Book Reviews

When Ideology Goes Wrong: Some Recent Books On Turkish-Greek-Armenian Wars, 1915-1923

A Review Article on Twice A Stranger, How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece & Turkey, By Bruce Clark London: Granta Books, 2006, 274 pages, ISBN: 9781862077522.

Paradise Lost, 1922, The Destruction of Islam’s City of Tolerance, By Giles Milton London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd., 2008, 426 pages, ISBN: 9781444731798.

Smyrna September 1922, the American Mission to Rescue Victims of the 20th Century’s First Genocide, By Lou Ureneck New York: Ecco Paperback edition, 2016, 490 pages, ISBN: 9780062259899.

There Was And There Was Not, By Meline Toumani New York: Metropolitan Books, Henry Holt & Co, 2014, 286 pages, ISBN: 9780805097627.

The story of how Modern Turkey into victory, first over Armenians in the was created, a full century later, is east, and then over Greeks in western still emotional, especially when it is Turkey, is miraculous. For the Turks, linked with Greek-Turkish-Armenian relations. How the Turks, a defeated led by Mustafa Kemal (later Atatürk), nation in 1918, were able to turn defeat it is glorious.

101 PERCEPTIONS, Autumn-Winter 2016, Volume XXI, Number 3-4, pp. 101-122. Book Reviews

Glory, however, came with tears and project, or an early case of ethnic blood. The bloodbath of the Ottoman cleansing? Or, perhaps it was necessary endgame 1914-1918, in which an as a long-range visionary exercise in estimated three million lives were lost, nation-building? How was it executed? was a colossal human tragedy. When What have been its consequences? the Sultanate and its ideology of The book by the Irish author Bruce Ottomanism died, the victorious Allies Clark provides answers to these had already decided on the partition of questions. Well-researched, highly the Empire. With partition came ethnic readable and very timely, the book is cleansing. Competing ideologies took a sad story, remarkably balanced and center-stage in the chaotic end of the impartial, based on extensive eye- Sultanate. Modern Greece, Armenia witness interviews on both sides of the and Turkey emerged out of this shared Aegean. It is well worth reading today, chaos. if only to understand the shared history The Greek-Turkish War, 1919-22, and the bitter legacy of Greek-Turkish was, first and foremost, an existential relations. Bitterness still exists, and war, driven by ideology. It all began as extreme ideology today haunts in places an aggression, fueled by an irredentist like Cyprus. Clark’s message (twice a Greek (Great Idea). In mid stranger) is accurate, and his capacity May 1919, the Greek army, a proxy for to enlighten, direct and indirect, are Allies, landed in Izmir in pursuit of a praiseworthy. In Clark’s book, history new Hellenic Byzantium, or Greater is approached with rare objectivity and Greece in Asia Minor. It collided head- fairness. on with Turkish national awakening. *** The Greek-Turkish War cost an Whose idea was the Population estimated one million lives over and Exchange in 1923? Clark leaves no above the WWI loss. Yet, that is only doubt: Venizelos was the self-confessed a statistic of war casualties. After the father of the idea (pp. 55-56). And in war, under a Population Exchange Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the Norwegian Agreement in 1923, as part of the humanitarian in charge of the League , over 400.000 of Nations Refugee Commission, Turks were relocated from Greece to Venizelos had found an influential Turkey and 1.2 million Greeks went in collaborator to organize and carry out the reverse direction. this huge exodus. The two collaborated Why did this huge population exchange throughout, from conception to take place? Was it a humanitarian execution, and they must carry the chief

102 Book Reviews responsibility, in law, in morality as well the Muslim Turks out of western as in implementation of the policy. Thrace, had Ankara rejected his idea of population exchange. Fortunately In 1922, Venizelos was a broken man, for Venizelos, Nansen’s pleas found out of Greek politics temporarily. a receptive ear at the Congress of Earlier, he had been the hero of Lausanne, in particular with Riza Nur, ENOSIS in his home-island of Crete the deputy to İsmet İnönü, the chief of (union of the island with Greece), the Turkish delegation. Inonu was, at and in 1919 he was the architect of the time, engaged in very tough peace the Asia Minor invasion, in which, negotiations with the British Foreign together with the philhellenic British Minister Curzon and representatives of PM Lloyd George, Venizelos began his the Allies. In the end, a comprehensive biggest ideological project: The rebirth Population Exchange Agreement was of Greater Greece in Asia Minor, the reached, with just two exceptions: Second Byzantium. Greeks loved the Greeks in Istanbul and Turks in idea, both those in Greece and in Asia Western Thrace were allowed to stay. Minor. For the next year or two, a huge exodus Then, in the fall of 1922, Mustafa began: 200,000 Turks from Crete and Kemal’s Nationalists, and a grateful at least an equal number from other Turkish nation, were celebrating total parts of Greece were forcibly relocated. victory. The defeated Venizelos, in exile A total of 1.2 million Greeks from Asia in London, was still the most influential Minor joined the exodus in the reverse Greek politician. He worked feverishly, direction. selling his population exchange idea to Nansen. The Norwegian considered it Why the larger number for the latter? a humanitarian project. Venizelos, as Anatolian Greeks, by and large, had always, dreamt of the long-term: He taken part in the Greek invasion wanted to “Hellenize” Thrace (p. 50), and they shared blame in large-scale which had been acquired in the Balkan atrocities against local Turks. In the Wars. In 1919 Venizelos had negotiated summer and fall of 1922, the Greek a population exchange agreement armies burned Turkish towns and between Greece and Bulgaria. Now, in villages as they fell back in total disarray. 1922, Venizelos was a desperate man: Innocent civilian Turks were massacred With Greeks in Asia Minor on the , by Greek soldiers in a wanton case of he needed houses, towns and villages revenge killings. These atrocities were to accommodate the flood of fleeing on such a scale that the Allies were Greeks, and he would have kicked forced to create a special commission.

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The horror stories of Greek war crimes and enjoying the same citizenship are all documented. rights. By contrast, in Greece, the Greek refugees from Asia Minor Sadly, Anatolian Greeks played a big came with lots of Turkish customs in part in these war crimes. From the food, music, dress and many spoke moment of the Greek landing in Izmir nothing but Turkish. They faced open on 15 May 1919, the Greek army had hostility and discrimination. In some carried out a Scorched Earth Policy cases, like the Pontic Greek refugees, of killing indiscriminately the local newcomers tried to redeem themselves Turkish population, burning homes by fighting the Italians in the Second and mosques, and destroying property. World War. However, many Anatolian Anatolian Greeks joined the Scorched Greeks vented their alienation by going Earth Policy. For example, the Pontic Communist during the Greek Civil Greeks on the Black Sea, had joined in War in 1946-1949 (p. 231). Venizelos active fighting with the invaders. The must have turned in his grave! Orthodox Church and school teachers assumed special responsibility in ethnic Venizelos’ ideology, successful in Crete, cleansing against local Turks. Now in ended up destroying the Asia Minor 1922 these Greeks, fearing retaliation, Greeks, the innocent with the guilty had no choice but to run. In the end, were lumped together, creating the guilty or not, all Anatolian Greeks greatest human and moral tragedy of had become victims of the Megali Idea Modern Greece. One thing which all ideology. Even the peaceful Cappadocia refugees, Greek or Turk shared, was the Greeks were exchanged. loss of a homeland, the pain of which, according to evidence in Clark, never How did the refugees adjust to their disappears. new homeland? On the whole, Clark’s *** evidence shows that Turkish refugees did better adjusting in Turkey than Reading Clark’s interviews with the the Greek refugees in Greece. Europe few remaining survivors and their provided financial aid to Greece for aging family members, is, to say the refugee settlement. Turkey adopted least, touching. The book starts with a self-reliance. But the Kemalist nation- Turkish poem, İki Kere Yabancı (Twice building proper did not really start a Stranger), by Prof. Ayşe Lahur until 1928 when all Turkish citizens, Kırtunç, whose family came to Turkey including newcomers, were put into the from Crete. Her poem captures the same melting-pot, learning the Latin essence of the book. Everyone suffered alphabet, wearing European dress, twice: Those who survived the ordeal of

104 Book Reviews relocation did not find ideological bliss literally in flames in mid-September in their destination. They experienced 1922 when Smyrna went up in smokes. deprivation and discrimination. Their Out of the ashes emerged modern hurt still haunts many to this day. Izmir. Mustafa Kemal, calling the fire When ideology goes wrong, people “a regrettable incident,” moved on to pay the price. And the heaviest price forge a new nation, a new Republic. is psychological. There is no material The controversy over the Fire continues compensation for an ancestral to this day. Two recent books, one by homeland that only exists in memory. the British journalist Giles Milton, the other by the American genocide *** scholar, Lou Ureneck, are the latest But how much progress has been additions to the Post-Truth literature. achieved in healing past wrongs? What Apparently, there must be a demand has been learnt from bitter history for such writing in the USA and other towards Truth & Reconciliation? As western markets. One thing is clear: the philosopher, Santayana put it: The descendants of the Anatolian Christians in the Diaspora are active “Those who do not learn from history in ethnic politics, using money and are condemned to repeat it.” Regretfully, influence for anti-Turkish motions if books are still penned more in the style only to vent their frustration for a lost of blaming rather than healing and homeland. reconciliation. The Turkish version of the Fire is clear enough. It was the work of Armenians The Great Smyrna Fire and Greeks, their final act of atrocity in defeat. It was treason in the eyes of Today, in Spring 2017, we live in an local Turks/Muslims. What were the age of Post-Truth. Fake news, lies and motives of these Christian minorities distortions are common daily servings who had lost with Greece? With all in the US presidency of Donald Trump. hope vanished, they were fleeing, Ethno-nationalist trends are on the together with the Greek soldiers, to rise in Europe. Building walls to keep the harbour in Izmir. Fanatics set out unwanted refugees and displaced everything on fire to destroy the stores persons has now become fashionable. of food and supplies in the city before the Turks could acquire it as war booty. Post-Truth, as distorted historical events, has often long ideological The Greek army, for the previous roots. Thus, Megali Idea dreams ended several weeks, had been retreating

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from Dumlupinar. It had already burnt Grescovich was the Commissioner Afyon and other Turkish cities and of the Fire Department, and Prentiss towns. When the demoralized Greek was an American industrial engineer soldiers reached Izmir, they had one representing the US Near East Relief objective in mind: jump on a boat and organization. They were both on the escape. Fear and insecurity engulfed spot, directly involved in the course of the civilian population, expecting worse the Fire. It burned non-stop from 13 than the atrocities delivered on the –16 September, 1922. The Austrian and local Turks/Muslims in the preceding the American witnessed it all. Hour by four years. All flooded into the hour, day after day, Grescovich and harbour, instant refugees on the Quay, Prentiss recorded how the Armenian searching, begging for passage out. It and Greek agents and cheteci gangs, was human tragedy on immense scale. led by clergy and fanatic teachers, set Future literary giants, including Ernest Hemingway, then a young reporter for houses and buildings ablaze, how, in the Toronto Star, wrote moving stories. desperation and in vain, Turkish soldiers A literary tradition was born from the tried to stop it. This is all recorded in a chaos and suffering. The Smyrna Fire Report authored by Prentiss. became an instant anti-Turk tradition. In January 1923, Prentiss forwarded It continues to this day, a one-sided a copy of his Report to Rear Admiral story of ethnic hate. Mark L. Bristol, the US High Sadly, the Turkish version, unfortunately, Commissioner at the American is largely untold. There are simply not Embassy in Istanbul. A short summary enough books or historical research of the Prentiss Report is available on using archival sources, to document line at http://www.ataa.org/reference/ the Great Fire. Newspaper articles, izmir.html and a full Report has been secondary sources are inadequate. The published as a paper in the Journal of net result of this failure, as Heath Ottoman Studies IX, Istanbul 1980 by Lowry, quoted below, has expressed it Heath Lowry as “A Case Study on the in anguish, is this: Turkish history has Burning of Izmir.” been hijacked by others. The two recent books by Milton and *** Ureneck fail to mention, let alone use, What is available in archival evidence Grescovich and Prentiss. Instead, they on who actually started the Izmir rely on one-sided, pro-Armenian and Fire? The key non-Turkish source is pro-Greek, sources. Their work, while Grescovich & Prentiss. The Austrian interesting reading, is no more than

106 Book Reviews distorted history, an early exercise in shipping merchant, was wiser than Post-Truth. most, taking his wealth out, one way or another. With this major limitation, there is much value in Giles Milton, making *** his book a worthwhile read. The Milton has chosen to sub-title his reader gets a good understanding of book, The Destruction of Islam’s City of the Levantine civilization, the great Tolerance. A more misleading choice comprador families of the Whittals, is difficult to imagine, unless one’s Girauds, and de Cramers, and others, idea of tolerance is uni-directional, i.e. in magnificent isolation in Paradise, an Turks tolerating privileged Christian appropriately named garden suburb of minorities, but not in reverse. There the port city, perhaps the wealthiest is, in fact, a whole chapter in Milton class in the Sultan’s domains. devoted to what is nowadays called The comprador class lived, incredibly, the ‘double-standard’ in EU-Turkey till the Great Fire, quietly celebrating relations: “Enemy Aliens”. It is a the Greek landing in May 1919, fascinating account of British hypocrisy 1 viewing it as a way of cementing in 1914, a poignant study in contrast . existing trade links with the Greek and While the Levantine privileged class Armenian networks. It was an enclave lived in luxury in Izmir, thanks to society, organically connected only to the Sultan’s hospitality, in Newcastle, the Christian minorities, as if they were England, Captain Raouf Bey and his unaware that they lived in a Muslim- naval officers, on orders of Churchill, majority land. They remained oblivious the First Lord of Admiralty, were to the great Kemalist offensive, under- declared “enemy aliens.” The two estimating both the Turkish national dreadnoughts built for the Ottoman sentiment and the Kemalist vision of Navy (the Reshadieh and the Sultan a Turkish national homeland. Finally, Osman I), were seized. They had already when the triumphant Turkish army been paid for by a huge public donation entered Izmir, the Christian minorities and the Levantines were alarmed. The 1 Coincidentally, in Canada, then effectively Turkish army came like a thunderbolt a British colony, a small group of Ottoman Turks living peacefully in Brantford, Ont., and the Levantine world collapsed were suddenly arrested as enemy aliens and overnight. Like the Titanic sinking, relocated to a POW Camp in the wilds a way of life vanished, taking all that of Northern Ontario for the duration of WWI. Their story is told in my forthcoming wealth and artificial living down with novel RELOCATIONS to be published in it. Aristotle Onassis, the Greek local England in Fall 2017.

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in Turkey. In Istanbul, the Turkish Though well-written and highly population was furious at the seizure readable, it is not clear why Giles in Newcastle. Halide Edib emerged Milton wrote this book in the first place. as a feminist patriot denouncing the He implies in the Acknowledgements British impounding. It was one of the that he is moved by a lost Levantine key reasons for the Ottoman entry into civilization, “the descendants of the WWI on the side of Germany. Levantine dynasties of Smyrna – now scattered across the globe.” It is indeed In Izmir, the comprador class carried sad how many of these dynasties on unconcerned. In their splendid ended. In the final pages of the book, isolation in Paradise, the Levantines’ Milton quotes Morgenthau describing life was trade-based, a world purely “once-prosperous families who were profit-driven, mirroring a dependency now walking around in shoes made of in which the Greeks and Armenians pieces of discarded automobile tyres. functioned as the associated bourgeoisie. Their clothing, cobbled together from The Turkish/Muslim population were flour sacks was a fashion born out of the underclass, mired in poverty, and necessity” (p. 373). These Levantines representing the bottom of a highly shared the same fate as many other rigid socio-economic pyramid. privileged Ottomans. The Sultans had built a multinational empire, Five Turkish notables are listed in founded on tolerance between Islam, the book as persona dramata: Rahmi Christianity and Judaism, but in the Bey, Enver Pasha, Mehmet Talat age of nationalism and European Bey, Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), imperialism, that Empire was doomed. and Halide Edib. The Ottoman The Ottoman minorities played their authorities, principally the municipal destructive part in the Empire’s bloody government, were directly controlled demise. by the Levantine families. Enver Pasha and Mehmet Talat were the leaders *** of the Young Turk regime, and, that The book by Ureneck is altogether regime’s arch-rival, Mustafa Kemal, the different. It begins with a daring victorious hero of the Turkish National statement: “This is a true story.” The Liberation. Halide, by the time of sentence is incomplete. It should be: Izmir fire, had become the disillusioned “This is a story, according to Greek and Turkish feminist, though still sharing Armenian sources.” Turkish books and Mustafa Kemal’s vision of a modern sources are ignored. The bibliography Turkey. at the end cites a few Turkish books,

108 Book Reviews such as Andrew Mango’s Atatürk, and lost as much as the refugees and Turgut Özakman’s Şu Çılgın Türkler, the displaced. Ureneck’s book is all but nowhere in the text are they about these foreign missionaries and utilized. Ureneck’s book has no Turkish Levantines in Izmir. He documents content. how they worked and collaborated with the Christian communities. Turks Ureneck writes only about missionaries got no help. and Levantines. That they lived in a Muslim-majority country seems Unlike Milton’s book, Ureneck makes irrelevant. The missionaries came and set no attempt to explain or provide the up schools and charitable organizations reader with any sense of Turkish/ in Turkish neighborhoods. Asa Muslim sentiment. It is irrelevant for Jennings ran the Young Men’s him, because the author is writing for Christian Association. Minnie Milles the outsider, as an outsider himself was the director of the American Girls looking in, observing the lives and School, which had a whole teaching activities of aliens in an enclave in Izmir. staff from the USA, Canada and other Just because it was called Smyrna did western countries. Dr. Esther Lovejoy not alter the Turkish/Muslim character headed the American Women’s of the environment. Ureneck takes the Hospital Association. A whole army of position, without any hesitation, that missionaries run orphanages and clinics the Fire was all the fault of local Turks/ and social clubs, funded by charity from Muslims, and that Christian minorities churches and relief organizations back were all innocent victims. home. They did not provide service That is not all. His evidence to back to Turks and Muslims. Theirs was what he calls “Truth” is equally conditional charity, benefits available biased. Much of Ureneck’s narrative is only to Christians. The missionaries repetition of secondary, and distorted supported the Greeks and Armenians. accounts from missionaries themselves, Most lived prosperous lives in Paradise, and Christian victims of the Fire. Of in the high-rent enclave, linked to course, innocent victims suffered, but business and trade interests, in tobacco these victims included Turks as well. and other commodities, in insurance, Ureneck’s eyewitness accounts reflect shipping and banking. only Christian suffering.

Suddenly, their Levantine and It is the job of an objective scholar to missionary world ended in the flames check alternative sources and reconcile of the Great Fire as Mustafa Kemal conflicting accounts. Ureneck fails on liberated Turkey. The missionaries this score miserably. He ignores key

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sources such as Grescovich and Prentiss. ever took place is beyond imagination, For example, consider his account of the but that, of course, is applying today’s role of Minnie Milles, the director of values to a time when Turks were the American Girls’ School in the story Britain’s enemy. of the Fire: “That morning she had Ureneck’s book, and to a lesser extent seen Turkish soldiers break into nearby Milton’s as well, written almost a homes, light fires, and spread them century later, perpetuate, or regenerate with petroleum they poured from tins. a certain brand of ideology. This is The fires flared under the accelerant ethnic ideology; especially in the and drew close to the school….” (p. Diaspora communities, a long way 200). Strong condemnation indeed, but away from the location of bitter history it is not factual. where the ideological battles of long- Milles’ observation from a distance ago took place. Arguably, the best conflicts with the account in pronouncement on the Fire is in the Grescovich and Prentiss: “Shortly in words of Shaw and Shaw: “Perhaps the afternoon (Wednesday, Sept. 13th) the last atrocity of the war was the Grescovich, convinced that the city was suggestion, quickly taken up by the doomed, again went to the military Western press, that the victorious authorities to ask help, and again it Turkish army was responsible for was not forthcoming. It was not until burning the conquered second city of six o’clock in the evening that he was the old empire” (History of the Ottoman given a company of 100 soldiers to Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol II, serve under his direction, and it was not p. 303, Cambridge University Press, until eight o’clock at night before the 1977) soldiers began the destruction of the Some degree of logic must also prevail buildings by bombs, in order to check in literature. In the month before the the spread of fire.” In other words, entry of the Turkish army into Izmir Ureneck’s selective referencing, turns on 9 September 1922, the Greek army, truth on its head: fire-fighting Turkish defeated and demoralized, had put to soldiers are made into arsonists! torch the Turkish towns and villages. Ureneck’s other sources on the Fire are There were tons of war crimes. The equally flawed, e.g. on the 1924 London Turkish army all this time was busy trial (pp. 206-11), only Armenians and putting out the fires, while chasing Greeks speak, no Turkish voices were out the Greek invaders. Why then present, if only for cross examination. would this victorious army suddenly How on earth such a one-sided trial reverse itself and go arsonist, setting

110 Book Reviews on fire the greatest war booty within its up in flames. The Turks, of course, got reach? It was well known that Izmir’s their reward with the birth of modern warehouses and stores were full of food Turkey. That birth came however with and valuables then desperately in short lots of Turkish pain and sacrifice. Only supply. “my loss counts”, as is put forth in Ureneck, is no way to a hopeful future. Undoubtedly, the Turkish majority Books in that style reflect ideological resented the wealth and privileges of atrocity in an endless blame game. the Greek and Armenian comprador class, now desperately trying to escape. Ideological atrocity occurs when ethnic The missionaries and Allies ran away in bias closes the mind to empathy, others’ panic, here and there, giving a helping feelings and emotions. In a bitter hand to the departing Christians, in ethnic conflict, the task of an objective their last act of charity. It was never writer is to stay neutral, documenting enough. Asa Jennings of the YMCA all loss and suffering, stating the facts did manage a miracle to evacuate and letting the reader draw the moral hundreds of thousands of refugees on lessons. Biased writing is intellectual commercial vessels. From the relative manifestation of ideology gone wrong. safety of Athens or some other site, Happily, the final book review is a little when finally, these missionaries and more promising for a hopeful future Levantines reached safe harbour, based on healing and reconciliation. contemporary writers vented their anger and frustration, as much as their *** moral burdens, in illogical outbursts of anti-Turkish ideology. Ureneck’s account follows this bitter ideology in The Armenian Genocide the name of ethnic truth. Ideology

In his Preface to Smyrna, September How is ethnic ideology created? It starts 1922, J. R. Russel, Professor of at home with emotional development Armenian Studies at Harvard and identity formation. Historical University, has called the book “a memory is the catalyst. Schools and masterpiece.” He also talked of a “new the Church carry on the task, with generation of Turkish scholars.” But ideological development turning a neither he, nor Ureneck, recognize any captive and impressionable youth Turkish losses or suffering during the into ideological converts to the cause. period of 1915-23, which witnessed Out of this long process, ideology as the Ottoman/Levantine world going ethnic truth becomes life-long Dogma.

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Youth and students, in particular, In There Was And There Was Not Toumani become ideological warriors, ready to chooses an alternative path. Unsatisfied do battle in defence of Dogma. In its with standard brainwashing, the New most extreme form, ethnic or religious York Times writer goes to Turkey, Dogma is the path for the modern twice actually, spending a total of four suicide bomber and the terrorist. years on a long search to find her own soul, to liberate the self in a “love thine Meline Toumani’s book goes a long way enemy” experiment. She meets all kinds in explaining this process. There was and of people, ordinary citizens, officials, There was Not is a personal account of historians and, in particular Hrant how Armenian-Americans are raised Dink the murdered Turkish-Armenian on genocide ideology. In this Zero- journalist-pacifist dedicated to Sum of Love & Hate, love comes with reconciliation. In the end, significantly Dogma. Children are raised on Dogma due to Dink’s influence, she succeeds, as Truth. Accept it or be condemned as but no more than partially. Denialist. No room exists for freedom The author begins her odyssey with a of expression, academic or otherwise. confession. While a university student Toumani’s title is a Turkish metaphor, in Berkley, California, she comes face Bir Varmış Bir Yokmuş, once upon a to face with the injustice of False time. But, it is not, as in the original Assumption. “There are so many layers Turkish, of fables and fairy tales of of confusion in what happened...” she princes and princes told, as nursery writes (p. 58) of the Algar Hamid affair rhymes by mothers and grandmothers. at UCLA on 24 April 1998, when a It refers to the dispossessed Armenians British-born academic was assumed of Eastern . This area, in by Armenian students to be a Turkish Armenian ideology, is Western historian and therefore became the Armenia, an irredentist idea known target for harassment and a racist as Greater Armenia. It is written into attack. the Armenian Constitution and it Toumani was revolted by the injustice is a big deal in American Diaspora of the Hamid affair. The unfairness politics. Ideologically, just as Megali pushed her into self-doubt and analysis. Idea spawned Hellenic Asia Minor, Is it likely that the “genocide” narrative so did Greater Armenia in the east is likewise based on False Assumption? and the entire genocide narrative as In Armenian workshops and Youth an irredentist project, justifying a land Camps, she started questioning, but claim. only got unpalatable doses of Dogma.

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The author is a rare exception, standing Armenians, but, mysteriously, the against a stifling Armenian Diaspora author’s commitment to reconciliation schooling system designed for ethnic is weak compared to Dink’s. demonization and hate. She documents The author’s courage to make a public in vivid and painful detail how young stand against the Armenian American Armenian children are brain-washed Diaspora is to be lauded. Correcting in their early years, in schools and wrong ideology begins with self-doubt youth camps, to hate Turks as a nation and soul-searching. Courage is needed of “denialists” of the ultimate evil of to confront historical truth. Hate and genocide in WWI. brainwashing merely replicate Dogma In the end, the author prescribes her and reproduce closed minds. Real own medicine for her growing doubts: healing and reconciliation in past Go to Turkey and find out for yourself. human tragedies are only possible with She prepares herself well, even learning more voices like the author’s. Turkish. *** In Turkey, she travelled extensively, In conclusion, a few guidelines are in and she tried to understand the order to deal with ideological rights Turkish mind. However, the book is and wrongs in history. sadly lacking in detail of the Turkish loss and suffering inflicted by the Firstly, it should be remembered that Armenian side in this conflict. The History is not a monolithic discipline author’s Turkish friends are carefully with an agreed upon methodology or selected for their pro-Armenian stance, norms of study. Nor are history writers like Muge Gokcen and Taner Akcam, always Historians or experts in archival and she offhandedly dismisses Turkish research, competent in differentiating authorities on the subject, especially between reliable and unreliable sources. those connected, even marginally, Popular history, like the books reviewed with the Turkish government. here, are books written by journalists and historical writers who may have Yet, her project of search and self- more in common with fiction writers. discovery is still praiseworthy. The In fiction, the plot and dramatic author visited Turkey twice, the first content are essential ingredients. trip coinciding with the heinous murder Cold facts rarely sell books. Dramatic of Hrant Dink. She admits his great content, polished and embellished at influence, his passionate commitment the hand of gifted speech-writers, does. to reconciliation between Turks and Historical truth, setting the record

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straight, can and often does involve exists, it is easily filled by ideologically- dramatic events, but dramatic writing driven books that represent nothing is something other than History. other than the intellectual hijacking of a national heritage. Official history writing is a State- approved record, subject to rules and In multinational Diaspora societies, regulations set by an authority. Political there is a special challenge. The silent leaders have one eye on the past, the mainstream majority, including other on the future. What is legitimate law-makers, often do not know the and permissible is often determined relevant ethnic history they are called with a subject’s historical legacy. In to act upon as judge and jury. It is up the public relations and public opinion to each ethnic group to safeguard its arena, popular history is far more own heritage. For the silent majority, significant. Often official history may the guiding principle should be this: be dismissed as propaganda. It is, Each and every ethnic heritage must therefore, extremely important that be held equal in law, and celebrated in popular history writing is encouraged peace and harmony without any racial to ensure and safeguard a nation’s preference. historical heritage.

In the case of Turkish popular history Özay Mehmet writing, the genre is of recent origin. Professor Emeritus of This review article has attempted to International Affairs, demonstrate how, when a vacuum Carleton Univerity

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European Islamophobia Report

By Enes Bayraklı and Farid Hafez (Eds.) Istanbul: SETA Foundation, 2016, 610 pages, ISBN: 9789752459007.

Following the so-called refugee crisis, and analysing trends in the spread of terrorist attacks in many European Islamophobia in various European states, and the increasing visibility of states from a qualitative and not a far-right movements, a wave of anti- quantitative research perspective; Muslim rhetoric and discourse has and aims to continue deepening begun to dominate European politics. understanding of the concept as With regard to the developments well as funding for inquiry into this on this phenomenon, the SETA increasingly worrying phenomenon. Foundation, one of the leading think tanks started to publish the annual First of all, the term “Islamophobia” European Islamophobia Report (EIR), is defined by the editors in the 2015 which was presented for the first time version as follows: “When talking about in 21 March 2016, the international Islamophobia, we mean anti-Muslim day for the elimination of racial racism. Islamophobia is about a dominant discrimination. It currently comprises group of people aiming at seizing, nearly 27 national reports written by stabilizing and widening their power by approximately 35 authors regarding means of defining a scapegoat –real or the tendencies of Islamophobia invented – and excluding this scapegoat in European countries. The report from the definition of a constructed we” features the work of a broad group of (EIR 2015, p.7). specialists from different universities, Technically an executive summary Islamophobia observatories, and at the beginning and a chronology at human rights activists. the end of each year’s report give the As clearly stated in their introduction readers an overview on the state and by the editors of the EIR, Enes the development of Islamophobia in Bayraklı from the Turkish-German the respective countries. The editors University and Farid Hafez from at the beginning and authors at the Salzburg University, this long-time end of every report offer a couple of project is dedicated to documenting policy recommendations for political

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one of the leading think tanks Book Reviews

bodies, civil society organizations Muslim women (data show that it is and individuals in Europe. These 70% more likely for a Muslim woman recommendations include raising to be attacked in the street) are leaving awareness in civil society of the their horrible mark on Muslim women”. problem of Islamophobia, recognition Related to this, the editors argue that of Islamophobia by state institutions Islamophobia poses a great risk to the as a type of racism, as well as urging democratic foundations of European politicians to speak out against constitutions and social peace as well Islamophobia. as the coexistence of different cultures throughout Europe. Hence, according At the same time, several unique to the editors, the protection and the aspects of the EIR make a difference empowerment of Muslim women to current Islamophobia studies. For have to be on the central agenda of instance, unlike the former and current states and NGOs. Also, regarding this studies on Islamophobia, which fact the editors recommend that the have predominantly concentrated on response mechanisms should be made Western Europe, this report is the more available, accessible and clear first study that covers some Eastern while underlining that empowerment European countries such as Croatia, of the Muslim community is needed Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia to allow citizenship and help European and Serbia. Since the single national states deepen their democracies. reports share the same structure (education, politics, employment, On the other hand, the findings of media, internet and the justice 2015 and 2016 editions of the EIR system), the EIR offers the possibility have been echoed in many international to compare Islamophobia in these news agencies, including Al Jazeera, countries as well. BBC, Der Standart, Huffington Post, Makkah Newspaper and Süddeutsche The two volumes of the EIR in 2015 Zeitung. Also, the Immigration and and in 2016 show that Muslim women Refugee Board of Canada used the are among the most vulnerable direct information based on the 2016 national victims of Islamophobia. The editors report of Finland to establish the explain this situation as follows: “religion” section of Finland country “Women who are visibly Muslim are profile. Moreover, International socially ostracised in many places. The Network for Hate Studies (INHS), an combination of internal community internationally respected agency for problems, discrimination (education and hate crime studies, provides the whole employment) and hate crimes against EIR to its researchers as a useful source

116 Book Reviews on the field. In addition to this, the EIR official bodies of many European states has found attention in the European do not share the statistical data with political level as well. For instance, the the public, the report still facilitates an member of the European Parliament impulse for identifying research gaps; Paul Rübig gave a question for written and it reshuffles many cards and opens answer to the European Commission many questions for further studies. on 14th July 2016 to clarify whether any Commission expert involved in the The EIR and its contributors should writing of the report or not. be congratulated for producing a truly The European Islamophobia Report valuable and detailed piece of work is an exceptional work that covers using an enormous amount of primary a broad spectrum of issues and sources as well as providing new challenges pertaining to the anti- perspectives on Islamophobia studies. Muslim wave in Europe. The report Hence, I would recommend the is very well-produced, the editing and EIR series to scholars, policymakers, proof-reading are of good quality. It lawyers and judges who are interested is a welcome addition to the growing in contemporary Islamophobia studies. literature on an interesting and important issue on the world scene today. Despite the fact that the data in Hacı Mehmet BOYRAZ specific fields are not available as the Turkish-German University

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Peacebuilding and NGOs: State-Civil Society Interactions

By Ryerson Christie New York: Routledge Pub., 2013, 263 pages, ISBN: 9780415693967.

This book focuses on the peacebuilding vitally valuable for reaching to the process and challenges in Cambodia stable and durable peace in the post- by looking at state and civil society mission peacebuilding process by interaction. The peacebuilding uncovering challenges and difficulties process is a complicated step of in conflict studies. conflict resolution stages to reach a durable peace in a post-conflict The author of the book, Ryerson period. Christie’s book is valuable for Christie, is a lecturer at the University exploring in depth the relationship of Bristol. His research revolves between the state and NGOs in the around critical security studies and peacebuilding process. Additionally, analysis of peacebuilding. Especially a particularly important side of this the relationship between the state, book is the covering of a study about civil society, and the local community interaction between an authoritarian stands at the center of his work. state and a civil society that tries to Among his recent work is research on establish a sustainable liberal peace via the peacebuilding process in Southeast the peacebuilding process despite the Asia, especially in Cambodia. authoritarian regime. Peacebuilding and NGO`s: State- civil Society Interactions is among his Secondly, the author highlights that publications on this topic. The author’s many peacebuilding analyses have research on Cambodia benefits from tended only to look at the period of the having accurate and enriched text from UN mission. A durable peace, however, an inside perspective and because it gets cannot be sustained unless we focus on around the usual problem of getting the post-mission period of efforts to reliable information from officials in eliminate the socio-political reasons an autocratic regime. The author has behind the conflict and violence. So, coped with this problem by taking the composition of the interaction great support from academic and between the state and civil society is “development workers” in Cambodia.

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The result is a tightly woven text relationship between democratic peace of practical information from the and peacebuilding in the light of liberal field intertwined with theoretical theory, while providing a background explanations. Therefore this book for the Cambodia peacebuilding case genuinely contributes to the conflict at the same time. resolution literature. The third section is focused on the The book consists of nine chapters criticism of NGOs in the peacebuilding together with the introduction and process. Actually there are numerous conclusion. The first three chapters critiques in the literature against include the introduction and analysis NGOs’ role in the peacebuilding and of the peacebuilding process. The development process, but this book author explains the aim of the book in deals with the potential problems that the introduction as being “to understand emerge from the modern practice of how peacebuilding has served to dictate civil society-centric reconstruction and the nature and limits of politics that can rehabilitation. This chapter includes take place within the targeted society and therefore some points of criticism how it serves to define the very meaning about neoliberalism, local economy, of society, security and politics” (p.4). The democratization/accountability, state main purpose of the book is thus to try relations and politics. NGOs are at the and develop a critical understanding of center of the critiques in this chapter peacebuilding and to advance the ways because of their market solution in which CSS can be applied. character. Therefore, the results of the NGOs’ activities are argued to The second chapter covers Critical sometimes cause a distortion of the Analyses of Peacebuilding. The author local character of the economy. Another reveals a relationship between security criticism is about democratization and and identity by analyzing the political accountability, the argument being dynamic of country in a peacebuilding that NGOs do not often respond to process. Hence, civil society and state all local needs and wants because their interaction forms the main body of this activities more often follow the interest chapter. The author has underlined the of donors. peacebuilding process by claiming that it’s not only a matter of conciliation The following chapter explores the between a conflicted dynamic in a society dynamic of conflict between the post- but also a dilemma of reconstruction conflict state and the NGOs in the of a democratic and liberal society. case of Cambodia. Firstly the author Therefore this chapter explains the mentions about the brief history of

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Cambodia at the beginning of this interest. It’s obvious that there is a chapter to understand some challenges clear conflict between the needs of of the peacebuilding process in an the community and the interests of authoritarian regime. In the way, this the Cambodian elite especially on the chapter also includes some critiques natural resources of the state. Fisheries, of imperialism in general. According lands and forestry have a prominent to Christie “the area of French role in the Cambodian economy. The colonial rule affected much of the social upper echelons of the business world fabric of Cambodian society” (p.66). and politics may manipulate the Additionally, the author also finds a political and economic system for their correlation between the authoritarian advantage and individual interests. character of the Cambodian regime Public and private lines become blurred and its communist past. Military in the state management, at which coups and political struggles have also point civil society and NGOs play demolished social networks and mutual an important role for the defense of trust in the society. Guerilla wars and community rights. external intervention destroyed not only Cambodian society but also the Another serious problem in natural environment and resources. Cambodian society is shown to be All of these negative effects are shown the sex trade. NGOs are seeking to to complicate the peacebuilding halt or diminish prostitution and process and rehabilitation of society in individuals who profit from this sector. Cambodia. The Cambodian government supports women rights and stands against the The fifth chapter focuses on the exploitation of women as well also, conflict of interest between NGOs but Cambodian societal structure and and economic and political elites in culture complicates the applying of Cambodia and reveals some dynamics modern standards on women’s rights. of mismanagement and abuse of Hence, NGOs are also dealing with authority over state resources. It goes on cultural violation. to claim that NGOs may play a leading role in society to resolve and ameliorate The sixth part has been allocated failed state syndromes by empowering to bureaucratic problems. The understanding of democracy and its authoritarian structure of the practices. In this context, Christie Cambodian state was mentioned before. draws attention to the reason for state NGOs may work freely and effectively intervention into NGOs as based, in only in a democratic society via the the Cambodian case, on conflicts of logic of a minimal state of neoliberal

120 Book Reviews thought. For full effectiveness therefore, some explanations and critiques about the transition of the state also needs the issue of human rights, freedom of more time. According to Christie there the press, and advocacy. The author are insufficient improvements in the reveals the difficulty of conducting a liberalization of the state but many peacebuilding process in a society in international organizations are working which governance and social practices in Cambodia already. Additionally, the are not consistent with liberal values. state has focused on the development In this context, the author mentions goals to bring stability in Cambodia. the creating of a democratic culture Briefly, this chapter describes a by means of developing associational “gradually changing environment where behavior by peacebuilding practices. the state is regaining financial and Yet, he does not touch on the potential technical capacity and is beginning to role of the social and cultural character reassert itself in some policy area” (p.115). of Cambodians on the building of a The seventh chapter of this book democratic society. is related with identity. Ethnic and In summary, this book focuses on how religious diversity may be main sources the peacebuilding process has served “to of conflict in a society, and indeed, dictate the nature and limits of politics that a strong Cambodian nationalism can take place within the targeted society” has been imbued with a strong anti- (p.4) and how it serves to define the Vietnamese and anti-Thai character. actual meaning of security and politics Actually, nationalist and some in a society. Christie tries to reveal religious characteristics of society were how to improve the practices of civil suppressed under the Marxist inspired society in Cambodia in this context. Khmer Rouge rule, but the current The author believes that the practice of situation on gender, race and religion peacebuilding theory may solve social has been at the heart of the narrative and political problems by facilitating on what it is to be Cambodia now. the liberalization of Cambodia because Hence, some of the very same issues are effective peacebuilding practices are also affecting the relationship between based on the universalized notion NGOs and the state. of the nature of liberal civil society. The eighth chapter explores the Therefore, the Cambodian case is a dynamics of interaction between NGOs peculiar example to expose how the and the state that arise from a conflicting post-conflict peace building process interpretation of what is and is not works in an authoritarian regime. The political. This chapter thus includes exclusive feature of this book is that it

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looks at both sides of the peace building peacebuilding researchers and workers process, criticizing and discussing who are working on different cultures social and political interaction in a and other authoritarian regimes as well. society. The role of the political culture of Cambodia provides and ideal case for discussing this subject. As a result, Fikret Birdişli it can be mentioned frankly that this Asst.Prof.Dr. book is an authentic reference for Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University

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