INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION The Boston College Center for International Higher Education
Number 23 Spring 2001
International Issues 2 Higher Education and the WTO: Globalization Run Amok Philip G. Altbach 5 Four Functions in Higher Education Claudio de Moura Castro and Daniel C. Levy
Special Focus: Africa 6 AAU: Goals for the 21st Century Beth Elise Whitaker 8 On-Line Journals in Africa Burton Bollag
Special Focus: The United States Faces the 21st Century
10 Shock Wave II: American Prospects Clark Kerr
Special Focus: International Mobility and Multinational Trends 11 International Providers in India K. B. Power and Veena Bhalla 13 American Accrediting and the International Environment Judith S. Eaton 15 International Mobility: American Patterns Hey-Kyung Koh
Special Focus: China, Hong Kong, and Macau 17 Community Colleges in China Gerard Postiglione 19 Diversification in Macau Mark Bray 21 Reform in Hong Kong Ruth Hayhoe
Countries and Regions 22 Financing Higher Education in Palestine Hisham Kuhail and Arthur Hauptman 24 Swedish Higher Education Policy Lillemore Kim 26 What’s Wrong with Hungarian Management? Karoly Barakonyi 27 Reforms in Bulgaria Nikolay Popov
Departments 29 New Publications 32 News of the Center 2 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
International Issues Higher Education and the WTO: Globalization Run Amok
Philip G. Altbach century, research was added to the responsibilities of the Philip G. Altbach is J. Donald Monan S.J. professor of higher education and universities, followed a little later by service to society. director of the Center for International Higher Education at Boston College. Academic institutions were, in the main, sponsored by the state or the church. Even privately sponsored institutions Higher education is increasingly seen as a commercial prod- were defined by the service mission. Higher education was uct to be bought and sold like any other commodity. Higher seen as a “public good,” as something that provided a education commercialization has now reached the global valuable contribution to society and was therefore worthy marketplace. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is of support. considering a series of proposals to include higher educa- Universities were places for learning, research, and tion as one of its concerns, ensuring that the import and service to society through the application of knowledge. export of higher education be subject to the complex rules Academe was afforded a significant degree of insulation and legal arrangements of the WTO protocols and free of from the pressures of society—academic freedom— most restrictions. In the United States, the National Com- precisely because it was serving the broader good of society. mittee for International Trade in Education and a group of Professors were often given permanent appointments— mainly for-profit education providers are supporting this tenure—to guarantee them academic freedom in the initiative. The established higher education community, classroom and laboratory to teach and do research without including the American Council on Education, is not in- fear of sanctions from society. volved in this undertaking. The WTO initiative poses a severe threat to the traditional ideals of the university, as well as to the national and even institutional control of edu- Today, trends such as the rise of the cation, and therefore needs careful scrutiny. We are in the Internet and the globalization of knowl- midst of a true revolution in higher education, a revolution edge have the potential for creating se- that has the potential to profoundly change our basic un- vere problems for academic institutions derstanding of the role of the university. The implications are immense and as yet little discussed or understood. It is and systems in smaller or poorer na- especially alarming, but not surprising, that the U.S. De- tions. partment of Commerce’s Office of Service Industries is behind the effort to commercialize higher education in the United States and worldwide. Downsides of Globalization I am not arguing against globalization either as a real- Today, trends such as the rise of the Internet and the glo- ity or as a concept. Higher education institutions every- balization of knowledge have the potential for creating se- where are subject to global trends—massification and all of vere problems for academic institutions and systems in its implications, the impact of the new communications tech- smaller or poorer nations. In a world divided into centers nologies, accountability of academic institutions to govern- and peripheries, the centers grow stronger and more domi- ment, an increasingly international and mobile academic nant and the peripheries become increasingly marginalized. profession, global research networks, and other phenomena. Inequalities grow more pronounced. There is little leeway Many of these developments link academic institutions for academic systems or individual universities to indepen- and systems globally. The use of English as the lingua franca dently develop in the increasingly competitive and fast for scientific communication and for teaching, especially moving global higher education scene dominated by the when combined with the Internet, makes communication world-class universities in the industrialized countries. The easier and quicker. The advent of multinational higher edu- traditional academic center becomes ever stronger and more cation institutions makes it possible to disseminate new cur- dominant–mainly in the English-speaking countries of the ricular and other innovations quickly and to meet the North (the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada) immediate needs of students and the national economies of and in Australia, and in the larger countries of the Euro- countries that lack adequate providers of higher education. pean Union (notably Germany and France, and to some For centuries, universities were seen as institutions that extent Italy and Spain). provided education in the learned professions (law, The norms, values, language, scientific innovations, and medicine, and theology) and scientific disciplines. knowledge products of countries in the center crowd out Universities, as independent and sometimes critical other ideas and practices. These countries are home not institutions, preserved and interpreted, and sometimes only to the dominant universities and research facilities but expanded, the history and culture of society. In the 19th also to the multinational corporations so powerful in the 3
International Issues new global knowledge system. Information technology cause the university will be defined in an entirely new way: companies such as Microsoft and IBM, biotechnology and the overriding goal of GATS and the WTO is to guaran- pharmaceutical firms (Merck or Biogen), multinational tee market access to educational products and institutions publishers like Elsevier or Bertelsmann, among others, of all kinds. dominate the new international commerce in knowledge, The trade in higher education is, of course, more dif- knowledge-based products, and information technology. ficult to codify than bananas. But efforts are now under Smaller and poorer countries have little autonomy or com- way to do precisely this—to create a regime of guidelines petitive potential in the globalized world. Globalization in and regulations to institute free trade in higher education. higher education exacerbates dramatic inequalities among The WTO would help to guarantee that academic institu- the world’s universities. tions or other education providers could set up branches in any country, export degree programs, award degrees and The Commercialization of Knowledge and Higher Education certificates with minimal restriction, invest in overseas edu- With the growing commercialization of higher education, cational institutions, employ instructors for their foreign the values of the marketplace have intruded onto the cam- ventures, set up educational and training programs through pus. One of the main factors is the change in society’s atti- distance technologies without controls, and so on. tude toward higher education—which is now seen as a “private good” benefiting those who study or do research. In this view, it seems justified that the users should pay for this service as they would for any other service. The provi- How would accreditation or quality con- sion of knowledge becomes just another commercial trans- trol be carried out? Would there be a action. The main provider of public funds, the state, is distinction made between public or pri- increasingly unwilling or unable to provide the resources vate nonprofit higher education—the needed for an expanding higher education sector. Univer- “gold standard” for centuries—and the sities and other postsecondary institutions are expected to new and aggressive for-profit sector? generate more of their funding. They have had to think more like businesses and less like educational institutions. In this context a logical development is the privatization Educational products of all kinds would be freely ex- of public universities—the selling of knowledge products, ported from one country to another. Copyright, patent, partnering with corporations, as well as increases in stu- and licensing regulations, already part of international trea- dent fees. The proliferation of private academic institutions ties, would be further reinforced. It would become very of all kinds, especially in the for-profit sector, is another by- difficult to regulate the trade in academic institutions, pro- product of commercialization. Education companies, some grams, degrees, or products across international borders. of which call themselves universities, sell skills and training, Those wishing to engage in such imports and exports would awarding degrees or certificates to customers (students). Re- have recourse to international tribunals and legal action. search is seen as a fungible product rather than an inquiry At present the jurisdiction over higher education is entirely conducted to advance the frontiers of science. in the hands of national authorities. The questions raised by this initiative relate to the very The WTO Enters the Equation idea of higher education and to the future of academe es- In these changed circumstances, it is not surprising that pecially in the developing nations and in smaller countries. those motivated by commerce, in government and in the How would countries, or individual universities, maintain private sector, would concern themselves with ensuring that their academic independence in a world in which they had “knowledge products” are freely traded in the international minimal practical and legal control over the import or ex- marketplace. If these interest groups have their way, higher port of higher education? How would accreditation or qual- education in all of its manifestations will be subject to free ity control be carried out? Would there be a distinction trade discipline just like bananas or airliners. The rules of made between public or private nonprofit higher educa- the WTO, and its related General Agreement on Trade tion—the “gold standard” for centuries—and the new and and Services (GATS), it must be remembered, are legally aggressive for-profit sector? Would wealthy profit-driven binding. There is a danger that regulations relating to multinationals force other higher education institutions out higher education will be included in an international agree- of business? Would a full-time professoriate with claims to ment “under the radar” and without much analysis. When academic freedom survive? One thing is very clear—once something becomes part of the WTO regime requirements the universities are part of the WTO jurisdiction, autonomy and regulations, it is subject to complex arrangements. The would be severely compromised and advanced education implications for higher education are immense, not only and research would become just another product subject because of a new set of international regulations but be- to international treaties and bureaucratic regulations. 4 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
International Issues
The greatest negative impact of WTO control over much of their attention to providing profit-making con- higher education would occur in the developing countries. sulting and setting up technology companies. Many uni- These countries have the greatest need for academic institu- versities have gone “on-line” to sell their courses and tions that can contribute to national development, produce degrees to customers in all parts of the world. research relevant to local needs, and participate in the strengthening of civil society. Once universities in develop- ing countries are subject to an international academic mar- The establishment of “for-profit” subsid- ketplace regulated by the WTO, they would be swamped by iaries by such renowned institutions as overseas institutions and programs intent on earning a profit New York University and Columbia Uni- but not in contributing to national development. It is not clear that accrediting and quality control mechanisms that versity is symbolic of these compromises. now exist in many countries would be permitted, at least as they relate to transnational educational providers.
If universities are to survive as intellectual institu- tions, they must pay close attention to their core re- The proposed WTO initiatives bring all sponsibilities of teaching, learning, and research. of the pressures now being felt by uni- Maintaining loyalty to traditional academic values will versities worldwide into sharp focus. not be easy, but the costs of growing commercialization are much greater. Governments and other public authorities need to give Who Should Control Higher Education? the universities the support they need to fulfill their mis- Every country needs to maintain essential control over its sion. Constantly squeezing the budget, demanding ever academic institutions. At the same time, individual univer- greater accountability, and insisting that the university fun- sities need an adequate degree of autonomy and academic damentally change its goals does not in the long run serve freedom if they are to flourish. For centuries, traditional the public interest. The public must also respect the un- universities have performed a central function in society. derlying values of higher education. While that function has changed over time, it has not dis- The developing countries have special academic needs appeared. The challenge of the new initiatives and global- that must be protected, and any WTO-style treaty would ization generally is one of the most serious since the inevitably harm the emerging academic systems of the de- medieval universities faced the rise of nationalism and the veloping countries. Third World universities are now in- Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. For almost a volved in many international relationships, but these millennium, universities have defined themselves as insti- arrangements are based on national needs and allow choice tutions with a core educational mission and a common un- among programs and partners. derstanding of the values of academe. For much of this The proposed WTO initiatives bring all of the pres- period, universities were understood not only as institu- sures now being felt by universities worldwide into sharp tions that provided education in practical fields of knowl- focus. If higher education worldwide were subject to the edge but as central cultural institutions in society. In the strictures of the WTO, academe would be significantly al- 19th century, science and research were added to the aca- tered. The idea that the university serves a broad public demic mission. Universities were recognized as special in- good would be weakened, and the universities would be stitutions by society precisely because their goals went subject to all of the commercial pressures of the market- beyond everyday commerce. Now, all of this is under threat. place—a marketplace enforced by international treaties and The academic community itself is in considerable legal requirements. The goal of having the university con- part responsible for the changes. Some universities have tribute to national development and the strengthening of all too willingly allowed themselves to be caught up in civil society in developing countries would be impossible commercial activities and to compromise their traditional to fulfill. Universities are indeed special institutions with a roles. The establishment of “for-profit” subsidiaries by long history and a societal mission that deserve support. such renowned institutions as New York University and Subjecting academe to the rigors of a WTO-enforced mar- Columbia University is symbolic of these compromises. ketplace would destroy one of the most valuable institu- Monash University, a well-known Australian institution, tions in any society. is establishing profit making branches overseas. The Uni- versity of Chicago’s business school has opened branches Reprinted in revised form with permission from the Chronicle in Spain and Singapore. Universities in China devote of Higher Education. 5
International Issues
vigorous peer review, or operate in a broad international Four Functions in Higher sphere. Education But the tandem need is to identify true academic leadership from among the many pretenders. Otherwise, Claudio de Moura Castro and Daniel C. Levy precious resources are dissipated, and autonomy becomes Claudio de Moura Castro is President of the Advisory Board of the Facultade Pitagoras in Brazil and was formerly on the staff of the Intrer- an unwarranted defense against needed accountability. Too American Develoment Bank in Washignton, D.C. E-mail: many international higher education policy papers for the
Special Focus: Africa
Here the need is paramount for strong ties to the job market in matters like curriculum development, choice of Association of African professors, and evaluation of outcomes. Rapid responsiveness is crucial and should not be hampered by Universities Charts Goals for governance and rules more appropriate to other functions. It is also important that technical education not be simply 21st Century poor-quality professional education. In general, this form of higher education needs to be accorded greater respect Beth Elise Whitaker and serve as one of the two main types of growing mass Beth Elise Whitaker is program associate for Africa, Association Liai- son Office for University Cooperation in Development. Address: 1307 higher education. New York Ave. NW, Suite 500, Washington, DC 20005, USA.
he Association of African Universities (AAU) held its Rapid responsiveness is crucial and T10th general conference in Nairobi, Kenya, Febru- should not be hampered by governance ary 5–9, 2001. There were more than 250 participants, in- and rules more appropriate to other cluding vice chancellors, rectors, and senior academics from functions. 163 member universities and representatives of donor agen- cies and nongovernmental organizations. The international higher education community was also represented, with par- ticipants from associations in the United States, Canada, General Higher Education France, the Netherlands, and Germany. The conference was The other major type of mass higher education is general designed to determine general AAU policies and adopt core higher education. Outside the United States, this is often priorities for the next four years. Areas of focus included lead- the least recognized function even where it exists de ership and management, quality of training and research, in- facto. It is usually set up as professional education, but formation and communications technology, and women in students wind up working in jobs other than those African tertiary institutions. directly in the studied subject matter. Thus, the The central theme that emerged from the conference education is “quasi-professional” and appears to be a was that African higher education institutions must become failure. It also looks like failure where it lays claim to more responsive to local development needs. They have ful- academic leadership. filled their postindependence role of training a cadre of civil Yet general higher education by design instead of by servants and are now expected to prepare students to partici- default needs to be pursued and valued. It is probably the pate in a changing global economy. In his keynote address, form through which most students in large higher education Professor Ahmadou Lamine Ndiaye, former rector of the systems can develop analytical skills in reading, writing, Université Gaston Berger in Senegal, argued that higher and thinking that will be useful in a variety of possible jobs— education’s mission of community service is too often for- and in broader roles for citizens. Where employment does gotten and that universities have a moral obligation to help not correspond to rigid plans of study, curriculum and ameliorate society’s problems. Their particular role in na- pedagogy should be redesigned. It is for general higher tional development, according to Ndiaye, should be the education that accreditation systems may be most suitable. application of research findings—especially in science and General higher education offers possibilities for distance technology—to immediate problems on the ground. education and other alternatives to traditional higher education.
Conclusion The central theme that emerged from Although the typology presented here is of course tentative the conference was that African higher and subject to improvement, it appears promising on education institutions must become two fronts. One is its assistance in identifying and more responsive to local development explaining the actual and potential differentiation in higher education. The other is its contribution to the needs. debate over policy—from finance, to governance, to quality controls—by promoting an appreciation of the differences appropriate to different forms of higher An important aspect of making university education education. Neither conceptually nor in terms of policy more relevant is the formation of partnerships with private does one size fit all. colleges and universities, businesses, and civil society or- ganizations. By tailoring curricula and training programs 7
International Issues to local market needs, African higher education institutions obstacles to women’s participation in higher education. In can develop new funding streams and respond directly to addition to sociocultural factors, reasons for low female the unemployment problem. Dr. Mokhtar Annaki of the enrollment figures (particularly in technology-related fields) Ministry of Higher Education in Morocco described a range include gender-biased materials, authoritarian teaching of efforts in his country to reform the higher education methods, and the limited relevance of educational content. system along these lines. Ultimately, though, as outgoing African governments have made international commitments AAU president Professor Andrew Siwela argued, the mis- to address the gender disparity in education, but these are sion of universities is to produce job creators, not job seek- not reflected in practice. Meena proposed several interven- ers. This requires an approach to higher education that tions, including affirmative action to improve access and fosters critical thinking and creativity in order to prepare performance, curricula reviews, gender sensitization pro- students for the diverse range of challenges and opportu- grams, and training courses in participatory pedagogy. She nities ahead. stressed the need for African universities to craft and imple- Beyond the goal of making higher education more rel- ment gender-inclusive policies. Lessons can be drawn from evant, the conference highlighted a number of other cur- the University of Dar es Salaam, the University of Natal, rent issues. First, there was a general consensus that African and Makerere University, which have done their best to universities must enhance their information and commu- mainstream gender considerations into their strategic plans nications technology (ICT) in order to participate effec- and policies. tively in the global information age. ICT should be used as a tool in higher education management—to track students, faculty, budgets, etc.—and in the classroom, to facilitate A second area of focus was the role of teaching and learning. More importantly, perhaps, ICT women in African universities. allows African academics to participate actively in global research networks. According to Professor Jairam Reddy, former vice chancellor of the University of Durban- Reaction within the predominantly male audience was Westville in South Africa, 84 percent of journal articles and mixed. Several delegates argued that gender disparities and 97 percent of patents currently come from industrialized sexual harassment were not problems at their institutions, countries. By making use of the Internet to conduct re- citing as proof increased female enrollment and data on search, publish articles, and exchange ideas, African fac- female faculty. Others seemed amused by the attention to ulty will be better able to apply up-to-date approaches and this topic. But as Professor Pennina Mlama, executive di- findings toward local development challenges. rector of the Forum for African Women Educationalists Professor G. Olalere Ajayi of Nigeria’s Obafemi (FAWE), argued, “We don’t do ourselves any service by Awolowo University provided an overview of ICT capac- pretending this problem doesn’t exist. If even one student ity in African universities. He challenged participants to is harassed, we need to do something about it.” FAWE had prioritize ICT development at their institutions and to make requested more time from AAU to discuss these issues, but significant progress before the next AAU general meeting was limited to one session. The organization distributed a in 2005. The conference highlighted the stark variation number of papers it had commissioned on collecting gen- among African universities in the ICT area. While some der-sensitive data, developing inclusive policies, and docu- institutions are very well networked and have a strong menting sexual harassment in African universities. These Internet presence, others do not even know where to be- reports and the subsequent working group discussions al- gin or how much it will cost to get on-line. lowed participants to identify additional ideas and examples However, the development of ICT is not simply a tech- to address gender disparities in higher education. nocratic issue; it has social and political implications as well. The third issue was perhaps more noteworthy for the Dr. John Kyazze of Uganda Martyrs University suggested muted attention it received rather than its prominence. the need for academic programs in science and technology Although HIV/AIDS is having a significant impact on uni- policy studies to evaluate and shape the policy environment. versities across the continent, the topic was not addressed Professor N’Dri Thérèse Assie-Lumumba from Cornell until the fourth day; even then, it was mentioned only in University raised important questions about the agents and passing during discussions about sexual harassment. Con- beneficiaries of ICT, arguing that gender and global struc- ference materials prepared in advance, including AAU’s core tural inequalities are being reinforced in the current con- program of activities for 2001–2004, made no mention of text. University ICT policies must address these inequalities the HIV/AIDS crisis. to avoid deepening the digital divide. Many donor representatives, on the other hand, wanted to focus specifically on African higher A second area of focus was the role of women in Afri- education in the context of HIV/AIDS. The Association can universities. Professor Ruth Meena of the University for the Development of Education in Africa’s Working of Dar es Salaam gave a thorough presentation about the 8 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
Special Focus: Africa
Group on Higher Education (WGHE) had commissioned teachers, health care workers, civil servants, and even be- a report on the situation that included case studies of seven reavement counselors to address the needs of an AIDS- institutions in six African countries. In the end, an adden- affected society. Interestingly, the WGHE research itself dum was distributed in Nairobi that proposed the devel- made the seven case study institutions realize the need to opment of projects on major emerging issues, including assess the situation on their campuses and develop com- HIV/AIDS; the topic was also placed on the agenda for the prehensive approaches. final day. In the end, conference delegates signed a declaration calling on African universities to develop ICT capacity to enhance teaching, research, and administration; strengthen The challenge now lies in making the linkages with the productive sector to increase the relevance of their work; participate more actively in the search for link between ideas and implementa- solutions to conflict, poverty, and disease; implement poli- tion. cies to address social and gender imbalances; and pursue interinstitutional cooperation. Delegates also approved AAU’s core program of activities for the 2001–2004 pe- During this discussion, Professor Michael Kelly from riod, reflecting many of the same lofty goals. the University of Zambia presented the results of the The challenge now lies in making the link between WGHE study on the response of African universities to ideas and implementation. With the exception of the dis- HIV/AIDS. An overriding theme was the lack of good in- cussion on gender, few of the presentations offered spe- formation on the nature of the disease and how it is affect- cific strategies and approaches for meeting these targets. ing campus activities. There is widespread denial about the The activities outlined in the core program focus prima- problem, although universities witness its effects every day rily on conducting studies and organizing meetings. Afri- in the form of student and faculty absences, rising health can universities also face resource shortages that can thwart care costs, and funeral expenses for staff members. With even the best intentions. In this context, the most useful the exception of those in South Africa, few African univer- role for AAU and its international partners may be to com- sities have developed policies to address the HIV/AIDS pile accounts of best practices and lessons learned in these problem on their campuses, nor have they even begun to various focus areas and make them widely available to the examine the implications of the crisis for society at large. African higher education community. Universities must begin now, Kelly argued, to prepare
East African Universities Will Gain Journal Access in New On-line Project
Burton Bollag Burton Bollag is an international correspondent with the Chronicle of Higher Education. Address: Chronicle of Higher Education, 1255 23rd St. NW, Washington, D.C. 20037, USA.
Unfortunately, due to copyright restrictions, this article is not available in the on-line edition of International Higher Education.
©2001, The Chronicle of Higher Education. Reprinted with permission. This article may not be posted, published, or distributed without permission from the Chronicle. 9
International Issues 10 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
Special Focus: The United States Faces the 21st Century
ShockWave II: The 21st Century In American Higher Education
Clark Kerr important as advanced training is required for every move Clark Kerr is president emeritus of the University of California and was up the career ladder. It is in this arena that traditional insti- director of the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. Address: tutions will face the heaviest competition from for-profit Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California, Berkeley, CA institutions and corporate classrooms. 94720. The other new market is for retired persons wanting ver three and one-half centuries, American higher further education for consumption purposes. These two Oeducation has met many challenges and adapted to markets may also be particularly subject to service by elec- many powerful forces, mostly one at a time. But in the mid- tronic means. Additionally, schools of education will change 20th century several of these challenges arrived all at once. substantially as they are placed under enormous pressure They included acceptance of national responsibility for from state governments to take more responsibility for the scientific research and development, universal access for performance of primary and secondary education. all high school graduates, and the demands of politically Research universities and selective liberal arts colleges restless students. This was the period of “Shock Wave I,” will remain the segments most assured of a vibrant future and in spite of its difficulties and casualties, it turned out to by the new developments, although for quite different rea- be a period of unprecedented success for American higher sons. And the research university will undergo substantial education. change, perhaps particularly as a result of the biological revolution. Multiple Challenges Now we face Shock Wave II, as a new and even more numerous set of powerful forces washes over us. Over the Today, for several reasons, it is more next 30 years (2000–2030) and perhaps beyond, they may difficult than it was in 1960 to develop lead to extensive changes in higher education. These forces an assured vision of the future. include the new electronic technology; the DNA revolution, and the public’s hopes and fears that accompany it; new demographic realities, including the rise in the proportion Higher education responded effectively to Shock Wave of historically disadvantaged racial and ethnic groups; I mainly because the powerful forces were few in number competition for public-sector resources, partly stemming and fairly well understood and because the nation’s economy from a decline in the long-term rate of productivity growth provided sufficient resources to more than triple the size per man hour in the economy; competition for students of the sector and to increase many times over support for from the for-profit sector; responsibility for improving university research. Leaders were confident that progress primary and secondary education; globalization of the would continue and felt comfortable making plans for up economy; and contention over models of the university— to 40 years ahead. Enlightenment versus postmodern. Today, for several reasons, it is more difficult than it These and other developments will create a new pe- was in 1960 to develop an assured vision of the future. There riod of destabilization, promising much conflict and im- are no three so dominating, so compatible, and so welcome pressive changes as well as making it much more difficult forces at work as universal access, responsibility for scien- to plan for the future than Shock Wave I did. tific progress, and unprecedented prosperity. As competi- Higher education leaders worked out solutions to tion increases for public resources—from prisons, the Shock Wave I in large measure through the differentiation healthcare system, retirees’ income, and elsewhere—the of missions and functions among institutions. One result effective use of resources will become a more dominant was the rise to prominence of community colleges and re- concern within higher education. In addition, authority search universities. The new realities will differentially af- within the university is now more circumscribed than ever fect the higher education segments, with what have been before. There are more checks and balances by the courts, known as “comprehensive” institutions becoming the most by faculty members, and by students. In sum, there are more vulnerable and perhaps most changed in the coming pe- contradictory variables, more uncertainties, more checks riod. These institutions, above all, will need to respond to and balances, and more possibly unwelcome developments, two new increasingly important markets for higher educa- making successful adjustment much less certain. Above all, tion. One is preparation for midcareer promotions, and this a period of fundamental but uncertain technological change market for adult reentry students is bound to become more 11
Special Focus: International Mobility and Multinational Trends makes advance planning difficult and, possibly, unwise. lishing faculty external affairs committees to consider It could create rigidities in responses where flexibility academic relations with government and industry. is needed. External guidelines could also improve faculty partici- In the 1960s, many of us had a clear—and correct— pation in governance. The American Association of Uni- view of the big forces at work. We moved straight ahead to versity Professors, for example, might work on a new code meet the challenges, but with blinders on. We too often of trustee and faculty ethics, one perhaps more oriented to ignored the pathologies of the institutions we were build- external concerns, in particular on how to protect the ing. Few of us foresaw the rise of the student rebellion, and university’s function as an independent critic of society as when it came we treated it too often as an interference with it becomes more enmeshed in that society. the urgent pursuit of our visions. Academic leaders now may not be able to identify any great visions to guide them nor great and compatible forces To meet these conflicts, higher educa- to dominate them. They may need to look in more direc- tion will need to find ways to strengthen tions, to be sensitive to many diverse opportunities and to the capacity for effective action on the many threats. They will be more concerned with survival than with great visions, survival for themselves and for their part of three key sets of actors involved institutions. in governance: boards of trustees, presi- dents, and faculties. The Need for Strengthened Governance Not all segments of higher education will face the full range of challenges, but all will face serious and continuing con- Missions Threatened flicts over resources, exacerbating tensions on campus and The new era threatens some long-standing purposes of the between campuses and the larger society. To meet these university in American society. In 1973, the Carnegie Com- conflicts, higher education will need to find ways to mission on Higher Education identified five purposes that strengthen the capacity for effective action on the part of historically have been served by higher education. They three key sets of actors involved in governance: boards of included providing opportunities for individual student trustees, presidents, and faculties. development, the advancement of human capability in Many of the new and intensified problems will come society at large, enlargement of educational justice, the to rest particularly on the trustees’ shoulders. These in- transmission and advancement of learning and wisdom, clude (1) ensuring that cooperation with industry does and the critical evaluation of society for the sake of not intrude on the basic science activities and the in- society’s self-renewal. It is the last of these that may be tegrity of research universities, (2) developing admis- most threatened in the new era as outside entities, es- sions and tuition policies to serve the vastly expanded pecially industry, attempt to encourage diversion of numbers of potential students, (3) improving the per- university resources to projects that have a prospective formance of schools of education in training teachers payoff and could provide, through patents, capture of and in recommending educational policies for primary the ownership of the new knowledge. A new code of and secondary education, (4) finding sufficient resources academic ethics should include control of selection of and monitoring their efficient use, and (5) selecting and scholarly endeavors by scholars alone. supporting able presidents. In light of these increasing demands, the time has come to strengthen boards of trust- ees, through longer terms and more sources of appoint- International Providers of ment for trustees of public institutions, thus lessening gubernatorial control. Higher Education in India Shock Wave II will require presidents to make more K. B. Powar and Veena Bhalla and harder decisions while, at the same time, they face a K. B. Powar is secretary general of the Association of Indian Universities, more formidable array of external interests and internal New Delhi. Veena Bhalla is under secretary of the Student Information Services, in the Association of Indian Universities. Address: Association critics. Changes will be necessary to enhance these presi- of Indian Universities, AIU House, 16, Kotla Marg, New Delhi 110 dential positions, such as lengthening terms and providing 002, India. E-Mail:
Special Focus: International Mobility and Multinational Trends
ments are aimed at attracting students to academic in- spective,” Philip Altbach characterized the current wave stitutions abroad or inducing them to register for di- influenced by the profit motive rather than by govern- ploma and degree programs of foreign universities that ment policy. Increasingly sophisticated marketing tech- are offered in India itself. A survey of advertisements niques are being used to meet demands and create niches that appeared in 14 national newspapers, between July for “educational products.” The article notes that uni- and December 2000, provides information on the nature versities from the developed countries are offering “off- of the programs, the background and distribution of the shore degrees,” in collaboration with noneducational universities and institutions offering them, and the aca- institutions; that the Internet is being used to deliver demic standing of the Indian partners. degrees; that there are few controls concerning quality; and that programs are being offered not only by re- An Overview spected institutions but also by low-prestige schools sim- A perusal of these advertisements showed that the larg- ply selling worthless certificates. est number of advertisers (who total 144) are from the United Kingdom (53) followed by Australia (40), the United States (24), Canada (7), and New Zealand. Other The foreign universities offer a variety countries advertising are Bulgaria (2), Cyprus (1), France of undergraduate and postgraduate (2), Hong Kong (China)(1), Ireland (1), Mauritius (1), courses in practically all faculties. Nepal (2), Romania (1), Russia (1) and Switzerland (3). While 117 of the institutions are seeking to attract stu- dents to their countries, the remaining 27 are offering programs in India. Furthermore, as many as 46 foreign Our survey supports Altbach’s conclusions and providers are not recognized or accredited in their own concerns. In India, internationalization of higher education countries. Besides, 23 of the 26 Indian partners are not has taken a commercial form, with academic considerations affiliated with any Indian university—an indication that often taking a backseat. In principle, no objection can be they have entered the academic arena primarily for com- raised against foreign universities trying to recruit students mercial gain. for study outside India. In a way foreign study meets the The foreign universities offer a variety of under- need for a quality education among students who are unable graduate and postgraduate courses in practically all fac- to gain admission to the best institutions in India but have ulties. Students are invited to enroll, on the the desire and the means to study abroad. The objection is home-campus, in undergraduate courses in the liberal against the “selling” of degrees, of questionable standard, arts, business, and medicine. Also on offer are postgradu- by nonrecognized institutions and even by some recognized ate courses in engineering, technology, the sciences, the universities. The franchising of programs has become social sciences, law, arts and design, business adminis- common. Little or no supervision is exercised by faculty tration, international business, banking, finance, and from the parent institution, facilities are often minimal, and management. One of the institutions is offering direct there are few controls relating to quality or financial web-based learning. arrangements. The programs offered in India are predominantly From the Indian point of view, the activities of such those in the professional areas of management and en- institutions clearly need to be controlled. Unfortunately, gineering. The management courses that lead to an MBA the relevant laws are ambiguous on this point. The 1956 are in the specialized areas of marketing, finance, infor- University Grants Commission Act or the 1987 All India mation systems, mass communications, and interna- Council for Technical Education, for example, do not tional affairs. Other postgraduate management programs prohibit the operation of foreign institutions in India, are in hotel management, healthcare, and tourism. En- nor do they have provisions concerning the functioning gineering undergraduate programs are available in tex- of these institutions in India. The laws relating to foreign tile engineering, computer engineering, information exchange do place some restrictions in this area, but these technology, and communications technology. There are are being increasingly diluted. These factors allow also postgraduate programs in computer science, com- foreign institutions a great deal of latitude; for all puter and communications technology, and information practical purposes, they can act with few restrictions. technology. Also on offer are undergraduate programs There is, therefore, a clear need to finalize and adopt a in arts, business, management, and law. policy relating to the operation of foreign institutions in India. To stop the gross commercialization of education, Implications and Options the operation of the Indian partners must be regulated, In his spring 1999 article in this newsletter, “The Perils with only genuine academic institutions being allowed of Internationalizing Higher Education: An Asian Per- to participate in “twinning activities.” Franchising has 13
Special Focus: International Mobility and Multinational Trends been possible only because the legal milieu does not foreign university gives an undertaking, in the form of a prohibit or regulate it. certificate, that the degree or diploma awarded to the To promote quality education, it would be student in India would be considered as equivalent to worthwhile to create genuine institutional links that are the corresponding degree or diploma awarded by the based on equal participation and have adequate controls home university, and that it would be recognized in that related to quality and financial arrangements. As a step country as being equivalent to the corresponding degree in this direction, the Association of Indian Universities or diploma of the awarding university. (AIU), in 1999, formulated guidelines covering the grant To date, only one university has applied for the grant of equivalence to degrees offered in India by foreign of equivalence. Obviously, the guidelines of the AIU are universities. The main conditions laid down are, first, not acceptable to the foreign providers of higher that the Indian institution (partner) has adequate education. Perhaps they feel that they can continue infrastructure and facilities as substantiated by the report operation without a grant of equivalence, for there is no of a Review Committee of the AIU; second, that the dearth of students wanting a foreign degree. One can program is implemented jointly by the foreign and the understand higher education having financial aspects, Indian universities, or academic institutions affiliated to but most people in India believe that it must essentially them, with both contributing to the academic program be grounded in academic values. in approximately equal measure; and third, that the
American Accrediting and the International Environment
Judith S. Eaton government host hundreds of international visitors as well. Judith S. Eaton is president of the Council for Higher Education Accredi- The interest of U.S. accreditors in expanded interna- tation. Address: CHEA, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, DC 20036. tional activity and the attention that the international com- E-mail:
Special Focus: International Mobility and Multinational Trends
the quality review efforts of various countries. While how American accreditation operates. The United States attractive to some leaders in European higher education, could also provide better information about the quality the idea of this comprehensive European stamp of qual- of its exports—both the export of higher education of- ity is of concern to others. The pressure to keep the na- ferings and of accreditation techniques. The United States tion-state as the proper venue for quality judgments could also vigorously expand efforts to promote coop- about higher education is great. eration and communication about quality assurance and accreditation throughout the world. These are some steps the United States could take to fulfill its obligations as a For international colleagues, under- good colleague in the international quality review com- standing the U.S. system is further com- munity. plicated by confusion in the use of key Providing Information quality-related terms. Terms such as “ac- The highly complex and extensive U.S. system is diffi- creditation” and “quality assurance” cult to understand—even for many in the United States. have different meanings in different Institutional accreditation is the province of both regional countries. and national accreditors. Programmatic accreditation is the province of specialized and professional accreditors. These accreditors may or may not be recognized and In Asia, the University Mobility in Asia and the Pa- sanctioned either by government or private organiza- cific (UMAP) consortium—a group of government and tions. The scope of each accreditor is distinctive, and al- nongovernment representatives of universities in the re- though accreditation practices are similar in many gion—was formed in 1993, to meet the regional chal- respects, significant variations should be noted. lenge of enhanced student and staff mobility. Because For international colleagues, understanding the U.S. successful credit transfer is ultimately tied to perceptions system is further complicated by confusion in the use of of institutional quality, UMAP is pressured to establish key quality-related terms. Terms such as “accreditation” additional quality assurance ties around the world. and “quality assurance” have different meanings in dif- Some of these same countries that are skeptical of ferent countries. We have an obligation to improve our greater U.S. presence internationally are experiencing understanding of the use of these terms by colleagues in domestic pressures, especially to expand access and par- various countries. We would all benefit from a common ticipation in higher education within their own borders. language of international quality review. The CHEA pro- South Africa, for example, is facing expectations to ex- vides an overview of U.S. accreditation on its website pand its higher education capacity while, at the same and will soon have a glossary of key accreditation and time, building a comprehensive quality review capac- quality assurance terms available there as well. ity. Such expectations demand extraordinary efforts from higher education leaders, who are expected to accom- The Issue of Quality plish these goals without sacrificing quality and with- The United States is a major importer and exporter of out additional financial resources. higher education. While many institutions and programs Central and Eastern Europe is another region in operating internationally are of sound quality, there are which countries have been charged to expand student others that have questionable practices and offer dubi- access and participation in higher education. To pursue ous claims of accredited status. One strategy for U.S. expanded access and the attendant quality issues this accreditors and international colleagues is to develop an raises, some countries have established accreditation approach that enables potential students and institutions councils with a variety of quality review functions. All to avoid these kinds of programs and institutions. The of these councils must work hard to reconcile the expec- CHEA website offers “Twelve Important Questions tations about quality of their traditionally prestigious About External Quality Review” for students looking institutions with the call for expanded access. into different programs. Although these questions were developed for U.S. students attending U.S. site-based or U.S. Contributions distance-based operations, the CHEA—working with What contributions might the U.S. accrediting commu- international colleagues—could adapt this model to an nity make at this time of heightened international inter- international setting. est in quality review? The CHEA repeatedly hears the same responses to this question. The United States could International Collaboration start by providing better information about its own qual- U.S. accreditors need to collaborate with their interna- ity review and being more explicit in its descriptions of tional colleagues to increase mutual understanding of 15
Special Focus: International Mobility and Multinational Trends review processes and standards and to promote good practices, successes, and limitations. Our long history practices in quality review. Organizations such as the of accreditation activity should be constructively shared International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies with colleagues in order to meet their needs. We must in Higher Education, the Center for Quality Assurance be good listeners and observers, respecting the diver- in International Education, and the European Network sity of traditions of higher education around the world. of Quality Assurance Agencies, as well as the CHEA, We must offer information and ideas in a collegial man- are attempting to meet this need through meetings, pa- ner without attempting to influence the judgments of pers, and projects. the international community about what is best in vari- ous and different countries. Perhaps most important of Conclusion all, we must be good learners, carefully observing the In the current environment, U.S. accreditors must have successes and good practices of our international col- a strong commitment to assist the international commu- leagues. This is an exciting time for international coop- nity in obtaining information about U.S. accreditation eration, and we ought to make the most of it.
International Student Mobility at the Millennium: American Patterns
Hey-Kyung Koh Hey-Kyung Koh is program officer at the Institute of International Where and What They Study Education, 809 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA. Of the international students studying in this country, 48 percent are located in just 50 U.S. counties, concen- or the first time in the 51 years since the Institute for trated in the larger metropolitan areas. International stu- FInternational Education has been collecting and dents in the United States study at over 2,500 institutions. publishing data on international students in its Open Doors While the majority of them are at a small handful of the Report on International Educational Exchange, the number of large research universities, they are a presence at every international students studying at U.S. institutions of higher type of institution, from specialized and professional education surpassed half a million. The 1999–2000 figure institutions, to associate institutions, to baccalaureate, of 514,723 represents a 4.8 percent increase from the master’s, doctoral, and research institutions. previous year and is based on a 92.5 percent response rate Fully 20 percent of international students, or 103,215, of the 2,696 colleges and universities surveyed. (The are in the United States to study business and management, definition of an international student for the purposes of followed by engineering, which enrolls 15 percent, or the Open Doors survey is “anyone enrolled for courses in 76,748 students. Of particular note are enrollments in math the United States who is not an immigrant (permanent and computer science, which saw a dramatic increase of resident), or a citizen, or a refugee, or resident alien (green 18.7 percent from the previous year. card holders).” PersonalProfile Where They Come From International students are mainly undergraduates, with International students come from all over the world, but male students outnumbering female students, although some regions are more heavily represented in the total num- both the gender and academic level gaps have been clos- ber of students studying in the United States. Nine of the ing in recent years. They are overwhelmingly single and 15 leading places of origin are located in Asia, with Asian are on an F visa. International associate degree students students comprising more than half of all international stu- numbered 59,830, or 1.2 percent of the total associate de- dents at 54 percent, Europeans, who represent 15 percent gree enrollments in the United States; undergraduate of overall international enrollments, follow the Asians. In students numbered 177,381, or 2.7 percent of bachelor’s recent years, there has been an increase in the numbers of degree enrollments; and graduate students numbered students coming from Mexico, Brazil, and Turkey—which 218,219, or 12.0 percent of total master’s and doctoral have risen by more than 6 percent in the past year. degree enrollments. 16 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
Financial Support and Contribution Community Colleges Three-quarters of all international students receive their Perhaps the most interesting story this year is the ongo- primary support from non-U.S. sources of funding. Per- ing critical role played by community colleges in the in- sonal and family funds support 67 percent of interna- ternationalization of U.S. higher education. While large tional students and constitute the largest percentage of research universities host the most international students the non-U.S. sources of funding. The largest U.S. source in the United States, international enrollments at com- of funding is the student’s institution, through research munity colleges have grown at a faster pace than at any grants from federal or other sources, tuition waivers, and other Carnegie institution type. From 1993 to 1999 for- assistantships—especially for graduate students. Sup- eign student enrollments at community colleges grew port by U.S. universities has increased (to 18.9 percent, by over 40 percent, compared to the 14.4 percent enroll- up from 9.2 percent 20 years ago) and support from for- ment growth across all institutions. Two community eign governments has declined (to 5.4 percent, down colleges in the Washington, D.C. area in the Open Doors’ from 13.0 percent 20 years ago). category of the top 25 institutions in terms of interna- tional student enrollments are Northern Virginia Com- munity College, which ranks 17th (with 2,984 foreign Personal and family funds support 67 students), and Montgomery College, which ranks 24th percent of international students and (with 2,748 foreign students), along with Michigan State University. constitute the largest percentage of the The large percentage increase and growing interna- non-U.S. sources of funding. tional student presence at the community colleges can be attributed to several factors. Certainly, better admin- istrative functions such as coordination among campus It is estimated that international students studying offices in reporting student data have contributed to the in the United States contribute approximately $12.3 bil- perceived rise in numbers of international students. lion a year to the U.S. economy through tuition, room Equally important is a growing interest on the part of and board, and cost of living expenses. Expenditures community colleges in internationalizing. The most rel- often include costs incurred for a spouse and dependents evant and pertinent factor, however, may be that inter- who have come along with the student. national students are seeking high-quality but low-cost education and have recognized that this is precisely what Asian Students the community colleges can provide. Since the 1997 Asian economic crisis, Open Doors has been tracking the student flow from the East Asian “ti- ger” countries to the United States. Some countries ap- Just as the variety of institutions in the pear to have recovered. Most notably, after the effects of the economic downturn, the number of Korean students U.S. higher education system caters to actually increased by 5 percent and there has been a mod- the diverse needs of American students, est enrollment growth from Japan of 1 percent. On the international students have recognized other hand, there has been a continued slump from many that it can offer the same for them. Southeast Asian countries. Numbers are down from the previous year: –6.9 percent from Indonesia, –12.1 per- cent from Thailand, and –21.5 percent from Malaysia. Community colleges offer opportunities for a qual- Over 41 percent of all international students come ity education at a lower cost and provide flexibility, as- from just five places of origin in Asia. The marked in- pects that appeal to the nontraditional student. Just as crease in the number of Chinese and Indian students has the variety of institutions in the U.S. higher education contributed to a rise in the number of international stu- system caters to the diverse needs of American students, dents in the United States. China’s 54,466 students made international students have recognized that it can offer up 10.6 percent of enrollments in 1999–2000—a 6.8 per- the same for them. Since 67.1 percent of foreign students cent change from the previous year. India’s 42,337 stu- are self-financed, one can surmise that the cost of com- dents represent 8.2 percent of total international munity college is a major draw for international students enrollments and a 13.0 percent increase from 1998–1999. and American students alike. Indeed, community col- In 1999–2000, India surpassed Korea as the third-largest leges have the highest percentage of self-supported stu- sending country or place of origin. Enrollments from dents out of all Carnegie types (87 percent). More India and China grew at twice the overall rate of inter- international undergraduate students tend to be self-fi- national enrollments. nanced than is true of their graduate counterparts, which 17
Special Focus: China, Hong Kong, and Macau
further explains their numbers at the community col- individuals who can participate will continue to fuel lege level. international education enrollments. The challenge will The presence over the last half century of ever-in- be for our institutions, businesses, and governments to creasing numbers of international students has influ- continue the work of strengthening international educa- enced the United States in many ways. Among these are tion as an integral feature of American higher education. the internationalization of higher education, economic growth from international student expenditures, and This article is based on the Open Doors Report on International linkages with the rest of the world created when inter- Educational Exchange, which is available for purchase for $42.95. national students return home with an understanding 50 Years of Open Doors, a CD-rom containing every issue of the Open Doors Report published from 1948 to 1999, is available for of and experience with Americans and American cul- $129.00. For information on ordering on-line, by fax, phone, or ture and values. Global business activity, advances in email,␣ see
department. Adults may also choose examination-based self- Community College study higher education, while attending a variety of noncredential programs of study in postsecondary institu- Development in China tions. China’s secondary school graduates who do not score Gerard Postiglione highly enough to gain admission to a four-year, degree- Gerard Postiglione is on the staff of the Ford Foundation, Beijing, China, and is associate professor of education at the University of Hong Kong, granting university may opt to enter a variety of other Pokfulam Rd., Hong Kong. E-mail:
Special Focus: China, Hong Kong, and Macau
Membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) tionable. There are already over 1,400 minban colleges and will create a further demand for postsecondary education universities serving over one million students. However, graduates. Community college models may improve China’s only 37 are permitted by the Ministry of Education to con- chances of competing in the global economy by minimizing fer diplomas, and of these, only 4 can confer bachelor’s de- dislocations in the labor market created during the initial grees. period of China’s WTO membership. Finally, community China’s midlevel specialized secondary schools colleges can already be found in both Hong Kong and (zhongzhuan) offer a vocational high school education simi- Taiwan. This not only means that they are well suited for lar to vocational high schools (zhiye gaozhong) but with less Chinese societies, but also that these institutions survive academic content. These schools were formerly under the well in the rough-and-tumble East Asian economic authority of the respective ministries (health, railroads, post environment. and telecommunications, etc.), but will increasingly come under the jurisdiction of local education bureaus. As upper The Community Education Movement secondary education becomes more popularized and the Community education has already taken root in China. content less vocationally oriented, these institutions can However, this form of education is of a nonformal nature begin to upgrade their programs to postsecondary level. and does not lead to a credential. It caters to a variety of Some have already begun to do so and are entering into needs, including youth activities, healthcare, social work, arrangements with universities to strengthen their pro- rehabilitation, prenatal care, activities for seniors, basic job grams. They may adapt community college characteristics skills, etc. when China moves toward mass higher education. There is also the development at the county level of vocational-technical education centers (zhiye jishu jiaoyu zhongxin). These centers address the training and educational needs of the local communities. These are China’s midlevel specialized secondary important because they take the community education schools (zhongzhuan) offer a vocational concept to rural China, where most people live, and because high school education similar to voca- they are key to solving other problems as well. For example, tional high schools (zhiye gaozhong) but the western development strategy of China includes with less academic content. encouraging talent from the eastern regions of the country to “go west” and develop China. This adds needed skills and knowledge to the package of western development. Conclusion However, it also creates problems in that local inhabitants The demand for alternative forms of postsecondary edu- are not able to compete with the newcomers. These cation will grow, especially in areas where 12-year vocational-technical education centers can provide postsecondary education has already been popularized. opportunities for local people, including local ethnic Community college models could also provide an oppor- minority populations of western China, to learn useful skills tunity for newly unemployed workers to retool and find that will allow them to compete with the newcomers and employment. Postsecondary education in China still serves at the same time contribute more to the development of a small elite. The unemployed population may be better their own regions. served by nondegree, short-term training aimed at getting individuals back into the labor market as quickly as pos- sible. By the year 2015, China will have moved toward mass Community education has already higher education. At that time, postsecondary vocational- taken root in China. technical education will no longer serve a small elite as it does today. As China embarks on mass higher education in 2015, the institutions that evolve into a type of community col- Other Community College Models lege will likely include more than just the current In the coming decade, minban (popularly run) colleges and postsecondary colleges (gaodeng zhiye jishu xueyuan) and/or midlevel specialized colleges may also be candidates for the continuing education divisions of universities. Other becoming more like standard community colleges. There likely candidates are the current midlevel secondary spe- is a great demand for higher education, and community cialized schools (zhongzhuan), some of the nongovernment college models are one way to deal with the demand. Thus, (shehui liliang banxue) colleges that are being established to postsecondary minban institutions will take up much of the meet the growing demand for postsecondary education, and demand for higher education, though their quality is ques- some of the county/township level vocational-technical education centers (zhiye jishu jiaoyu zhongxin). 19
Special Focus: China, Hong Kong, and Macau
The Growth and Diversification of Higher Education in Macau
Mark Bray The year 1987 brought a significant political event, Mark Bray is director of the Comparative Education Research Centre namely the Sino-Portuguese Agreement that China would at the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China. resume administration of Macau in 1999. This event stimu- E-mail:
Special Focus: China, Hong Kong, and Macau
maintained by the formation, in 1995, of the Institute of higher education were political transitions and small European Studies of Macau and the Institute for Tourism size. The 1987 Sino-Portuguese Agreement provided the Studies and, in 1996, by the Inter-University Institute of initial stimulus for government intervention and set a Macau. The first of these was a private body with public timetable for reversion to Chinese administration in 1999. partners including the Macau government, the UM, and Ironically, one effect during this twilight of the colonial the MPI. The Institute for Tourism Studies was a public regime was to strengthen links with Portugal. The body; and the Inter-University Institute was a joint initia- Portuguese language was given emphasis, especially in the tive by the Catholic University of Portugal and the Dio- public institutions, and professional links were built and cese of Macau. These three bodies again emphasized funded by bodies in Portugal. At the same time, the external connections in order to address the constraints of government was tolerant of private initiatives, not least Macau’s small population. because they enlarged the higher education sector and supported efforts to strengthen Macau’s sense of identity. The 1999 resumption of Chinese sovereignty Like other small territories, Macau will necessarily brought a new direction. Past developments had been largely ad hoc and increasingly focused on the near never be able to provide all specializa- term as 1999 approached. One major step for longer-term tions domestically, and at least some stu- planning was the commissioning in 2000 of an external dents will need to go outside the territory review of the whole sector. Among the recommendations of this review was the creation of a body to improve coordination of the institutions of higher education. The authors of the external review were also very The last institution of higher education to gain formal conscious of the implications of Macau’s small size. Like approval during the decade was the Kiang Wu Nursing other small territories, Macau will never be able to provide College of Macau. This private institution dates back to all specializations domestically, and at least some students 1923, when the Kiang Wu Nursing School was estab- will need to go outside the territory (e.g., for dentistry and lished within the Kiang Wu Hospital. In 1999, the col- specialized forms of medicine). Within the new political lege was recognized by the government as a private framework, domestic institutions will also face increasing institution of higher education that offered degree pro- competition from universities in other parts of China. grams in conjunction with the Peking Union Medical However, the review argued that Macau could continue to College. recruit students from outside the territory. This could partly be done through Chinese-medium courses, but should also Reversion to Chinese Administration: The New Era be done through English-medium programs. Macau’s The process of opening institutions of higher education Portuguese heritage could also be seen as a distinctive asset, did not pause with the handover to Chinese administration. but Portuguese-language courses are unlikely to be During the first year, two private bodies were established. sustained at pre-1999 levels. First was the Macau Institute of Management (MIM), which sought to upgrade skills and qualifications in the business sector. The MIM evolved from a postsecondary body established in 1984. Like the other institutions, however, it The 1999 resumption of Chinese sover- was small. In 2000 it had only 92 students, all part time. eignty necessarily brought a new direction. The second body was the Macau University of Science & Technology (MUST) and was a more ambitious undertaking. MUST has powerful backers and bold plans As previous issues of this newsletter have shown, for partnerships of various kinds, particularly with mainland shifts in balance between public and private are not China. The government granted the institution a substantial unusual. The reason why they have been particularly piece of land, and even in its first year it recruited 650 dramatic in Macau is again partly linked to small size. students. Also, because of political forces, developments in Macau With the creation of these two bodies, Macau had have occurred in a much more compressed timescale moved to 11 institutions, of which 4 were public and 7 were than has been normal elsewhere. From a comparative private. This was a dramatic change from the situation 20 perspective, Macau may appear idiosyncratic. However, years previously. it is worth examining precisely because of that fact. Analysis of patterns in Macau assists broader Political Transitions and Small Size understanding of the forces of change simply because these Two major themes underlying the changes in Macau’s patterns are unusual. 21
Special Focus: China, Hong Kong, and Macau
Educational Reform and Higher Education in Hong Kong
Ruth Hayhoe rapidly changing economic and social circumstances, are essential for most of the workforce. Ruth Hayhoe is a member of the Education Commission and director of Hong Kong leaders note with dismay the contrast be- the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Address: Hong Kong Institute of tween Hong Kong and such Asian cities as Shanghai and Education, 10 Lo Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong. E-mail :
policy address as chief executive of the new Special Ad- social sciences at the upper levels. Now there is an ar- ministration Region government in October 1997, Tung gument that this model should be used for the prepara- Chee Hwa made the commitment to a future where all new tion of primary teachers, as well. While the Institute has teachers entering the profession should be university gradu- developed postgraduate diploma programs for university ates with professional training and asked the University graduates interested in either primary or secondary teach- Grants Committee to advise on the timetable for this tran- ing careers, it has taken the position that the integrated sition. bachelor of education program provides a more solid pro- fessional preparation for a teaching career, especially in the light of trends toward more integrated curricular There is considerable debate over the knowledge and the encouragement of habits of self-learn- ing in all children. The Institute, along with the Univer- most appropriate model for teacher sity of Science and Technology and the Polytechnic education at different levels, with the University, has also developed collaborative programs that universities largely focusing on post- allow for a balanced emphasis on excellence in certain graduate diploma programs for univer- subject disciplines and professional studies from the first sity graduates in various subject year of postsecondary schooling. disciplines.
The Institute of Education This commitment of the new chief executive to an all- graduate teaching profession has resulted in plans for a very Developing a Financing rapid transition for the Institute of Education. All subdegree Strategy for Palestinian Higher programs for primary and secondary teachers are now to be phased out by 2004. They will be replaced mainly by Education bachelor of education programs, with a special focus at the secondary level on areas such as the arts, languages, physical Hisham Kuhail and Arthur Hauptman education, and design and technology, which were strong points of the former colleges. These new programs have Hisham Kuhail is deputy minister for higher education in the Palestinian National Authority. E-mail:
Countries and Regions
students—2 percent of all Palestinians—with a gross enrollment severely dim the prospects for economic growth and rate of more than 15 percent. Both of these figures are well above stability in the PNA and the Middle East region more the average in the Middle East region and internationally generally. among the developing countries. By the same token, nearly 1.7 percent of the Palestinian GDP and 30 percent of all edu- cation spending are devoted to higher education, again above The subjects Palestinian students study average by international standards. These figures suggest that are often inconsistent with the growing Palestinian higher education has above-average levels of scientific and technical skills needs of the participation and is relatively well funded. On the other hand, the spending per student in Palestinian economy and society as well Palestinian higher education—less than $1,000 per student— as the broader economic and social is low by international standards, while tuition fees as a needs of the Middle East. percentage of university recurrent costs and as a share of their total revenues—68 and 86 percent, respectively, in 1999— are very high. At the same time, public spending on higher Principles for Reform education as a percentage of GDP (2 percent), of the PNA In response to these challenges, the MOHE has decided to total budget (0.6 percent), and of the PNA budget allocated develop a financing strategy that has not previously existed for education (3 percent) is very low by international for the sector as a whole. In developing such a strategy, standards. however, a fundamental reality must first be recognized, namely, that the level of public financial support for Pales- Challenges Facing the Sector tinian higher education is not now nor likely in the fore- Despite a demonstrated capacity to survive and even grow seeable future to be sufficient to ensure fiscal sustainability in extremely adverse and unstable conditions over the past of the system as it currently exists. University deficits sim- three decades, Palestinian higher education today faces a ply exceed what the PNA currently provides or can rea- number of daunting challenges. sonably be expected to provide in the future. Therefore, About three-fourths of all Palestinian students are en- major reforms will be necessary, and a financing strategy rolled in the social sciences and humanities. The subjects for Palestinian higher education must be designed so that Palestinian students study are often inconsistent with the public funds are targeted in ways to improve what will re- growing scientific and technical skills needs of the Pales- main a largely public and nonprofit higher education sys- tinian economy and society as well as the broader economic tem. To do this, the proposed financing strategy will be and social needs of the Middle East. Another concern is based on the following principles: (1) enhancing students’ the decline over time in the number of community college ability to pay for higher education will be emphasized over students and the rapid increase in university enrollments. sustaining institutions as a primary means of public sup- Over the past half decade, enrollments have more than port; (2) public funds will target national and regional hu- doubled while funding has remained level or declined. man resource development needs by focusing on programs These problematic financial and enrollment trends have identified as having high priority; (3) opportunities and led to the widespread perception that the quality of Pales- capacity in both universities and community colleges should tinian higher education has declined. Most Palestinian uni- be expanded as a means of meeting current and future aca- versities have chronic deficits that preclude solving these demic and vocational needs; (4) the autonomy of public quality concerns through internal reforms. As is the case in and nonprofit Palestinian universities should be combined virtually all countries, access to Palestinian higher educa- with greater accountability by emphasizing incentives more tion is uneven. Students with fewer family resources do than regulations of institutions; and (5) a key element of not have access to the full range of opportunities. The lack the financing strategy should be to improve the manage- of effective management throughout the systsem takes ment of the institutions and the higher education sector. many forms, including: a lack of transparency through- out the sector, the absence of coordination between the Possible Components of the Strategy MOHE and institutions, and inadequate cooperation First, it is important to identify high-priority human among higher education institutions. resource development needs that could be used in allocating The consequence of not addressing these challenges funds to institutions, providing funds for student financial is that quality will continue to be compromised, relevance aid, and allowing for lower fees in high-priority fields of will remain questionable and access will remain unequal. study. Any of the scenarios that might result from a failure to Second, the principles for reform will be implemented address these challenges would deny educational by adopting a number of policies, including providing opportunities for thousands of Palestinians every year and vouchers to students of high merit and high need who enroll 24 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
Countries and Regions
in fields of high priority; making supplemental payments sures also must be taken, including: strengthening the ex- to institutions to meet normative costs in high-priority fields isting accreditation and assessment procedures, improving of study; expanding the availability of student loans to allow the management structure of the higher education sector a broader range of students to pay their tuition fees; creating by developing management information systems for the a “quality improvement fund” to stimulate innovation in MOHE and for individual institutions and by establishing instruction and management of institutions; funding management improvement plans for each university; and research separately from instruction on a project, peer- reassessing fee-setting procedures at universities. review basis in areas of high national priority; and creating At this time, the financing strategy as outlined here a capital development fund to support the building and has not been formally adopted. The purpose of producing upgrading of facilities, to be provided primarily by donors. it is to stimulate discussion among stakeholders about how Third, a series of administrative and regulatory mea- to address the challenges that Palestinian higher education faces now and in the future.
Conflicts within Swedish Higher Education Policy
Lillemor Kim Growth For the last two decades, access to higher education in Lillemor Kim is research director at the Swedish Institute for Studies in Education and Research (SISTER), Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail: Sweden has been based on a strange combination of
Countries and Regions
students and staff and research resources. Swedish higher and Innovation, were established in January 2001. education may need to accept a more diversified structure in order to solve the problem of further growth. The need for increased diversification is clearly visible Quality in admissions policies. Remaining social inequalities and a The current concern for quality is a natural consequence more diversified student body have made the present system of ongoing decentralization and of increasing external of admissions antiquated. Reform is under way, but political influence on the orientation of higher education hesitation about moving away from the principles of “justice institutions. In Sweden, as in most other countries, quality by uniformity” is apparent. The idea that higher education means more than academic standards; it covers a broad is a privilege to be equally distributed in society comes into spectrum of reform intentions such as effectiveness, conflict with the goal of a more open higher education innovation, and accountability. system based on the principle of massification. Responsibility for quality rests with the institutions, but the new social and regional roles of higher education Autonomy have widened the group of stakeholders in the process of The 1993 reform reduced the detailed influence of central quality assessment. With the 1993 reform, the “buffer government but called for more planning, accountability, organization” in the Swedish higher education system was and control at the institutional level and therefore a stronger closed down. A university chancellor was appointed with and more pronounced institutional governance. The the task of supplying students and stakeholders with internal devolution of authority, awaited by many assessments of the quality of the undergraduate academics, did not occur. Instead, the responsibility for education. Yet, emphasis was placed on quality indicators those in leadership positions in universities and colleges and performance relative to the distribution of funds— increased. Collegiality and management in combination at least at the start. New principles for allocating became the primary model of institutional governance, resources to undergraduate training based on national supported by a new network of interest groups consisting price tags, student numbers, and performance were of the academic elite, scholarly organizations, and the also introduced. business establishment. The demands for more formalized public and external With the return of the social democratic government control were gradually turned into a more modest plan for in 1994, the political balance of power gradually began to quality development programs at all institutions to be change. The political representation was enlarged in the examined by audit teams. The re-established National governing boards of the institutions. Rectors were replaced Agency for Higher Education was later put in charge of by people from outside (often industrial leaders or this auditing process. It gradually developed a Swedish politicians) as chairman of the board. The “unholy” alliance model that attracted international attention as a sort of between state and industry was strengthened at the expense compromise between control and autonomy in of the academic elite. Oddly enough this did not meet with institutional evaluation. any big resistance until recently. Higher education Recently, the National Agency has been assigned the institutions were also given, explicitly, a new “third role”: task—starting in 2001 and occurring every six years—to to serve the local community and contribute to overall conduct evaluations of all higher education programs social development. (including postgraduate programs). Unsatisfactory results The growing reliance on external funding has may lead to loss of the right to award degrees. Assessments, diminished the room for internal collegial decisions. More subject by subject, will be made on the basis of traditional and more funding for research is coming from strategic peer review, and the former model of quality auditing will foundations, which were established after the conservative be put more in the background. coalition government dismantled the large wage earner’s The Swedish story of auditing and assessment reflects funds in the beginning of the 1990s. As a result, the gap is the inherent conflicts in evaluating higher education at now widening between the ”poor” and the ”rich” parts of the national level. Should it primarily to be used the higher education system. primarily for the sake of institutional development and The inherent conflict between the devolution of counseling or mainly for state control and the allocation authority and preserving academic influence (sometimes of resources? The latter assignment seems to be gaining in the name of “academic freedom”) remains an ground. Matters of decisive importance are awaiting important topic under discussion. The recent reform of higher education policy in Sweden. Growing differences research governance and financing is, according to some between subject areas and institutions may create severe spokesmen, a sign of decreasing autonomy for higher tensions in the integrated system. Solving these conflicts education institutions. Two powerful authorities, the in an expanding and geographically dispersed system National Science Council and a new Agency for R & D remains a great challenge. 26 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
Countries and Regions
turning back the clock, survival of old-fashioned structures, What’s Wrong with Hungarian and the proliferation of pseudoreforms. University Management? Structure Karoly Barakonyi A knowledge-based organization requires a flat structure— Karoly Barakonyi is professor of strategic management in the Faculty of coordination instead of the issuing of top-down Business and Economics, Pécs University, Hungary, and former rector of instructions. A hierarchy is not an effective organizational the university. He was visiting Fulbright professor at the Wharton School, structure. The management system of Hungarian University of Pennsylvania. E-mail:
Election of the Rector Strategic Thinking The current Hungarian procedure for electing rectors is The formation and successful operation of knowledge- flawed. From the medieval period until World War II the based organizations require strategic thinking and strate- system more or less worked, as universities were relatively gic planning. The mission statement and strategic plans small and less complex structurally (higher education be- are the music score from which the orchestra plays. A sys- ing an elite rather than a mass phenomenon). The rector’s tem like that must have a well-developed internal commu- mandate was for one year, after which he or she returned nication system, an effective information system, a strong to academic work. The appointment was an honor, with corporate culture, and institutional identity (especially in the rector as primus inter pares. Managing a contempo- the case of the new integrated universities). A strategic ap- rary university cannot simply be designed as an academic proach and the conscious formation of institutional iden- honor: it is a professional occupation. Large state universi- tity are still missing at Hungarian universities. ties in developed countries have long since broken with At a modern university the handling of educational this medieval tradition. The president is usually not elected issues and scientific matters (by the Senate) is separated by associates, but rather appointed by a superior authority from the handling of strategic and financial issues (by the (a board or managing body). The president’s mandate is board). In this way, society can have control over the use of not just for one year, but sometimes for a period of a de- state funding for universities. Hungarian universities require cade or more (like the conductor of an orchestra). structural changes to achieve this balance. The university community is enormously conservative: In the contemporary Hungarian university, the position a rector can only be elected if numerous compromises are of rector may be compared to that of a national prime reached. A rector who wishes to launch reforms that would minister who does not have a party’s support in parliament. interfere with the interests of others is simply not elected; Decisions of great significance can only be made with the reforms made during the term of office might jeopardize consent of parties of differing interests. the rector’s chances of reelection. The present four-year The role of students should also to be questioned, since appointment in Hungary does not allow enough time to students often appear easily influenced. Their participa- complete a partial structural reform, never mind tion in strategic decision making in Hungary is exception- comprehensive modernization. The consequences of the ally high (25 to 33 percent). Several progressive initiatives university’s conservatism include stoppage of reforms, failed in many institutions because internal conservative 27 Countries and Regions
powers managed to persuade uncertain student voters to academic freedom and excessive influence from government take a stand on their side. and business. I believe, given the present changing conditions, Hungarian higher education will only be able Conclusion to fulfill social needs, improve the effectiveness of its Progressing toward a professional university management operations, and meet new demands through the process of system involves some dangers: weakened autonomy and modernizing university management.
A Review of Higher Education in 1999. The act aimed to legalize the previous efforts made by Bulgarian postsecondary schools. A new system of aca- Reform in Bulgaria demic degrees was introduced, and an agency for quality Nikolay Popov assessment and accreditation of postsecondary school ac- Nikolay Popov is associate professor of comparative education at Sofia tivities was created. Efforts were made to harmonize the University, Sofia, Bulgaria. E-mail:
admissions procedures, examinations, and graduation re- Bulgaria are still difficult to predict, a number of prognoses quirements. The many obstacles to transferring between can be made for the coming decade. An ongoing contrac- schools, faculties, and specializations exemplify horizontal tion of the system is likely to occur. The number of stu- inflexibility. The structure does not respond well to stu- dents will decrease by 2 to 5 percent annually as a result of dent needs and requirements or to the needs of the labor higher education policy and demographic, financial, and market; nor does it provide a smooth transition from the societal factors. State funding of higher education will de- secondary level. There is no postsecondary education sec- cline, while state financial control will increase. The role tor consisting of vocational schools or preuniversity insti- and prestige of private postsecondary schools will improve. tutions. A serious step toward the establishment of such a Because the national accreditation process applies the same sector was taken with the July 1999 adoption of the Law standards universally, the private sector will gain greater on Vocational Education and Training, but it is too early legitimacy. The current difference between the sectors lies to predict the outcome of this initiative. Finally, a credit in the perception of student quality, since many private system has not yet been introduced encompassing all school students were once denied admission to state uni- public higher education institutions, with a few excep- versities. However, this image of private higher education tions. Private universities are more advanced in this re- will gradually change. spect, but they enroll a comparatively small number of Heated controversies between the government and the students. Ministry of Education and Science on one hand and postsecondary schools and the University Rectors’ Coun- Future Challenges cil on the other hand are inevitable, due to the government’s The Bulgarian government’s recent reform efforts have efforts to centralize policy and financing. The system will focused on the following objectives: reducing the number increasingly move toward a one-track structure. The uni- of faculties of universities and consolidating postsecondary versity sector will assume the function of preparing spe- schools, decreasing enrollments at postsecondary schools, cialists, while the college sector will have a significant role making use of policy and financial instruments, adapting in postsecondary education. specializations to reflect the needs of society, restricting A number of trends can be cited in support of this prog- revenues to postsecondary schools and encouraging reli- nosis of the system. First, in 1999–2000, 232,000 students ance on governmental financial decisions, and centralizing were enrolled at universities and only 18,000 at colleges. higher education policy. Second, in 1998–1999, university staff comprised 97.5 per- With regard to its place in the international realm of cent of the total number of instructors and college staff, education, Bulgaria must prove that an Eastern European just 2.5 percent. Almost all colleges depend upon visiting country can, despite financial and other challenges, achieve university lecturers. Third, college graduates tend to con- the standards of quality of Western European higher edu- tinue their education in part-time university programs. Fi- cation. This task is particularly important for the country’s nally, colleges have failed to develop specific programs that efforts to gain admission into the European Union. In are not available at universities. Thus, it is likely that col- March 2000 practical negotiations with the EU were initi- leges in Bulgaria will slowly disappear from the system or ated by Bulgaria and five other countries, focusing on six be incorporated into universities. Demand will increase for topics, the first two of which were “education and train- master’s degree programs. Currently, more than two-thirds ing” and “science and research.” of all bachelor’s degree holders continue their studies at Domestically, student needs and services demand at- the master’s level. tention. This includes professional guidance, counseling Bulgaria will work to establish a more flexible struc- and career services for students prior to higher education, ture for its higher education system. Flexibility is not only during their studies, and before their entry into the labor one feature of Western higher education systems that Bul- market. Methodologies for measuring student profiles, garia aspires to emulate, but it is also a present-day aca- entry qualifications, matriculation, and drop out and trans- demic requirement and an essential way to meet the fer rates must be created or improved to help universities challenges of the future. respond to the public expectations of preparing students to find their place in society. The system needs to develop a deeper and coordinated understanding that higher edu- cation is the provider of tomorrow’s leaders and politi- Internet Resource cians and, therefore, plays a pivotal part in developing a well-functioning society. For more information on issues related to international and comparative higher education, visit the Center’s Predictions website, located at: http://www.bc.edu/cihe/ While many aspects of the system of higher education in 29
Fellowship Opportunities Available At SUNY-Albany The Department of Educational Administration and Policy Studies of the University at Albany, SUNY announces at least one Ford Foundation-sponsored assistantship for two academic years, with additional funding possible. The assistantships are part of a Ford-funded project on comparative higher education headed by Daniel C. Levy. One element is Levy’s research on the global growth of private higher education. Another is training in comparative higher education at the University. The department’s strong program in this area is expanding. Candidates must apply to and gain acceptance into the department’s doctoral program, with high standards in GRE, GPA, TOEFL, letters of recommendation, and experience. Applications are welcome in any area of comparative education, with preference for comparative higher education (especially if related to Levy’s research). For application materials, write to Carm Colfer, ED 316, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany NY 12222, USA.
New Publications New Dissertation Book Series in Higher land Ave., Port Chester, NY 10573 USA. The focus of this volume is on how higher Education A critical examination of the new trends in education in the emerging market nations higher education toward managerialism, the are coping with the challenges of market RoutledgeFalmer Publishers has recently increase in the power of administrators at the economies, the development of civil soci- launched a new book series that will pub- expense of professors, the corporatization of ety, research, and the expansion of higher lish many of the best doctoral dissertations research, and similar trends—this volume education. Among the countries discussed in the field of higher education. The pur- discusses how these trends have changed the in case-based chapters are the Czech Re- pose of the series is to encourage the publi- traditional university. Using Australian public, Poland, Taiwan, the Republic of cation of original in-depth research in data, the authors examine current trends Korea, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico. higher education. The series is edited by and in general conclude that academe has Philip G. Altbach. The first two volumes been changed significantly, and in general ASHE Reader on Planning and Institutional published in the series are: not for the better. Research. Edited by Marwin W. Peterson. Needham Heights, Mass.: Pearson Custom Saving for College and the Tax Code: A New Spin Handbook of European Associations in Higher Publishing, 1999. 638 pp. (paper). ISBN 0- on the “Who Pays for Higher Education” Debate. Education: A Practical Guide to Academic Net- 536-02368-9. Address: Pearson Custom By Andrew P. Roth. New York: works in Europe and Beyond. By Bernd Publishing, 160 Gould St., Needham RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 2001. 264 pp. Wächter. Bonn, Germany: Lemmens Heights, MA: 02494, USA. (cloth). ISBN 0-8153-3956-9. Address: Verlag, 2000. 183 pp. ¤ 30.58. (paper). RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 29 W. 35th St., ISBN 3-932306-37-6. Address: Lemmens One of the volumes in the series published New York NY 10001, USA. Verlag, Koenigswinterer Str. 95, D-53227 by the Association for the Study of Higher Bonn, Germany. Education, this book focuses on planning Resource Allocation in Private Research Universi- and institutional research. The editor has ties. By Daniel Rodas. New York: A comprehensive guide to 37 academic net- selected some of the classic texts from the RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 2001. 200 pp. working organizations in Europe, this book American research literature with the aim (cloth). ISBN 0-8153-4032-X. Address: provides detailed information about these of providing a selective comprehensive RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 29 W. 35th organizations and their work. The stress is guide to these related topics. Among the St., New York NY 10001, USA. on explaining the newly established net- broad topics considered are planning works of European organizations. Such or- models, the role and nature of institutional Additional volumes are in press. The pub- ganizations as the European Association for research, and key topics in institutional lisher encourages submission of ideas and the Education of Adults, the European Lan- research. While the selections in this prospectuses relating to this series. Send guage Council, and the European Federa- volume are taken exclusively from the U.S. correspondence to Ms. Farideh Kooi- tion of Catholic Universities are included, literature, this volume will be useful as a Kamali at RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 29 as well as a small number of international guide to these topics. A select reference list W. 35 th St., New York NY 10001, USA, or associations. This is a publication of the is also provided. to Philip G. Altbach. Academic Cooperation Association. Women in Higher Education: A Feminist Perspective (2nd. ed.). Edited by Judith ********* The Emerging Markets and Higher Education. The Enterprise University: Power, Governance, Edited by Matthew S. McMullen, James E. Galzer-Raymo, Barbara K. Townsend, and and Reinvention in Australia. By Simon Mauch, and Bob Donnorummo. New York: Becky Ropers-Huilman. Needham Marginson and Mark Considine. New York: RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 2000. 232 pp. Heights, Mass.: Pearson Custom Cambridge University Press, 2000. 272 pp. (cloth). $75. ISBN 0-8153-3463-X. Ad- Publishing, 2000.566 pp. (paper). ISBN 0- (paper). $24.95. ISBN 0-521-79448-X. Ad- dress: RoutledgeFalmer Publishers, 29 W. 536-60974-8. Address: Pearson Custom dress: Cambridge University Press, 110 Mid- 35th St., New York NY 10001, USA. Publishing, 160 Gould St., Needham Heights, MA: 02494, USA. 30 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
A comprehensive overview of women in Student Mobility on the Map: Tertiary research and information management. higher education, this volume in the ASHE Education Interchange in the Commonwealth While much of the discussion is focused on Reader series, includes key chapters and on the Threshold of the 21st Century. London: the United Kingdom, the topic has wide articles dealing with such broad topics as UKCOSA: Council for International international relevance. Other books in this the historical and social contexts of women Education, 2000. 86 pp. (paper). £20. ISBN series deal with international students, in higher education, feminist theory and 1-870679. Address: UKCOSA, 9-17 St. managing quality and standards, managing research perspectives, women as academic Albans Pl., London N1 ONX, UK. the academic unit, and others. leaders, faculty and students, feminist pedagogy, and international perspectives on A comprehensive survey of international The Institutional Basis of Higher Education women in higher education. A bibliography education and exchange issues as they affect Research: Experiences and Perspectives, Edited by is included. the Commonwealth. Statistical information Stefanie Schwartz and Ulrich Teichler. concerning overseas student flows, patterns Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic The Blinding Darkness of the Enlightenment. of funding, policy issues, the economics of Publishers, 2000. 265 pp. (cloth). $99. ISBN 0- By Voldemar Tomusk. Turku, Finland: foreign students, and other issues are 7923-6613-1. Address: Kluwer Academic Research Unit for the Sociology of discussed. Publishers, POB 989, 3300 AZ Dordrecht, Education, University of Turku, 2000. 211 Netherlands. pp. (paper). ISBN 951-29-1844-7. Address: Learning from Change. Edited by Deborah Research Unit for the Sociology of DeZure. Sterling, Va.: Stylus Publishing, A comprehensive overview of the field of Education, University of Turku, 2000. 460 pp. (paper). $35. ISBN 1-57922- research on higher education worldwide, Painosalama Oy, Turku, Finland. 002-9. Address: Sterling Publishing, 22883 this book stems from a seminar on the topic Quicksilver Dr., Sterling, VA 20166, USA. held in Germany. Key topics such as the An analysis of higher education reform in relationship of policy and research in higher Central and Eastern Europe, this book Change, the American bimonthly journal education, the institutional base for higher focuses on the interrelationships between focusing on higher education, has for education research, and an analysis of higher education and broader societal trends. several decades been one of the key sources higher education research structures in for analysis of higher education many countries. Organization and Governance in Higher development and reform in the United Education (5th ed.). Edited by M. States. This volume features short articles Access to Knowledge: New Information Christopher Brown II. Needham Heights, from 30 years of Change. The topics include Technologies and the Emergence of the Virtual Mass.: Pearson Custom Publishing, teaching and learning, current University. Edited by F. T. Tschang and T. 2000.608 pp. (paper). ISBN 0-536-60749- developments, reform issues, and others. Della Senta. Oxford, U.K.: Elsevier 4. Address: Pearson Custom Publishing, Science, 2001. 434 pp. (cloth). $103. ISBN 160 Gould St., Needham Heights, MA: Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and 0-08-043670-6. Address: Elsevier Sciences, 02494, USA. Research, Volume 16. Edited by John C. The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Smart. Edison, N.J.: Agathon Press, 2001. Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK. An updated fifth edition in the ASHE 394 pp. (paper) $36. ISBN 0-87586-131-8. Reader Series, this volume focuses on Address: Agathon Press, 100 Newfield Ave., The key aspects of the use of new organization and governance in higher Edison, NJ 08837, USA. information technologies for teaching and education. The stress is on the United other academic work are discussed in this States, but many of the issues considered The 16th in the annual theory and research book. Topics include course delivery have international relevance. Among the series on higher education, this volume through the Internet, institutional models broad topics are organizational theory as it provides research-based essays on such of virtual universities, graduate education applies to educational institutions, topics as validity and quality in qualitative at a distance, infrastructural issues and the traditional administrative and governance research (Yvonna Lincoln), academic Internet, virtual universities and learning models, the culture of the university, the freedom and the courts (Benjamin Baez and environments, and others. The analysis is role of leadership, management issues, Sheila Slaughter), equity and access in the international in scope. change and assessment, race and gender, perspective of Bourdieu (Erin Horvat), and critical approaches to governance and university teaching in Japan (James Bess), Å Thousand Flowers: Social Struggles Against organization. and federal financial aid (Sarah Turner). Structural Adjustment in African Universities. The chapters deal mainly with the United Edited by Silvia Federici, George Caffentzis Higher Ed, Inc.: The Rise of the For-Profit States. This series provides many of the best and Ousseina Alidou. Trenton, N.J.: African University, by Richard S. Ruch. Baltimore: research analyses of key topics in higher World Press, 2000. 248 pp. (paper). $21.95. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. 208 education. Address: African World Press, POB 1892, pp. (cloth). $32.50. ISBN 0-8018-6678-2. Trenton, NJ 08607, USA. Address: Johns Hopkins University Press, Managing Information. Edited by Judith 2715 N. Charles St., Baltimore, MD 21218, Elkin and Derek Law. Buckingham, UK: This book contains a series of essays on the USA. Open University Press, 2000. 164 pp. “crisis” in African higher education. Among (paper). $29.95. ISBN 0-335-20339-6. the topics considered in this book are the A discussion of five for-profit higher Address: Open University Press, 22 World Bank’s structural adjustment policies education providers in the United States, Ballmoor, Buckingham MK18 1XW, UK. and higher education, student political this book discusses how the “product” is activism in Africa, academic freedom in delivered, who teaches in these schools, who This is one of a series of concise practical Africa, and case studies of several African enrolls and why, how the for-profits are guides to the management of higher countries. managed, and other factors. Ruch, a education. The book contains essays consultant, discusses how these schools can dealing with aspects of information Comparative Higher Education in Latin earn a profit from tuition income. Among management, including the international America: Quantitative Aspects. By Carmen the institutions examined are the University environment, intellectual property rights, Garcia Guadilla. Caracas: INSALC, 2000. of Phoenix (Apollo Group). the emerging electronic library, and 157 pp. (paper). ISBN 92-9143-060-9. 31
New Publications
Address: INSALC, Apartado Postal 68394, Pentonville Rd., London N1 9JB, UK. Understanding Faculty Productivity: Standards Caracas 1060A, Venezuela. and Benchmarks for Colleges and Universities. The concept behind this volume is that By Michael F. Middaugh. San Francisco: Perhaps the best statistical compilation of individual academics require professional Jossey Bass, 2000. 231 pp $32.95 (cloth). material on Latin American higher socialization and that the many changes that ISBN: 0-7879-5022-X, Address: Jossey- education available in English, this book have taken place in British higher education Bass Publishers, 350 Sansome St., San provides information concerning have created problems in permitting academic Francisco CA 94104, USA. enrollments, the academic profession, identities. Case studies of academic staff in 11 financing, institutional differentiation, and British universities form the basis of this study. An effort to define faculty productivity in other aspects. A listing of individual Studies of the recent quality assurance policies terms of teaching, research, service, and institutions is also provided. and research assessments are discussed in the other activities, this volume provides context of the problems observed. guidance on benchmarking and suggestions Dollars, Distance and Online Education: The concerning ways to measure productivity. New Economics of College Teaching and The PhD Factory: Training and Employment Based on a national U.S. study, this volume Learning. Edited by Martin J. Finkelstein, of Science and Engineering Doctorates in the seeks to provide comprehensive guidance Carol Rrances, Frank I., Jewett, and United States. By Charles A. Goldman and concerning the key topic of faculty Bernhard W. Scholz. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx William F. Massy. Bolton, Mass.: Anker productivity. Press, 2000. 256 pp. (cloth). $39.95. ISBN Publishign Co., 2001. 187 pp. (Cloth). 1-57356-395-1. Address: Oryx Press, POB $34.95. ISBN 1-882982-36-3. Address: Credits an deutschen Hochschulen. Edited by 33889, Phoenix, AZ 85067, USA. Anker Publishing Co., POB 249, Bolton Stefanie Schwarz and Ulrich Teichler. MA 01740, USA. Neuweid, Germany: Luchterhand, 2000. A comprehensive discussion, in the U.S. 242 pp. (paper). ISBN 3-472-04557-4. context, of the use of information technology The argument of this book is that the for teaching, learning, and research, this book United States is producing more doctorates The use of the course-credit system is a analyzes such topics as the costs of information in science and engineering than the matter of considerable debate in Germany technology support services, the cost of a traditional employment markets (largely at present. This book discusses the impli- technology-based curriculum, assessing student the universities) can absorb. The answer is cations, for German higher education, of satisfaction, the management of expenditures to open up alternative career paths for moving toward this system—for the cur- and costs, and others. doctoral degree holders rather than to limit riculum, legal arrangements, accountabil- production. The book discusses the training ity, and measuring student and faculty work. Faculty Work in Schools of Education: system for PhDs, faculty career patterns, A section on how the credit system works Rethinking Roles and Rewards for the 21st training and research at the doctoral level, in the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Century. Edited by William G. Tierney. and related topics. States is included. Albany: SUNY Press, 2001. 235 pp. (paper). ISBN 0-7914-4815-0. Address: State Reforming Higher Education. By Maurice Information Alchemy: the Arts and Science of University of New York Press, 90 State St., Kogan and Stephen Hanney. London: Knowledge Management. Edited by Gerald Albany NY 12207, USA. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2000. 272 pp. Bernbom. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2001. (paper). $39.95. ISBN 1-85302-715-4. 128 pp (paper). ISBN: 0-7879-5011-4. Focusing on schools of education in Address: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 116 Address: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 350 American universities, this book discusses Pentonville Road, London N1 9JB, UK. Sansome St., San Francisco CA 94104, USA. the challenges faced by faculty in particular and education schools in general. Among Part of an international study of reform and The management of knowledge and the topics considered are the role of clinical change in higher education, this volume research in higher education is an faculty, women and tenure, reform and discusses higher education reform, mainly increasingly central issue, especially in the faculty in schools of education, and others. in the United Kingdom, over the past 30 context of the Internet. The role of years. The role of the state in higher databases, ownership patterns, the Women Administrators in Higher Education: education is a central element in the application of corporate practices to Historical and Contemproary Perspectives. analysis, which also considers changes in academic institutions, and the role of Edited by Jana Nidiffer and Carolyn Terry educational policy, the means for policy networks are among the topics discussed. Bashaw. Albany: SUNY Press, 2001. 299 implementation, institutional governance pp. (paper). ISBN 0-7914-4818-5. Address: of academic institutions, the role of interest Creating the Council for Higher Education Ac- State University of New York Press, 90 groups, and the like. creditation (CHEA). By Harland G. Bloland. State St., Albany NY 12207, USA. Phoenix, Ariz.: Oryx Press, 2001. 245 pp. Transforming Universities: Changing Patterns (cloth). $34.95. ISBN 1-57356-233-5. Ad- A comprehensive discussion of the role of of Governance, Structure and Learning in dress: Oryx Press, POB 33889, Phoenix, AZ women in higher education administration, Swedish Higher Education. By Marianne 85067, USA. this book discusses the slow increase in the Bauer, Berit Askling, Susan Gerard Marton, number of women in academic and Ference Marton. London: Jessica America’s highly successful accrediting sys- administration, the problems faced by Kingsley Publishers, 1999. 320 pp. (paper). tem is quite complex. Accreditation of women, and other issues. There is special $44.95. ISBN 1-85302-675-1. Address: postsecondary education is done by inde- emphasis on women in the field of student Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 116 Pentonville pendent nongovernmental agencies focus- affairs administration. Road, London N1 9JB, UK. ing on academic institutions and also on professional fields, such as law and medi- Academic Identities and Policy change in Higher Higher education reform is examined at cine. This book analyzes the efforts in the Education. By Mary Henkel. London: Jessica three levels—the role of the states, the recent past to coordinate accrediting agen- Kingsley Publishers, 2000. 286 pp. institution, and the individual. Sweden is cies and defend the traditional accrediting (paper). $39.95. ISBN 1-85302-662-X. the case study, and the focus is on looking process in the United States. Address: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 116 at policy formation and implementation. 32 INTERNATIONAL HIGHER EDUCATION
News of the Center for International Higher Education The Center, with the assistance of the Ford Foundation, is sponsoring a working conference on the changing academic workplace in developing and middle-income countries at the Rockefeller Foundation’s conference center in Bellagio, Italy in May 2001. The conference will provide an opportunity for researchers working on a Center-sponsored research project to meet and discuss their results. With a focus on 13 countries—including China, India, Nigeria, South Africa, Malaysia, Russia, Bulgaria, and others—this project will shed light on the rapidly changing circumstances of the academic profession in key parts of the world. Philip G. Altbach has been reappointed editor of the Review of Higher Education for an additional three-year term by the Association for the Study of Higher Education Board of Directors. The Review is published by the Johns Hopkins University Press. The Review is one of the main research journals in the field in the United States. The Africa Higher Education Research Project is coming to an end as the work on our reference handbook is mostly complete. The project, which features substantive essays on every African country and a series of comparative chapters, along with a bibliography and a comprehensive listing of dissertations written on African higher education, will be pub- lished in 2002 by Indiana University Press. Copies will be made available without cost to key African universities and higher education specialists and policymakers. The handbook has been sponsored by the Ford Foundation. Damtew Teferra has provide key leadership for it.
An Initiative in International Higher Education Introduction The Boston College Center for International Higher Education provides a unique service to colleges and universities worldwide. While it has as its primary aim providing information and publications to colleges and universities related to the Jesuit tradition, it also has a broader mission to be a focal point for discussion and thoughtful analysis of higher education. The Center provides information and analysis for those involved in managing the higher education enterprise internationally through publications, conferences, and the maintenance of a database of individuals and institutions. The Center is especially concerned with creating dialogue and cooperation among academic institutions in the industrialized nations and those in the developing countries of the Third World
Programs and Resources The Boston College Center for International Higher Education has as its purpose the stimulation of an international consciousness among Jesuit and International Higher Education other institutions concerning issues of higher education and the provision of documen- tation and analysis relating to higher education development. The following activities ISSN: 1084-0613 form the core of the Center’s activities: • newsletter; Editorial Office • publication series; Center for International • study opportunities; Higher Education • conferences; Campion Hall • bibliographical and document service; and Boston College • networking and information technology. Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 USA Tel: (617) 552-4236 Fax: (617) 552-8422 The Center receives funding from the Ford Foundation for its core activities as well as E-Mail: [email protected] for specific projects. http://www.bc.edu/cihe/ The Program in Higher Education The Program in Higher Education offers masters and doctoral degree study in the field Editor: Philip G. Altbach of higher education. The Program has been preparing professionals in higher education Assistant Editor: Jef Davis for three decades, and features a rigorous social science–based approach to the study of Material in this newsletter may be repro- higher education. The Administrative Fellows initiative provides financial assistance as duced. Please cite the original source of well as work experience in a variety of administrative settings. Specializations in higher publication. Opinions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the views of the Cen- education administration, student affairs, international higher education, and others are ter for International Higher Education. offered. The Higher Education Program works closely with the Center for Interna- tional Higher Education. Additional information about the program in Higher Educa- International Higher Education is published tion is available from Dr. Karen Arnold, Coordinator, Program in Higher Education, quarterly by the Center for International Higher Education. We welcome correspon- Campion Hall, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167. Fax: (617) 552-8422 e-mail: dence, ideas for articles, and reports. If you