chapter seven HOW IS INTELLECT MOLDED BY GENES AND ENVIRONMENTS? 7 ■ ■ ■ Mr. Huang, a puzzled patriarch Last night, Mr. and Mrs. Huang were introduced to their future daughter-in-law, Vivian Lee. They had been eager to meet the woman whom their son Frank had met in med- ical school. Frank had told them that Vivian graduated first in her class at a private high school and held a biology degree from Harvard. He also had said that Vivian was from a well-to-do family: her father is a banker and her mother a university professor. The Huangs liked what they heard about Vivian because they both come from high- achieving families. However, when they met her they had a bit of a shock. The Huangs, who are of Chinese descent, had assumed that Vivian was Chinese, too. This had been a realistic assumption because Frank had always dated Chinese girls before and he knew that his parents wanted him to marry within their culture. Besides, Vivian’s surname is Lee. Last night, one look at the girl told them she was different from what they had expected. It turns out her father is a descendent of Irish immigrants. Her mother is a descendent of Kikiyu Kenyans. The Huangs quickly overcame their surprise and greeted Vivian warmly. They enjoyed their evening with Frank and his fiancée, and of course have no intention of undermining the couple’s engagement. But reading the newspaper at breakfast this morning, Mr. Huang wonders about the direction in which his family tree is bending. The paper contains an article about research into intelligence. Among other things, the article reported that both White Americans and Black Americans fare less well on IQ tests, on average, than Asian Americans. For a brief moment Mr. Huang wonders if his future grandchildren will be less intelligent than any children Frank would have with a Chinese woman. He immediately dismisses this notion as ridiculous speculation and feels bad for even thinking it. Focusing back on the facts, Mr. Huang reminds himself that average IQ scores by race do not tell much about how individuals achieve, particularly individuals like his grandchildren who aren’t even born yet. What might be more indicative, Mr. Huang ponders, is the fact that Vivian herself is highly intelligent. She has had a good upbringing and the best possible education. She and Frank are in an excellent position to raise their own children into intelligent, successful adults. Those children will have a mix of European, African, and Asian ancestry, but so what? What possible effect could that have on inborn brainpower? Defining intelligence information and how it takes cues from Smart. Quick-witted. Sharp. Clever. emotions (our own and others’). Thus Astute. The English language has many intelligence is a general capacity of the words that describe intelligence, which brain. briefly defined is the ability to absorb, Intelligence stands on its own as a trait, process, recollect, and apply information. but it also permeates all other aspects of Cognition is the word used by scientists personality. Sense of humor, risk-taking to specifically refer to the process of tendencies, and sexual attractiveness are thinking. just three examples of the many human Certainly one reason why there are so traits that relate to intelligence. many ways to describe intelligence is that Intelligence very clearly correlates with the trait involves so many applications of successes in school and work settings. the mind. Intelligence has to do with the Somewhat surprisingly, intelligence also Some researchers believe that “intelligence” acts like a wind ability to reason, to think abstractly, to correlates with overall success in living. in the sails, pushing one toward draw conclusions, to solve problems, to Less delinquency, greater wealth, better success in all aspects of life. learn from experience, and to remember coping skills, higher income, better Whether intelligence actually has that effect, and why, requires what has been learned. It also has to do health, fewer accidental deaths, and further research. with how the mind makes use of sensory longevity are all associated with higher intelligence, according to research. “Bright people have a tail wind in virtu- ally all aspects of life,” claims one researcher. 1 History of intelligence testing Intelligence has been more intensely studied than any other behavioral trait. Intelligence tests, first developed in the 19th century, have been so heavily researched, refined, and applied that the ones used today are fair predictors (though by no means complete predic- tors) of academic and professional achievement. Many scientists believe them to be “among the most accurate (in technical terms, reliable and valid) of all psychological tests and assessments.” 2 98 BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Francis Galton is the father of the An early researcher into genetically based research into intelli- intelligence, Francis Galton, proposed that eminence in a gence. His 1869 book Hereditary Genius profession was an indication of is hailed as “the first quantitative analysis mental ability; when he was able of human mental ability.” 3 Galton pro- to show that certain families had posed that human mental ability is an more than a normal number of eminent members, he concluded inherited trait and that individual that mental abilities run in “genius” (as he called it) varies along a families. At the time (1869), continuum from very dull to very bright; this was a radical idea. the percentage of the population at any point on the continuum decreases as the extremes are approached. Galton was describing a normal curve of distribution, popularly known as the bell curve. His idea about a range for human intelligence was novel at a time when it was gener- ally believed most people had the same Inspired by Galton’s theories, other intelligence, with just a few being excep- scientists began to devise tests for intelli- tionally slow- or quick-witted. gence. One of these was the French psy- To explore the connection between chologist, Alfred Binet. By trial-and-error intelligence and inheritance, Galton experiments with schoolchildren, both selected for study men of high stature normal and mentally handicapped, Binet in their respective profession – the law, deduced what the average child could literature, science, the military, and so accomplish at each age level. Binet forth. He assumed that high achievement teamed up with another psychologist, in a field correlated with high mental Theodore Simon, to create a test used by ability. He then observed how frequently French school administrators to identify the first, second, and third-degree rela- children less able to profit from instruc- tives of his selected subjects also tion in regular school classrooms. achieved high standing in their fields. The Binet-Simon scale included 30 He compared these frequencies to that tasks such as shaking hands, finding which could be expected based on a rhymes for words, repeating back a normal curve of distribution for intelli- sequence of random digits, and gence. Galton discovered that high answering logic questions. Performance achievers did in fact cluster in certain on the tests was evaluated to determine families, and concluded that genius was mental age. According to the Binet- therefore hereditary. Simon scale, a child had the mental age CHAPTER 7: HOW IS INTELLECT MOLDED BY GENES AND ENVIRONMENTS? 99 of 12 if he or she could accomplish the conducted IQ tests to support theories tasks that matched the abilities of the about which types of people were more average 12-year-old. or less intelligent. At this point in In the early 20th century, a German American history, slavery had been abol- psychologist named Wilhelm Stern came ished less than a hundred years earlier up with the idea of stating intelligence in and waves of new immigrants were terms of the ratio of mental to chronolog- coming into the country. Much was made ical age. The popular label for this ratio, over the weak IQ performance of intelligence quotient or IQ, was coined American Blacks and of immigrants from later by Lewis Terman, an American Eastern Europe. psychologist. Terman was a member of a In the latter part of the 20th century, committee assigned with the task of controversy arose over whether intelli- developing intelligence tests that could be gence tests were biased. Some questioned used to help sort the large number of Galton’s original work by pointing out World War I inductees into appropriate that high professional achievement may assignments. have less to do with inborn intelligence Intelligence tests gained in popularity than with having the means for education after that war. The military continued to and social connections. Other critics use them for recruitment and placement noted that performance on IQ tests most purposes, and workplaces and schools accurately reflects whether you can read started to use them, too. Social scientists the language of the test and are familiar In the early twentieth century, laws restricted immigration from Eastern Europe, based in part on the false belief that such people would dilute the intelligence of the American population. 100 BEHAVIORAL GENETICS Today, performance on IQ tests is con- Employers, the armed forces, sidered a reasonable predictor of success. colleges, and other important social institutions make use of IQ scores correlate reasonably well, intelligence and aptitude tests though imperfectly, with academic and to screen and place applicants. professional achievement and they corre- late to a lesser extent, though more than randomly, with success in social and personal aspects of life. Measuring g Many intelligence researchers accept the theory that there is some underlying ability to learn that feeds into all cognitive performance. This ability is called g. with facts from the culture of those who The term stands for general cognitive create these tests.