2.1 Introduction Energy is an essential ingredient for human life on earth. It is used in all activities of society, for preparing meals, making cloth, building house and other activities. Human beings have needed and used energy at an increasing rate for their sustenance and well-being. One of the important requirements of energy for man is in the form of food. A brief description of the profile of energy is presented in this chapter.
2.2 Types of Energy Sources
Primary and Secondary Energy
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass
(such as wood). Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth’s interior, and potential energy due to earths’ gravity.
Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.
Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price and used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable energy (inexhaustible) are mostly biomass based and are available in unlimited amount in nature. Since these can be renewed over a relatively short period of time, energy sources that are replenished more rapidly are termed as renewable. These include firewood or fuel wood from forest, petro plants, plant biomass ie. agricultural waste like animal dung, solar energy, wing energy, water energy in the form of hydro-electricity and tidal energy and geothermal energy etc.
Non-renewable energy (exhaustible) are available in limited amount and develop over a longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely to be exhausted one day. These include coal, mineral, natural gas and nuclear power. Coal, petroleum and natural gases are common sources of energy being organic (biotic) in this origin. They are also called fossil fuels.
2.3 Sources of Energy for Cooking in India
It is evident from Table 2.1 that around two-third of Indian households still use firewood and other bio mass for cooking purpose. It is noted that this source is the most harmful in terms of the emission of green house gases. Combustion of
19 biomass (firewood, dung cake, etc.) emits not only carbon dioxide, but also nitrous
(nitric) oxides and methane. The environment friendly fuel of LPG is being used by only about one-fifth of the population. Government attempts to provide kerosene and LPG have not touched around three-fourth of the households in the country.
Table: 2.1 - Primary Source of Energy Used for Cooking
Source Percent
Firewood and chips 61.4
LPG 17.1
Dung cake 9.5
Kerosene 5.0
Others 5.0
No cooking arrangement 2.0
Total 100
Source: Compiled from National Sample Survey 57 th round (2001-02)
20 2.3.1 Regional Variation in the Dependence on Sources of Cooking Energy
Table 2.2 shows that the dependence on firewood is more intense in states such as Uttaranchal, Chattisgarh, Rajastan, Orissa, MP, Jharkhand, and in most of the hilly states located in the North and Northeastern parts of the country. On the other hand, only a small percentage of households use firewood, and the majority use LPG in urbanized areas such as Delhi, Chandigarh, Goa, Pondichery, etc.
Kerosene is also widely used in urbanized areas and localities such as Sikkim and
Lakhshadeep where probably the availability of biomass is limited.
21 Table: 2.2 - State-wise Distribution of Primary Source of Cooking Energy
Fire wood Dung No cooking and chips LPG cake Kerosene Others arrangement Jammu & Kashmir 47.2 44.5 4.2 3.3 0.5 0.3 Himachal Pradesh 70.9 21.9 0 4.6 0.4 2.1 Punjab 29.7 37.6 13.9 15.1 1.7 2 Chandigarh 2.1 81.1 0 8.6 0 8.2 Uttaranchal 76.3 19.3 0.3 3.7 0.1 0.3 Haryana 40.1 37.6 17.8 3.9 0 0.6 Delhi 1.8 60 0.3 32 0.1 5.7 Rajastan 81.4 13.1 0.9 3.6 0.4 0.6 Uttar Pradesh 51.8 10.3 33.7 1.8 0.9 1.5 Bihar 47.3 3.2 20.7 2.2 26.3 0.2 Sikkim 46.7 24.4 0 18.1 0.6 10.2 Arunachal Pradesh 73.1 23.7 0 0.8 2.3 0 Nagaland 85 12.4 0.5 1.3 0 0.7 Manipur 70.1 25.4 0.3 1.4 1.8 1 Mizoram 54.5 42 0.1 1.8 1.6 0 Tripura 82.9 14.6 0 2.2 0.3 0 Meghalaya 89.8 7.2 0 0.8 0.9 1.3 Assam 83.6 14.3 0.1 1.6 0 0.4 West Bengal 53.8 14.5 3.4 6.6 19.4 2.2 Jharkhand 73.6 5.5 2.1 0.7 17 1.1 Orissa 88 3 3.8 1.1 3.6 0.6 Chattisgarh 77.5 4.4 9.3 0.3 8.3 0.2 Madhya Pradesh 77 16.2 1.5 3.9 0.6 0.9 Gujarat 57.2 24.3 2 11.4 2.4 2.7 Daman & Diu 14.1 39.6 0 27 0 19.3 Dadra & N. Haveli 52 27.6 0 12.2 0 8.2 Maharastra 47.7 31.3 0 9.2 7.2 4.5 Andra Pradesh 69.5 21.6 0.2 5.1 0.7 2.9 Karnataka 64.4 25.1 0.2 4.7 0.1 5.6 Goa 25.3 56.3 0 9.8 0 8.6 Lakshadweep 54 27.2 0 10.9 0 8 Kerala 69.6 26 0 1.8 0.3 2.3 Tamil Nadu 57.4 25.4 0.1 13.4 0.9 2.7 Pondicherry 35 45.5 1.5 12.2 0 5.8 A & N Islands 63.2 17.3 0 16 0 3.6 All India 61.4 17.1 9.5 5 4.9 2 Source: Compiled from National Sample Survey 57 th round (2001-02)
22 2.3.2 Long Term Energy Scenario for India
Coal
Coal is the predominant energy source for power production in India, generating approximately 70 percent of the total domestic electricity. Energy demand in India is expected to increase over the next 10-15 years. Although new oil and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the dominant fuel for power generation. Despite significant increases in total installed capacity during the last decade, the gap between electricity supply and demand continues to increase. The resulting shortfall has had a negative impact on industrial output and economic growth. However, to meet the expected future demand, indigenous coal production will have to be greatly expanded. Production currently stands at around
290 million tonnes per year, but coal demand is expected to more than double by
2010. Indian coal is typically of poor quality and as such requires to be beneficiated to improve the quality; Coal imports will also need to increase dramatically to satisfy industrial and power generation requirements.
Oil India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million tonnes in 2001-02 to around 139.95 million tonnes in 2006-07, according to projections of the Tenth Five-Year Plan.
23 Natural Gas
India's natural gas production is likely to rise from 86.56 million cmpd in
2002-03 to 103.08 million cmpd in 2006-07. It is mainly based on the strength of a more than doubling of production by private operators to 38.25 mm cmpd.
Electricity
India currently has a peak demand shortage of around 14 percent and an energy deficit of 8.4 percent. Keeping this in view and to maintain a GDP (gross domestic product) growth of 8 percent to 10 percent, the Government of India has very prudently set a target of 215,804 MW power generation capacity by March
2012 from the level of 100,010 MW as on March 2001, that is a capacity addition of 115,794 MW in the next 11 years.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclei of atoms can be broken down into two or more parts through artificial methods. In the same way two or more nuclei of light weight can be combined to form a big nucleus. The above two types or reactions are called
"Nuclear Reactions". During these reactions some of the atomic mass is converted into energy. This energy is called Nuclear Energy. The amount of the nuclear energy can be estimated by the following formula (By Einstein)
E = Energy
M = Mass
24 C = Velocity of light (3 x 10 8 m/sec.)
Even a very small quantity of matter can produce a greater amount of nuclear energy (because C2 = 9 x 10 16 ) for example, the energy produced by 3.5 millions tonnes of coal or 12 million tonnes of oil is equivalent to the nuclear energy produced by one tonne of Uranium. Uranium, Thorium and Radium are some important radio active elements, which give off specific rays like α (Alpha),
β (Beta) and ϒ (Gamma) due to spontaneous disintegration of their nuclei.
Atomic Reactors are furnaces used to release energy during nuclear reactions. The energy is generated in the form of heat, which is converted into steam. The steam can be used in running steam - turbines to produce electric energy. When a nucleus is broken down into two or more parts, the process is called "nuclear fission". The combination of two or more lighter nuclei of low mass is called "Nuclear Fusion".
Solar Energy
The energy of sun called solar energy can be used effectively. The earth receives energy continuously from the sun at the rate of about 75,000 x 10 KWH of energy every day Green Plants have the capacity to trap the solar energy and they convert to solar energy into chemical form by a process called photo synthesis. Most part of solar energy is left unused. Just 0.1% of this could meet the total world energy requirements. Scientists have developed ways and means to
25 trap solar energy artificially and convert into various forms like electrical, chemical and mechanical.
The solar radiation coming to the earth is called INSOLATION and it is in the form of electro magnetic waves. One square centimetre area on earth receives two calories of solar energy in one minute. It can be increased through artificial means to meet the energy requirement. Photo - chemical change involves changes due to heating effects of sun rays. eg. during our child hood days we might have played with leaves to burn papers by sun rays.
Some chemical changes also can occur in objects that absorb solar energy. eg. bright colour clothes fade away when put into strong sunlight continuously.
Black surfaces absorb sunlight and thus get heated. Sun light also causes the synthesis of starch in green plants (Photosynthesis).
6Co 2 + 12 H 2O Sunlight C 6H12 O6 + 6H 2O6 + 6O 2
When sunlight falls on some specific metals like sodium, potassium and lithium it activates the electrons inside it. The excited electrons after some time return to their original level after releasing the energy, It is called 'Photo Electric
Effect'.
All the above principles are used to convert solar energy into heat, chemical and electrical energy.
Solar cooker, solar oven (developed by Jodhpur's Central Arid Zone
Reseach Institute (CAZRI) space heating buildings during cold weather in USA signals at RS are examples of how solar energy can be used effectively.
26 Advantages
1. Can be used in remote and rural areas, ships and military camps where
there are no power lines.
2. Solar energy is available free of cost.
3. Cost of maintenance is very low.
4. The greatest and foremost advantage is that it does not produce wastes or
pollutants.
Disadvantages
1. Depends upon total hours of sunshine in a day affected by cloudy weather
and short winter days.
2. Solar cells, solar panels and solar energy conversion equipments are costly.
Progress in India
Solar cookers, solar heaters, solar desalination plants, solar photovoltaic electric power, generators and solar pump sets are being used even in remote villages. The following organisations develop solar energy system.
1. Department of Non - conventional energy sources (DNES)
2. Rural Electrification Corporation
3. Indian Institutes of Technology
4. Department of Metallurgy of Pune Engineering College.
27 Wind Power
The wind is air in motion. It is caused by differential heating of land, water, hills and mountain slopes by sun rays. There is kinetic energy in wind. Even in ancient times the great sailors utilized kinetic energy of the wind in sailing their ships around the globe.
The kinetic energy of wind is caused by its motion, the higher the velocity of wind the greater the kinetic energy in it. This velocity of wind is affected by solar radiation, which varies from season to season and from place to place. Strong winds blow in coastal plains and hill. The kinetic energy of the wind can be utilized by converting it into mechanical form. With this wind mills are operated.
Large blades of wind mills can convert much of the wind energy into mechanical form.
The installation of wind power generation system depends upon extensive survey, site selection, construction and machinery plantation. The continuous supply of electricity generated from wind power needs installation of electronically operated black - boxes (Synchronus Generator) which are very costly. At times there may be no wind and the power generation may stand still.
Progress in India
Wind energy is pollution free and a renewable source of energy. California with 17,000 turbines generating 1500MW is the world’s largest producer of wind energy. India started utilization of the wind power during the period of the VIIth
28 five year plan. It was found that on 80 per cent days winds in Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat below 10Km / hour for morethan 10 hours and 20 hours on 40 per cent days. Large scale research in this direction started in 1983. As a result wind power farms were established in different parts of Indian states and union territories. In 1995, the total wind energy potential was estimated, around 20,000 MW.
In Tamil Nadu, Muppandal in Kanyakumari district and Kayathar in
Thoothukudi District are the major wind energy producing places. Many villages in and around Muppandal developed economically because of this wind power.
Lot of employment opportunities were created. As the village Muppandal is situated in the mountain pass area of Western Ghat naturally it is well suited for the wind energy production.
Bio Mass Power
Bio mass means dry weight of organic matter produced by plants, their derivatives and wastes. It includes plant parts, animals and animal wastes. As biomass is the product of Photosynthesis by plants, bio mass energy is regarded as another form of indirect use of solar energy. It is very cheap, renewable and almost pollution free. Bio-mass energy has from the following three ways.
1. By incineration or controlled burning of fuel wood and agricultural left
over.
29 2. By converting bio - mass into alcohol through thermo chemical process and
using it in engines.
3. By making bio-gas (or Gobar gas) through bio-chemical conversion ie,
anaerobic (without air fermentation (digestion) of moist cattle.
The energy from bio-mass is very high. One cubic metre of bio-gas contains about 6000 calories which is equivalent to 0.8 litres of petrol, or 0.6 litres of crude oil or 1.5m 3 of natural gas, or 1.4kg of charcoal or 2.2 KWH of electrical energy.
Most of bio-gas is Methane (CH 4) at normal temperature and pressure. It is highly combustible and gives non - luminous flame. Estimates show that it can produce 22,500 million cubic metres of methane (Gobar gas) and 206 million metric tonnes of organic manual every year. Scientists have identified several species of plants (Petro - plants) that can be used as bio-mass sources. Green leaves, animal urine, animal fodder left over or waste and perishable food wastes are other bio - mass resources besides the animal dung. (Gobar)
The only limitation of this energy source is its availability. Population explosion or urbanization has already put excessive pressure on available cultivable land. So where is the land for the creation of more bio - mass?
Progress in India
The department of Non - conventional energy sources launched a National
Bio - gas Development Programme. The installation of these plants is going on all
30 over the country at the block and panchayat level in rural areas. During the year
1984 - 1985 alone 1,50,000 Bio - gas plants were installed. Now it is estimated that about 3,30,000 bio-gas plants are working in India.
2.3.3 Power Generation in India
The total power consumption in the State during the last twenty five years has shown about six-fold increase. In Tamil Nadu, energy use has been increasing at a faster rate in respect of domestic and agricultural purpose as compared to commercial and industrial uses. However, in view of inadequate and intermittent supply of power, a large number of industrial establishments have captive power generation capabilities, which apparently explain the relatively low growth of commercial and industrial use of energy. During the last three decades Tamil
Nadu’s total installed capacity has increased more than three and a half times. Yet, the demand for electricity continues to increase at an accelerated rate with the result energy and peaking shortages hamper the growth of industrial and other sectors. Apparently, to meet the increasing demand for energy supply, the public sector investment will necessarily have to be supplemented by capacity addition in the private sector. The Government of India have initiated a number of measures to further the pace of reforming the power sector in the country and make the State
Electricity Boards more vibrant. (Policy Initiatives: Government of India).
1. The energy Conservation Bill 2000, which envisages the efficient use of
energy and its conservation was introduced. Efforts are being made to
31 create awareness about energy conservation potential by better
housekeeping, proper maintenance and better control of instruments;
2. To ensure efficiency of the thermal plants, special schemes have been
devised to renovate / modernize and refurbish old plants. Plants at the verge
of senescence are to be modernized by inducting latest technologies;
3. Scheme for securitisation of dues of Central Sector Power and coal utilities
to assist the State Electricity Board to clear these dues was initiated;
4. Policy on Hydro Power Development lays stress on exploitation of hydel
potential available at a faster rate by providing of incentives viz.,
rationalizing the tariff for hydro projects and simplifying the procedure of
obtaining clearances. Projects with less than 25 MW are to be given to the
Ministry of non - conventional energy sources;
5. The Government of India has formulated the revised Mega Power Policy to
generate power at the lowest possible tariff by setting up such plants at the
pit heads;
6. Assistance is given to the State's Power Sector to reform and for
investments on renovation and modernization of old and inefficient plants
and strengthening of the distribution system.
32 2.3.4 Energy and Environment
The interaction between energy and environment has been dealt with extensively by ecologists and environmental economists. A given abiotic physicochemical environment and its particular biotic assemblage of plants, animals and microbes constitute an ecological system or ecosystem; a pond, a field, a forest, an ocean, or even an aquarium’. Human use of energy has an effect on the eco system in which the energy is used and the changes caused contribute, probably negatively to the environment leading to ecological imbalance. The toxic effects of chemical and physical agents affect not only the living organisms but also the environment as a whole.
The pattern of generation and use of energy indiscriminately, over a period of time create the global concern on environmental protection. The greenhouse effect, acid rain, the ozone hole, and the immediate health hazards necessitate environmental awareness, at all levels of human activities.
Oil, natural gas, and coal being the major energy resources, their depletion poses the need for identifying alternate energy resources. Huge amount of money is invested on identifying alternative energy resources besides exploring oil and gas in different areas in the globe. While it is certain that the globe will not sustain the energy requirements from conventional sources the need for identifying renewable energy resources is acute.
The actions to protect the global environment cannot be an event that may last for just a few decades; it has to be a long drawn process. As such the effort has
33 to be all pervasive. Conceptually in a broader sense the energy and environmental education has to be at the first instance to for the policy makers at the national and
Global level. Economists and politicians may not go for short term profits at the cost of long term welfare. Also, they should assume, while taking any decision that their primary responsibility is to leave their country as a better place for the next generation. Environmental education should result in a firm belief that the present generation may have to sacrifice a lot in the interest of the future generations.
The other end from which the environmental education can start is in the minds of the children. The desired end points of interest at different levels of biological organization should be taught to the children and they must be made aware of the environmental values that are to be protected. Special teaching methods may be deployed wherein the children’s learning is activity-based and experiential. Children must be exposed to various fields of study on ecology and environment, disasters and managing disasters and so on. Ready made teaching and training kits may be designed and used.
2.4 Energy Development in Tamil Nadu
The most important single factor, which can act as a constraint on the economic growth of a country, is the availability of energy. There is a direct correlation between the degree of economic growth, the size of per capita income and per capita consumption of energy. Since energy is an essential input of all
34 productive economic activity, the process of economic development inevitably demands increasing higher levels of energy consumption. So the energy development is very important in all the countries.
Energy development has been given high priority by the State and Centre over the plan periods. In Tamil Nadu, the State Sector investment for power development has been very high. Cumulatively upto the IX plan, over 22 percent of plan expenditure had been devoted for the development of this vital infrastructure. The power sector attracted the highest allocation during the first three plan periods (37.7%, 42.2% and 37.6% respectively). It may be noted that a sum of Rs.8,030 crores accounting for 20.07 percent of X plan outlay has been earmarked for energy development.
Energy Sector Policies and Financial Support Measures
Among the factors that have led to distortion in the supply and demand of cleaner petroleum-derived cooking fuels (Kerosene, LPG) at national level have been government price controls, particularly subsidies on domestic kerosene and
LPG, and protection of state oil monopolies, for example through import restrictions and discrimination against the private sector.
Although the measures may have been introduced with a view to making cleaner fuels more accessible to the poor, universal fuel subsidies have often tended to be counter-productive, with wealthier people, who have better access to these fuels, gaining most advantage.
35 To reduce the adverse fiscal impact of such policies, some governments have supplemented a heavy kerosene subsidy with a ration system that made subsidised kerosene available in small amounts, but not sufficient for cooking. In addition, a price differential between domestic kerosene and LPG on one hand and other petroleum products that are close substitutes (e.g. commercial kerosene and
LPG, and diesel) have led to illegal diversion of domestic fuels to the commercial and transport sector; thus further reducing their availability for the poor.
Lack of incentives and enabling environments for the private sector may also slow growth in supply, removal of infrastructure bottlenecks and development of effective marketing strategies. Although in some countries, the recent removal of subsidies on kerosene is believed to have pushed poor families back to reliance on biofuels, "across-the board" subsidies are neither a sustainable nor an efficient tool for addressing the needs of the poor.
Subsidy schemes should always be carefully assessed and designed to target households in greatest need. In particular, carefully targeted financial support for technical development and production of appliances, and for infrastructure for marketing and transport may be reasonable.
Biogas: In another successful programme, financial incentives were used in a biogas project in India where meeting of quality standards and durability of the biogas system were rewarded in the form of an additional bonus. A mechanism that is receiving growing attention is the provision of affordable micro-credit to
36 households: if used to support the purchase of efficient appliances that reduce fuel
(and health) costs in the long term, this could be a powerful instrument for change.
The generation of power and the consumption of power in Tamil Nadu are given in Table 2.3.
Table: 2.3 – Electricity in 2000 - 2001 A. Generation of Electricity (Gross) - (in m.u.) Percentage
a. Hydro 5,450 13.05
b. Wind Mill Generation 18 0.04
c. Thermal 19,464 46.60
d. Power Purchased 16,617 39.80
e. Gas Turbine 215 0.51
Total 41,764 100.00
B. Consumption of Electricity (in m.u.)
a. Agriculture 9,095 27.22
b. Industry 11,751 35.16
c. Commercial 3,148 9.42
d. Domestic 7,176 21.47
e. Public Lighting and Water works 902 2.70
f. Sales to other States 211 0.63
g. Miscellaneous (including Traction and Railways) 1,135 3.40
Total 33,418 100.00
Source: Tamilnadu hand book 2001.htm
37 There was a moderate gain during 2002 – 03 both in building installed power generation capacities (4.3 %) and also on the gross power availability
(5.7%), despite a setback in the hydel generation. To meet the increasing demand, the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board resorted to a higher level of purchase during the year and ensured unrestricted supply to all the categories of consumers. The per capita consumption of power increased from 567 units in 2001 – 02 to 586 units in
2002 – 03. This information is given in Table 2.4.
The total installed capacity of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board as on
31.12.2004 was 9394 Mega Watts (MW). This comprises 5381 MW of TNEB’s own projects, 1066 MW of Private Sector Projects, 2587 MW as share from
Central Sector Projects and external assistance of 360 MW. Apart from this, a total capacity of 1664 MW is available from wind mills in the Private Sector and 19
MW of power from the wind mills of TNEB. Besides this a total capacity of 275
MW is available from Co-generation plants and 31 MW from Bio-mass plants.
The maximum peak demand so far reached is 7,468 MW (on 23.02.2005).
The growth of energy consumption is expected to be of the order of 6% per annum. Energy consumption during 2004 - 05 upto December 2004 was 38,462
Million Units (MU) with a maximum daily consumption of 154.942 MU on
23.02.2005.
38 Table: 2.4 – Power Sector – Profile
Details 2000 - 01 2001 - 02 2002 - 03
1. Installed Capacity (MW) 7,513.4 7,924.7 8,268.8
i. State’s Own 5,213.1 5,213.1 5,308.1
ii. Central Sector 1,905.0 1,913.0 1,903.0
iii. IPPs 301.7 729.1 988.2
iv. Captive Power 93.6 69.5 69.5
2. Power Generation (mu) 25,147 25,562 24,929
3. Power Purchase (mu) 16,617 18,358 21,263
4. Gross Power Availability (mu) 41,764 43,920 46,414
5. Total consumption within the state (mu) 33,418 35,202 36,347
6. Per capita consumption (units) 510 567 586
7. Number of consumers (lakhs) 145.73 153.43 160.16
8. Peak Demand (lakhs) 6,290 6,687 6,957
9. Line loss (%) 16.50 16.25 18.0
10. Auxiliary Consumption (mu) 1,672 1,791 1,878
Source: Economic Appraisal 2002 – 03, Evolution and Applied Research Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, Kuralagam, Chennai, P.86.
As on 31.12.2004 there were 1069 substations, 1.46 lakh kms. of Extra
High Tension / High Tension (EHT/HT) lines, 4.75 lakh kms. of Low Tension
(LT) lines, 1.59 lakh distribution transformers and 169.10 lakh service connections.
39 To meet the increase in demand, the TNEB has planned to augment its generating capacity to 2,408.8 MW and to correspondingly expand the transmission and distribution system during the X Plan period (2002 - 07).
2.4.1 Performance of Power Generation in Tamil Nadu
In Tamil Nadu, energy use has been increasing at a faster rate in respect of domestic and agricultural purpose as compared to commercial and industrial uses.
However, in view of inadequate and intermittent supply of power, a large number of industrial establishments have captive power generation capabilities, which apparently explains the relatively low growth of commercial and industrial use of energy. During the last three decades Tamil Nadu’s total installed capacity has increased more than three and a half times. Yet, the demand for electricity continues to increase at an accelerated rate with the result energy and peaking shortages hamper the growth of industrial and other sectors. The profile of the power sector in Tamil Nadu is presented in Table 2.5.
The table 2.5 reveals that, the year 1999 - 2000 witnessed an accelerated growth in power generation by 6.4 percent and the total power consumption by
9.3 percent as compared to (-) 4.0 percent and 3.8 percent respectively during
1998 - 99. Power purchases which increased by 18.5 percent in 1998 - 99 decreased to 13.3 percent in 1999 - 2000. The per capita consumption steadily increased from 430 units in 1997 - 98 to 452 units in 1998 - 99 and further to 480 units in 1999 - 2000.
40
Table: 2.5 - Power Sector: A Profile in Tamil Nadu
% % % Items 1997- 98 Change 1998 - 99 Change 1999 - 00 Change
1. Installed Capacity (MW) 6,916.105 0.1 7,119.605 2.9 7,203.555 1.2
2. Generation (mu) 23,066 0.5 22,141 -4.0 23,549 6.4
3. Power Purchases (mu) 10,999 12.8 13,031 18.5 14,764 13.3 4. Gross Power Availability (mu) 34065 4.2 35,172 3.2 38,313 8.9
5. Total Power Consumption 26,740 4.5 27,657 3.8 30,238 9.3 (Million units)
6. Per Capita (Consumption units) 430 2.4 452 5.1 480 6.2
7. Number of Agricultural Pumpsets Energized 16.10 2.5 16.44 2.1 16.79 2.1 (lakhs)
Source: www.govt.tn.in. Note: % percentage change over previous year
The table concludes that the power generation increases year by year, and at
the same time the power purchase also increases. So there is a negative
41 relationship between the power generation and power purchase. It is not appreciated. So the government should take necessary action to increase the power generation.
2.4.2 Capacity of State's Own Projects
The installed power generating capacity at the command of Tamil Nadu
Electricity Board gained visible improvements during 1998 - 99 and
1999 - 2000. The source-wise number of powerhouses and installed capacities are depicted in Table 2.6.
Table: 2.6 – Tamil Nadu State Owned Projects
No. of Power Houses Installed Capacity (MW)
Source 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00
Hydro 27 28 30 1955.75 1963.25 1995.20 (38.5) (38.6) (39.0)
Thermal 4 4 4 2970 2970 2970 (58.5) (58.4) (58.1)
Gas 2 2 2 130 130 130 (2.6) (2.6) (2.5)
Wind 10 10 10 19.355 19.355 19.355 (0.40) (0.4) (0.4)
Total 43 44 46 5,075.105 5,082.605 5,114.555 (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: www.govt.tn.in. Note: Figure in brackets indicates share to total
42 Table 2.6 explains that, the total installed capacity of the State’s own projects rose from 5075.105 MW in 1997 - 98 to 5114.555 MW in 1999 - 2000.
All the additions (39 MW) came from the three-hydel stations – Sathanur (7.5
MW), Parsons Valley (30MW) and Tirumurthi Mini (1.95 MW). It is significant to note that the State has been taking efforts for exploiting even the mini and micro hydel sources to augment the capacity. With no additions possible in respect of other sources, the share of hydel capacity marginally improved from
38.5 percent in 1997 - 98 to 39.0 percent during 1999 - 2000. In Tamil Nadu thermal and hydropower houses are the important sources of energy.
2.4.3 Shared Capacity from Central Sector Projects
Substantial quality of the power has been added to the State grid by means of purchases made from Central Sector Projects such as Neyveli I and II, National
Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), Ramagundam and Madras Atomic Power
Project (MAPP), Kalpakkam. One notable addition to this category is the Kaiga
Atomic Power station in Karnataka, the purchases from which were linked with the State grid in 1998 - 99. The installed capacities of the three sectors are presented in Table 2.7.
43
Table: 2.7 - Installed Capacity: Central Sector Projects (MW)
Project 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00
1. Neyveli I & II 1,041 1,041 1,041
2. NTPC 470 470 470
3. MAPP & Kaiga 330 330 382
Total 1,841 1,841 1,893
Source: www.govt.tn.in.
Table 2.7 reveals that, the share of installed capacities from the Central
Sector Projects, a modest addition of 52 MW was possible with the commissioning of the Kaiga Nuclear Power Project in Karnataka during
1999 - 2000. This addition came as a much needed relief after several years of stagnancy and helped improve the capacity due from Central Sector Projects from
1,841 MW to 1893 MW.
2.4.4 Capacity Creation by Private Sector in Tamil Nadu
The Tamil Nadu government encourages the private power sectors - both thermal power and windmill power. The capacity creation of private sector is explained in Table 2.8.
Private sector came into play in power development for the first time in
1997 - 98. In 1998 - 99, a quantum of 196 MW (4 units each of 49 MW) Diesel
44 Electric Power Project (DEPP) was commissioned. Encouraged by the private sector participation, a total capacity of 7,390.06 MW has been awarded to private sector. Even if a portion of it could be brought to fruition every year with favourable pricing agreements, the power needs of the State could be adequately met. It is also noteworthy, that the State has made great strides in exploiting non- conventional sources of energy, especially, wind energy with the help of private sector.
Table: 2.8 - Capacity Creation: Private Sector (MW)
Category 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00
1. Thermal Power Project (GMR Vasavi) - 196.0 196.0
2.Wind Mills
i. Muppandal 117.0 117.7 166.1 ii. Perungudy 261.3 283.5
iii. Kayathar and Devi Kulam 46.2 48.7 63.1
iv. Poolavadi 143.9 143.9
v. Sultanpet 275.6 46.5 51.4
vi. Kethanur 88.4 91.8
Total (Wind Mills) 487.9 705.8 751.4
Grand Total 487.9 901.8 947.4
Source: www.govt.tn.in.
45 2.4.5 Power Generation
Remarkable recovery in the thermal generation and sustained improvement in the generation of performance of the gas turbines and windmills helped compensate the set back in the hydel generation during 1999 - 2000. It is displayed in Table 2.9.
Table: 2.9 - Power Generation - Source-wise
Electricity Generated (mu)
Source 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 –00
Hydel 5,287 (24.3) 4,918 (-7.0) 4,444 (-9.6)
Thermal 17,682 (-4.9) 17,076 (-3.4) 19,861 (10.5)
Wind & Gas 97 (-5.8) 147 (51.5) 244 (66.0)
Total 23,066 (0.5) 22,141 (-4.0) 24,549 (6.4)
Source: www.govt.tn.in Note: Figure in bracket indicates percentage change over the previous year
Table 2.9 indicates the electricity generated through hydel capacity has been declining in the recent years from 5,287 mu in 1997-98 to 4,918 mu in 1998 -
99 and further to 4,444 mu in 1999 - 2000. The thermal power generation is displayed in Table 2.10.
46 Table: 2.10 - Thermal Power Generation Generation (mu) PLF (%)
Source 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 – 00 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 – 00
Ennore 1,924 1,799 1,295 49 46 33
Thoothukudi 6,906 6,596 7,449 75 72 81
Mettur 5,440 5,004 5,786 74 68 78
North Chennai 3,412 3,677 4,331 62 67 78
Total 17,682 17,076 18,861 68 66 72
Source: www.govt.tn.in
Table 2.10 shows the details of the total thermal power generation during
1999 - 2000 that increased by 10.5 percent to reach 18,861 mu. The performance
of all the thermal stations was quite impressive save that of the Ennore Thermal
Plant. The overall Plant Load Factor (PLF) which indicates the operational
efficiency of the plants and defined as the ratio of average load carried by a power
station to the maximum load, increased from 66 percent in 1998 - 99 to 72 percent
in 1999 - 2000. This table discloses that the total thermal power generation
increased at a considerable rate.
2.4.6 Non-conventional Sources of Energy
Wind energy, solar energy, biomass and other forms of bio energy, tidal
energy, fuel cell, ocean-thermal and geo-thermal energy are important among
renewable energy sources. Among these sources, though the first three renewable
47 energy sources, namely, wind, solar and bio energy are being harnessed in a big way in India and in Tamil Nadu, the other sources have not yet reached a stage of commercial exploitation. The following table is given to show the energy generation from non-conventional source.
Table: 2.11 - Energy Generation from Non-conventional Source (mu)
Source 1999- 00 2000 - 01 2001 - 02 2002 - 03
1. Government Wind 27.2 19.5 17.8 19.5 Solar 0.05 0.13 0.12 0.15 Co-generation Plants 60.0 54.0 54.0 54.0 Total 87.25 73.63 71.92 73.65 2. Private Wind 1,129.4 1,070.7 1,239.3 1,286.2 Solar -- 339 0.031 0.018 Co-generation Plants 312 - 340.0 546.0
Total 1,441.4 1,409.7 1,579.331 1,832.218 Source: Economic Appraisal 2002 – 03, Evolution and Applied Research Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, p.95.
The major share of this comes from wind energy followed by biogas based co-generation plants in sugar industry. It may be noted that investments in these projects have mainly come from private sector.
48
2.5 Energy Consumption in Households
The household sector, the most important one, consumes 70 percent of the energy even now which is absolutely necessary for survival. Of the various facts of energy problems confronting the developing countries, the problem of energy, affecting the household sector is important. As Elizabeth Cecelski observes, “In most of the developing countries, the household sector is still the largest single energy consuming sector”. 1
A household requires a minimum amount of energy for sheer survival. But, the actual amount of energy consumed by a household depends on several factors such as education, income, family size, price of energy occupation, cost of stove, fuel types, plinth area of the house in sq. feet, hours of cooking and nature of stove and location of kitchen that also influence household energy consumption.
Households require both commercial and non-commercial source of energy for various uses. Commercial sources include electricity, kerosene, petrol, diesel and L.P. Gas. Non-commercial sources consist of firewood, dung cake, and agricultural wastes. Among the fuels consumed by the households, firewood forms a major share. In the face of global energy crisis with the fast depleting situation of primary sources of energy like coal, oil and gas and depleting forest resources in the country, it is essential not only to use these fuels more efficiently and sensibly but also to look for better and improved heating and cooking ovens.
1 Elizabeth Cecelski, “Energy and Rural Women’s Work: Crisis. Response and Policy Alternatives”, International Labour View , 126 (1): 1987, p.41.
49 In the context of these situations, the present study pays attention to investigate the existing patterns of energy consumption of the households and to suggest ways to optimize energy use with care to protect the environment.
2.6 Rural Energy Consumption Pattern
The Tiruchendur taluk is about 30 kilometres from the district headquarters.
It covers an area of 546 sq.km and comprises 51 villages. According to the 2001 census, the total population of the taluk was 3,08,154. The rural energy consumption patterns in Tiruchendur taluk are given in Table 2.12.
A study of the energy consumption pattern in the Tiruchendur taluk indicates that although all types of fuels are currently in use, most domestic needs are met only by firewood. Monthly per capita consumption of fuel wood was 89 kg, of kerosene 0.25 litres (mainly for lighting), of electricity 2 kWh, and LPG gas
12 kg.
50 Table: 2.12 – Rural Energy Consumption Pattern in Tiruchendur Taluk
Basic Data Geographical Area (according to village records) Sq.km 546 Villages No. 51 Households No. 37,569 Population (2001 census) Persons 3,08,154 Rural Population Persons 1,57,557 Net Area Shown (2005) H.a 15,634 Cultivable wasteland H.a 11,773 Forest Area H.a 5,168 Livestock Population No. 1,45,772 Number of renewable Energy Systems installed Solar Heaters No. 2 Photovoltaic panel for street lighting No. 125 Source: Compiled from DRDA records, Collector Office, Thoothukudi.
2.7 Electricity in Thoothukudi
The Thoothukudi Thermal Power Station (TTPS) is the biggest power station in Tamil Nadu under the control of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board with three units of 2 tonne M.W. each generating 50 million units of energy daily. The first unit was commissioned in July, 1979, the second in December 1980 and the third in March 1982. This power station feeds about 1/3 of the total power demand of Tamil Nadu.
51 Generation of Electricity (in M.U) a) Wind Mill Generation : 28.1 b) Thermal : 6,596 c) Power purchased : 28.1 Consumption of Electricity (in M.U) a) Agriculture : 36 b) Industry : 369 c) Commercial : 60 d) Domestic : 132 e) Public lighting and water works 25
2.7.1 Biogas Plant
In the Thoothukudi district people seldom use cow dung as fuel for domestic purposes. On the contrary it is used both as a manure and meagre input for the production of cobar gas in household and institutions for cobar gas plants are very liberal items. The life span of these plants has been estimated at 25 years.
Cobar gas plants are available in three models. They include K.K. model, Janata model and Deenapandu model. The biogas plant installation in the Thoothukudi district is presented in Table 2.13.
52 Table: 2.13 – Biogas Plant Installation in Thoothukudi District
(in Number) Achievement Year Target Achieved percentage
1994 – 95 200 200 100.00 1995 – 96 210 75 35.71 1996 – 97 100 56 56.00 1997 – 98 50 45 90.00 1998 – 99 40 17 42.50 1999 – 00 40 40 100.00 2000 – 01 65 65 100.00 2001 – 02 70 70 100.00 2002 – 03 60 60 100.00 2003 – 04 60 60 100.00 2004 – 05 41 41 100.00 2005 – 06 41 32 78.05 Total 977 761 77.89 Source: Compiled from District Hand Book, 2005 –06.
The table 2.13 reveals that, there are 761 biogas plants installed in the
Thoothukudi district. Year after year the plant shows a downward trend. The average achievement of a biogas plant is 77.89 percent. So the government should take necessary steps to create awareness related to biogas plants. Bio-gas is a renewable and the cheapest source of energy.
53 2.7.2 Improved Chulha
As a major harmony device the government has embarked on a massive programme of supplying improved chulha through local government and voluntary organizations. The chulha supplied are in different models. They are
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University model, Sukhad model and smokeless model.
The panchayat unions, District Rural Development Agency and voluntary organizations, with a subsidy of 50 percent, supply these chulhas. Portable chulhas enjoy more advantages like better burning of firewood, no smoke, no air blowing, high thermal efficiency and finally saving of fire wood over 25 percent.
Table 2.14 shows that in 1990 –91 the total improved chulhas supplied in
Thoothukudi district was 2,340, but it has decreased to 825 numbers of improved chulhas in the year 2004 – 05. The improved chulhas supplied by the panchayat union is less compared to those supplied by the District Rural Development
Agency. The table draws the conclusion that the improved chulhas supplied in the
Thoothukudi district show a decreasing trend because the people change their energy pattern.
54 Table: 2.14 – Improved Chulahs Supplied in the Thoothukudi District
(No.) By Panchayat Year Union By DRDA Total
1990 – 91 1340 1000 2340 1991 – 92 1400 1000 2400 1992 – 93 200 500 700 1993 – 94 - 1000 1000 1994 – 95 - 1000 1000 1995 – 96 200 - 200 1996 – 97 650 1500 2150 1997 – 98 850 1000 1850 1998 – 99 630 800 1430 1999 – 00 500 1000 1500 2000 – 01 300 800 1100 2001 – 02 250 500 750 2003 - 04 250 500 750 2004 - 05 325 500 825 Source: Compiled from DRDA records, Thoothukudi.
2.7.3 Solar Street Light Installation in the Thoothukudi District
In the Thoothukudi district totally 175 solar street lights have been installed. Table 2.15 shows the number of such solar street lights in the district year wise.
55
Table: 2.15 – Solar Street Light Installation in the Thoothukudi District
(in Number) Achievement Year Target Achieved percentage
2002 – 03 25 25 100
2003 – 04 50 50 100
2004 – 05 50 50 100
2005 – 06 50 50 100
Total 175 175 100
Source: Compiled from District Hand Book (2005 –06)
The table 2.15 reveals that in the year 2002 – 03 the Thoothukudi district installed the solar streetlights. In the year 2002 – 03, 25 solar streetlights were installed but in the year 2003 – 04, 50 solar streetlights were installed. After that there is no improvement in this regard.
2.7.4 Kerosene
It is the most popular conventional type of commercial energy source in use among households. In 2001 family cardholders in ‘A’ grade municipalities were entitled to get a minimum of not less than 10 litres of kerosene per month. But the same was fixed at five litres in B grade municipalities and town panchayats and three litres in village panchayats. The details regarding kerosene consumption through fair price shops in the Tiruchendur taluk is presented in Table 2.16.
56 Table: 2.16 – Kerosene Consumption through fair price shops in the Tiruchendur Taluk (in Litre) Consumption Population Year (per month) Covered
2000 – 01 21,845 57,854
2001 – 02 23,458 59,443
2002 – 03 25,540 59,530
2003 – 04 26,382 59,817
2004 –05 28,785 59,866
Source: District Statistical Office, Thoothukudi
Table 2.16 explains that in 2000 – 01, 21,845 litres of kerosene consumption covered a population of 57,854. The average kerosene consumption was 0.378 litre. In 2004 – 05 it was increased to 0.481 litre. The average consumption of kerosene has increased and it means the people mostly use this type of energy compared to the bio-fuels.
In the Tiruchendur taluk 145 ration shops distribute essential goods through
66,194 family cards. A block-wise distribution of ration shops and family cards is given in Table 2.17.
57 Table: 2.17 – Ration Shops of the Tiruchendur Taluk
No. of BPL APL Total no. of Block Ration Cards Cards Family Shops Cards
Alwarthirunagari 52 10,768 9,884 20,652
Tiruchendur 48 13,896 11,596 25,492
Udangudi 45 10,540 9,510 20,050
Total 145 35,204 30,990 66,194
Source: Statistical Hand Book, 2004 - 05, Thoothukudi District, Thoothukudi
The table gives above accounts for the lowest number of ration shops in the taluk. While distributing kerosene, ration shops disqualify those who own two liquefied petroleum gas cylinders from availing themselves of the monthly quota of it. However, those who own only one cylinder are rendered eligible for the monthly supply of a minimum of just three litres.
2.8 District Profile
A brief description of the profile of the study area namely the Tiruchendur block in the Thoothukudi district, is presented in this chapter. It provides a backdrop for the analysis.
The Thoothukudi District carved out of the erstwhile Tirunelveli District in
1986 has certain rare features. The mixed landscape of the sea and the ‘theri’
(waste) lands has imbibed some special traits in the character of the sons of the
58 soil. Valour, devotion and patriotism are the watchwords of the people here. The story of our country’s freedom struggle cannot be complete without mentioning the supreme sacrifices of the illustrious sons of the district like V.O.Chidamparam
Pillai who brought the first Swadeshi ship ‘Galia’ to the Thoothukudi port and
Veerapandi Kattabomman who waged a war against the British.
The poet Subramania Bharathi born at Ettayapuram in this district was also a proud son of the soil.
Inception
The Government in their G.O. Ms.No.535 / Revenue Department dated
23.4.1986 ordered the formation of a new district called the Chidambaranar district which is named after the great patriot and freedom fighter Late
V.O.Chidambaram Pillai. It was formed on 8-9-1986, with its headquarters at
Tuticorin, by bifurcating the erstwhile Tirunelveli District. 2 The district has been renamed as the Thoothukudi district from 1997 as per the G.O. Ms. No. 618/
Revenue Administration (1) Department dated 1-7-1997.
Location
The Thoothukudi district is bounded by the Virudhunagar district on the
North, Tirunelvelli district on the South and West and the Bay of Bengal on the
2 District Industry Centre, Chidambaranar District at Tuticorin – Action Plan for 1989-90 to 1993 - 94, p . 2.
59 East. It lies between 0.8 and 45’ of the Northern longitude and 78 and 11’ of the
Eastern longitude. The total area of the district is 4621 square kilometres. 3
There are three Revenue divisions (namely Thoothukudi, Kovilpatti and
Tiruchendur), eight taluks and 12 blocks in the district. This district comprises 19 town panchayats and two municipalities. There are 468 revenue villages grouped in 408 panchayats.
Climate and Rainfall
The climate of Thoothukudi is neither too hot nor too cold. During the months of April, May and June the Thoothukudi district is hot. During winter, that is, in the months of December and January, the climate is pleasant.
Table: 2.18- Rainfall – Season-wise during 2003-04, Thoothukudi District
(in millimetres) Normal Seasons Period Actual Rainfall Cold weather Jan-Feb 46.6 41.7
Hot weather March to May 112.2 108.6
South West monsoon June to September 86.8 48.1
North East Monsoon Oct to December 410.1 319.5
Total 655.7 517.9
Source: District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.
3 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
60
Tiruchendur Block
Alwarthirunagari Block
Udangudi Block
Map: 2.1 – Area of Study
61 The maximum temperature is 35.7 0 C and the minimum is 24.5 0 C. The rainfall is high in the coastal taluks namely Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur. The normal rainfall of the district is 655.7mm but the actual rainfall varies year to year, and the variation is large. 4
Table 2.20 reveals the rainfall in Thoothukudi district during 2002-‘03.
When the North East Monsoon started, the actual rainfall was higher namely,
319.5 millimetres. During the cold season the actual rainfall was very low that is,
41.7 millimetres.
Irrigation
Tambrabarani, the perennial river benefits about 19,000 hectares in the
Thoothukudi district, through 52 system tanks. The river rises from Agasthiar
Malai in Pothigai hills in the Western Ghats, passes through, Ambasamudram,
Tirunelveli, Srivaikuntam and Tiruchendur taluks (the former two taluks are in the
Tirunelveli District) (the latter two taluks are in the Thoothukudi district) and enters into the sea at Punnakayal (in the Thoothukudi district) a place between
Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur. The most fertile lands lie on either sides of the river 5. The rest of the lands in other taluks are dry lands. In the taluks of
Tiruchendur, Srivaikuntam and some pockets of Thoothukudi, there are wind blown sandy belts, red in colour, with sand dunes, which are locally known as
4 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District. 5 Durairaj.S, “An Agricultural Profile- Tuticorin”, The Hindu, dated January 1,1998 – Magazine B, p.8.
62 ‘Theri’. The net area under irrigation through government canal is 3,873 hectares, through tank irrigation, 18,040 hectares, through tube wells 256 hectares and by other wells 20,406 hectares.
Agriculture
The district economy is largely agrarian. Important agricultural crops are paddy, chillies, banana, cumbu, chenna and cotton. The total cultivated area in the
Thoothukudi district is 1,65,998 hectares of which the net area sown is 1,60,992 hectares and the rest is 5,006 hectares. 6. The intensity of cropping is very low, because most of the cultivated land is rain fed.
Industry
The Thoothukudi coastal area is noted for salt manufacturing. At
Thoothukudi, the Central Government has a Research Centre for marine salt in addition to the State Government’s units. There are two industrial estates in the district, one at Kovilpatti and another at Thoothukudi. The major industrial units in the Thoothukudi district are Southern Petro Chemical Industries Corporation
(SPIC), Tuticorin Alcaline Company (TAC), Dharangadara Chemical Works
(DCW), Sterlite Copper Smelting Industries, Heavy Water Plant and Thermal
Power Project.
6 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
63 Forest
The total reserved forest area is 11,012 hectares. In the total forest products, timber contributes 69.857 cu.m., fuel wood 13,273 metric ton and cashew 5.24 tons.
Demographic Situation
In the 2001census, the Thoothukudi district had a population of 15,72,773 persons of which 7,66,823 were males and 8,05,450 were females. The rural population accounted for 9,07,500 persons while the urban population was
6,64,773. The density of population in the district was 340 persons per square kilometre. 7 The total population of the Tiruchendur taluk is 3,08,154 persons out of which 1,45,714 are males and 1,62,440 females.
7 District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.
64
Table: 2.19 – Classification of Area and Population Block wise (2001 Census) (in number) Population Name of the Block Area (sq.k.m) Persons Male Female
Thoothukudi 366 4,05,363 2,03,368 2,01,995
Srivaikuntam 244 1,12,440 54,799 57,641
Karunkulam 349 79,443 38,673 40,770
Tiruchendur 136 1,18,862 56,591 62,271
Udangudi 197 72,415 33,454 38,961
Alwarthirunagari 213 1,16,877 55,669 61,208
Satankulam 276 80,396 36,151 44,245
Ottapidaram 738 1,14,759 56,989 57,770
Kovilpatti 419 2,04,371 1,00,254 1,04,117
Kayathar 570 1,03,713 50,236 53,477
Vilathikulam 623 91,560 44,936 46,624
Pudur 490 71,810 35,439 36,371
Total 4,621 15,72,773 7,66,823 8,05,450
Source: Block Statistical Hand Book (2004 - 2005)
65 Literacy
The Thoothukudi district ranks second in literacy in the state with
81 percent of the population being literate.
Table: 2.20 - The Literacy Rate as per 2001 Census (in percentage) Literacy Rate Category Male Female Total
Tamil Nadu 82.33 64.55 73.47
Thoothukudi 88.66 75.64 81.96
Source: Tamil Nadu – An Economic Appraisal, 2001 - 02 Department of Evaluation and Applied Research (DEAR) Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, pp.S4 – S5.
Employment
The total workers in the district were 6,73,682, out of which male workers were 4,30,386 and female workers, 2,43,296. The rural workers were 4,28,883 while urban workers were 2,44,799. The employment pattern shows that there were 71,315 cultivators, 1,67,387 landless agricultural labourers, 45,783 persons in household industry, and 3,89,197 other workers. There were 88,944 marginal workers and 89,206 non-workers. 8
Fisheries
On the eastern border of Thoothukudi district there are 24 coastal villages ranging from Vembar village to Periathazhi village covering 135 kms. Marine
8 District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.
66 fishing is one of the sources of employment to the fisher folk. In 2001 the total population of the fisher folk was 43,707 out of which 21,180 fisher folk were involved in fishing and marketing operations. There were 20 fishermen co- operatives and 13 fisher women co-operatives in the Thoothukudi district. Fisher women were engaged chiefly in marketing fresh and dried fish. The per capita income per family was only Rs.6,573. A Fisheries College with Research Institute has been functioning since 1977 at Thoothukudi .9
Transport and Communications
The important towns and villages are well connected with a good network of roads. The total length of roads in the Thoothukudi district is 4,705 km., out of which the length of surfaced and unsurfaced is 4,556.373 and 148.698 km respectively. The length of the National Highways in the Thoothukudi district is
112.4 km and that of the State Highways is 1,994.232 km. Municipality and
Municipal Corporation roads contribute a length of 202.106 km. The district has a
106.47 km length of railways. Thoothukudi is connected by Air transport from
June 1991 and the airport is located near Vagaikulam at a distance of 15 kms from
Thoothukudi.
9 Tamil Nadu Marine Fisher Folk Census year 2001 – Department of Fisheries, Government of Tamil Nadu, pp. 210 – 212.
67 There are 39 post offices doing postal business alone and 406 post offices doing post and telegraph works. The district has 95,155 telephone connections, with 3,689 public call offices and 69 telephone exchanges. 10
Port
The district has the pride of having a major Port, the Thoothukudi Harbour
Project renamed the Thoothukudi Port Trust. During 2003 – 04, 1517 vessels entered Thoothukudi port and cargo to the tune of 1.36 crore tones are handled.
Exports of certain raw materials and finished products are shipped to about 20 foreign countries. The Thoothukudi port has been issued the prestigious ISO 9002 certificate for port operation and services and has joined the select group of world ports by becoming the first Indian major port to get such certificates.
From the foregoing section on the profile of the study area, it is clear that the Thoothukudi district has people of different occupations and the majority of the workers earn their income through agriculture. Most of the villages are rain- fed areas and paddy is cultivated mainly in the delta areas of the river
Thambarabarani. Agriculture is found to be the main occupation in the district. As agricultural workers do not have regular employment throughout the year, they have to earn their livelihood through other works during the off season.
10 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.
68 2.8.1 Integral Rural Energy Programme
The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) launched the Integrated
Rural Agency programme.
Biogas
Government approved Turnkey agencies have been entrusted to install bio-gas plants in the district. They are Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari, Centre for Rural Technology, Tirunelveli and Bharat Ideal Corporation, Thoothukudi.
Normally 2 cubic metre or 3 cubic metre bio-gas plants are constructed in the villages requiring a minimum of 3 cattle.
The National Project on Bio - Gas Development (NPBD) which caters to the setting up of family type Bio - Gas plants is a central sector scheme and is point number 19(d) of the 20 Point Programme. It has the following objectives:
1. To provide fuel for cooking purposes and organic manure to rural
households.
2. To mitigate the drudgery of rural women, reduce pressure on forests and
accentuate social benefits.
3. To improve sanitation in villages by linking sanitary toilets with Biogas
plants.
The cost of construction of a bio-gas plant is Rs.6,500. The rate of subsidy is given below:
69 Capacity of the Subsidy for SC/ST, SF/MF Western Subsidy for Plant Ghats notified hilly areas. others 1 Cu.m. to 10 Rs.2,300 Rs.1,800 Cu.m.
Additional subsidy for linking Biogas plants with sanitary toilets is
Rs. 500/- per plant.
Chulha
Under the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) launched by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), of the Government of
India on 14 December 1993, the district Rural Developemnt Agency implemented the programme at the district level. At the block level, there is a separate extension cum Rural Welfare Department. They identify and select the beneficiaries at the block level. Manons are given technical training about the installation and maintenance of chulhas at agricultural engineering Colleges in Tamil Nadu.
Government approved agencies supply portable chulhas.
The NPIC is Point No. 19(c) of the Twenty point Programme and part of the Minimum Needs Programme. Its objectives are:-
1. Fuel wood conservation
2. Elimination / reduction of smoke
3. Reduction in drudgery of women and children from cooking in smoky
kitchen and collection of fuel wood.
4. Environmental upgradation and check on deforestation.
70 5. Employment generation in rural areas.
Subsidy
Fixed models with chimney Rs. 40/- per chulha. Rate of self employed workers Rs. 20/- per chulha for single pot, Rs. 30/- per chulha for two / three pots.
2.9 Tiruchendur Taluk Profile
The Tiruchendur taluk covers three blocks namely, Tiruchendur,
Alwarthirunagari and Udankudi. All the blocks are directly linked with every nook and corner of the district by means of a very good network of roads.
2.9.1 Tiruchendur Block
A short description of Tiruchendur is presented in this subdivision. The
Tiruchendur block is situated in the south of the Thoothukudi District and situated near the sea of Gulf of Mannar. This block is surrounded in the West and the
North by the Alwarthirunagari block, the East by Gulf of Mannar and the South by the Udankudi block. The sea level of this block is 3.5 metre in height. The area of this block is 135.68 sq. km. This block consists of 15 revenue villages and
Tiruchendur, Arumuganeri and Kayalpattinam are the most thickly populated areas.
This block has a total area of 135.68 sq. kilometers. As per the 2001 census, the population of this block was 1,18,862 out of which the male population was
56,591 and the female population 62,271. The number of SC/ST was 18,068,
71 which was 15 percent of the total population. The number of the rural population was 28,360 that is 23.86 percent of the total population. The density of population is 223 sq. km. The number of females per 1000 males is 1100.
The climate is pleasant from September to December. During summer that is April to June it is hot.
With regard to education, the total number of literates is 90,438 out of which, 44,522 are male (that is, 78.67 percent of the total male population) and
45,916 female (that is, 73.74 percent of the total women population of 62,271).
Tiruchendur is the main educational centre. There are 67 primary schools, 22 middle schools, three high schools, 11 higher secondary schools, two matriculation higher secondary schools, five colleges and one ITI.
This block has a Chemical Industry, a large-scale industrial unit. Salt process, coir making, ice manufacturing and mineral water processing industries come under small-scale industries. Fishing is a very important job in this block.
Amali Nagar, Veerapandianpattinam and Kombuthurai are important fishing centres in this block.
Occupational pattern shows that the total number of cultivators is 11,157.
Agricultural labourers (15,905) constitute 43.76 percent of the total work force.
There are 7,759 male agricultural workers and 8,146 female ones. The total number of workers in cottage and household industries is 1,287, which contribute only 3.54 percent of the total work force in the block. There are 391 male and 896 female workers in this category. Workers in other industries are 1,147. The
72 numbers of male and female workers are 105 and 1,042 respectively. They form
3.16 percent of the total work force. Other workers are 6,048 or 16.64 percent of the total work force.
The total length of roads in this block is 21.9 km. The length of tar roads is
10.5 km, and of metal roads 8.62 km. The length of cement concrete roads is 1.18 km and the length of mud roads (earthern road) is 1.6 km.
The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, banana, coconut, groundnut, vegetables and fruits. The Tiruchendur block has few infrastructure facilities and the cultivators mainly rely on the channel. The net area sown in this block is 3,851 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 2,761 hectares. The area under barren and uncultivated land is 549 hectares.
The Tiruchendur block has a large number of livestock like 24,115 cattle,
7,931 buffaloes, 11,123 sheep, 10,744 goats, 12 horses and ponies, 1,817 pigs, 436 donkeys and 9,063 poultry. Two milk co-operative societies are functiong in this block and the total production of milk is 68,076 litres per year.
In this block all the 15 villages, 150 hamlets and four towns are electrified.
There are 1,686 tube lights and 29 sodium vapours in the streets.
73 2.9.2 Alwarthirunagari Block
A short description of Alwarthirunageri is presented in this subdivision.
Alwarthirunageri block is located almost on the southern side of the district. On the northern side, the Ottapidaram block is situated. The Thoothukudi and
Srivaikundam blocks lie on the eastern side. The Satankulam and
Alwarthirunagari blocks are the eastern boundary of this block. To its southern side, the Tirunelveli district lies. There are 31 village panchayats in this block.
With regard to education, there are eight pre-primary schools, 87 primary schools, 34 middle schools, five high schools, eight higher secondary schools, an
Arts and Science College, an Engineering college, a Teachers’ Training College, a polytechnic and an Art and Industrial School.
This block has a total area of 216.73 Sq. kilometres. As per the 2001 census, the population of this block was 1,16,877 out of which the male population was 55,669 and the female population 61,208. The number of rural population was
76,474 that is 65.43 percent of the total population.
The density of population is 185 sq. km. The number of females per 1000 males is 910. The total numbers of literates is 87,966 out of which, 43,723 are male (that is, 78.54 percent of the total male population) and 44,423 are female
(that is, 72.58 percent of the total women population of 61,208).
The total length of roads in this block is 143.3 km. The length of tar roads is 86.85 km, and of metal roads 28.7 km. The length of saral roads is 17.35 km
74 and the length of mud, unsurfaced roads is one kilo metre and cement concrete road, 9.4 km.
The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, banana, blackgram, groundnuts, and cotton. The Alwarthirunagari block has few infrastructure facilities and the cultivators mainly rely on the channel. The net area sown in this block is 7,761 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 3,843 hectares. The area under barren and uncultivated land is 100 hectares. The forest land occupies 88 hectares.
2.9.3 Udangudi Block
The Udangudi block is located on the South West of Tiruchendur and surrounded by the Alwarthirunagari block, the Thiruchendur block, the
Sattankulam block and Gulf of Mannar.
There are sixteen revenue villages, seventeen village panchayats and a town panchayat in this block. Udangudi town panchayat consists of two revenue villages namely Udangudi and Kalankudiyerruppu. Kulasekarapattanam and
Manapadu are the sea-shore villages of this block.
Over thousand fishermen live at Manapadu, which is the boating centre in this block. There are Palm leaf Women Industrial Co-operative Society and
Fishermen Co-operative Society at Manapadu and also an Industrial Co-operative
Coir Society at Kulsekarapattinam.
75 Parmankurichi is a Handloom centre wherein over 200 families depend on weaving. The places of tourist attraction are Arul Migu Mutharamman Temple, located at Kulasekarapattinum and Siluvai Church, located at Manapadu.
This block has a total area of 197 Sq. kilometres. As per the 2001 census, the population of this block was 72,415 out of which the male population was
33,454 and the female population 38,961. The number of rural population was
52,723 that is 73.11 percent of the total population.
The total number of literates is 56,432 out of which, 26,649 are male and
29,783 female. The total number of rural literates is 41,011 that is, 77.79 percent of the total rural population. The total number of urban literates is 15,421 (that is,
79.53 percent of the total urban population of 19,390).
The total number of work force in the block is 22,287 persons out of which
14,764 are male workers and 7,523 female workers. The percentage of workforce of the total population is 30.91.
There are no medium or large-scale industries in this block. Occupational pattern shows that the total number of cultivators is 3,108. Agricultural labourers
(5,085) constitute only 22.82 percent of the total work force. There are 4,184 male agricultural workers and 901 female agricultural workers. The total number of workers in the household industries manufacturing factory is 8,675 which contribute 38.92 percent of the total work force in the block. There are 5,905 male and 2,770 female workers in this category. Marginal workers are 2,824. The numbers of male and female workers are 138 and 2,686 respectively. They form
76 12.97 percent of the total work force. Other workers are 2,595 or 11.64 percent of the total work force.
The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, coconut, banana, and sugarcane. In the Udangudi block the cultivators mainly rely on the wells. The net area sown in this block is 4,022 hectares and area more than once is 2,498 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 3,566 hectares. The area of barren and uncultivated land is 284 hectares. The forest land occupies
5,080 hectares.
In this block only ten biogas plants are installed. 16 revenue villages, one town panchayat and 167 hamlets are electrified. There are 3,812 street tube lights,
175 sodium lights, 16 mercury lights and one tower light in this village.
77 2.10 Sample Profile
This section is devoted to discuss the characteristic features of sample households. The areas of discussion include caste composition, sex-wise distribution, age group, education, occupational classification, family size, housing particulars, purpose of fuel use and electrification of the sample households in the study area. A total sample size of 375 was randomly selected from the sample villages.
2.10.1 Caste Composition of the Respondents
A bird’s-eye view of the caste composition of respondents is given in
Table 2.21.
Table: 2.21 – Caste Composition of the Respondents (in Numbers) Income Most Scheduled Other Groups Backward Backward Caste / Caste Total Tribe Low 73 38 44 13 168 (43.45) (22.62) (26.19) (7.74) (100)
Marginal 14 36 26 13 89 (15.73) (40.45) (29.21) (14.61) (100)
Medium 24 18 26 11 79 (30.38) (22.79) (32.91) (13.92) (100)
High 13 11 8 7 39 (33.33) (28.21) (20.51) (17.95) (100)
All Groups 124 103 104 44 375 (33.07) (27.47) (27.73) (11.73 ) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
78 Out of the total sample size, 124 respondents (33.07 percent) belong to the backward class, which consists of 73 respondents from the low-income group, 14 from the marginal income group, 24 from the medium income group and 13 from the high-income group. There are 103 respondents (27.47 percent) belonging to the most backward class, out of which 38 come under the low-income group, 36 from the marginal income group, 18 from the medium income group and 11 from the high-income group. Respondents in the Scheduled Caste and Tribe category are 104 (27.73 percent) distributed as 44 from low income, 26 from marginal income, 26 from medium income and eight from high-income groups.
The respondents other than the above categories are grouped as other caste.
There are 44 (11.73 percent) respondents out of which, 13 are from low income, another 13 from marginal, 11 from medium and seven from high-income groups.
This table reveals that the majority of the respondents belong to the backward class, 33.07 percent of the total, followed by Scheduled Castes and Tribes, 27.73 percent.
2.10.2 Sex -wise Distribution of the Respondents
Sex-wise distribution of the sample respondents is given in Table 2.22. Out of the total sample size, 277 respondents (73.87 percent) are male which includes
133 from low income, 67 from marginal income, 51 from medium income and 26 from high-income groups. There are 98 (26.13 percent) females, which include 35
79 from low income, 22 from marginal income, 28 from medium income and 13 from high-income groups. The majority of the respondents are male.
Table: 2.22 – Sex – wise Distribution of the Respondents (in Numbers) Income Groups Male Female Total
Low 133 35 168 (79.17) (20.83) (100)
Marginal 67 22 89 (75.28) (24.72) (100)
Medium 51 28 79 (64.56) (35.44) (100)
High 26 13 39 (66.67) (33.33) (100)
All Groups 277 98 375 (73.87) (26.13) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
2.10.3 Age Wise Distribution of the Respondents
Table 2.23 explains the age distribution of sample households in a number of years.
80 Table: 2.23 – Age – wise Distribution of the Respondents (in Numbers)
Income Below 30 30 – 45 Above 45 Total Groups years Years years
Low 44 86 38 168 (26.19) (51.19) (22.62) (100)
Marginal 26 44 19 89 (29.21) (49.44) (21.35) (100)
Medium 21 36 22 79 (26.58) (45.57) (27.85) (100)
High 14 18 7 39 (35.90) (46.15) (17.95) (100)
All Groups 105 184 86 375 (28.00) (49.07) (22.93) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
Table 2.23 reveals that the respondents who are below 30 are
105 (28 percent), those between 30 and 45, 184 (49.07 percent) and those above
45, 86 (22.93 percent). There are 184 respondents belonging to the age group of
30 – 45, distributed as 86 from low income, 44 from marginal income, 36 from medium income and 18 from high-income groups.
2.10.4 Education Level of the Respondents
Among the factors determining household energy consumption, education is also an important one. The details of the education levels of the respondents are given in Table 2.24.
81 Table: 2.24 – Education Level of the Respondents (in Numbers) Higher Income Primary Middle Secondary Studies Total Groups Low 37 64 45 22 168 (22.02) (38.10) (26.79) (13.10) (100)
Marginal 11 34 18 26 89 (12.36) (38.20) (20.22) (29.21) (100)
Medium 17 28 30 4 79 (21.52) (35.44) (37.97) (5.06) (100)
High 9 12 11 7 39 (23.08) (30.77) (28.21) (17.95) (100)
All Groups 74 138 104 59 375 (19.73) (36.80) (27.74) (15.73) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
The respondents who are of the primary level are 74 (19.73 percent), middle level 138 (36.80 percent), secondary level 104 (27.74 percent) and higher studies level 59 (15.73 percent) in the total sample size. The majority of the respondents have the educational level ranging from middle to secondary.
2.10.5 Occupation of the Respondents
Households are classified into agricultural labourers, agricultural households, salaried employee households and business people depending upon their main occupation.
82 Table: 2.25 – Occupation Level of the Respondents (in Numbers)
Income Agricultural Agriculturist Salaried Business Total Groups Labour People People
Low 36 64 24 44 168 (21.43) (38.10) (14.29) (26.19) (100)
Marginal 21 26 31 11 89 (23.60) (29.21) (34.83) (12.36) (100)
Medium 26 19 16 18 79 (32.91) (24.05) (20.25) (22.78) (100)
High 8 6 8 17 39 (20.51) (15.38) (20.51) (43.59) (100)
All 91 115 79 90 375 Groups (24.27) (30.67) (21.07) (24.00) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
According to Table 2.25, the respondents who come under agricultural labourers are 91 (24.27 percent), agricultural households are 115 (30.67 percent), salaried employee households 79 (21.07 percent) and business people 90
(24 percent) of the total sample size. The households with agriculture as their main occupation are 115, out of which 64 are from low income group, 26 are from marginal income group, 19 are from medium income group and the remaining six are from high income groups as per the standard classification.
83 2.11 Housing Particulars of the Respondents
Particulars regarding family size, nature of house, nature of ownership of house, whether electrified or not, and purposes of different fuels used are discussed as follows:
2.11.1 Family Size of the Respondents
Family size is an important determinant of household energy consumption.
Table 2.26 explains the family size of the sample households.
Table: 2.26 – Family Size of the Respondents (in Numbers)
Income Less than 3 4 - 6 More than Total Groups 6 Low 46 94 28 168 (27.38) (55.95) (16.67) (100)
Marginal 31 36 22 89 (34.83) (40.45) (24.72) (100)
Medium 26 29 24 79 (32.91) (36.71) (30.78) (100)
High 17 14 8 39 (43.59) (35.90) (20.51) (100)
All Groups 120 173 82 375 (32.00) (46.13) (21.87) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
There are 120 respondents in the category of less than 3, 173 respondents between 4 and 6 and 82 respondents more than 6 of the total households. Most of the respondents i.e., 173 (46.13 percent) belong to the group of 4 – 6 persons.
84 2.11.2 Nature of House
The people in the study area are living in different types of houses like concrete, tiled and thatched houses. As per Table 2.29, 132 (35.20 percent) households live in concrete houses, 174 (46.40 percent) in tiled houses and 69
(18.40 percent) in thatched houses.
Table: 2.27 – Nature of House of the Respondents (in Numbers)
Income Concrete Tiled Thatched Total Groups Low 34 106 28 168 (20.24) (63.10) (16.67) (100)
Marginal 36 32 21 89 (40.45) (35.96) (23.60) (100)
Medium 44 22 13 79 (55.70) (27.85) (16.46) (100)
High 18 14 7 39 (46.15) (35.90) (17.95) (100)
All Groups 132 174 69 375 (35.20) (46.40) (18.40) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
85 2.11.3 Ownership of House
The respondents reside either in their owned or rented houses. Table 2.28 shows that, 300 (80 percent) respondents have their own houses. Only 75 sample households (20 percent) reside in rented houses. Out of the 75 rented houses,
24 are occupied by low income group, 16 by marginal income group, 27 by medium income group and the remaining eight by high income group.
Table: 2.28 – Ownership of House
(in Numbers)
Income Owned Rented Total Groups Low 144 24 168 (85.71) (14.29) (100)
Marginal 73 16 89 (82.02) (17.98) (100)
Medium 52 27 79 (65.82) (34.18) (100)
High 31 8 39 (79.49) (20.51) (100)
All Groups 300 75 375 (80.00) (20.00) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
86 2.12 Electrification Particulars of the Respondents
Consumption of commercial energy in the household sector depends mainly on electricity. As per Table 2.29, out of the total sample size, 319 houses are electrified (85.07 percent) and 56 (14.93 percent) houses are not electrified.
Among the electrified houses, 135 come under the low-income group, 71 in the marginal income group, 76 in the medium income group and 37 in the high- income group. Non-electrified houses are very few in the medium income group.
Table: 2.29 – Electrification Particulars of the Respondents
(in Numbers)
Income Electrified Non- Total Groups electrified
Low 135 33 168 (80.36) (19.64) (100)
Marginal 71 18 89 (79.78) (20.22) (100)
Medium 76 5 81 (93.83) (6.17) (100)
High 37 - 37 (100.00) (0.00) (100)
All Groups 319 56 375 (85.07) (14.93) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
87 2.13 Monthly Income of the Respondents
The monthly income of the sample respondents is given in Table 2.30.
Table: 2.30 – Monthly Income of the Respondents (in Numbers)
Income Total Percentage Groups Below Rs.2,000 168 44.80
Rs.2,000 – 4,000 89 23.73
Rs.4,000 – 6,000 79 21.07
Above Rs.6,000 39 10.40
All Groups 375 100.00
Source: Field Survey
Out of the total sample size, 168 respondents (44.80 percent) come under below Rs.2,000, 89 (23.73 percent) from Rs.2,000 to 4,000, 79 (21.07 percent) from Rs.4,000 to 6,000 and the remaining 39 (10.40 percent) belong to Rs. 6,000 and above groups.
It is observed that 44.80 percent of the respondents are in the low income groups, 23.73 percent of the respondents in the marginal income group,
21.07 percent of the respondents in the medium income group and the remaining
10.40 percent fall in the high income category of Rs.6,000 and above.
88 2.14 Purpose of Fuel Use
The purpose of use of different fuels like kerosene, petrol, diesel, L.P.Gas and electricity are explained as follows:
2.14.1 Kerosene Use
The purpose of kerosene used by different income groups is explained in
Table 2.31.
Table: 2.31 – Purpose of Kerosene Use – Income Group - wise (in Numbers)
Income Not- Lighting Cooking Both Total Groups using
Low 36 64 24 44 168 (21.43) (38.10) (14.29) (26.19) (100)
Marginal 21 26 31 11 89 (23.60) (29.21) (34.83) (12.36) (100)
Medium 26 19 16 18 79 (32.91) (24.05) (20.25) (22.78) (100)
High 8 6 8 17 39 (20.51) (15.38) (20.51) (43.59) (100)
All Groups 91 115 79 90 375 (24.27) (30.67) (21.07) (24.00) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
Out of the total sample size, the category not using kerosene is 91
(24.27 percent). Those who use it for lighting are 115 (30.67 percent), for cooking
79 (21.07 percent) and for both lighting and cooking 90 (24 percent). Under the
89 low-income group, 168 respondents use kerosene, out of which 64 use it for lighting, 24 for cooking and the remaining for both cooking and lighting.
2.14.2 Petrol and Diesel Use
The purpose of petrol and diesel used by different income groups is explained in Table 2.32.
Table: 2.32 – Purpose of Petrol and Diesel Use – Income Group - wise (in Numbers)
Income Not-using Transport Total Groups Low 164 4 168 (97.62) (2.38) (100)
Marginal 76 13 89 (85.39) (14.61) (100)
Medium 73 6 79 (92.41) (7.59) (100)
High 28 11 39 (71.79) (28.21) (100)
All Groups 341 34 375 (90.93) (9.07) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
As per Table 2.32, out of the total sample size, 341 (90.93 percent) respondents do not use petrol and diesel at all. Only 34 (9.07 percent) respondents use them for transport purpose.
90 2.14.3 L.P. Gas Use
Table 2.33 reveals the details of the purpose of L.P. Gas use income group wise.
Table: 2.33 – Purpose of L.P. Gas Use – Income Group - wise (in Numbers)
Income Not-using Cooking Total Groups Low 152 16 168 (90.48) (9.52) (100)
Marginal 55 34 89 (61.80) (38.20) (100)
Medium 62 17 79 (78.48) (21.52) (100)
High 15 24 39 (38.46) (61.54) (100)
All Groups 284 91 375 (75.73) (24.27) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
In the total sample size, only 91 respondents (24.27 percent) use L.P. Gas for cooking purpose, of which 16 are from the low-income group, 34 from the marginal income group, 17 from the medium income group and 24 from the high- income group. It is understood from Table 2.33 that only the higher income group prefers L.P. Gas for cooking purposes.
91 2.14.4 Electricity Use
An over all estimate of the purpose of electricity use income group wise has been analysed with the help of Table 2.34.
Table: 2.34 – Purpose of Electricity Use – Income Group - wise (in Numbers)
Income Not-using Lighting Total Groups Low 10 158 168 (5.95) (94.05) (100)
Marginal 4 85 89 (4.49) (95.51) (100)
Medium 2 77 79 (2.53) (97.47) (100)
High - 39 39 (100.00) (100)
All Groups 16 359 375 (4.27) (95.73) (100) Source: Field Survey Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total
Among the electricity using households of 359, 100 are from the low- income group, four from the marginal income group and two from the medium income group and they use electricity for lighting purpose. It is observed from
Table 2.34 that no respondents reported using electricity for cooking purpose.
92 2.15 Summary
Energy is an essential ingredient for human life on earth One of the important requirements of energy for man is in the form of food. A brief description of the profile of energy is discussed in this chapter. A brief description of the profile of the study area namely Tiruchendur block in the Thoothukudi district, is presented in this chapter.
The characteristic features of sample households are also discussed. The areas of discussion include caste composition, sex-wise distribution, age group, education, occupational classification, family size, housing particulars, purpose of fuel use and electrification of the sample households in the study area. A total sample size of 375 was randomly selected from the sample villages.
93 SOLAR AT A GLANCE
WHAT IS SOLAR? TOP SOLAR STATES
Photovoltaic comes from the words photo meaning “light” and volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are Solar energy is radiant energy that is called PV cells orsolar cells for short. These are the four steps that show how a PV cell is made and how it produces electricty produced by the sun. Every day the sun PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS radiates, or sends out, an enormous PROTON FREE ELECTRON TIGHTLY-HELD ELECTRON A LOCATION THAT CAN ACCEPT AN ELECTRON amount of energy. The sun radiates more energy in one second than people have A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell. The top of the slab is very thinly di used with an “n” If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons in the p-n junction and energize them, used since the beginning of time! dopant such as phosphorous. On the base of the slab a small amount of a “p” dopant, typically boron, is di used. knocking them free of their atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the n-type silicon The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker than the phosphorous side. and repelled by the negative charge in the p-type silicon. Most photon-electron The phosphorous has one more electron in its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants collisions actually occur in the silicon base. help create the electric eld that motivates the energetic electrons out of the cell created when light strikes the NUCLEAR FUSION PV cell. The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free electrons; it has a negative character. This is called then-type silicon (n = negative). The n-type silicon is not charged—it has an equal number of protons POSITIVE CHARGE The process of fusion most commonly involves hydrogen isotopes combining to and electrons—but some of the electrons are not held tightly to the atoms. They are free to move to di erent N-TYPE form a helium atom with a transformation of matter. This matter is emitted as locations within the layer. The boron gives the base of the silicon a positive character, because it has a tendency P-N JUNCTION radiant energy. to attract electrons. The base of the silicon is called p-type silicon (p = positive). The p-type silicon has an equal P-TYPE number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character but not a positive charge. NEGATIVE CHARGE
NEGATIVE CHARACTER N-TYPE SILICON A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an electrical load, such as a light or battery, and then back to HYDROGEN ISOTOPE the n-type silicon, forming a complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type silicon they repel HYDROGEN ISOTOPE P-TYPE SILICON each other because they are of like charge. The wire provides a path for the electrons to move away from each POSITIVE CHARACTER other. This ow of electrons is an electric current that travels through the circuit from the n-type to the p-type silicon. In addition to the semi-conducting materials, solar cells consist of a top metallic grid or other electrical Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free electrons from the n-layer ow into the p-layer for a split contact to collect electrons from the semi-conductor and transfer them to the external load, and a back contact second, then form a barrier to prevent more electrons from moving between the two sides. This point of contact layer to complete the electrical circuit ENERGY and barrier is called the p-n junction. When both sides of the silicon slab are doped, there is a negative charge in the p-type section of the junction and a positive charge in the n-type section of the junction due to
movement of the electrons and “holes” at the junction of the two types of materials. This imbalance in electrical FREE ELECTRON charge at the p-n junction produces an electric eld between the p-type and n-type silicon
NEUTRON POSITIVE CHARGE HELIUM N-TYPE P-N JUNCTION P-TYPE NEGATIVE CHARGE
Data: Energy Information Administration