Map of Tourist Attitude towards Ecotourism
84 Table 3.1: A Thematic Summary of Tourists’ Attitude towards Ecotourism
Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Travel (100%) travel, nature- 30 out of 40 participants I feel it is a kind of travel in based mentioned the word good environment and close destinations, ‘travel’ when describing to nature and primitive environmentally their understanding places. It is primitive travel. friendly, protect about ecotourism. It’s more a way of traveling the natural Participants tended to in an environmentally environment describe ecotourism friendly way. trips as environmentally For example, we need to friendly travel to nature- protect the environment and based destinations while try to use less disposable protecting the natural products in the travel. environment Sustainable sustainable Some participants For transport, it should be as Transport transport believed that transport in environmentally friendly as (7%) ecotourism travel should possible. I am not doing very be sustainable well in this aspect. I usually drive long-distance in travelling to places that are very different from my daily environment. I either drive or take airplanes to these places, so I am not an ecotourist in this aspect. No pollution no pollution, Participants mentioned Ecotourism? That is, making (7%) agritainment no pollution in general no pollution to the to describe either attractions. And, the behaviour of tourists or attraction itself should be quality of ecotourism non-polluted as well. destinations. Ecotourism? Well, generally Agritainment (‘农家乐’) speaking, it’s more a matter is an emerging travel of picking up vegetables and form in China and it fishing at those agritainment refers to integration of places that kind of things? farms/villages and recreation according its definitions in China (Fu & Huang, 2012). Some participants saw similarities between agritainment and ecotourism, and used agritainment to describe their attitude towards ecotourism.
85 Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Good Air good air Good air quality is I think ecotourism should be Quality (9%) quality, health important and separate travelling to some places from other destination where the air condition is offerings due to its good. So people who do this higher frequency (count: kind of travel would be 8) and low likelihood to healthy physically and nature-based mentally. destinations (9%) Good air quality is considered to be conducive to health Local Culture local culture A few participants I think the first thing is to (3%) believed that tourists appreciate the nature, to learn should conserve or learn some local culture within it, local culture during their and to breathe the good air. ecotourism trips.
Respondents believed ecotourism brings positive outcomes to tourists and destinations.
On one hand, when undertaking ecotourism, tourists travel to nature-based destinations with good air quality (which indicates health), while, at the same time, enjoying agritainment activities. On the other hand, respondents believed ecotourism was an environmentally friendly tourism form and that tourists should display sustainable behaviour (e.g., no littering) and take sustainable transport (e.g., public transport), as these behaviours help protect the natural environment.
3.5.1.2 Concept Importance within Categories
Background factors (age, income and education) seemed to influence tourists’ attitude towards ecotourism (see Table 3.2). Age was negatively associated with respondents’ environmental focus. The youngest age group (20-30 years of age) saw ecotourism more as a sustainable tourism form, while the oldest (over 50) group did not see this. The middle-age group (30 to 50) was in the middle in terms of the environmental focus of their
86 attitude. Income and education were positively associated with the environmental focus, as environmental concepts were more important to the high-income group and the highly educated group. Gender did not appear to influence attitude towards ecotourism.
3.5.2 Ecotourism Motivation
3.5.2.1 Themes and Concepts
Five themes emerged when ecotourism motivations were examined. As can be seen in the warmness of the sphere colour in the concept map (Figure 3.3) and in the connectivity rate (Table 3.3), the themes ranked in importance from Destinations through Hiking,
Travel, Protect the Natural Environment to Avoid Cities.
Figure 3.3: The Concept Map of Motivation behind Ecotourism
87 Table 3.3: A Thematic Summary of Motivation behind Ecotourism
Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Destinations destinations, good The concept good Because it was so hot in (100%) air quality, good environment means non- summer and everybody environment, polluted natural said Fuxian Lake in avoid hot weather environment according to Yunnan was cool in the context of their talk summer and had good and explanation on environment as some of relevant Chinese websites my colleagues travelled (e.g., Baiduzhidao, 2017). there.
Participants were motivated by specific destinations which could offer them good air quality and good environment and help them avoid hot weather.
Hiking (35%) hiking, scenery Hiking and scenery That was soon before appreciation appreciation are seen as my homecoming day. I common activities in just wanted to hike, got ecotourism trips in China my body stretched and (Huang et al., 2003). released a bit.
Well it is a popular travel form now. Also, I will have a sense of achievement if I hike. It’s better than driving. If I hike, I can appreciate the natural scenery all the way.
Travel (26%) travel Besides being interested in I and my several friends particular destinations, just said we would participants had the desire travel together. We saw to travel before selecting several attractions in ecotourism. advertisement, and the scenery in Qidonggou seemed to be great and we didn’t travel there before, so we agreed to go there.
88 Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Protect the protect the Some participants Because, do you know Natural natural considered if they help the Huawurenjian? That Environment environment, protect the natural place has super good (26%) health environment when environment, and the air selecting their travel forms condition is excellent. Plus, there are many Protect the natural signs emphasizing the environment is related to importance of health as protect the environmental natural environment has protection such as no 50% likelihood to health littering. I think people who visit there would learn something and in that way, our environment or the eco- system could be protected.
I feel most people have environmental awareness today, and pay attention to things related to health issue.
Avoid Cities avoid cities Participants also wanted to I don’t like big cities or (19%) avoid cities as ecotourism super big cities such as destinations were Beijing, Shanghai or evaluated as nature-based Chengdu. I just want to as discussed in the attitude leave as soon as part possible when I arrive in those cities. Just not interested in those modern culture at all.
Respondents were motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors when selecting ecotourism trips. Before selecting ecotourism, respondents had an internal desire to travel. They also wanted to avoid hot weather and cities, enjoy hiking and appreciate the scenery, and felt a responsibility to protect the natural environment when travelling. These are all intrinsic motivations. However, respondents were also motivated by extrinsic factors, such as the good air quality and the good environment offered by ecotourism destinations.
89 3.5.2.2 Concept Importance within Categories
Similar to the results for attitude towards ecotourism, age, income and education influenced motivations (see Table 3.4). Age was negatively associated with a pro- environmental motivation (protect the natural environment), which was in line with ecotourism attitude. Education was also positively associated with a pro-environmental motivation and protect the natural environment was the most important concept for the high-education group. Protect the natural environment was a more important concept for the middle-income group than it was to the high-income group. Gender did not seem to influence these motivations.
3.5.3 Ecotourism Experiences
3.5.3.1 Themes and Concepts
Seven themes and 18 concepts emerged from the analysis of respondents’ most recent ecotourism experience. The eight themes were Scenery Appreciation, Happiness, Hiking,
Other Activities, Good Air Quality, Self-Development, In the Car, and Tour Groups. Their order of importance is again indicated by the sphere colour in the concept map (Figure
3.4) and the connectivity rate (Table 3.5).
90 Table 3.5: A Thematic Summary of Ecotourism Experiences
Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Scenery scenery Participants paid much That place was Appreciation appreciation, attention to scenery stunningly beautiful. (100%) surprise, aerial appreciation in their When we were there, it tramway ecotourism trips, and was a little cloudy. It sometimes scenery was was the most beautiful surprising. in sunny days, so we didn’t see the best of it. Participants enjoyed the It was a pity. beautiful scenic view while taking aerial When I was driving and tramway. after some turns, I suddenly saw some snowy mountains, or endless grassland with wild flowers by a river. I was surprised and excited. Happiness (95%) happiness, Participants felt happy, Seniors in my family families/friends, relaxed or comfortable were quite funny, so we taking photos, while taking photos and laughed a lot relaxation, communicating with throughout the journey. comfort families and friends. Well, I felt comfortable Comfort means the seeing the view on feeling of consoled or mountains. In my daily soothed. life, I can’t see such scenery, like bamboos in the woods. Hiking (47%) hiking, negative Some participants My husband and I feelings expressed their negative encouraged each other feeling during the travel: and cheered each other some felt exhausted after up during the hiking. hiking, some had altitude Finally we arrived at sickness, and some were the high mountain top. unhappy or even angry It has altitude of over about destination service. 4,700 meters above sea level. I was ok as it was not serious sickness for me. My ears were singing a little bit and I had a little headache, but I could hike, talk and have fun.
91 Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Other Activities other activities, Other activities included When I was climbing, (37%) self-development, mountain climbing, horse there were just two iron local people riding, dancing, etc. chains on two sides of rock stairs which were Self-development means hung over the cliff. We improving self-awareness were reminded to fasten or developing knowledge ourselves to the chains by ropes and pull ourselves up using our arms while stepping on the rock stairs. It was 90 degrees, so some girls stopped in the middle of the way as they didn’t have enough strength in their arms. Since my parents decided not going with me, I felt that in my whole life, it was my partner who would walk till the end of my life. My parent would leave me one after the other, and I would meet many people and things, but none of they would stay with me in the end.
Tour Groups tour groups, tour Participants who For example, tour guide (18%) guides travelled in groups would introduce the tended to have more attractions there and interactions with tour organized us to sing guides songs. One old teacher in our group, 72 years old, had altitude sickness. The tour guide really cared about the old teacher, and took good care of us. He didn’t push us to buy souvenirs in shops recommended, either, even though it was like our obligation to buy.
92 Themes Concepts Descriptions Quotations (Connectivity) Good Air Quality good air quality, Some participants paid My main purpose of (13%) imagining the attention to and enjoyed that trip was to breathe future the good air quality in the fresh air only. ecotourism destinations because the air quality in I thought that in the cities they lived in is not future, after I retired, I good. had more time to travel to these places with Some participants beautiful scenery and imagined revisiting or enjoy more offerings even living in ecotourism from the nature. destinations in the future. In the Car (8%) in the car Some participants spent Scenery is very good, long hours in the car but just too far-away. It because of the long took us long time in distance between cars. We were very destinations (for instance tired. In one day, we Chenlu spent 7 or 8 hours spent a whole day in in the car each day). the car. We arrived at an attraction at 1:00 am, but we started our trip at 8 or 9 in the morning.
Figure 3.4: The Concept Map of Ecotourism Experiences
93 Ecotourism experiences had five experience aspects (sensory, emotional, acting, relating and thinking). Sensory experiences included scenery appreciation and good air quality.
Respondents had emotional experiences, as they felt happy, surprised, relaxed and comfortable in their trips. They also experienced some negative feelings, such as altitude sickness in some mountainous regions. Respondents had acting experiences from hiking, taking photos, and other activities, also found within their transport experiences (e.g., they took an aerial tramway and spent a lot of time in the car). Relating experiences involved interactions with families, friends, local people and tour guides when travelling in tour groups. Finally, respondents had thinking experiences, such as self-development (e.g., improve self-awareness or develop knowledge) and imagining the future (e.g., imagining future after retirement).
3.5.3.2 Concept Importance within Categories
Differences exist among the different background groups (see Table 3.6). The ‘20 to 30 years’ age group focused on activities (aerial tramway, hiking, and other activities), while the ‘30 to 50’ age group spent more time in the car travelling between destinations and the ‘above 50’ age group focused more on interactions with tour guides, families and friends. Female respondents had almost equally prominent positive (happiness) and negative feelings, while male respondents recalled more surprising experiences when on ecotourism trips. The better-educated tourists had more self-development experiences, while less well-educated tourists had more interactions with families and friends. The high-income group seemed to experience more positive emotions (surprise, relaxation and happiness), and the middle-income tourists experienced more self-development.
94 Table 3.2: The Top Five Concepts for Background Categories (Attitude)
Age: 20-30 Age: 30-50 Age: >50 Female Male High Low Education High Income Middle Income concept concept concept concept concept Education concept concept concept (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) concept (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) agritainment no pollution local culture sustainable agritainment environmentall no pollution (2.1) sustainable agritainment (3.6) (3.1) (3.8) behaviour (2.2) (3.5) y friendly (2.7) behaviour (2.3) (2.6) protect the health (2.4) good air nature-based health (3.5) protect the local culture protect the no pollution natural quality (3.6) destinations natural (2.1) natural (2.3) environment (2.2) environment environment (2.5) (2.3) (1.9) sustainable environmentally health (2.8) good air quality no pollution sustainable good air quality travel (1.8) local culture transport (2.4) friendly (2.2) (2.0) (3.5) transport (2.3) (2.0) (2.3) sustainable travel (1.8) nature-based travel (1.7) sustainable sustainable nature-based environmentally good air quality behaviour destinations transport behaviour (2.2) destinations (1.9) friendly (1.8) (2.1) (2.2) (2.3) (3.1) no pollution sustainable sustainable environmentally protect the travel (2.0) agritainment health (1.6) nature-based (1.6) transport (1.8) behaviour friendly (1.7) natural (1.6) destinations (2.2) environment (1.9) (1.7)
Table 3.4: The Top Five Concepts for Background Categories (Motivation)
Age: 20-30 Age: 30-50 Age: >50 Female Male High Low Education High Income Middle Income concept concept concept concept concept Education concept concept concept (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) concept (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) hiking (1.9) health (2.3) avoid cities health (2.5) avoid cities protect the good good hiking (1.5) (2.0) (1.4) natural environment environment environment (1.7) (2.0) (2.0) avoid hot scenery good avoid hot destinations hiking (2.0) avoid cities (1.7) avoid hot protect the weather (1.1) appreciation environment weather (2.5) (1.2) weather (1.5) natural (1.9) (2.0) environment (1.3) protect the destinations avoid hot travel (2.2) good air scenery travel (1.3) travel (1.5) avoid cities (1.0) natural (1.9) weather (1.5) quality (1.1) appreciation environment (1.4) (1.1) travel (1.1) good air quality health (1.5) hiking (1.7) protect the avoid hot good air quality health (1.5) good air quality (1.7) natural weather (1.2) (1.1) (1.0) environment (1.1) scenery protect the travel (1.5) good scenery health (1.2) destinations (1.1) scenery scenery appreciation natural environment appreciation appreciation appreciation (0.9) environment (1.7) (0.7) (1.2) (0.9) (1.6)
Table 3.6: Top Five Concepts for Background Categories (Experiences)
Age: 20-30 Age: 30-50 Age: >50 Female Male High Low Education High Income Middle Income concept concept concept concept concept Education concept concept concept (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) concept (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) (prominence) aerial in the car (2.5) tour guides negative surprise (2.4) self- families/friends surprise (2.1) self- tramway (3.2) (2.7) feelings (2.2) development (1.8) development (2.6) (2.4) negative surprise (2.5) happiness tour guides families/ negative happiness (1.8) relaxation (2.0) families/friends feelings (2.4) (2.4) (2.1) friends (2.3) feelings (2.3) (2.1) hiking (1.7) scenery taking photos happiness (2.0) comfort (2.1) other activities comfort (1.7) happiness (1.7) hiking (2.1) appreciation (2.3) (2.0) (2.1) families/ local people other good air quality other surprise (2.0) scenery tour guides other activities friends (1.6) (2.1) activities (2.0) activities appreciation (1.6) (1.7) (1.8) (2.0) (1.9) other negative families/frien hiking (1.9) scenery relaxation (1.7) hiking (1.6) negative taking photos activities (1.7) feelings (1.9) ds (2.0) appreciation feelings (1.7) (1.7) (1.9)
95 3.5.4 Confirmation, Disconfirmation and Satisfaction
For exploratory purposes, the data were compared using the inferred approach to see if there was confirmation and/or disconfirmation between expectations (attitude and/or motivation) and performance (experiences). Identified themes and concepts of experiences were compared to the expectation themes and concepts to explore this issue.
There was both confirmation and negative disconfirmation between attitudes and experiences. For example, a key attitude towards ecotourism was ‘enjoying nature’ and respondents reported ‘scenery appreciation’ as an important experience, suggesting there was consistency between attitudes and experiences in some aspects. However, negative disconfirmation was also apparent, as, while respondents believed ecotourism trips had positive outcomes for destinations including environmental conservation, the pro- environmental element was not strongly reflected in respondents’ experiences.
Similarly, there were confirmation and negative disconfirmation between motivations and experiences. Respondents were motivated by intrinsic (e.g., a desire to enjoy nature) and extrinsic (e.g., good air quality) factors and enjoyed related experiences (e.g., scenery appreciation and good air quality), suggesting a confirmation between motivations and experiences. The negative disconfirmation between motivation and experiences could also be seen in the pro-environmental aspect. Respondents had a strong intrinsic motivation to protect the natural environment, but they did not experience this factor on their ecotourism trips.
96 In summary, there was confirmation and negative disconfirmation between expectations
(attitude and motivation) and experiences. Despite the negative disconfirmation, most respondents were satisfied with their most recent ecotourism trip, as 39 of the 40 respondents reported overall positive emotions (such as happiness) with only one respondent dissatisfied, which was due to a negative experience (camping in the rain).
3.6 Discussion and Conclusions
3.6.1 Summary and Theoretical Implications
Before comparing experiences against attitude and motivation, tourists’ attitude, motivation, and experiences were examined. Attitude towards ecotourism and motivation behind taking such trips were focused on nature and environmental preservation or protection. This suggests a positive relationship between attitude and motivation, as suggested in social psychology (e.g., Katz, 1960) and tourism (e.g., Gnoth, 1997). The attitudes and motivations in ecotourism in China were consistent with previous Western ecotourism studies (e.g., Ryan, Hughes, & Chirgwin, 2000; Eagles, 1992). However, some important elements, such as good air quality and health, have not been identified in
Western ecotourism studies, but are consistent with conceptual studies into Chinese ecotourism (e.g., Buckley et al., 2008; Donohoe & Lu, 2009), which advances our understanding of Chinese ecotourism empirically.
Chinese tourist ecotourism experiences are formed by sensory, emotional, acting, relating and thinking aspects. None of their ecotourism experiences in this study were related to environmental conservation, contradicting most ecotourism studies that found ecotourism was different from pleasure-seeking tourism (e.g., Fennell, 2007; Walker & Moscardo,
2014). This suggests ecotourism in China might not be the same as ecotourism in Western
97 countries, as the one in China is practiced at a more passive stance in the ecotourism spectrum (i.e., nature-based tourism with educational components) (Weaver, 1998).
The results also suggested tourists’ backgrounds influence their ecotourism attitudes, motivations and experiences, suggesting destination marketers and operators might be able to segment this group further. Tourists in ‘20 to 30 years’ age group and in the high- education group were more pro-environmental. Thus, they were closer to ‘true’ ecotourists whose focus is on environment conservation (Perkins & Brown, 2012). In contrast to prior studies (e.g., Eagles 1992; Wight, 1996), in which pro-environmental tourists were described as affluent people, this study found pro-environmental tourists in such trips were not necessarily affluent, as middle-income tourists were also highly motivated by pro-environmental factors. The ‘over 50’ age group and the less well- educated tourists focused more on social interactions, while the ‘30-50’ age group was more health-concerned. Gender did not seem to influence attitude, motivations or experiences.
A comparison between expectation (attitude and motivation) and experiences found both confirmation and negative disconfirmation in the present study. Most of the tourists' expectations about taking an ecotourism trip were confirmed through their experiences
(e.g., scenery appreciation or hiking). However, while some tourists perceived environmental conservation or protection as a key feature of ecotourism and were motivated by such a factor, their recent experiences were not related strongly to environmental conservation or protection. This negative expectation-experience disconfirmation suggests some important attitude-behaviour and motivation-behaviour gaps in Chinese ecotourism contexts.
98 The EDT model suggests confirmation between expectation and experiences generally leads to satisfaction, while negative disconfirmation generally leads to dissatisfaction
(Oliver, 1997). The identified disconfirmation was negative, as the expected pro- environmental factor was not experienced. However, almost all of the tourists were satisfied with their most recent ecotourism trip, suggesting negative disconfirmation about the pro-environmental factor may not be as salient as was the confirmation of other factors, such as pleasure-seeking. This finding is similar to Halstead, Hartman, and Schmidt’s
(1994) finding that experience expectation is dimension-specific and that confirmation/disconfirmation of different experience dimensions have different effects on satisfaction.
Another important finding was that positive confirmation has a stronger effect on satisfaction than did negative disconfirmation. This can be explained by two reasons. First, the results of both attitudes (Table 3.1 and Figure 3.2) and motivations (Table 3.3 and
Figure 3.3) suggest the pro-environmental factor is not as salient as other factors (e.g., pleasure-seeking). When more salient expectations have been met, the less salient negative disconfirmation might have been neglected (Woodruff & Gardial, 1996; Oliver,
1997) and, thus, did not influence satisfaction (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1993;
Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry 1994). Another explanation may lie in the direct and indirect effects experiences have on satisfaction (Oliver 1997). These results suggest the direct influences experiences have on satisfaction are stronger than experiences’ indirect effects mediated by disconfirmation (see Figure 3.1).
99 3.6.2 Practical Implications
The results provide some important insights for DMOs’ policy making. Pro- environmental education should emphasize engagement or behaviour, rather than awareness, as these tourists are already aware of environmental issues. If destinations wish to encourage more pro-environmental behaviours, they should tailor specific experiential offerings that include pro-environmental experiences with other experiences
(e.g., scenery appreciation or tourist activities), as tourists pay more attention to such pleasure-seeking experiences. By experiencing these pleasure-seeking activities, tourists may obtain a stronger feeling about the need to conserve or protect a destination’s natural environment. For example, DMOs could encourage the use of public transport by making popular scenic spots only accessible through public transport or by developing fun activities, such as tracking tourists’ walking distance and rewarding tourists based on how far they walked each day. DMOs could also pay attention to their tourist targeting efforts.
Younger and/or more highly educated tourists were more pro-environmental, which may make these groups preferred segments, as it is easier to encourage pro-environmental behaviour from ‘the converted’ than from ‘the uninitiated’ (Beaumont, 2001).
The study also suggested tourists taking ecotourism trips in China are less concerned with environmental conservation or protection than are their Western counterparts. It seems there is a disparity between what Chinese tourists ‘think’ and what they ‘do’. The Chinese government has recently launched a ‘ten-year sustainability plan’ (National Development and Reform Commission, 2016), which suggests a need to develop more initiatives to reduce this disparity, perhaps by investing in recycling facilities or public transport at ecotourism destinations.
100 3.6.3 Limitations and Future Research
As with all research, this study has limitations. First, although the research included different groups and destinations, most respondents (31 out of 40) were from Sichuan
Province and their attitude may be influenced by their region. China is not a homogeneous market and there are regional disparities in attitudes and behaviours (Cui & Liu, 2000).
Second, the interviews were undertaken during the summer period, which may explain why ‘avoiding hot weather’ was a prominent concept for respondents’ most recent ecotourism trips. Third, the original interviews had to be translated into English before they could be analysed in Leximancer. While care was taken in this process, it may have introduced problems. Fourth, the interviews were conducted after the visit and respondents were asked to recall pre-trip attitude and motivation, which may not have been accurate.
Quantitative approaches could be used in the future in order to further examine the relationships among tourists’ attitudes, motivations, experiences and satisfaction in
Chinese ecotourism contexts. This would allow the discrepancy between expectations and experiences to be computed and the salience of confirmation and disconfirmation in predicting tourist satisfaction and dissatisfaction could be examined in more detail. More constructs (e.g., behavioural change as an outcome variable and other antecedents) could also be included in future research. Finally, it would be useful to compare Chinese tourist domestic and foreign ecotourism experiences to identify any differences in the relationships of interest.
101
102 CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIENCES AND VALUE PERCEPTIONS OF AN ECOTOURISM TRIP: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF OUTBOUND CHINESE TOURISTS
Li, T., Liu, F., & Soutar, G. N. (2020). Experiences and value perceptions of an ecotourism trip–an empirical study of outbound Chinese tourists. Tourism Recreation Research (in press).
This chapter presents the second paper included in the PhD thesis that answers the
second research question (i.e., How does experience influence perceived trip value?).
4.1 Abstract
Ecotourism is a fast-growing tourism sector, but the value of ecotourism trips from tourists’ perspective has seldom been studied, which led to the current study that examined outbound Chinese tourists’ value perceptions of ecotourism trips. Data were collected from tourists on bus tours to Australia’s Pinnacles (a well-known ecotourism site) over a 12-month period. The study suggested tourists’ experiences impacted on perceived ecotour value in a number of ways. In particular, all experience dimensions influenced one or more of the five value dimensions examined, while entertainment, relating, and education experiences impacted on each of these five value dimensions. The study offers important implications for both ecotourism researchers and operators attempting to understand and manage the key experiential offerings that could help maximize value to international tourists.
Keywords: Experience, Perceived value, Ecotourism, Ecotour, Outbound Chinese tourists, Australia
103 4.2 Introduction
Today’s consumers desire unique experiences from consumption rather than simply goods and/or services (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). Responding to this trend, academics and practitioners have begun to pay attention to experience, seeing creating consumer experience as an important market strategy (Grewal et al., 2009). Understanding experience is especially important in tourism as ‘to consume tourism is to consume experiences’ (Sharpley & Stone, 2010, p. 2). Tourism experiences are created from every point of contact at which the tourists interact with resources (e.g., events and activities) destinations offer (Oh et al., 2007). Experience also influences tourist attitude and behaviour (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2016). Not surprisingly, therefore, more discussions have been seen in the tourism area about the creation and management of tourist experience (e.g., Aho, 2001; Ryan et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2008; Kim, Ritchie, & Tung,
2010; Huang & Hsu, 2010; Wong & Li, 2015).
Understanding consumers’ value perceptions is also vital for any business (Woodruff,
1997), as value is an important indicator of future behaviour (e.g., repurchase and recommendation behaviours) (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000). Tourists are consumers
(Ritchie & Hudson, 2009) and a trip can be regarded as a product. Thus, if tourists perceive value from a trip, they are more likely to revisit a destination and to recommend it to others (Petrick & Backman, 2002; Chen & Chen, 2010). Consequently, there has been increasing interest in examining tourists’ value perceptions in order to better understand their travel behaviour (Hallak et al., 2018).
104 Although both constructs have received increasing attention in recent years, the influence tourism experience has on perceived value is understudied, especially in terms of the differential effects of different types of experience. A good understanding of which tourism experiences improve value perceptions would improve our understanding of these two important constructs and give insights to tourism operators considering the types of experiences they might help to create.
Such information would be very helpful to ecotourism research and operation, as this sector has a very experiential focus. Ecotourism, which is ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of local people, and involves interpretation and education’ (The International Ecotourism Society, 2019), is one of the fastest growing tourism sector in the past decade that has a particular focus on environmental conservation and sustainability, perhaps explaining its importance to tourism planners (Kim & Park, 2017). Indeed, while previous ecotourism studies have focused on its potential benefits to ecology, economy and society (e.g., Parker & Khare,
2005; Clifton & Benson, 2006) and promoting tourists’ environmentally responsible behaviour (e.g., Walker & Moscardo, 2014; Miller et al., 2015; Lee & Jan, 2018), few studies have examined the value ecotourism trips provide to tourists and how such the value might be created through tourism experience.
Although most ecotourism studies might have claimed that ecotourism has contributed to conservation and pro-environmental behaviour, there has been an ongoing debate about the mechanism through which these contributions could be demonstrated (Buckley, 2009;
Ballantyne et al., 2011). One of the key measures that could help in this regard is to have
105 a better understanding of the value of ecotourism trips, because value is a primary mechanism to influence behaviour (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000).
To bridge the gap, the current study examined outbound Chinese tourists, a very important segment for many international tourism markets, including ecotourism. There were over
140 million outbound Chinese tourists in 2017 alone with a total expending of $US 292 billion (Statista, 2019), making them the world’s largest outbound tourism market and many of them were interested in to taking ecotourism trips aboard. More specifically, in
2018, 23 per cent of outbound Chinese tourists reported they had chosen to stay in eco- friendly hotels, and their top five preferred activities was taking ecotours (Ipsos, 2018).
Not surprisingly, Chinese tourists are a priority target for many ecotourism planners.
Although there might be some differences between China and Western countries with regards to some ecotourism perceptions (Wen & Ximing, 2008; Buckley et al., 2008), they agree upon key elements of ecotourism (i.e., nature- based, encouraging pro- environmental behaviour, etc.) (Wang et al., 2012; Shi et al., 2019). More recently, the attention is called into research on outbound Chinese tourists, as they might behave differently when travelling overseas (as compared to their domestic counterparts.
Therefore, the current study not only provides important insights on the role of experience in creating value of an ecotourism trip, but also helps better understand Chinese tourists’ ecotourism experience aboard, which can be applied into tourism markets other than ecotourism.
106 4.3 Literature Review
4.3.1 Experience
Experience comes from tourists’ interactions with a destination’s offerings (Walls et al.,
2011). Such experiences reflect people’s mental states when interacting with these offerings (Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Indeed, ‘everything tourists go through at a destination can be experience, be it behavioural or perceptual, cognitive or emotional, or expressed or implied’ (Oh et al., 2007, p. 120).
Pine and Gilmore (1998) suggested a framework with four aspects (entertainment (being entertained by, for example, watching a performance), education (gaining new knowledge), escapism (escaping from daily life and indulging in destination environments), and (a)esthetic (appreciating the beauty of the physical environment)).
These so-called 4Es have been used in many tourism studies (e.g., Oh et al. 2007; Hosany
& Witham, 2010; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Quadri-Felitti & Fiore, 2012; Sidali et al.,
2015; Loureiro, 2014). Schmitt (1999) suggested an alternative experiential framework with five aspects (sensory (through sight, sound, touch, taste and smell), emotional (inner feelings and emotions such as enjoyment), thinking (cognitive and problem-solving experiences), acting (physical and behavioural experiences such as physical activity) and relating (social experiences with other individuals)) that has also been used in in tourism research (e.g., Tsaur et al., 2007; Lee & Chang, 2012), including ecotourism (Wang et al.,
2012).
107 Chan and Baum (2007) suggested ecotourism experiences included novelty (escape, something new and different), hedonism (excitement and enjoyment) and stimulation
(education and challenges) aspects, which are similar to Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) aspects. On the other hand, Wang et al. (2012) used Schmitt’s (1999) framework and found three ecotourism dimensions (acting, emotion and aesthetics). Some researchers
(e.g., Jurowski, 2009) have suggested integrating Pine and Gilmore’s and Schmitt’s frameworks, which led us to suggest the nine experience dimensions included in this study.
4.3.2 Perceived Value
Perceived value is a ‘consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what is received and what is given’ (Zeithaml, 1988, p. 14). The functional aspect of value is often seen as the primary driver of buying behaviour (e.g., Chang &
Wildt, 1994), but conceptualising perceived value solely on its functional aspect may be inappropriate, as consumers also pay attention to the social and psychological aspects of consumption, especially in services contexts, such as tourism (Holbrook & Hirschman,
1982; Sheth et al., 1991).
Consequently, researchers have developed multidimensional frameworks to explain perceived value (e.g., Sheth et al., 1991; Babin et al., 1994; Holbrook, 1994). Tourism researchers have also addressed the need to examine value in a multi-dimensional way.
For example, Sánchez et al. (2006) developed the GLOVAL scale (functional, emotional and social value), while Sweeney and Soutar’s (2001) PERVAL framework has been used in an adventure tourism context (functional value, value for money, emotional value,
108 social value, and novelty value) (Williams & Soutar, 2009) and in some recent tourism studies (e.g., Choi et al., 2018).
Most researchers have examined ecotourism value from a value for money perspective
(e.g., Lee et al., 2013; Perera & Vlosky, 2013; Chiu et al., 2014; Castellanos-Verdugo et al., 2016; Oviedo‐García et al., 2017), although Kim and Park (2017) used the four
PERVAL dimensions. Here, Williams and Soutar’s (2009) adventure tourism perceived value dimensions were used to measure the value of an ecotourism trip. That is, we included:
• Economic value (or value for money): Ecotourism trips are usually more
expensive (e.g., hotels and destinations that minimize carbon emissions charge
higher prices) (Hultman et al., 2015). Thus, value for money may be an important
consideration.
• Functional value: Although tourists pay premiums for ecotourism trips, they are
often not comfortable (Weaver, 2001). For example, tourists may use public
transport, consume local/recyclable products or dispose of garbage sustainably
when on ecotourism trips (Deng & Li, 2015). Some ecotourism-related attributes,
such as nature-based destinations and interactions with local culture, may help
tourists develop functional value perceptions (Chan & Baum, 2007; Jamrozy &
Lawonk, 2017).
• Emotional value: Ecotourism trips may arouse positive emotions, such as
excitement and relaxation (Staus & Falk, 2013; Kim & Thapa, 2018). Thus,
emotional value may be an important dimension of an ecotourism trip.
109 • Social value: An ecotourism trip is often believed to be a socially responsible
product with tourists seeing themselves as environmentally and socially
responsible (Lee & Jan, 2018). They may perceive social value coming from such
a self-identity (Butcher, 2008).
• Novelty value: Ecotourism trips usually deliver novelty value, as such offerings
are different from mass tourism (e.g., the environment is usually primitive,
activities, such as hiking, are likely to be more challenging and interpretation about
the natural environment may satisfy tourists’ desire for learning) (Chan & Baum,
2007).
4.3.3 Experience and Perceived Value
A number of theories suggest consumption experiences influence perceived value. From a means-end perspective, consumption experiences correspond to the attribute level of abstraction (Kerin et al., 1992), while perceived value corresponds to the consequence level of abstraction (Zeithaml, 1988). Thus, experience acts as the ‘means’ that helps people achieve desired ‘ends’ (Gutman, 1982). Other theories also help explain the influence experience has on perceived value. The hedonic consumption theory proposed by Hirschman & Holbrook (1982) suggests multi-sensory, emotional, and entertainment aspects influence customers’ value evaluations. The relationship between experience and perceived value have been supported by numerous consumer studies (e.g., Kerin et al.,
1992; Babin et al., 1994; Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Gentile et al., 2007; Chen & Lin, 2015).
110 The impact consumption experiences have on perceived value is also supported by tourism research (e.g., Yuan & Wu, 2008; Walls, 2013), as experiences at a destination seem to be a ‘source of value’ (Oh et al., 2007, p. 123). A few tourism studies have found different types of experience impact differently on perceived value. For example:
• The economic value (value for money) of a cruise vacation was found to be
influenced by emotional experiences (hedonic and novelty) (Duman & Mattila,
2005).
• The economic value of a temple stay was influenced by escapism, education and
entertainment experiences, while their emotional value was influenced by
entertainment, escape and aesthetic experiences (Song et al., 2015).
• The novelty and emotional value of an adventure trip were influenced by acting
experiences (i.e., participation in adventurous activities) (Prebensen & Xie, 2017).
Although a few prior studies have attempted to examine the relationship between ecotourism experience and perceived trip value, their attention was primarily on the value for money, as already mentioned. To develop a more comprehensive understanding of the experience-value relationship in the ecotourism experience context, the current study will investigate this important relationship through a multi-dimension approach, using a group of outbound Chinese tourists who have taken ecotourism trips in Australia.
111 4.4 The Present Study
4.4.1 The Sample
China has become the largest sourcing country for Australia, with Over 1,4 million 30,000
Chinese tourists visited Australia from July 2018 to June 2019 which has increased fourfold since 2009 (ABS, 2019). To capture this important market, the present study adopted a sample of outbound Chinese tourists taking on one-day package tours from
Perth, the capital of Western Australia, to the Pinnacles, one of the most visited WA ecotourism sites. While staying in Perth, Chinese tourists often took different short trips to well-known sites around Perth, and many of these sites have ecotourism offerings. Most of these tourists were either independent travellers or packaged tourists.
4.4.2 The Site
The site selected in the present study is the Pinnacles, which is one of Western Australia’s most attracted ecotourism sites (Tourism Western Australia, 2019). Located along the
Indian Ocean's Coral Coast in Nambung National Park, the Pinnacles is an ancient desert filled with towering limestone pillars made of seashells that date back millions of years.
The tourists in the current sample visited the site with small buses and they were provided with guided walks through the desert and rock formations with detailed information provided on the natural environment and its habitats. These tours met the three key requirements of an ecotourism trip (i.e., nature-based, offering environmental education, and ecologically sustainable) (Beaumont, 2001).
112 4.4.3 Data Collection
Data were collected on 19 different ecotours undertaken by three tour operators between
September 2017 and November 2018. The tours were carefully chosen based on similar costs (approximately AUD150), length of time (approximately 9 hours), route taken (three stops before the Pinnacles), activities offered (sightseeing and educational experiences) and vehicles used (small tour buses). These tours were particular designed to cater for outbound Chinese tourists (e.g., having Mandarin-speaking tour guides and Mandarin- written information. Several tourists were Chinese ethics, but they were Australian citizens or permanent residents, so they were excluded in the data collection. The data were collected almost every month throughout the year to avoid any confounding impact of seasonality.
A self-administered, structured questionnaire was used. One researcher accompanied each of the 19 tour trips in order to ensure the consistency and the quality of the data collection process. While seated on the bus back to Perth (the starting point), each tourist was approached and asked if they would be interested in completing a survey. The researcher was available at the bus to answer any question. A total of 417 questionnaires were returned and, after a preliminary check, 375 useable questionnaires were obtained. Almost every tourist in each tour group participated, suggesting non-response bias was unlikely to be an issue, as more than 85% of those approached provided usable responses.
4.4.4 The Measures
The questionnaire asked about respondents’ ecotourism experiences, perceived trip value and obtained some background information. The items asking about their entertainment, education, escapism, and aesthetics experiences were taken from Oh et al.’s (2007)
113 experience scale, which was developed from Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) framework, while the sensory, emotional, thinking, acting and relating items were adapted from Schmitt’s
(1999) framework. The perceived trip value items were adapted from Williams and
Soutar’s (2009) adventure tourism scale, which was based on Sweeney and Soutar’s (2001)
PERVAL scale. Information was also obtained about respondents’ gender, age, education, income and past ecotourism experience. Apart from the background information, all items were measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale that ranged from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to
(7) ‘strongly agree’. The questionnaire was originally designed in English and then translated into Mandarin, using a back-to-back translation technique. A pilot-test in
Mandarin among a group of international students who studied at Perth was conducted to ensure the flow and accuracy of the questionnaire.
4.5 Analysis and Results
The constructs were first assessed for reliability and validity, after which the relationships between ecotourism experiences and perceived trip value were estimated using a PLS-
SEM approach. PLS-SEM is a multivariate statistical approach that allows researchers to simultaneously examine relationships between constructs (Hair et al., 2011). PLS-SEM maximizes the explained variance of a model’s dependent constructs, can analyse reflective and formative indicators and is less impacted by normality and sample size than is the covariance SEM approach (Henseler et al., 2009; Hair et al., 2016). PLS-SEM has been used in a number of recent tourism studies (e.g., Mehmetoglu, 2011; Song et al.,
2011; Agapito et al., 2013; Assaker et al., 2014; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2016). Here, the
WarpPLS version 6.0 program (Kock, 2017) was used to estimate the models of interest.
In this case, the stable3 resampling method with 100 resamples was used to estimate the
114 model, as this approach yields ‘compatible and often more precise estimates of the actual standard errors than bootstrapping’ (Kock, 2018, p. 8).
4.5.1 Sample Profile
The sample had a relatively good gender balance with was a slightly larger female representation (55%). In terms of age, around 32% of the respondents were between 18 and 30 years of age, 19% were between 41 and 50, 17% were between 51 and 60, 14% were between 31 and 40, and 12% were 61 or above. The sample had relatively good education backgrounds, with 57% having a bachelor’s degree, 21% having a master’s degree, and 5% had doctoral degrees. Respondents were also in general from higher income groups (low (13%), low to middle (10%), middle (39%), middle to upper (19%), and high (5%)). Around 35% of the sample reported they had taken ecotourism trips 3 or
4 times in the past five years, followed by 1 or 2 times (26%), 5 or 6 times (13%), 8 times or more (12%), and 6 or 7 times (5%). The sample appeared not only representative of the outbound Chinese tourists to the WA region but also representative of the general profile of outbound Chinese tourists in terms of education, age, and income, according to a recent big-data report based on 130 million outbound Chinese tourists (China Tourism Academy,
2018).
4.5.2 Stage 1- Reliability and Validity
The constructs were initially examined to ensure they were reliable and had convergent and discriminant validity using the WarpPLS 6.0 program (Kock, 2017). All of the items related well to their constructs, as loadings were greater than 0.60, which was expected, as all were well-established scales. The scales’ means, which are shown in Table 4.1, were
115 all high (ranging from 4.64 (escapism experience) to 6.14 (aesthetic experience)), suggesting respondents generally had very good experiences and saw good value in their tours. However, there was sufficient variation in the scores, as can be seen in the standard deviations, to suggest further analysis would be worthwhile. Not surprisingly, all were negatively skewed, although none were excessively skewed and some were close to being normally distributed (Kock, 2017). The lack of normality in some of the constructs suggested the decision to use a PLS-SEM approach was a sensible one, as such methods are less impacted by non-normality (Hair et al., 2016).
Internal consistency was assessed by computing Composite Reliability (CR) and
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. As can also be seen in Table 1, all constructs were reliable, with alpha coefficients ranging upwards from 0.81, while the CR coefficients ranged upward from 0.86. As all were greater than the suggested minimum of 0.70 (Kock, 2017), all were considered reliable. Convergent validity was assessed by computing AVE scores.
Fornell and Larcker (1981) argued an AVE score of 0.50 or more implied there was more information than noise, suggesting convergent validity. The AVE scores, which are also shown in Table 1, ranged upward from 0.61, suggesting all of the constructs had convergent validity.
Discriminant validity was initially assessed through Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) approach. They suggested discriminant validity could be assumed if the square root of two constructs AVE scores were greater than their correlation. All of the construct pairs met this requirement, as the highest correlation was 0.70, while the lowest square root of the AVE scores was 0.72. Further, all of the full collinearity VIF scores were less than
116 3.3, which also suggested discriminant validity (Kock 2017). Thus, all of the constructs can be used with confidence in the subsequent analysis.
Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Properties for the Constructs
Construct Mean SD Cronbach’s Composite AVE Alpha Reliability Score
Education experience 5.56 0.91 0.87 0.91 0.73
Aesthetic experience 6.14 0.80 0.81 0.91 0.84
Entertainment experience 5.30 1.02 0.91 0.94 0.84
Escapism experience 4.64 1.27 0.88 0.92 0.73
Sensory experience 5.31 0.99 0.86 0.92 0.78
Emotional experience 5.64 0.94 0.88 0.95 0.90
Acting experience 5.80 0.94 0.88 0.93 0.81
Thinking experience 5.07 1.06 0.92 0.94 0.81
Relating experience 5.06 1.09 0.86 0.91 0.78
Functional value 5.73 0.91 0.95 0.95 0.82
Value for money 5.26 1.06 0.94 0.95 0.83
Emotional Value 5.36 0.97 0.92 0.93 0.77
Social value 4.80 1.11 0.94 0.95 0.82
Novelty value 5.28 0.97 0.83 0.86 0.61
4.5.3 Stage 2- Ecotourism Experiences and Perceived Trip Value
The relationships between experience and perceived value were examined next. Once again, the WarpPLS program was used to do this and the results obtained are shown in
Table 4.2, in which the non-significant paths have been excluded to improve readability.
117 As can be seen from the R2 statistics, tourists’ value perceptions are significantly influenced by their experiences, as the R2 statistics ranged from 0.52 (social value) to 0.70
(emotional value). Further, it is clear from the path coefficients that different experience aspects influence different value aspects differently. For example, respondents’ relating experiences influenced their social value perceptions significantly more than they did their functional or emotional value perceptions. Interestingly, respondents’ escapism experiences had little impact, influencing only novelty value perceptions and, then, only moderately. Education, entertainment, and relating experiences influenced all value aspects, although somewhat differently. Education experiences influenced functional and emotional value more, while entertainment experiences influenced value for money most and novelty value least. As noted earlier, relating experiences influenced social value most.
Acting experiences influenced novelty value most, while, perhaps not surprisingly, emotional experiences influenced emotional value most.
Table 4.2: Paths from the Experience Dimensions to the Perceived Value Dimensions
Construct Functional VFM Emotional Social Novelty Value Value Value Value
Education 0.25 ** 0.10 * 0.17 ** 0.11 * 0.09 * experience
Aesthetic experience ns 0.18 ** 0.13 ** 0.11 * 0.10 *
Entertainment 0.20 ** 0.26 ** 0.12 * 0.19 ** 0.10 * experience
Escapism ns ns ns ns 0.12 * experience
Sensory experience 0.11 * 0.18 ** 0.20 ** ns 0.14 **
118 Construct Functional VFM Emotional Social Novelty Value Value Value Value
Emotional 0.22 ** 0.28 ** 0.33 ** ns 0.09 * experience
Acting experience 0.14 ** 0.08 * ns ns 0.20 **
Thinking experience 0.14 ** ns 0.14 ** 0.27 ** 0.13 **
Relating experience 0.09 * 0.16 ** 0.09 * 0.33 ** 0.15 **
R2 statistic 0.64 0.59 0.70 0.52 0.59
1* Significant at the 5% level; ** Significant at the 1% level
4.6 Discussion and Conclusions
4.6.1 Experience
The current study examined people’s ecotourism experiences using nine dimensions obtained from Pine and Gilmore’s (1999) framework and from Schmitt’s (1999) framework (i.e., entertainment, education, escapism, aesthetics, sensory, emotional, thinking, acting and relating experiences), as the analysis suggested these nine dimensions had discriminant validity. While aesthetic experiences had the highest mean score (6.14), all of the mean scores were above the midpoint of their scale, suggesting respondents were positive about their trip experiences. The aesthetic experience score might be explained by the fact that natural scenery is an important part of most ecotourism trips. The Chinese tourists participated in ‘fun’ activities, such as hiking, and such activities might develop a positive mood on an ecotourism trip.
119 Education experiences also played a role, perhaps because tourists were provided with environmental education throughout the trip. Entertainment and sensory experiences were not rated highly, suggesting the respondents’ ecotourism experiences in this case were less hedonically focused, differentiating such experiences from those provided to mass tourists who usually seek pleasure (Urry, 2002). The relating and thinking experiences had lower means, suggesting Chinese tourists were more involved in ecotourism offerings
(i.e., scenery, activities, and education) than socializing with other people or thinking by themselves. The escapism experience dimension had the lowest mean score (4.64), suggesting that, although these tourists enjoyed the natural scenery, activities and education, they did not mentally escape their daily life or immerse themselves in a different world (Pine & Gilmore, 1999).
4.6.2 Perceived Value
The study found Chinese tourists’ perceived value of ecotourism trips could be measured as a multidimensional construct with functional, emotional, value for money, novelty and social value aspects, as suggested by Williams and Soutar (2009). Functional value had the highest mean score (5.73), suggesting the tourists interviewed felt they obtained the most utility from the quality and performance of their ecotourism trip. However, all of the value dimensions had scores above the scales’ midpoints, suggesting respondents obtained some utility from all aspects. Interestingly, social value had the lowest mean score (4.80), suggesting these tourists obtained less utility from social approval by taking this trip. This is consistent with Lee and Jan’s (2018) suggestion that social identity issues may not be as influential as expected in an ecotourism context.
120 4.6.3 The Experience-Value Relationship
The current study found a strong positive relationship between Chinese tourists’ ecotourism experiences and the value they felt they received from their ecotourism trip.
All experience dimensions influenced one or more of the five value dimensions measured and entertainment, relating and education experiences impacted on each of the five value dimensions. Respondents’ thinking, emotional, sensory, aesthetic, acting and escapism experiences impacted on some of the five value dimensions.
Although its mean score was rated relatively low, respondents’ entertainment experiences impacted significantly on all aspects of trip value. ‘Having fun’ was valued by these tourists, which was consistent with some prior research (e.g., Packer, 2006), in which
‘having fun’ was emphasised. The impact of entertainment experience might be explained by the sample. When Chinese tourists travel overseas, they tend to seek hedonic experiences in order to ‘liberate the spirit from the mundane [in China]’ (Doctoroff, 2005, p. 57; Chow & Murphy, 2008).
Further, although these tourists did not seem to have much time to interact on their ecotourism trip, the relating experience influenced all aspects of trip value. Social interaction is important in Chinese culture (Gabrenya & Hwang, 1996) and is even more important when they travel to unknown places, as such interactions increase emotional security (Cohen, 1972).
Respondents’ education experiences also impacted significantly on all aspects of trip value, especially on its functional value. Interestingly, education is a key aspect of ecotourism (The International Ecotourism Society, 2019). The impact of such experiences
121 suggested these tourists had a good understanding of ‘ecotourism’ and that they wanted educational experiences when they took ecotourism trips, regarding it as an important indicator of trip quality (i.e., functional value), which differentiates them from mass tourists. This understanding of ecotourism may relate to respondents’ educational background and past ecotourism experience (57% had bachelor’s degrees and 35% had taken ecotourism trips 3 or 4 times in the past five years).
Thinking experiences have been found to impact on perceived social value, which is an interesting finding. This may be because ecotourism trips can generate many self- reflective thoughts (Walter, 2013), which subsequently influenced tourists’ self-identity evaluation (Taylor et al., 1995). The positive impact of thinking experiences on perceived emotional value can be explained by the widely supported cognition-affect relationship
(Smith & Swinyard, 1982). Thinking experiences are also likely to satisfy tourists’ curiosity, thus influencing novelty value. However, thinking experiences did not seem to influence the perception of value for money. Past research found that thinking experiences of novice consumers might influence their price evaluations (Monroe, 1973; Sinha &
Batra, 1999). The tourists included in the current study are more experienced (i.e., had prior experience of ecotourism trips); therefore, their thinking experiences might not have a significant influence on their value for money perceptions.
Emotional and sensory experiences influenced most of the value dimensions except social value. It is interesting to note that emotional experiences had a significant impact on value for money. This may be because positive emotions generate positive price perceptions, such as price fairness (Campbell, 2007; Ferguson et al., 2011), which is likely to improve the value for money perceptions (Zeithaml, 1988). Although previous studies have mainly
122 identified negative emotions in promoting ecotourism trips (e.g., being sad or angry about environmental problems) (Ballantyne et al., 2011; Staus & Falk, 2013), the current study found it was the positive emotions that contributed most to the perceived value of an ecotourism trip. Further, sensory experiences had a significant impact on emotional value, which is consistent with the findings of previous studies (e.g., Bruner, 1990; Yoo et al.,
1998; Krishna, 2012; Helmefalk & Hultén, 2017). However, neither emotional nor sensory experiences influenced perceived social value. As discussed earlier, ecotourism trips can generate self-reflective thoughts and these thoughts might have been largely induced by thinking experiences rather than emotional or sensory experiences.
Acting experiences impacted on three value dimensions, including novelty value, functional value, and value for money. Acting experiences in the current study were mainly reflected by hiking in an ancient desert in Western Australia. Such experiences were new to these outbound Chinese tourists and provided novelty value to them.
However, acting experiences did not seem to influence perceived emotional value, which was contradictory to Tsaur et al.’s (2007) study. An explanation might be because acting experiences in the current study (e.g., hiking in a desert) was not as strongly emotion laden as other activities (e.g., cycling) (Shipway & Stevenson, 2012), and therefore, was unable to provide any significant emotional value. Examining the influence different types of activities have on perceived emotional value could be an interesting research direction.
Escapism experiences did not influence any value dimensions other than novelty value.
Experiences of escaping from daily life and indulging in destination environments, not surprisingly, provide novelty. However, escapism experiences (e.g., feeling like living in a different time or place) involve greater immersion (Pine & Gilmore, 1998) that occurs
123 in an automatic and spontaneous way without any in-depth evaluation (Csikszentmihalyi,
1990; Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000). Immersed people are less discerning and less sensitive to conscious evaluations (Tan et al., 2015).
4.6.4 Practical Implications
Tourism operators have recognised the importance of perceived value and see value creation as an important goal. This study shed light into which tourism experiences lead to different types of value in an important market segment (i.e., outbound Chinese tourists) in an ecotourism context. Three tourism experiences (entertainment, relating, and education) were key in creating value, as they influenced each of the five value dimensions and, thus need to be focused when designing experiential activities and facilities.
Tourism operators need to be aware that entertaining activities affects an ecotour’s perceived value most, at least for these Chinese tourists. This suggests tourism operators should offer access to entertaining environmental activities, such as snorkelling, viewing wildlife and hiking, if they wish to deliver trip value to Chinese tourists.
Relating experiences should also be emphasized by tourism operators wishing to increase value perceptions. Travelling with families or friends should be encouraged by giving discounts to group tickets or bookings. Tour guides also play an important role in creating social experiences in ecotourism trips, because their roles as experts of local environment and culture are critical to tourists in remote ecotourism sites (Weaver, 2001).
Consequently, guides’ professionalism and friendliness are important, suggesting tourism
124 operators should choose guides carefully and need to ensure they are well trained and motivated to provide these aspects well.
Education experiences should be a key, as they improve perceived value, and because it is the essence of ecotourism, whose primary purpose is conservation. Tourism operators should educate tourists not only about the local culture and natural environment which are the knowledge usually provided in ecotourism tours but should also prompt long-term environmentally responsible behaviour through specific suggestions about reduced consumption on unessential products and reuse of certain materials (e.g., towels rather than tissues) when taking ecotours.
The other six experience dimensions (thinking, emotional, sensory, aesthetic, acting and escapism) should also be promoted, as they influence some value aspects. More specifically, tourism operators should highlight specific experience dimensions if they wish to create specific value dimensions. For example, if generating value for money is a primary concern, operators should pay attention to positive emotional experiences through, for example, providing recreational activities that can help stimulate tourists’ pleasure and happy feelings, as emotional experiences contributed the most in improving the value for money perceptions.
4.6.5 Limitations and Future Research
The current study has some limitations. The single sample (outbound Chinese tourists) and research context (ecotourism trips to the Pinnacles in Australia) may limit the study’s generalisability, suggesting future research in other ecotourism destinations and with tourists from other countries is needed. Further, as ecotourism has a particular focus on
125 promoting environmentally responsible behaviours (Litvin, 1996), environmental-related behaviour within or post an ecotourism trip, which might be termed ‘environmental value’, may be important. As this aspect was not examined here, future studies should address this aspect in ecotourism contexts. In addition, future research should examine some behavioural outcomes of ecotourism trips, such as intention to revisit or recommendation intentions, so as to better understand the perceived value of an ecotourism trip. A couple of recent studies (e.g., Chai-Arayalert, 2020) have discussed the way technology may assist tourists develop positive ecotourism experience. Thus, more attention could be paid to this area. Finally, it is believed that the Covid-19 pandemic may have some long-term impacts on tourism and travel behaviour (Wen et al., 2020) and it would be interesting to understand to what extent tourists’ experiences and their value perceptions might have changed during or after the pandemic.
126 CHAPTER FIVE
EXPERIENCES, POST-TRIP DESTINATION IMAGE, SATISFACTION AND LOYALTY: A STUDY IN AN ECOTOURISM CONTEXT
The paper entitled ‘Experiences, Post-Trip Destination Image, Satisfaction and Loyalty: A Study in an Ecotourism Context’ by Li, T., Liu, F., & Soutar, G. N. (2020) is currently under the third-round of revision at Journal of Destination Marketing & Management.
This chapter presents the third paper included in this PhD thesis that answers the third research question (i.e., How does experience influence image and behaviour?).
5.1 Abstract
Few empirical studies have examined how post-trip destination image is shaped by tourists’ experiences. Although previous studies examined the relationships between experience, image, satisfaction and behaviour, these are not fully understood, especially in ecotourism contexts, in which managing destination image can be more challenging. Consequently, an Experience-Image-Satisfaction-Loyalty framework is suggested and examined in an ecotourism context. The present study used multidimensional experience and image constructs and added ecotourism loyalty to the model, extending the previous research. The data used were collected from 375 outbound Chinese tourists on bus tours immediately after visits to a well-known Western Australian ecotourism site. Using PLS- based structural equation modelling (SEM) technique, results show that acting, fun learning, and emotional experiences had an influence on both attribute-based and holistic destination image. In addition, tourism experience had an indirect effect on loyalty (including destination loyalty and ecotourism loyalty) via the mediating effects of destination image and satisfaction. The results suggested some practical implications for ecotourism destination operators designing experiences for visitors and for governments and non-profit organizations attempting to promote ecotourism.
Keywords: Tourism experience, Destination image, Satisfaction, Loyalty, Outbound Chinese Tourists, Ecotourism
127 5.2 Introduction
A positive destination image has always been a key element in successful destination marketing strategies (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). Through appropriate marketing communications and positive word of mouth, marketers can create an effective destination image to pull tourists to their destination (Govers, Go, & Kumar, 2007). However, destination image is dynamic and can be modified across different phases of the tourist experience (i.e., pre-, during and post-trip) (Dann, 1996; Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2014). After tourists have had a tourism experience, a destination image is likely to be modified (Pearce,
1982; Phelps, 1986; Chon, 1987). A positive destination image might become negative due to some negative experiences during the trips (Smith, Li, Pan, Witte, & Doherty,
2015). In other cases, a negative or neutral pre-trip destination image could be enhanced after travelling to that destination (Chon, 1987; Lee et al., 2014). Thus, destination operators need to determine what experiences should be offered to develop a positive image (Smith et al., 2015). If a positive destination image is not developed, tourists may be dissatisfied and spread negative word of mouth that, in turn, negatively influences potential tourists’ destination image (Tseng, Wu, Morrison, Zhang, & Chen, 2015).
Managing a positive post-trip destination image is even more challenging for marketers in niche tourism areas, such as ecotourism, as destination image needs to be not only favourable, but also ‘green’ (i.e., nature-based and environmentally friendly), as this is the core of ecotourism (Bell, 2008). In addition, ecotourism experiences should not only emphasize ‘green’ aspects but also need qualities similar to other tourism forms (e.g., novel, entertaining, comfortable or engaging) (Ryan, Hughes, & Chirgwin, 2000; Khan,
2003; Chan & Baum, 2007). However, it is not practical to include everything in one
128 experience offering and it can be difficult to balance the ‘green’ experience with the other qualities (Walter, 2013).
Destination image has been widely studied, with previous research focusing on pre-trip image and its influence on travel decision making (e.g., Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;
Assaker, Vinzi, & O’Connor, 2011). However, post-trip destination image and how it is shaped by tourism experiences is less studied (Kim, 2018) and has not been examined in an ecotourism context, despite its importance to the industry. Consequently, this study adds to the discussion on the importance of post-trip destination image and fills the gap of the lack of studies focusing on the effect of tourists' ecotourism experiences.
Most previous studies linked experience and image to behaviour separately. Some examined experience-satisfaction-loyalty relationships (e.g., Hosany & Witham, 2010;
Quadri-Felitti & Fiore, 2013; Ali, Ryu, & Hussain, 2016) and others examined image- satisfaction-loyalty relationships (e.g., Bigné, Sánchez, & Sánchez, 2001; Chen & Tsai,
2007; Assaker & Hallak, 2013). Studies examining the relationships between experience, image and behaviour are scarce; exceptions being those undertaken by Prayag, Hosany,
Muskat and Del Chiappa (2017) and Kim (2018). Prayag et al. (2017) only examined emotional experiences, while Kim (2018) only examined memorable experiences.
However, experience may be multidimensional, including more than an emotional dimension (Pine & Gilmore, 1998).
This led to the present study, which used an experience-image-satisfaction-loyalty framework that included not only a destination loyalty construct but also an ecotourism loyalty construct, which were operationalized as loyalty to other ecotourism destinations.
129 The present study aimed to extend the previous research by (a) examining the differential effects of aspects of tourists’ experiences on aspects of destination image; (b) linking these constructs to satisfaction and intentions; (c) examining the suggested framework in an ecotourism context, which led to a decision to add ecotourism loyalty to the model. As already mentioned, the relationships between these important constructs are understudied, especially in ecotourism, which is an industry in great need of understanding these relationships. A better understanding of these relationships should help destination managers design tourism experiences that improve destination image, satisfaction and loyalty. In addition, understanding ecotourism loyalty should be helpful to government and non-profit organizations (e.g., The International Ecotourism Society) that are attempting to promote ecotourism.
5.2 Conceptual Background and Hypotheses Development
5.2.1 Tourism Experience
‘Everything tourists go through at a destination can be experience, be it behavioural or perceptual, cognitive or emotional, or expressed or implied’ (Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007, p. 120). Through interacting with destination offering, tourists construct unique tourism experiences (Stamboulis & Skayannis, 2003) that reflect their mental states during these interactions (Otto & Ritchie, 1996).
Tourism experience has been examined from different perspectives. One example is Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) experience economy concept, based on their belief that economies have transformed from product-based and service-based to experience-based. They suggested four experience aspects: (entertainment (being entertained), educational
130 (gaining new knowledge or skills), escapist (escaping from daily life and indulging in different environments), and (a)esthetic (appreciating the beauty of the physical environment) that has been used in many tourism studies (e.g., Oh et al., 2007; Hosany &
Witham, 2010; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Quadri-Felitti & Fiore, 2012; Loureiro,
2014).
Another example is Schmitt’s (1999) experiential marketing approach. He suggested marketers should view consumers as rational and emotional and, thus, should create experiences that have sensory (through sight, sound, touch, taste and smell), emotional
(inner feelings and emotions, such as excitement), thinking (cognitive and problem- solving experiences), acting (bodily and behavioural experiences such as bushwalking) and relating (social experiences with other people) aspects. This framework has also been used extensively in tourism research (e.g., Tsaur, Chiu, &, Wang, 2007; Lee & Chang,
2012; Wang et al. 2012).
There have been attempts to understand experiences in ecotourism contexts. Chan and
Baum (2007) found ecotourism experience had hedonic, interactive, novelty, comfort, stimulation, personal safety and negative aspects, with some of the identified aspects being similar to Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) (e.g., hedonic and novelty) and Schmitt’s
(1999) (e.g., interactive and stimulation) aspects. Wang, Chen, and Lu (2012) found ecotourism experience included aesthetic, emotional and action aspects, which were similar to the experience aspects in the two frameworks. The empirical evidence suggested experience aspects from both frameworks need to be examined to better understand ecotourism experiences. In addition, Jurowski (2009) has suggested integrating Pine and Gilmore’s and Schmitt’s frameworks because educational experience
131 is clearly linked to thinking experience, escapist to acting, and aesthetic to sensory and emotional experiences. Although the integration of both frameworks is supported conceptually, it has not been done so before, which led us to include nine experience dimensions in this study.
5.2.2 Destination Image
Destination image is commonly defined as the sum of beliefs, thoughts and impressions people have about a destination (Crompton, 1979). Destination image is dynamic and is modified by people’s experiences (Dann, 1996; Lee et al, 2014). Destination image has attribute-based and holistic dimensions (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). The former are perceptions of individual attributes (e.g., scenery, price level, and facilities); while the latter suggest a mental picture (imagery) of a destination based on general feelings and overall impressions. As a product is perceived in terms of both its attributes and imagery
(MacInnis & Price, 1987), so too is a destination (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). This conceptualization is supported by empirical ecotourism studies. Both attribute-based
(being ‘green’) (Lee, 2009) and holistic (e.g., being favourable) (Chiu, Lee, & Chen, 2014) images have been examined, which led us to include the two aspects in this study.
Destination image is influenced by tourism experience. While visiting a destination, tourists are provided with new, live and additional information about the destination that is often more powerful than the secondary sources of information received prior to visitation (e.g., word of mouth and marketing communications). Perceptions are modified
(Gunn, 1988), can become more stable (Smith et al., 2015) and can better predict satisfaction and loyalty (Chi & Qu, 2008, Liu et al., 2012). This modification of image
132 has been confirmed empirically (e.g., Chon, 1991; Dann, 1996; Awaritefe, 2004; Lee et al., 2014), but these studies did not examine the impact of tourists’ experiences.
This question has been examined by other researchers. For example, Prayag et al. (2017) found emotional experiences (e.g., joy and love) positively influenced destination image.
Similarly, nostalgia (a type of emotional experience) influences destination image (Akgün,
Senturk, Keskin, & Onal, 2019). Further, Tan (2017) found escapism, aesthetics, entertainment, and education experiences influenced attribute-based destination image significantly more than affective destination image. Finally, by tracking destination image throughout a trip through the use of smartphone records, it was found that emotion, immersion in local culture and social interactions positively affected destination image
(Smith et al., 2015). It appears tourists’ involvement and the intensity of their visit (the number of places visited and the duration of the visit) can also influence a destination’s image (Beerli & Martín, 2004), as do memorable tourism experiences (Kim, 2018). This prior research suggests:
Hypothesis 1: Tourism experience is positively related to destination image.
5.2.3 Satisfaction
Satisfaction is often considered to be an evaluative (cognitive) judgement resulting from a comparison between expectations and experience (perceived performance) (Oliver,
1980). However, others have argued satisfaction is an emotional response to consumption experiences (Spreng, MacKenzie, & Olshavsky, 1996; Richins, 1997). Woodruff, Cadotte, and Jenkins (1983) suggested satisfaction has cognitive and emotional aspects and some recent tourism studies have operationalized satisfaction in this way (e.g., Bigné, Andreu,
133 & Gnoth, 2005; del Bosque & Martín, 2008). Consequently, satisfaction was measured in this way in the current study.
Most researchers suggest experience precedes satisfaction and it has been argued that it is experience, rather than a comparison between expectation and experience, that determines satisfaction (Olshavsky & Miller, 1972; LaTour & Peat, 1979; Levitt, 1981; Barsky, 1992;
Petrick, Morais, & Norman, 2001; Yüksel & Yüksel, 2001). A number of tourism studies have found a positive relationship between experience and satisfaction (e.g., Tsaur et al.,
2007; De Rojas & Camarero, 2008; Mehmetoglu & Engen, 2011; Wong & Wan, 2013;
Altunel & Erkurt, 2015), suggesting:
Hypothesis 2: Tourism experience is positively related to trip satisfaction.
Destination image has also been recognized as influencing satisfaction (e.g., Bigné et al.,
2001; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Chi & Qu, 2008; Prayag, 2009; Wang & Hsu, 2010; Assaker et al., 2011). This suggests:
Hypothesis 3: Destination image is positively related to trip satisfaction.
5.2.4 Loyalty
Customer loyalty is generally defined as ‘a deeply held psychological commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchasing, despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour’ (Oliver, 1999, p. 34).
In tourism, loyalty is most often studied as destination loyalty, as tourists consider a destination to be a product or brand and tourists can revisit destinations in the future (Yoon
134 & Uysal, 2005). Although loyalty can be measured in different ways, destination loyalty is often measured as repeat visitation or revisit intentions (Campón, Alves, & Hernández,
2013).
As destination loyalty is critical to the success of a destination’s appeal, antecedents of destination loyalty have been studied extensively (e.g., service quality, satisfaction, involvement, previous experience, place attachment, and perceived value) (Gursoy, Chen,
& Chi, 2014). Of these, satisfaction is one of the most important determinants (Pritchard
& Howard, 1997; Bigné, Sánchez, & Andreu, 2009; Campo-Martínez, Garau-Vadell, &
Martínez-Ruiz, 2010; Lee, Jeon, & Kim, 2010). Image influences consumer attitude (Yu et al., 2018) and subsequently influences their loyalty towards a product or brand (Liu et al., 2012). It is widely agreed that tourism experiences (Bigné et al., 2005; Prayag, Hosany,
& Odeh, 2013; Loureiro, 2014; Ali et al., 2016) and destination image (Court & Lupton,
1997; Chi & Qu, 2008; Assaker et al., 2011; Prayag & Ryan, 2012) affect destination loyalty both directly and indirectly. Thus, prior research suggests:
Hypothesis 4: Trip satisfaction is positively related to destination loyalty.
Hypothesis 5: Tourism experience is positively related to destination loyalty.
Hypothesis 6: Destination image is positively related to destination loyalty.
However, improving destination loyalty is difficult (Oppermann, 2000; Kim & Brown,
2012), and the impact of destination loyalty has been questioned (Chen & Gursoy, 2001;
Rivera & Croes, 2010; Assaker et al., 2011), as novelty seeking is important to destination selection behaviour (Dann, 1981). Tourists travel to escape the mundane and seek new things (Iso-Ahola, 1982). Even highly satisfied tourists often only visit a destination once
135 (Dolnicar, Coltman, & Sharma, 2015). This is also true in ecotourism contexts (Rivera &
Croes, 2010). Consequently, it has been suggested ‘tourism researchers should use different measurement variables or constructs for assessing loyalty to different types of touristic products [besides destinations]’ (Chen & Gursoy, 2001, p. 3).
Thus, an additional loyalty construct (ecotourism loyalty), which is defined as tourists’ intentions to visit other ecotourism destinations was also examined here. As an ecotourism destination is a ‘product’, ecotourism destinations may be seen as a product category.
Tourists, who have positive tourism experiences, a favourable destination image, and/or high satisfaction after visiting an ecotourism destination are likely to wish to explore other ecotourism destinations and may become loyal to this tourism category, suggesting:
Hypothesis 7: Trip satisfaction is positively related to ecotourism loyalty.
Hypothesis 8: Tourism experience is positively related to ecotourism loyalty.
Hypothesis 9: Destination image is positively related to ecotourism loyalty.
Figure 5.1 shows the model suggested by the hypothesized relationships between the constructs that was examined in the study and it is concerned with the first order relationships among the dimensions underlying experience and destination image constructs, which is discussed in the next section.
136
Figure 5.1: The Conceptual Model
5.3 Methods
5.3.1 The Study Setting
This study was undertaken among Chinese tourists who undertook a one-day package tour from Perth to a nearby ecotourism site in Western Australia (the Pinnacles). The trip was considered an ecotourism tour, as it met the key requirements of ecotourism (e.g., nature- based, offering environmental education and ecologically sustainable) (Beaumont, 2001).
The Pinnacles, located in a national park with very little commercial development, has a reputation as an ecotourism site. Environmental education is provided by tour guides and
137 site managers. The tour is sustainable, as tourists travel on small buses and there are no undesirable tourist behaviours (e.g., littering or destroying rocks).
5.3.2 The Sample and Data Collection
The study focused on Chinese tourists who had travelled from China and stayed in Perth.
While staying at tourist accommodation in Perth, such tourists often take short trips from
Perth to other parts of Western Australia. There were two reasons for focusing on Chinese tourists. The first is the importance of this segment. Over 140 million outbound Chinese tourists spend nearly $US 300 billion every year (Statista, 2019), making them one of the most important market segments in the world. As many want ecotourism experiences
(Ipsos, 2018), they are a priority target for many ecotourism planners. Second, there has been little research into this segment, although an increasing number of studies have examined Chinese tourists taking ecotourism trips domestically (e.g., Wang et al., 2012;
Shi et al., 2019). There is a need to further study outbound Chinese tourists, as such tourists tend to behave differently when travelling abroad (Ma, Ooi, & Hardy, 2018).
A self-administered structured questionnaire was used to obtain the data, which were collected on 19 tours undertaken by three local tour operators from the middle of 2017 to late 2018. These tours were designed for tourists from China (e.g., providing Mandarin- speaking tour guides). The tours were similar (in terms of price and travel itinerary) and the data were collected almost every month throughout the year. One Mandarin-speaking researcher accompanied all of the tours to ensure the quality of the data collection. While seated on the bus back to Perth, each tourist was approached and asked to complete a questionnaire. The researcher was available to answer any questions. A total of 417
138 surveys were returned and, after a preliminary check, 375 usable questionnaires were obtained. Almost every tourist in each tour group participated, suggesting non-response bias was unlikely to be an issue. Participants’ demographic information is summarized in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Participants’ Backgrounds
Background Variable Frequency Percent Gender Male 137 36 Female 211 57 Age (years) 18-30 121 32 31-40 51 14 41-50 71 18 51-60 62 17 61 or above 45 12 Education Below university 37 9.9 Bachelor’s degrees 213 56.8 Master’s degrees 77 20.5 Doctoral degrees 18 4.8 Income Low 49 13 Low to middle 37 10 Middle 145 38 Middle to upper 71 19 High 18 5 Numbers of ecotourism trips past 5 years including this trip 1-2 97 25 3-4 131 35 5-6 49 13 6-7 17 5 8 or above 46 13
139 5.3.3 The Measures
The questionnaire asked participants about their ecotourism experiences, destination image, satisfaction, loyalty and also asked for some demographic information. The 30- item ecotourism experience scale, developed from Schmitt’s (1999) and Oh et al.’s (2007) studies, asked about a variety of experiences (sensory, emotional, thinking, acting, relating, entertainment, educational, escapist, and aesthetic experiences). Destination image was assessed using eight items related to ecotourism destinations (adapted from
Lee, 2009; Chiu et al., 2014), reflecting the two relevant aspects (i.e., attribute-based and holistic images). Satisfaction was measured using four items adapted from Oliver (1997) and Bigné et al. (2005), which included both cognitive (e.g., ‘this trip is worthwhile’) and affective (e.g., ‘I feel favourable to this trip’) aspects. Destination loyalty was measured by three items and ecotourism loyalty was measured by two items (both adapted from Chi and Qu’s (2008) study). All items were measured on Likert-type scales ranging from (1)
‘strongly disagree’ to (7) ‘strongly agree’. The questionnaire was designed in English and translated into Mandarin, using a back-to-back translation technique. A pre-test in
Chinese ensured the questionnaire’s flow and accuracy.
5.3.4 Data Analysis
The data were analysed using the SPSS and WarpPLS 6.0 programs. Initially, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to determine the underlying constructs in the 30 experience items, as the items were obtained from several previously suggested and, possibly, overlapping scales. This was followed by an assessment of the constructs’ reliability and validity, after which the model’s relationships were estimated using a PLS-
140 SEM approach, which was used because of its advantages in prediction, which was the prime concern here, and its usefulness when data are non-normal, which was considered to be likely in this case (Hair et al., 2016).
5.4 The Results
5.4.1 The Exploratory Factor Analysis of the Tourism Experience Items
As noted earlier, an EFA (principal components analysis) was undertaken on the 30 experience items to identify underlying experience dimensions. The measure of sampling adequacy was 0.92, suggesting a factor analysis should be undertaken. The EFA found four factors with eigenvalues greater than one. However, four items had low factor loadings (<0.50) and these were removed before the EFA was re-estimated (Hair et al.,
2014). In this case, the four retained factors explained 65% of the variation in the data and the loadings after undertaking a varimax rotation to obtain a simple structure can be seen in Table 5.2. Factor 1 was most related to the educational, entertainment and aesthetic items, with the educational items being the most important and the aesthetic item related to ‘pleasant’ and ‘spectacular’ scenery. Consequently, this factor was termed fun learning.
Factor 2 was termed immersion, as it related to escaping from daily life and living in a different world, with senses being ‘appealed to’ and ‘engaged’. Factor 3 was related to the acting experience dimensions and was, thus, termed acting. Factor 4 was termed relating, as this name reflected the items that loaded onto this factor. The three emotional experience items were retained to provide a link to Prayag et al.’s (2017) study, which examined emotional experience, destination image, satisfaction and loyalty. Thus, five
141 experience dimensions (fun learning, immersion, acting, relating, and emotional experiences) were included in the subsequent analysis.
Table 5.2: Factor Loadings for the Ecotourism Experience Scale *
F2: F1: Fun F3: F4: Item Immersio learning Acting Relating n
I learned a lot on this trip 0.88 This trip was highly educational 0.81 This trip has made me more knowledgeable 0.80
This trip stimulated my curiosity to learn new things 0.71 I felt a real sense of harmony and peace on this trip 0.66 The surroundings were pleasant on this trip 0.57
The activities on this trip were amusing 0.55 I really enjoyed the activities on this trip 0.55 The scenery was spectacular on this trip 0.53
The activities on this trip were fun. 0.51 I felt I was living in a different time on this trip 0.88 I felt I was living in a different place on this trip 0.86
I completely escaped from reality on this trip 0.81 My experience on this trip let me imagine being someone else 0.74 My experience on this trip appealed to all my senses 0.54
My experience on this trip engaged all of my senses 0.54 This trip was action oriented -0.88 I engaged in physical activities on this trip -0.83
This trip was a physically active one -0.74 My experience on this trip put me in a positive mood -0.68 My experience on this trip was visually interesting -0.58
I increased my connection with others through my experience on 0.86 this trip I could relate to people with similar interests through my experience 0.82 on this trip The trip reminded me of social rules 0.78 I engaged in a lot of thinking on this trip 0.61
This trip made me think a lot 0.56 Eigenvalue (after rotation) 5.10 4.31 4.22 3.33
* Loadings less than 0.50 have been omitted to improve readability
142 5.4.2 The Measurement Model
The constructs were examined to ensure they were reliable and had convergent and discriminant validity using the WarpPLS 6.0 program (Kock, 2017). All of the items related well to their constructs with loadings being greater than 0.50, which was expected, as all were well-established scales. The scales’ means, which are shown in Table 5.3, were all high, ranging from 4.80 (immersion experience) to 5.97 (attribute-based destination image), suggesting participants generally had very good experiences, perceived the destination positively, were satisfied with their trip and were loyal to the destination and ecotourism. However, there was sufficient variation in the scores, as can be seen in the standard deviations, to suggest further analysis would be worthwhile. Not surprisingly, all distributions were negatively skewed, although none were excessively skewed and some were close to being normally distributed (Kock, 2017). The lack of normality in some of the constructs suggested the decision to use a PLS-SEM approach was a sensible one, as such methods are less impacted by non-normality (Hair et al., 2016).
143 Table 5.3: The Constructs’ Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Properties
Constructs and Items Factor Mean SD Cronbach’s Composite AVE Loading Alpha Reliability Score Fun learning experience 5.53 0.82 0.90 0.90 0.54 I learned a lot on this trip 0.77 5.57 1.05 This trip was highly educational 0.63 5.32 1.14 This trip has made me more knowledgeable 0.71 5.81 0.99 This trip stimulated my curiosity to learn new things 0.68 5.54 1.10 The surroundings were pleasant on this trip 0.73 6.13 0.88 The activities on this trip were amusing 0.79 5.43 1.09 I really enjoyed the activities on this trip 0.84 5.30 1.11 The activities on this trip were fun 0.71 5.16 1.13 Immersion experience 4.80 1.10 0.89 0.88 0.56 I felt I was living in a different time on this trip 0.62 4.87 1.44 I felt I was living in a different place on this trip 0.61 4.95 1.42 I completely escaped from reality on this trip 0.69 4.45 1.58 My experience on this trip let me imagine being 0.73 4.28 1.50 someone else
My experience on this trip appealed to all my senses 0.90 5.18 1.17 My experience on this trip engaged all of my senses 0.87 5.09 1.20
Acting experience 5.78 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.61 This trip was action oriented 0.73 5.91 1.01 I engaged in physical activities on this trip 0.73 5.86 1.04 This trip was a physically active one 0.76 5.66 1.07 My experience on this trip was visually interesting 0.89 5.67 0.99
144 Relating experience 5.02 0.99 0.87 0.87 0.57 I increased my connection with others through my 0.68 5.11 1.23 experience on this trip
I could relate to people with similar interests through 0.68 5.10 1.23 my experience on this trip 0.74 4.97 1.26 The trip reminded me of social rules 0.83 4.99 1.20 I engaged in a lot of thinking on this trip 0.82 4.93 1.21 This trip made me think a lot
Emotional experience 5.64 0.94 0.88 0.88 0.71 My experience on this trip put me in a positive mood 0.88 5.92 0.97 My experience on this trip made me respond in an 0.85 5.52 1.08 emotional way
My experience on this trip appealed to my feelings 0.79 5.49 1.09
Attribute-based destination image 5.97 0.89 0.91 0.91 0.83 This place has attractive ecotourism resources 0.92 5.96 0.96 As an ecotourism site, this place has a good balance 0.90 5.97 0.93 between environment and infrastructure
Holistic destination image 5.74 0.85 0.94 0.94 0.71 This is an exciting ecotourism site 0.88 5.70 0.98 This place is a pleasant ecotourism site 0.82 5.75 0.99 This is an ecotourism site that can make people relax 0.87 5.85 0.94 This place provides good quality ecotourism 0.82 5.74 0.97 experience 0.82 5.69 1.01 The ecotourism experience you are getting in this place 0.85 5.71 1.01 will be different from other place This place offers unforgettable ecotourism
145 Satisfaction 5.88 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.82 This trip is worthwhile 0.85 5.87 1.06 I am satisfied to this trip 0.92 5.86 0.97 This trip is meaningful 0.92 5.85 0.92 I feel favourable to this trip 0.92 5.93 0.94
Destination loyalty 4.85 1.32 0.95 0.94 0.85 I would like to visit the destination again 0.91 4.94 1.39 I plan to visit the destination again 0.91 4.88 1.40 I can see myself visiting the destination in the future 0.95 4.71 1.45
Ecotourism loyalty 5.85 0.96 0.92 0.92 0.85 I would like to visit other ecotourism sites in Australia 0.92 5.86 0.97 I plan to visit other ecotourism sites in Australia 0.93 5.84 1.05
146 Internal consistency was assessed by computing Composite Reliability (CR) and
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. As can also be seen in Table 5.3, all constructs were reliable, with both alpha and CR coefficients ranging upwards from 0.86. As all were greater than the suggested minimum of 0.70 (Kock, 2017), all were considered reliable.
Convergent validity was assessed by computing AVE scores. Fornell and Larcker (1981) argued an AVE score of 0.50 or more implied there was more information than noise, suggesting convergent validity. The AVE scores, which are also shown in Table 3, ranged upward from 0.54, suggesting all of the constructs had convergent validity.
Discriminant validity was initially assessed through Fornell and Larcker’s (1981) approach. They suggested discriminant validity could be assumed if the square root of pairs of constructs’ AVE scores were greater than their correlation. All of the construct pairs met this requirement in this case. Further, all of the HTMT ratios were well below the suggested 0.85 level (ranging from 0.34 to 0.77) (Henseler, Ringle and Sarstedt, 2015).
Finally, all of the full collinearity VIF scores were less than 5, which also suggested discriminant validity for factor-based PLS algorithms (Kock, 2017). Thus, all of the constructs could be used with confidence in the subsequent analysis.
5.4.3 The Structural Model
The WarpPLS program was also used to estimate the structural model, which was assessed by examining the R2 coefficients for the endogenous constructs and the significance of the path coefficients. These results are shown in Table 4, in which the non- significant paths have been excluded to improve readability. The R2 coefficients for attributed-based destination image (DI) (0.44), holistic DI (0.57), satisfaction (0.71),
147 destination loyalty (DL) (0.88) and ecotourism loyalty (EL) (0.54) were high, suggesting the model’s endogenous constructs were well predicted (Chin, Peterson, & Brown, 2008;
Hair et al., 2014). All of the hypotheses were supported or partially supported (Table 5.4), as is discussed subsequently.
148
Table 5.4: The Hypothesized Path Coefficients
Hypothesis Path Coefficien p- 95% CI Effect Size Results t Value Lower Upper Bound Bound H1 experience→destination image (DI) Partially supported acting→attribute-based DI 0.32 <0.001 0.22 0.41 0.20 fun learning→attribute-based DI 0.26 <0.001 0.16 0.36 0.15 emotional→attribute-based DI 0.15 0.001 0.05 0.25 0.09 fun learning→holistic DI 0.30 <0.001 0.20 0.40 0.20 acting→holistic DI 0.29 <0.001 0.19 0.39 0.20 emotional→holistic DI 0.17 <0.001 0.07 0.27 0.12 H2 experience→satisfaction Partially supported fun learning→satisfaction 0.26 <0.001 0.16 0.36 0.19 acting→satisfaction 0.14 0.003 0.04 0.24 0.10 emotional→satisfaction 0.09 0.045 0.00 0.19 0.06 H3 DI→satisfaction Supported holistic DI→satisfaction 0.27 <0.001 0.17 0.36 0.21 attribute-based DI→satisfaction 0.21 <0.001 0.11 0.31 0.15 H4 satisfaction→destination loyalty 0.11 0.013 0.01 0.21 0.06 Supported (DL)
149 Hypothesis Path Coefficien p- 95% CI Effect Size Results t Value Lower Upper Bound Bound H5 experience→DL Supported acting→DL 0.46 <0.001 0.36 0.55 0.16 emotional→DL 0.26 <0.001 0.14 0.36 0.13 fun learning→DL 0.23 <0.001 0.13 0.33 0.13 relating→DL 0.18 <0.001 0.08 0.28 0.09 immersion→DL 0.16 <0.001 0.06 0.26 0.08 H6 DI→DL Supported holistic DI→DL 0.33 <0.001 0.23 0.43 0.18 attribute-based DI→DL 0.09 0.036 0.00 0.19 0.04 H7 satisfaction→ecotourism loyalty 0.22 <0.001 0.12 Supported 0.12 0.32 (EL) H8 experience→EL Partially supported acting→EL 0.35 <0.001 0.26 0.45 0.21 fun learning→EL 0.12 0.008 0.02 0.22 0.06 emotional→EL 0.10 0.021 0.01 0.20 0.06 relating→EL 0.09 0.037 0.00 0.19 0.04 H9 DI→EL Partially supported holistic DI→EL 0.09 0.046 -0.01 0.19 0.05
150 5.5 Discussion and Implications
Understanding how destination image is impacted by tourist’s experience may help destination operators design appropriate experiences. However, although destination image has been widely studied, there are few empirical studies examining how post-trip destination image is shaped by tourism experience. Further, although Prayag et al. (2017) and Kim (2018) examined the relationships between experience, image, satisfaction, and tourist behaviour, they are not fully understood, especially in ecotourism contexts. Thus, an Experience-Image-Satisfaction-Loyalty framework was suggested and examined in the current study. The results generally confirmed the extended framework, using multidimensional experience and image constructs and adding ecotourism loyalty to the model.
5.5.1 Theoretical Implications
5.5.1.1 Experience and Image
The results suggested post-trip destination image is influenced by tourism experience, consistent with previous studies (e.g., Gunn, 1988; Smith et al., 2015; Beerli & Martín,
2004). Further, both the attribute-based and the holistic dimensions of destination image were influenced by acting, fun learning, and emotional experience in the present ecotourism context. The three experience dimensions had different effect on destination image. Acting and fun learning influenced both destination image dimensions significantly more than did emotional experience. These results can be explained by destination image formation theory, which suggests information sources are critical factors in the formation of destination image (Gunn, 1988; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;
151 Beerli & Martín, 2004). Different information in different phases of experience, such as secondary sources of information before a trip and primary sources of information after a trip, set up conditions that influence destination image. Through acting (e.g., guided walks through the rock formations) and fun learning (e.g., an interpretation of the natural environment), tourists received considerable information about the natural environment
(e.g., rock formation) and the destination (e.g., its history), allowing a realistic and complex destination image to be developed that is different to the before trip image
(Pearce, 1982; Phelps, 1986; Chon, 1987).
Despite its suggested importance (Walker & Moscardo, 2014), immersion did not have any significant influence on destination image, contradicting some prior studies (e.g.,
Beerli & Martín, 2004; Smith et al., 2015). One reason is that immersion does not offer concrete information about a destination, as it relates to escapism from routine and deep involvement in the trip (Hansen & Mossberg, 2017). Without offering concrete information, immersion seems to be unable to shape tourists’ perception of a destination.
The non-significant relating-destination image path, which also contradicts some previous studies (e.g., Trauer & Ryan, 2005; Yang, 2016), might be explained by the nature of ecotourism. Its key features are environmental conservation and education in a nature- based destination (Björk, 2000), which may mean relating is not important for ecotourism experiences. According to attitude formation theory (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), attitude towards a brand is determined by consequences of owning the brand and an evaluation of the importance of these consequences. Relating experience is a consequence of having an ecotourism trip to a specific destination, but such a consequence may not be important. In
152 other words, although people felt positive about this aspect (mean=5.02), relating experience did not significantly influence the perception towards a destination.
5.5.1.2 Experience, Image, and Satisfaction
The study found satisfaction was influenced by tourism experiences and destination image.
Tourism experiences had a direct effect on satisfaction and an indirect effect through destination image, which supported prior research by Prayag et al. (2017) and Kim (2018).
Further, satisfaction was directly influenced by both attribute-based and holistic image dimensions and two experience dimensions (fun learning and acting), while being indirectly influenced by three experience dimensions (fun learning, acting, and emotional) through destination image. Thus, this study provided a more comprehensive view to the experience-destination image-satisfaction relationships.
5.5.1.3 Experience, Image, Satisfaction, and Loyalty
Participants were more likely to be loyal to the ecotourism travel niche (mean=5.85) rather than to a specific ecotourism destination (mean=4.85), perhaps because many tourists are novelty seekers. Indeed, it is probably unlikely outbound Chinese tourists will travel to
Western Australia again in the short run, considering the time and costs involved. The results confirmed prior studies that questioned the usefulness of the destination loyalty concept and suggested loyalty to a travel form as an alternative of destination loyalty (e.g.,
Chen & Gursoy, 2001; Rivera & Croes, 2010; Assaker et al., 2011).
Both loyalty constructs were determined by experience, image and satisfaction. Tourism experience had an indirect effect on loyalty through destination image and satisfaction
(i.e., experience-image-satisfaction-loyalty) and also through destination image (i.e.,
153 experience-image-loyalty), again supporting Prayag et al.’s (2017) and Kim’s (2018) research. The results also confirmed previous studies that examined the influence experience and image had on tourist behaviour through the experience-satisfaction- loyalty chain (e.g., Hosany & Witham, 2010; Quadri-Felitti & Fiore, 2013; Ali et al., 2016) and through the image-satisfaction-loyalty chain (e.g., Bigné et al., 2001; Chen & Tsai,
2007; Assaker & Hallak, 2013).
Destination loyalty was well explained by the model (R2 = 0.88) and all of the experience and image dimensions significantly influenced it. Tourism experiences overall had the most significant influence on destination loyalty, followed by destination image and satisfaction. Satisfaction’s minor role is consistent with some studies that have suggested satisfaction is not sufficient to drive loyalty (e.g., Reichheld, 1993; Voss, Godfrey, &
Seiders, 2010). Thus, destination marketers need to be very concerned about visitors’ experiences.
Ecotourism loyalty was most influenced by tourism experiences (all of the experience dimensions except immersion), followed by satisfaction and then, only, holistic destination image. This confirmed some related consumer theories that suggests customers’ positive evaluation of a brand can lead to purchase of other brands in the same category (Libai, Muller, & Peres, 2009). Interestingly, ecotourism loyalty was not influenced by attribute-based destination image (i.e., ‘attractive ecotourism resources’ and
‘a good balance between environment and infrastructure’). While participants had positive perceptions about this aspect (mean score of 5.97), these perceptions did not impact on ecotourism loyalty. People’s positive experiences, satisfaction and favourable holistic destination image influenced their intention to visit other ecotourism destinations,
154 suggesting participants were ‘soft’ rather than ‘hard’ tourists in terms of environmental commitment (Laarman & Durst, 1987; Weaver, 2005).
5.5.2 Practical Implications
The findings suggest fun learning, acting and emotional experiences influenced attribute- based and holistic destination image in an ecotourism context. Consequently, destination operators, especially ecotourism operators, should focus on these aspects when designing offerings. Thus, first, environmental interpretation should be entertaining. Second, tourist activities (e.g., jungle trekking and bicycling) are important. Third, destination operators need to spark and maintain positive emotions through strategies such as ensuring good service while maintaining a ‘green’ and favourable destination image.
As ecotourism loyalty was influenced by tourists’ experience, image, and satisfaction, it is essential for different stakeholders (e.g., government and non-profit organizations wishing to promote ecotourism development) to work with tourism destinations to encourage tourists’ visit intentions to other ecotourism destinations. For example, The
International Ecotourism Society, which is the largest non-profit organization promoting ecotourism, offers one-to-one consultation to individual ecotourism destinations wishing to design tourism experiences.
5.6 Limitations and Future Research
As with all research, this study has limitations. First, the single sample (Chinese tourists) and research context (ecotourism trips in Australia) may limit its generalizability, suggesting future research in other ecotourism destinations and with tourists from other countries is needed. Second, this study collected data of the post-trip destination image
155 immediately after the trip. Future studies may include multiple collection times to better understand how post-trip destination image might have evolved. Third, the current study included two attributes in measuring the attribute-based destination image, which may not fully capture this construct. Future research should include more attributes, which would provide a more comprehensive understanding of attribute-based destination image.
Personal factors may be interesting future pursuits. For example, the influences experiences have on destination image may be different between males and females due to their impression formation differences (e.g., McAninch, Manolis, Milich, & Harris.
1993). Loyalty may be highly influenced by income (e.g., Klopotan, Vrhovec-Žohar &
Mahič, 2016), which may also influence the relationship between destination image and loyalty. It is hoped that the current study can stimulate further research to better understand the relationship between experience and destination image as well as the influence this relationship has on tourist satisfaction and loyalty.
156 CHAPTER SIX
CONNECTING ECOTOURISM EXPERIENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING
Li, T., Liu, F., & Soutar, G. N. (2020). Connecting tourism experience and environmental learning. Current Issues in Tourism (in press).
This chapter presents the fourth paper included in this PhD Thesis that answers the
fourth research question (i.e., How does experience influence environmental learning?).
6.1 Abstract
Numerous studies have claimed that ecotourism experiences promote tourist environmental learning, but little empirical evidence has been provided to substantiate the claim. This study examined ecotourism experiences’ impacts on environmental learning within outbound Chinese tourists, a key international ecotourism market. The samples were collected from 19 bus tours over a 12-month period, with respondents surveyed immediately after their visits to a well-known Australian ecotourism site. The results showed that education, thinking, relating, entertainment, sensory, and acting experiences contributed significantly to environmental learning, while aesthetic, escapism, or emotional experiences did not. Tourism operators should design effective experience strategies to facilitate environmental learning.
Keywords: Tourist Experience, Environmental Learning, Outbound Chinese Tourists,
Ecotourism.
157 6.2 Introduction
Ecotourism is ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education’
(International Ecotourism Society, 2019). Thus, education (environmental learning) is a key objective. Through their ecotourism experiences, tourists may increase their knowledge of environmental issues, develop positive attitudes towards environmental protection and behave in a more environmentally friendly way (Ballantyne, Packer & Falk,
2011).
Despite a generally-held belief that ecotourism helps environmental learning, there is an ongoing debate about ecotourism’s contribution to this aspect, and particularly to conservation. Some suggest education programs can promote environmental learning and reduce tourist behaviour that has negative effects on the natural environment (Ballantyne et al., 2011). Others believe environmental learning is difficult to promote due to ecotourism’s complexity (i.e., tourists may prefer entertainment and tourism operators may prioritize profits) (Buckley, 2009). Further, even when environmental learning is undertaken, it may not translate into long-term actions (Ballantyne & Packer, 2011). This study was undertaken to help tourism marketers understand how ecotourism experiences facilitate environmental learning and improve their ability to design effective learning strategies.
Learning is the ‘constructive integration of thinking, feeling and acting’ (Novak, 1987, p.
357), suggesting promoting tourists’ environmental learning should be based on an understanding of their experiences (Ballantyne & Packer, 2009). Constructivist Learning
158 Theory (Hein, 1991) suggests learners construct knowledge and create meaning from their experiences. Thus, learning is often experience-based and subjective, especially in free- choice settings, such as ecotourism, where tourists are intrinsically rather than extrinsically motivated (Ballantyne & Packer, 2005).
Prior research has found environmental learning is supported by educational experiences
(Walker & Moscardo, 2014), acting experiences (Tisdell & Wilson, 2005) and emotional experiences (Orams, 1997). However, as other salient experiences (e.g., escapism, aesthetic and relating experiences) have not been examined previously, their influences are not well understood.
Consequently, this study examined key ecotourism experiences’ impacts on environmental learning within an important segment (outbound Chinese tourists - 140 million people who spend nearly $US 300 billion annually (Statista, 2019), making them the world’s largest international tourist market). Providing effective environmental learning to such tourists is likely to contribute significantly to environmental conservation worldwide.
6.3 Questionnaire and Data Collection
A structured questionnaire was designed for the study, including questions about ecotourism experiences, environmental learning and background information. The 30- item ecotourism experience scale, adapted from Schmitt’s (1999) and Oh et al.’s (2007) studies, asked about a variety of experiences (sensory, emotional, thinking, acting, relating, entertainment, education, escapism, and aesthetics experiences). Environmental learning was measured through four items adapted from Ballantyne et al.’s (2011) scale.
159 All items were measured on Likert-type scales ranging from (1) ‘strongly disagree’ to (7)
‘strongly agree’. Appendix A shows the items used to measure the constructs. The questionnaire was designed in English and translated by a back-to-back translation method. A pilot study was undertaken prior to the main data collection, which ensured the questionnaire’s flow and accuracy.
Data were collected from Chinese tourists on one-day tours from Perth to the Pinnacles in Australia, which met three key ecotourism requirements (nature-based (in a national park with little development), offers environmental education (by guides and site managers), is ecologically sustainable (small buses with 25 tourists) and no undesirable tourist behaviours (e.g., littering) are allowed) (Beaumont, 2001). Data were collected on
19 trips in 2017 and 2018 that were similar in cost, length of time, route taken, activities offered and vehicles used.
One researcher accompanied each tour, asking tourists on the bus returning to Perth to complete a structured questionnaire, which provided 375 useable responses. Respondents’ demographic information is summarized in Table 6.1.
160 Table 6.1: Respondents’ Backgrounds
Frequency Percent Gender Male 137 36 Female 211 57 Missing 27 7 Age (years) 18-30 121 32 31-40 51 14 41-50 71 18 51-60 62 17 61 or above 45 12 Missing 25 7 Education Below university 37 9.9 Bachelor’s degrees 213 56.8 Master’s degrees 77 20.5 Doctoral degrees 18 4.8 Missing 30 8.0 Income Low 49 13 Low to middle 37 10 Middle 145 38 Middle to upper 71 19 High 18 5 Missing 55 15 Numbers of ecotourism trips in the past 5 years including this trip 1-2 97 25 3-4 131 35 5-6 49 13 6-7 17 5 8 or above 46 13 Missing 35 9
161 6.4 Analysis and Results
The constructs were assessed for reliability and validity, after which the relationships of interest were estimated using PLS-SEM, which is a ‘factor-based partial least squares structural equation modelling (approach); a variation of the classic partial least squares technique (that) deals with factors as opposed to composites - thus accounting for measurement error’ (Kock et al., 2018, p. 493). Further, PLS-SEM is less impacted by normality than is the covariance SEM approach (Henseler et al., 2009) and it was expected some constructs might be non-normal.
The items related well to their constructs with loadings greater than 0.60, as expected, as all were well-established scales. The means were high, ranging from 4.64 for escapism experience to 6.14 for aesthetic experience (Table 2); suggesting respondents had an overall good experience and positive environmental learning. However, there was sufficient variation to suggest further analysis would be worthwhile. All were negatively skewed, although none excessively, and some were normally distributed. The lack of normality in some of the constructs supported the decision to use PLS-SEM here.
All constructs were reliable with acceptable Composite Reliability and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (Table 2). The AVE scores (Table 6.2) suggested all constructs had convergent validity. Discriminant validity was also assumed, as the square root of pairs of constructs’ AVE scores were greater than their correlation. Further, the full collinearity
VIF scores were less than 3.3, suggesting discriminant validity (Kock, 2017). Thus, the constructs can be used with confidence.
162 Table 6.2: Descriptive Statistics and Measurement Properties for the Constructs
Construct Mean SD Cronbach’s Composite AVE Alpha Reliability Score
Education experience 5.56 0.91 0.87 0.91 0.73
Aesthetic experience 6.14 0.80 0.78 0.87 0.69
Entertainment 5.30 1.02 0.91 0.94 0.84 experience
Escapism experience 4.64 1.27 0.88 0.92 0.73
Sensory experience 5.31 0.99 0.86 0.92 0.78
Emotional experience 5.64 0.94 0.88 0.93 0.81
Acting experience 5.80 0.94 0.88 0.93 0.81
Thinking experience 5.07 1.06 0.92 0.94 0.81
Relating experience 5.06 1.09 0.86 0.91 0.78
Environmental learning 5.78 0.99 0.95 0.96 0.86
The estimated relationships between ecotourism experiences and environmental learning are shown in Table 6.3, in which non-significant paths are excluded to improve readability.
The R2 statistic (0.45) suggests environmental learning was significantly influenced by ecotourism experiences. Further, the path coefficients suggest different ecotourism experiences had different impacts on environmental learning, as is discussed subsequently.
163 Table 6.3: Paths from the Experiences to the Environmental Learning
Construct Environmental learning Education experience 0.20 ** Aesthetic experience ns Entertainment experience 0.14 ** Escapism experience ns Sensory experience 0.13 ** Emotional experience ns Acting experience 0.13 ** Thinking experience 0.17 ** Relating experience 0.15 ** R2 statistic 0.45
* Significant at the 5% level; ** Significant at the 1% level
6.5 Discussion
Encouraging environmental learning of outbound Chinese tourists in an ecotourism context has a number of key implications. First, as mentioned earlier, providing effective environmental learning to the world’s largest international tourist market is likely to contribute significantly to environmental conservation worldwide. Second, encouraging environmental learning can satisfy tourists’ needs, particularly their intrinsic needs. For example, tourists do not travel only for relaxation or leisure and are conscious of environment responsibilities while travelling.
Consequently, tourists who take ecotourism trips expect to improve their environmental knowledge and, subsequently, develop responsible travel behaviour. This is also true for outbound Chinese tourists, as they do not appear to differ significantly to their counterparts in terms of their understanding of ecotourism (Donohoe & Lu, 2009). Third,
164 from a tourism operator perspective, encouraging environmental learning may improve satisfaction. Environmental learning is likely to be an indicator of destination performance and, thus, confirmation between expectations and performance will likely improve tourist satisfaction (Oliver, 1997). Satisfied tourists are more likely to spread positive word of mouth and revisit the destinations (Chi & Qu, 2008). Thus, these findings should help tourism operators targeting outbound Chinese tourists.
Education experiences influenced environmental learning most, suggesting proper learning is a key. Thinking experiences were also important, suggesting thoughtful reflections about nature and environmental issues are crucial to environmental learning
(Boyd & Fales, 1983; Boud, 2001). The salience of education and thinking experiences suggests these Chinese tourists did not differ from their counterparts from other countries
(Walker & Moscardo, 2014). The study found relating experiences also influenced environment learning, perhaps reflecting Chinese culture in which social interactions are important, irrespective of context (Gabrenya & Hwang, 1996).
Entertainment experiences also influenced environmental learning. This finding is important, as most prior studies suggested ecotourism should be educational, rather than hedonic. This may be explained by the sample. Ecotourism is popular in China, but
Chinese ecotourism offerings tend to focus on hedonic experiences (Shi et al., 2019).
Consequently, when Chinese tourists go abroad, they may expect hedonistic experiences.
Sensing (or sensory) experiences, which have not been examined previously, also influenced environmental learning, as did acting experiences, suggesting physical actions and behavioural engagement are important.
165 In summary, as some experiences contributed to environmental learning while others did not, tourism operators should be careful when designing offerings. The study offers some important insights. First, the focus should be on education and thinking experiences, suggesting information should be provided about each major learning point. Second, to improve relating experiences, social interactions (e.g., with local people) should be encouraged and tour guides should be trained to ensure their professionalism and friendliness. Third, fun (entertaining) activities (i.e., entertainment and acting experiences) should be offered. Fourth, sensory modes and stimuli (e.g., local food tasting) should be used to enhance environment learning through sensory experiences.
As with all research, this study has limitations. For example, it did not examine environmental learning in a multi-dimensional way, nor did it examine tourists’ behaviour.
Attitude and behavioural intentions may not necessarily translate into behaviour. Thus, future research should investigate tourists’ behavioural changes after an ecotourism trip to determine which experiences are long lasting and influential. In addition, as educational experiences seem to be the key to environmental learning, future research should examine what tactics facilitate educational experiences. For example, future research could test the effectiveness of different communication modes (e.g., interpretation, guidebooks, and apps) and contents (e.g., environmental threats and social responsibilities) in facilitating tourist environmental learning.
166 CHAPTER SEVEN
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This Chapter provides a discussion and conclusion based on the four individual papers
(Chapter Three to Chapter Six) and is a reflection based on the key findings drawn from the four papers. The Chapter commences with a summary of the key findings of the four papers, followed by some theoretical and managerial implications. The contribution of the four papers is then discussed before the Chapter ends with suggestions for future research.
7.1 Summary of the Four Papers
The central objective of this research project was to understand tourists’ experiences and, in this case, particularly, the experiences of Chinese tourists taking ecotourism trips. To fulfil the central objective, the thesis included four research papers that were the heart of the project. Their research objectives, key findings, and implications of these research papers are discussed in subsequent sections.
7.1.1 Paper 1: Tourist Expectation and Experience
7.1.1.1 Objective
The first study (Chapter 3) investigated gaps between tourists’ expectations and experiences. Before a trip, tourists have expectations about their trip. However, their expectations are not always reflected in their experiences. Understanding potential gaps, such as which aspect of expectation is confirmed or not, and the influence these gaps have on tourists’ evaluation of their trip, should enhance our understanding of the tourism
167 experience. Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory (EDT), developed by Oliver (1980), has been widely used in the tourism area and is an important framework in assessing tourist expectation, tourism experience and satisfaction (Mazursky, 1989; Pizam & Milman,
1993; Oh & Parks, 1996; Weber, 1997; Hui, Wan, & Ho, 2007; Zehrer, Crotts, & Magnini,
2011) and was used in this study.
7.1.1.2 Key Findings & Theoretical Implications
Through the adoption of EDT model approach, confirmation and negative disconfirmation were found. Confirmation exists because most of the attitude towards ecotourism trips (e.g., the key offering of ecotourism is scenery appreciation in nature- based destinations) and motivation behind taking ecotourism trips (such as scenery appreciation) was confirmed by their ecotourism experiences. The negative disconfirmation came from the pro-environmental aspect of the trip. Tourists understood environmental conservation is an important facet of ecotourism, which was a key motivation towards embarking on ecotourism trips. However, they did not experience such expectations. Despite this negative disconfirmation, tourists were satisfied with their trips, suggesting the negative disconfirmation of the trip’s pro-environmental aspect is not as salient as the other confirmed aspects.
The identification of a negative disconfirmation between attitude and experiences within the EDT framework advances our understanding of ecotourism consumption in China and of attitude- and motivation- behaviour gaps. On the one hand, as already mentioned, the pro-environmental factors were understood to be important components in tourists’ attitude towards ecotourism and key drivers for taking ecotourism trips. Despite this, they
168 did not have such an experience on their ecotourism trips. Nevertheless, they were satisfied with their ecotourism trip, suggesting pro-environmental factors may not be as important as other factors (e.g., scenery appreciation). This suggests ecotourism in China may be at a more passive part of the ecotourism spectrum (i.e., nature-based tourism with educational components) rather than at the more active part (i.e., ecotourism that contributes to conservation) (Weaver, 1998). On the other hand, the attitude- and motivation- behaviour gaps related to pro-environmental aspects were similar to those found in Western contexts (Juvan & Dolnicar, 2014).
This study also found demographic factors (age, income, and education) influenced the
EDT’s three constructs (attitude, motivation, and experiences). Highly educated tourists aged from ‘20 to 30 years’ were more pro-environmental, embodying the meaning of being ‘true’ ecotourists whose focus is on environment conservation (Perkins & Brown,
2012). In contrast to prior studies (Eagles 1992; Wight, 1996), in which pro- environmental tourists were described as affluent people, this study found Chinese pro- environmental tourists were not necessarily affluent, as middle-income tourists were also highly motivated by pro-environmental factors. Tourists who were ‘over 50’ years of age and less well-educated, focused more on social interactions, while those in ‘30 to 50’ age group were more health-concerned. Gender did not seem to influence attitude, motivations, or experiences.
This study is the first to examine ecotourism in China from the tourists’ perspective by empirically exploring tourists’ attitudes towards ecotourism. Respondents believed ecotourism brings positive outcomes to tourists and destinations, including the health benefits associated with travelling to nature-based destinations with good air quality,
169 enjoying agritainment activities, and the better practice of environmental protection from tourists’ subsequent sustainable behaviour. Previous ecotourism studies in China focused on its definitions and its differences with its Western counterpart. For example, Buckley et al. (2008) examined definitions of ecotourism in China and found three key differences
(i.e., it is believed to contribute to human health; tourists like using human arts to enhance nature in ecotourism destinations; there is no limit in visitor scales in these sites). This study confirmed these previous conceptual studies and is the first to offer such understanding empirically from a tourist perspective.
7.1.1.3 Managerial Implications
This study found some confirmation between expectations (attitudes and motivation) and experiences, which provided insights to tourism operators considering their destinations’ offerings. They can use these findings to configure their destinations to meet Chinese tourists’ expectations. For example, they might need to add hedonic experience elements, as tourists prefer hedonic in addition to cognitive experiences when taking an ecotourism trip. They might also emphasise the quality of air at their destinations, as this seems to be a key attribute for promoting ecotourism experiences in China. They should also pay attention to other attributes that might contribute to important ecotourism experiences, such as sensory and social experiences and offer facilities and assistance to help tourists create such experiences.
As there were gaps between expectations (attitude and motivation) and experiences, tourism operators and DMOs need to develop strategies that can close these attitude- motivation and attitude-behaviour gaps. In order to close such gaps, DMOs should
170 develop strategies to facilitate pro-environmental travel behaviour. Informed by the research findings, simply increasing tourists’ environmental awareness may not help with environmental conservation, as tourists are already aware of this. In addition, tourists pay much less attention to pro-environmental aspect than to other experiences (e.g., scenery appreciation and leisure activities). Consequently, DMOs need to design and incorporate some fun factors into their pro-environmental activities (for instance, tracking and rewarding walking distance on site so as to reduce the use of vehicles). It also seems
DMOs should target younger and/or more highly educated tourists to engage in these activities, as such tourists are more pro-environmental, which may lead to more positive behaviours and experiences.
7.1.2 Paper 2: Tourism Experience and Perceived Value of a Trip
7.1.2.1 Objective
The second paper (Chapter 4) investigated how tourists’ perceived value of an ecotourism trip was influenced by their experiences. Identifying how value is created from ecotourism experiences contributed to literature on ecotourism consumption. Previous ecotourism studies have focused on its potential benefits to the environment and economy and have heavily debated the value of such benefits (Buckley, 2009; Ballantyne et al., 2011).
However, these studies did not pay attention to the perceived value of such trips to tourists themselves, aside from studies confirming that the perceived value is a primary driver to tourists’ behavioural changes, including environmental behaviours (Parasuraman &
Grewal, 2000). Accordingly, knowing which type of perceived value is impacted by
171 which type of experience can enhance our understanding of perceived value in ecotourism contexts.
7.1.2.2 Key Findings & Theoretical Implications
The second paper, which examined perceived value from a multidimensional perspective, suggested there were five perceived value dimensions for ecotourism trips (i.e., functional, emotional, value for money, novelty and social value), which was consistent with the dimensions found in a prior adventure tourism study (Williams & Soutar, 2009). All the five dimensions had means above the scales’ midpoints, suggesting tourists obtained some utility from all aspects in their ecotourism trips. Interestingly, functional value had the highest mean, suggesting tourists felt they obtained the most utility from the quality and performance of their ecotourism trip. Social value had the lowest mean, suggesting these tourists obtained less utility from social approval obtained by taking this trip, perhaps because such trips did not contribute much to building self-identity. This is consistent with Lee and Jan’s (2018) suggestion that social identity issues may not be as influential as might be expected in ecotourism contexts.
More importantly, perceived trip value was influenced by ecotourism experiences, which confirmed both theories such as the means-end theory (Kerin et al., 1992) and the hedonic consumption theory (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982) and previous empirical studies in marketing (e.g., Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Gentile et al., 2007; Chen & Lin, 2015) and tourism (e.g., Yuan & Wu, 2008; Walls, 2013). Entertainment, relating and education experiences influenced each of the five value dimensions. The other types of experiences
(thinking, emotional, sensory, aesthetic, acting and escapism) influenced at least one of
172 the value dimensions. The influence entertainment experience had on perceived value in an ecotourism context appears to be consistent with findings from previous studies (e.g.,
Packer, 2006). Further, although these tourists did not seem to have much time to interact during their ecotourism trip and the mean for relating experience was the lowest (5.06), relating experiences were important, as they influenced each of the five value dimensions, which is consistent with Chinese culture (Gabrenya & Hwang, 1996). In addition, education experiences significantly impacted all aspects of the trip’s value, especially its functional value, suggesting such experiences are critical to tourists’ evaluations of trip quality. This indicates these Chinese tourists had a correct understanding of ecotourism, as they saw educational experience as an important metric when undertaking such trips
(The International Ecotourism Society, 2019).
7.1.2.3 Managerial Implications
This study offer insights into the ways tourism operators might design the experiences they offer their customers. Three types of experience (entertainment, relating and education) were critical to creating value. Hence, these should be the key in the experiential offerings provided. First, in terms of entertainment experiences, tourism operators should design entertaining, but also environmentally oriented activities. It should be noted that, since this is ecotourism, entertaining activities should be consistent with the key principles of this form of tourism (i.e., minimising impact and travelling to nature-based destinations). Therefore, activities that are entertaining, but bad for the environment (e.g., activities in protected areas) or not nature-based (e.g., in-house entertainment), should be avoided. Activities such as viewing wildlife, river rafting and scenic hiking that meet the criteria could be designed.
173 Second, to design relating experiences, tourism operators should encourage group travel and offer opportunities for tourists to get to know each other and communicate easily within the group. Tourism operators should also work on the professionalism and friendliness of tour guides who are very important in promoting tourists’ experiences, particularly in remote ecotourism sites.
Third, tourism operators should place an emphasis on educational experiences, as they deliver value and are also the essence of ecotourism. Entertainment and educational experiences were not exclusive and, instead, could be mutually complementary with carefully designed activities, and thus should be combined to better deliver value to tourists. Therefore, tourism operators need to provide more than knowledge-based interpretations, as they need to engage tourists in the activities they offer (for instance, letting tourists create DIY or recycled crafts).
7.1.3 Paper 3: Experience, Destination Image, Satisfaction and Loyalty
7.1.3.1 Objective
The third paper (Chapter 5) examined the experience-image-satisfaction-loyalty relationship. Besides value, experience may also lead to other key outcomes that are essential in tourism marketing (e.g., destination image and repeat behaviour). Although the relationships between experience, image, satisfaction and loyalty have been studied by Prayag et al. (2017) and Kim (2018), these relationships were not examined comprehensively. The experience construct was examined as a solely emotional experience by Prayag et al. (2017) and as a memorable experience by Kim (2018). Further, destination image was not examined from a multidimensional perspective in these studies.
174 The experience and image constructs can be holistic or multidimensional and should be examined in these ways. Consequently, to extend our understanding of the relationships,
Paper three (Chapter 5) used a multidimensional approach to examine the relationships of interest.
7.1.3.2 Key Findings & Theoretical Implications
Both attribute-based and holistic dimensions of destination image were influenced by acting, fun learning, and emotional experiences. Previous studies had focused on the influence pre-trip destination image had on tourism experiences and decision making
(Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Assaker, Vinzi, & O’Connor, 2011). However, these studies did not examine the influence tourism experiences have on destination image, which might change over the course of trips. Therefore, our findings fulfil this gap.
Ecotourism experiences influenced satisfaction directly and indirectly through destination image. In addition, ecotourism experiences influenced loyalty (both destination and ecotourism loyalty) directly and indirectly through destination image and/or satisfaction
(i.e., experience-image-loyalty, experience-image-satisfaction-loyalty, and experience- satisfaction-loyalty relationships). Previous studies linked experience and image to repeated travel behaviour separately (i.e., experience-satisfaction-behaviour and image- satisfaction-behaviour relationships). Here, image was included in the framework
(experience-image-satisfaction-behaviour) and the study examined experience and image as multidimensional constructs, offering a more comprehensive understanding of these relationships.
175 In addition, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to examine ecotourism loyalty. Although previous studies found consumers who are satisfied with an offering are more likely to purchase other offerings in the same category (Libai, Muller, & Peres,
2009), this aspect has not been examined previously in an ecotourism context.
7.1.3.3 Managerial Implications
The examination of the experience-image-satisfaction-loyalty framework provides some suggestions to DMOs when considering their destination management and marketing strategies. For example, if they wish to improve post-trip destination image, DMOs need to focus on creating high-quality fun learning, acting, and emotional experiences, as such experiences influenced both attribute-based and holistic destination image. To increase repeat travel behaviour to the destinations, DMOs should focus on acting experiences and holistic destination image, instead of merely satisfaction, which influenced destination loyalty less than other constructs.
Among the five dimensions of ecotourism experiences, the fun learning, acting and emotional dimensions were the most important, as they were more likely to lead to positive outcomes (i.e., destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty) compared to relating and immersion experiences. This may give insights to tourism operators in their design of tourism offerings so as to better create or co-create such experiences. For example, learning should be fun; tourist activities should engage tourists’ bodily experience (e.g., to touch instead of merely to see); tourism operators should seek to appeal tourists’ feelings (e.g., feeling excited during the fun learning or pleased by helping animals) and help them keep in positive moods during the trips through for example good service
176 quality. Facilitating the three experiences is critical in the design of destination offerings throughout the ecotourism trips.
Ecotourism loyalty is important, as promoting the whole ecotourism industry may help minimise tourism impact caused by mass tourism. Ecotourism loyalty was influenced by experiences, image and satisfaction, especially acting experiences, which means designing tourist activities that engage tourists’ bodily experience (e.g., cycling) is the most important. It seems on-site ecotourism experiences are critical if tourists are to visit other ecotourism destinations. Thus, they are important to the ecotourism industry as a whole. Therefore, non-profit organizations, such as the International Ecotourism Society and local governments, should work with DMOs to design quality experiences, so tourists are more inclined to visit other ecotourism destinations and promote the development of the ecotourism industry.
7.1.4 Paper 4: Experience and Environmental Learning
7.1.4.1 Objective
An emerging issue is the impact tourism has on the environment. One aspect is whether tourism experiences facilitate environmental learning, and this issue was examined in the fourth paper (Chapter 6).
7.1.4.2 Key Findings & Theoretical Implications
Learning is a result of practice (Kimble, 1961), which is also true in the ecotourism area, as is indicated by this study. Previous studies have questioned whether ecotourism is effective in facilitating environmental learning (e.g., Buckley, 2009). The present findings
177 offered evidence about the role of ecotourism in environmental learning if such trips are well-planned and managed, indicating the value of ecotourism in the environmental aspect.
In addition, this study has suggested that tourists’ behaviour could be changed through ecotourism experiences, which confirmed the influence of experience on learning and is consistent with learning theories such as constructivist learning theory (Hein, 1991).
Some previous studies have examined how ecotourism experiences facilitate environmental learning. However, only a few experiences have been examined (e.g., educational (Walker & Moscardo, 2014), acting (Tisdell & Wilson, 2005), and emotional
(Orams, 1997) experiences), neglecting other important ecotourism experiences, such as escapism, aesthetic and relating experiences. This study examined nine ecotourism experiences (sensory, emotional, thinking, acting, relating, entertainment, education, escapism, and aesthetics experiences) that are important in ecotourism contexts, and how these experiences facilitate environmental learning. Tourists’ environmental learning was influenced by ecotourism experiences. Some experiences (for instance, education, thinking, relating, entertainment, sensory, and acting) contributed significantly to environmental learning, while other experiences, such as aesthetic, escapism, or emotional experiences did not enhance environmental learning. Consequently, this study extended our understanding of environmental learning in ecotourism contexts.
7.1.4.3 Managerial Implications
The influence ecotourism experience has on environmental learning proves the possibility of minimising tourism’s negative impact on nature and the environment. In designing strategies to conserve the environment in tourist destinations, DMOs may share
178 responsibilities with tourists by facilitating environmental learning both in and post ecotourism trips. On one hand, if tourists can learn to behave in a more environmental way on site, it is going to reduce and even minimize the tourism impact. On the other hand, if tourists can return home with more environmental behaviour, it is likely to offset the impact caused by tourism and travel and might even have greater environmental value if such learning could be long-term.
As already noted, some experiences, such as education, thinking, and relating, facilitate environmental learning, while some, such as emotional experiences, did not. Therefore, when designing experiential offerings, DMOs need to focus on relevant experiences that have effective learning outcomes. For example, educational activities should be thought- provoking, rather than simply emotion-laden, as education and thinking experiences influenced learning, but emotional experiences did not. Tour guides can be trained so they have needed knowledge but so they can also engage tourists effectively in environmental activities, as this will improve learning outcomes.
7.2 Further Contributions Built on the Four Papers
Ecotourism experiences were examined in each of the four papers, through a variety of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Adapting Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) and
Schmitt’s (1999) frameworks meant nine dimensions were examined in some of these papers (i.e., sensory, emotional, thinking, acting, relating, entertainment, educational, escapism and aesthetics experiences).
179 The successful combination of the two experiential frameworks cultivated a thorough understanding of experiences in general as well as in the ecotourism context. On one hand, this project is the first to examine the two frameworks empirically after Jurowski (2009)’s suggestion of doing so. The findings suggested experience is complicated and diverse, and that using the nine dimensions from both frameworks can better capture the essence of experience rather than using a single framework. On the other hand, previous studies have debated whether the practice of ecotourism focuses more on hedonic (Ryan et al.,
2000) or educational (Staus & Falk, 2013) factors. This project suggests tourists have hedonic and educational experiences when undertaking ecotourism trips, but that their experiences are more than just these two (e.g., relating to other people and escaping from the routine), suggesting a more nuanced view of tourists’ experiences is needed.
This project further expanded our understanding of tourists’ experiences by linking them to an important antecedent (expectations) within an expectancy disconfirmation model. It seems there is confirmation and disconfirmation between attitudes and experiences and between motivation and experiences. Experiences were influenced by attitude and motivation, as suggested in previous studies (e.g., Lee, Lee, & Lee, 2014; Lu, Gursoy, &
Chiappa, 2016; Rita, Brochado, & Dimova, 2018). However, despite the disconfirmation
(gap) found in the attitude- and motivation-experience relationship, tourists were still satisfied with their trips, perhaps reflecting tourists’ pre-trip attitudes and motivations.
However, as attitudes and motivation are dynamic, they can change throughout a trip if actual experiences are not consistent with expectations.
180 Tourists’ experiences are an important predictor of tourists’ affect and cognition (e.g., perceived value of a trip, destination image and satisfaction, and the three constructs were conceptualised from both affective and cognitive perspectives as already mentioned).
Different tourism experience dimensions were found to have different impacts on tourists' affect and cognition. Thus, this research project enhanced our understanding of which tourism experiences were important in building affect and cognition. For example, emotional experiences were more important for building a positive destination image than for increasing perceived value. Consequently, knowing which tourism experiences contribute to which outcomes will increases our understanding of the roles they play.
Tourists’ experiences are also important as they influence tourists’ behaviour, including environmental learning and loyalty to a destination and to ecotourism. If tourists have positive ecotourism experiences, they are likely to want to learn more about environmental protection and behave in more sustainable ways. In addition, positive experiences enhance intentions to revisit a destination and other ecotourism destinations.
This project suggested the importance of tourism experiences, as they change tourists’ loyalty but, more importantly, behaviour related to their personal lives through environmental learning.
Therefore, the findings in different studies were synthesised into a cohesive framework that improved our understanding of the ecotourism experience (Figure 7.1) (antecedents- experience-affective/cognitive responses-behavioural responses, in which attitude and motivation were studied as an antecedent, perceived value of a trip, destination image and satisfaction as affective/cognitive responses, and learning and loyalty as behavioural responses).
181
Figure 7.1: An experiential framework
Besides examining tourists’ experiences, the project also contributed to our understanding of Chinese tourists taking ecotourism trips. The Chinese tourists questioned understood ecotourism is travelling to nature-based destinations with relatively more environmentally friendly tourist behaviour and they were motivated by such factors. Although there was little experience of environmental conservation, their experiences led to environmental learning, suggesting Chinese tourists may have a better understanding of ecotourism, greater environmental awareness and intend to add to their environmental learning. It should also be noted that they differ somewhat from their Western counterparts. For example, Chinese tourists had high expectations about good air quality and health-related factors when taking ecotourism trips. These different elements justify the need to examine this group of tourists.
182 7.3 Future Research Directions
Future studies should focus on cultural aspects, as such studies are likely to enhance our understanding of how varied cultural backgrounds influence tourists’ behaviours and perceptions. In this project, data were collected from a single group (Chinese tourists), which meant cultural issues could not be examined. In future studies, researchers should study tourists from Western countries, and compare them with Chinese tourists to see if there are any cultural differences in the relationships of interest.
Longitudinal research is also an interesting future research direction. The data for each respondent in this project were only collected at one time (after their ecotours). However, some research questions need data collected at different times to better understand relationships of interest. In the first paper, the interviews were conducted after an ecotourism visit and respondents were asked to recall their pre-trip attitudes and motivation, which may not have been accurate. In the third paper, we examined how experiences influence post-trip destination image and collected the data immediately after their trip was finished. However, destination image is dynamic and changes over the course of trips. Therefore, conducting a one-time collection may not be as effective in understanding how destination image evolved. In addition, longitudinal research may add value to the fourth paper that examined the influence experience had on environmental learning. The learning we investigated was short-term, which may not be translated into any long-term effect and thus needs further investigation in this aspect. Therefore, in future studies, researchers should collect data multiple times.
183 The frameworks examined in this project could be extended in future studies to provide an even more comprehensive understanding of ecotourism experiences. Intentions to protect the environment could be included as an outcome of confirmation or disconfirmation and satisfaction, thus extending the EDT model and perhaps better explaining the meaning of negative disconfirmation. The third paper could also be extended by adding the same intention construct to estimate the influence perceived value had on tourists’ intentions to contribute to environmental conservation. The fourth paper could be extended by investigating tourists’ actual pro-environmental behaviour three months after their trip, in order to understand the long-term impact of in-site environmental learning.
7.4 Conclusions
This project centred on tourism experiences in an ecotourism context (i.e., ecotourism experiences). The project looked at what ecotourism experience was from a multidimensional perspective but also investigated how experiences influenced tourists’ expectations and some key outcome variables (destination image, satisfaction, loyalty, and environmental learning). Through the four papers that were the heart of the thesis, the project advanced our knowledge of this important construct and had some important managerial implications for tourism operators and for DMOs.
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220 LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A. Article front page (Current Issues in Tourism)
Appendix B. Article front page (Tourism Recreation Research)
Appendix C. Interview protocol
Appendix D. Questionnaire (in Chinese)
221 Appendix A. Article front page (Current Issues in Tourism)
222 Appendix B. Article front page (Tourism Recreation Research)
223 Appendix C. Interview protocol
1. What do you understand about ecotourism?
Now please think about your most recent ecotourism experience.
2. When was that?
3. Why did you choose ecotourism?
4. Why did you choose that destination?
5. What transport did you use to go there?
6. What was your overall experience?
7. Can you describe your experience in details?
8. Can you give mark for your overall experience (from 1 to 7) and why?
9. What was the influence of your most recent ecotourism experience on you?
10. Do you plan to visit that destination/region/country again in the future? why?
11. Do you plan to do more ecotourism? why?
12. Have you recommended that destination to others?
13. Have you recommended ecotourism to others?
14. When your families/friends ask you for advice on destination and travel plan, what will you tell them?
15. Do you feel attached to that destination? What makes you attached to that destination?
224 16. What was its influence on your social life?
17. What was its influence on your emotion?
18. What do you think about the quality of the travel? From star 1 to 5?
19. Do you think the money spent on it worthwhile?
225 Appendix D. Survey questionnaire (in Chinese)
生态旅游体验调查问卷 亲爱的游客您好，我们是西澳大学商学院生态旅游项目（BHP68802662）的研究人员, 我们想邀请您参加一个关于中国游客的生态旅游体验的问卷调查。 本问卷实行匿名制，所有数据只用于统计分析， 请您放心填写。本问卷须约 10 分钟时间来填写，题目选项无对错之分，请您按自己的实际情况选择适合 您的数字。如有问题请联系西澳大学商学院的刘芳教授 [email protected]。再次感谢您的帮助。
就您游览尖峰石阵(Pinnacles)的生态旅游体验，您能用几个词（或简单的句子）概括一下你的总体印象和感受吗？
请您根据您自己的实际情况在下列圆圈内打钩。数字’1’是代表您非常反对这个说法,’7’是非常赞成这个说法，其他数字表示赞成反对的程度不同。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 第一部分：你在这次生态旅游中各方面的体验 非常 反对 有点 中立 有点 赞成 非常 反对 反对 赞成 赞成 1. 这次体验增长了我的知识。 2. 我从这次旅游获益匪浅。 3. 这次体验激发了我学习新鲜事物的好奇心。 4. 这次体验很有教育意义。
5. 我在这次旅游中感受到和谐与平和。 6. 旅游中的景色很壮观。 7. 旅游中的环境很美。
8. 旅途中的活动很好玩。 9. 我真的很喜欢那些活动。 10. 旅游中的活动趣味性很强。
11. 这次旅游体验让我幻想自己是另一个人。 12. 我在旅游中感觉仿佛处在另一个’空间’里。 13. 我在旅游中感觉仿佛处在另一个’时间’里。 14. 这次旅游中，我完全脱离了真实生活。
15. 这次旅游体验调动了我全部的感官。 16. 这次旅游体验吸引了我全部的注意力。 17. 这次旅游的视觉体验很有趣。
226 18. 这次旅游体验给了我一个好心情。 19. 这次旅游体验让我情绪高涨。 20. 这次旅游体验调动了我的情感。
21. 我亲身体验了旅途中的活动。 22. 这次旅游需要身体上的活动。 23. 这次旅游是以亲身参与为主。
24. 我在这次旅游中思考了许多东西。 25. 这次旅游让我想了很多。 26. 这次体旅游激发了我的好奇心。 27. 这次旅游让我产生了许多新想法。
28. 通过这次旅游体验，我可以与兴趣相同的人建立联系。 29. 这次旅游会使我想起了一些社交规则。 30. 这次旅游体验增加了我与他人的联系。
31. 旅游中有的时候我沉浸其中而没有意识到周围的环境。 32. 在这次旅游中，我的身体虽然在景点，但是我的大脑却在旅游 所创造的世界里。 33. 这次旅游体验让我忘记了外面世界的真实情况。 34. 在旅游中的时候，我感觉旅游之前和之后发生了什么都变得不 重要了。
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 第二部分：您对这次生态旅游的总体感觉和评价 非常 反对 有点 中立 有点 赞成 非常 反对 反对 赞成 赞成 35. 这次旅游我觉得是值得来的。 36. 我对这次的旅游是满意的。 37. 这次旅游是有意义的。 38. 我喜欢这次旅游。
39. 这个旅游地有丰富的生态旅游资源。
227 40. 作为生态旅游地， 这个地方的环境保护和旅游开发之间有一 个好的平衡。 41. 这个地方符合一个生态旅游地的形象 。
42. 这个地方是一个让人兴奋的地方。 43. 这个地方的生态旅游让人耳目一新。 44. 这个生态旅游地能让人放松。
45. 这个生态旅游地提供有质量的生态旅游体验。 46. 到这个地方进行生态旅游会有不一样的体验。 47. 这个地方会提供难忘的生态旅游体验。
48. 这次旅游的总体质量不错。 49. 这是一次不错的旅游。 50. 这次旅游的质量符合我的基本标准。 51. 这次旅游组织得不错。
52. 这次旅游比较划算。 53. 在这次旅游花的钱是值得的。 54. 就价格来说，这次旅游是不错的。 55. 这次旅游的价格是合理的。
56. 这次旅游体验让我挺激动的。 57. 这次旅游让我感到幸福。 58. 这次旅游让我有了兴高采烈的感觉。 59. 这次旅游让我感到快乐。
60. 这次旅游让我得到了别人的认同。 61. 这次旅游让我感到被别人接受。 62. 这次旅游改善了别人对我的看法。 63. 通过这次旅游，我在别人心中留下了好的印象。
64. 参加这次旅游满足了我对这个旅游地的好奇心。 65. 参加这次旅游让我有种冒险的感觉。 66. 这次旅游是一个正宗的当地体验。
228 67. 我在这次旅游中做了许多以前没做过的事情。
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 第三部分：这次生态旅游对您的影响 非常 反对 有点 中立 有点 赞成 非常 反对 反对 赞成 赞成 68. 这次旅游让我想去进一步了解这个地方。 69. 因为这次旅游，我在未来会更加关注与这个地方有关的任何 事情。 70. 这次旅游让我在将来看到与这个地方有关的事情时会被吸引 注意力。
71. 这个景点对我来说有不同的意义。 72. 我喜欢这个景点。 73. 我对这个景点有一种很强的归属感。 74. 到这个景点旅游可以很好地证明我是谁。
75. 我会把这个景点推荐给亲戚朋友们。 76. 我会在亲戚朋友们面前大力宣传这个景点。 77. 我会给别人介绍这个景点的好的地方。
78. 我愿意再来这个景点旅游。 79. 如有可能，我会计划再来这个景点旅游。 80. 我可以预见到我将来会再次来这个景点旅游。
如果生态旅游是指以欣赏自然风貌为主，以保护当地可持续发展和 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 非常 反对 有点 中立 有点 赞成 非常 自然环境为前提，并以生态友好的方式开展旅游的一种旅游方式， 反对 反对 赞成 赞成 请问你对以下方面的态度是什么？ 81. 我会计划去中国别的生态旅游景点旅游。 82. 我可以预见到我将来会去中国别的生态旅游景点旅游。
83. 如有可能，我想去澳大利亚的生态旅游景点旅游。 84. 我将来有去澳大利亚进行生态旅游的想法。
85. 这次旅游让我更加关注自然环境的保护。 86. 因为这次旅游，我对自然环境保护的问题有了更好的理解。
229 87. 这次旅游体验让我对自然环境的保护更有兴趣了。 88. 这次旅游后，我会在行为上加强对自然环境的保护 。
89. 我知道很多关于生态旅游方面的知识。 90. 我对生态旅游感兴趣。 91. 我关注生态旅游。
请填写以下问题或在圈内打勾： A)在过去 5 年内，你去过几次生态旅游（包括这次）？ O 1-2 次 O 3-4 次 O 5-6 次 O 6-7 次 O 7 次以上 B)请在您的性别处打勾： O 男 O 女 C)您是澳洲公民或永久居民吗？ O 是的; 如果是：a)您在澳洲的常住城市是哪？______b)在澳洲约居住了多长时间？______年 ______月 O 不是; 如果不是：a)您在中国的常住居住地是哪？ ______省 ______市； b) 您以前来过澳洲几次？______次 D)请在您的年龄段打勾： O 18-30 岁 O 31-40 岁 O 41-50 岁 O 51-60 岁 O 大于 60 岁 E)请在您的教育程度打勾：O 中学 O 大专或本科 O 硕士 O 博士 F)您的收入情况大概是： O 比较低 O 中等偏下 O 中等 O 中等偏上 O 收入高 问卷结束，再次感谢您的参与。如果您想知道这个问卷的调查结果或者对澳大利亚的旅游感兴趣，请您留下以下任何一种联系方式：或微
信号 ：______或电子邮箱：______或电话：______
230