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Home , Cementite, Crucible steel, Steel

in medieval European and Indian

Alan Williams The Wallace Collection, London, UK [email protected]

ABSTRACT Specimens from many swords of the Viking period (between the 9th and 11th centuries CE) with “Ulfberht” or related inscriptions have been studied by metallography in the Wallace Collection, as as by WDXray spectroscopy at the National Physical Laboratory. The steel that the makers of some of these swords used was a hypereutectoid steel which does not resemble any other swords made in Western Europe either before or afterwards. It was during this period that a Viking trade route between the Baltic Sea and Iran flourished, and the manufacture of these swords ceases when this route is closed. Their origin appears to be an early form of from Central Asia. There are, it may be observed, numerous written references to Indian swords by Medieval European writers, suggesting that another trade route (probably via Muslim Spain) was bringing the knowledge of Indian steel to Europe. Many counterfeits of these swords were made, with variant spellings of the name “Ulfberht”. None of these, nor indeed any later medieval swords (after 1000 CE) so far examined, show the use of hypereuctoid , so it may be deduced that their correlates with the different spellings of the maker’s name. Some examples of Indian arms and (including a number from the Arsenal of Hyderabad) have been examined by metallography; the results of which are contrasted. Their show different forms of crucible steel, which have been further improved by various methods of heat-treatment.

“Ulfberht” swords Swords with the inscription +VLFBERH+T There are around 100 swords with ‘Ulfberht’ - or variants on this name - inlaid into the . These have The first four of these results were presented at a British been found scattered all over Northern Europe. The Museum conference in 2005 and published two years largest concentration is in Scandinavia and the Baltic later (Williams 2007a). Since then the author has Sea, although it has been suggested that if Ulfberht was examined many more of these swords. It seems that their maker then on linguistic grounds the source of those swords upon which the maker’s name is spelt as their manufacture should lie in the Rhineland (Müller- +VLFBERH+T formed a metallurgically distinct group, Wille 1970). From the different forms of these swords, with a much higher C% than other swords. Of them Ulfberht would have been active for 300 years, so it has some were hypereutectoid, and the others eutectoid been suggested that perhaps this was a family of smiths (Williams 2009). rather than an individual, or the name was a trade mark Out of these 14 swords, 9 are made of hypereutectoid of some sort. steel, or steels hypereutectoid in places. The others Some very early quantitative analyses of Viking- are all made of eutectoid steels, which might of course age swords have been undertaken. A number of have come from a steel hypereutectoid in other places. swords were analysed for Petersen (1919). The highest So all 14 could have been made from a crucible steel, content (0.75%C) of those tested was 4690, an whatever the source of that might have been. VLFBERH+T from Aker, Hedemarken. This has Swords with variant spellings show a wide variety been examined again more recently. of microstructures, but none of them have steels that are hypereutectoid.

198 CRUCIBLE STEEL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN AND INDIAN SWORDS

1. Museum for Hamburg History Microhardness 243-277; average = 258 VPH. This seems to be a steel which has been annealed, or (M.1152, ). An analysis (by one Dr.Schindler) undergone an excessive amount of hot-working. Since was published in a Festschrift edited by Jankuhn (1951, it seems unlikely that any sword would be intentionally 224). It was found to have a carbon content of 1.2%. No softened by , one may speculate that this metallography was published, and the very high carbon was another hypereutectoid steel but it was somewhat content was not remarked upon. overheated in working.

2. Württemburg Landesmuseum, Stuttgart, inv.no. WLM 1973-70 5. Oslo Historisk Museum c. 4690 inventory

It has an inscription which may be read as + VI F B E The taken from a half-section at the R H + T broken end, consisted of and , some Average surface (body) 130 –180 VPH at grain-boundaries, and some in needle-like form. This (nearer edges) 220-310 VPH. was made from a billet of steel which had been folded An analysis of samples from this sword (by Refsaas) twice and forged out into a blade. The presence of these was published in Petersen (1919). The cavities left by cementite needles may have led to a certain brittleness his sampling are still visible on the surface of the blade. in the blade, as its end had been broken off. Its carbon They were taken from the middle of the blade, which content is around 1.2% - 1.4%. might explain why the carbon content in the published analysis (0.75%C) does not tally with that expected from the microstructure of the edge. 3. Museum für Hamburgische Geschichte; inv. A sample was taken from the edge, at the broken end no.1965/124 of the sword tip. The microstructure consists mostly of pearlite, Another river find, from the Elbe, from the same in areas surrounded with a network of cementite. In museum as #1. places, this cementite appears as laths within the areas A sample taken from the damaged edge, shows of pearlite; in other places, the network has broken up a microstructure of mostly fine pearlite with some into globules. There are a few inclusions. In parts, cementite at grain boundaries, but no visible slag away from the edge, there are areas of ferrite also. These inclusions. Another taken from near the centre, at the seem to become more frequent as one moves towards broken tip, shows a microstructure of very fine pearlite. the areas from where the samples were taken. This is a steel of perhaps 1% carbon, or more, and so it This appears to be a hypereuctectoid steel, in places, is almost certainly a hypereutectoid crucible steel. which has undergone considerable hot-working (or even Microhardness centre 337-388; average = 355 VPH. perhaps a deliberate anneal to soften it) which has caused edge 439-476; average = 463 VPH. the cementite to spheroidise in some parts. This may It seems that this blade underwent more hot-working also have led to surface decarburisation, deliberately or than sword # 2, and perhaps had a lower carbon content, accidentally. It may explain why the carbon content, for no cementite was observed in the form of needles according to combustion analysis of samples away from within the prior grains, but only at grain the edge, is only 0.75%C; but away from the surface, boundaries, or as laths, in a more equiaxed form. By according to the microstructure, it is well over 1.0%C. contrast, the sword #4 seems to have undergone a little These results were sufficiently surprising to too much hot working. Electron microanalysis suggests us to seek some confirmation from another analytical that the inclusions are oxide. These three swords technique, namely WDX carried out at the National were published in Williams (2007a). Physical Laboratory, Teddington (thanks to Dr.Dipak Gohal). WDX microanalysis: The carbon content from point 4. Solingen, Deutsches Klingenmuseum; inv. analyses varied from 0.59% to 2.33%. An average of no.1973.w.5 15 points gave 1.4 %C, which is in accordance with the microstructure here. A sample taken from the damaged edge shows a microstructure of what seems to have been pearlite which has been mostly divorced into carbide particles, 6. Bergen Historisk Museum 882 and a network of particles outlining the prior pearlitic areas. There are very few slag inclusions. It has an inscription which may be read as V L F B E R

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H +… (i) from the edge [Read as VLFBERH+T by Lorange (1899)] The microstructure consists of areas of fine pearlite, Three specimens were taken; with numerous small equiaxed grains of ferrite (i) A specimen from the body of the sword was and very few inclusions, which are not elongated, examined. The microstructure consists of areas of but there is no cementite network. This area is a fine pearlite, with a network of cementite, andno medium- of perhaps 0.5% overall. Local visible slag inclusions. This is a hypereutectoid steel decarburisation must have occurred during . of carbon content at least 1%. A low forging temperature might explain the small Microhardness range 253 – 308 VPH. (average = ferritic grain size. 282) Microhardness range 220-274; average = 231VPH.

(ii) Two smaller flakes from the edge were also (ii) from the body examined. The microstructure of one consists of The microstructure consists of areas of fine pearlite, areas of fine pearlite, with some ferrite grains near outlined with a network of cementite, and no visible the surface, and no visible slag. The microstructure slag inclusions. This part is a hypereutectoid steel of the other consists of areas of fine pearlite, with a of carbon content at least 1%, which has been network of cementite and some ferrite grains near subsequently annealed. the surface. There are also some unusual features, Microhardness (Vickers, 100g load) range 204-286 which on repolishing and re-examination at a higher VPH. magnification, turned out to be cavities, some of The lower carbon content of the edge may be the which still contain flakes, and some of result of an imperfectly melted and homogenised which are empty. In the surrounding area, the crucible steel, or decarburisation due to excessive microhardness is higher there.This would appear to hot-working. be the relic of an area of very high carbon content, WDX microanalysis: The carbon content from point which has contained primary graphite. analyses varied from 1.09% to 6.19%. An average

Local decarburisation near the surface might have of 9 points gave 1.7 %C, if the Fe3C dendrites were occurred during forging. avoided altogether. Microhardness range 226-279 VPH. WDX microanalysis: The carbon content from point analyses in the middle of sample (ii) varied from 1.72% 9. Helsinki Kansali Museum 9164:3 to 8.96%. However, avoiding primary graphite, an average of 9 points gave 2.7 %C. This suggests an area from Eura. It has an inscription which may be read on which originated as . one side as +VL F …E R H +T; the character between F and E might be read as b or a distorted B. 7. Bergen Historisk Museum 1483 The microstructure shows large areas of pearlite, of a feathery appearance, and almost irresolvable. There Only part of the inscription can now be read; …H + T are no visible slag inclusions, nor areas of ferrite. The microstructure consists of areas of fine pearlite, Microhardness range 417-476; average = 447 with a network of cementite, and only very few slag VPH. inclusions. This is a hypereutectoid steel of carbon The absence of slag inclusions may be significant. If content at least 1%. this is another hypereutectoid steel, that has undergone Microhardness range 295-360; average = 327 VPH. some form of accelerated cooling, to form irresolvable WDX microanalysis: The carbon content from point pearlite (or perhaps even upper ) then the absence analyses varied from 1.22 to 2.69%, but, avoiding of visible proeutectoid cementite might be explicable. dendrites, an average of 6 points gave 1.3 %C, which Samuels (1999) shows a photomicrograph of a 1.0 accords with the microstructure. %C steel which has been isothermally transformed at 450ºC for 1 minute to produce a fine pearlite/bainite microstructure with a hardness of 425 VPH. 8. Bergen Historisk Museum 3149 A similar microstructure is also shown in a 17th – 18th century Indian sword from Hyderabad (see below); one It has an inscription which may be read as V L F B E R specimen #10 showing very fine pearlite of 370 VPH. + H T or V L F B E R H + T – two specimens were This is presumed to have been made much later from taken: another crucible steel.

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10. Helsinki Kansali Museum 2548:839 Muslim Spain from Laitila. It has an inscription on one side which There are literary sources to support the contention that may be read as +VLFBERH+T . swords of crucible steel were appreciated in medieval The microstructure shows large areas of pearlite, southern Europe. The Franks valued Saracen swords, lamellar in some places, but irresolvable in others. and one of Charlemagne’s vassals captured ‘spatha Some ferrite is present near one end of the sample as cum techa de argento parata” –Indian sword with equiaxed grains, and in other places within the pearlite a siliverscabbard areas in a Widmanstätten formation. Count Eccard of Mâcon left a ‘spatha indica’ an There are also a number of large, irregular, slag Indian sword in his will, as well as ‘tabulas saraciniscas’ inclusions. – Saracen pictures. This is a rather unusual microstructure, but it seems It has been suggested by the historian who collected to be a steel of varying carbon content which has these references (Coupland 1990) that this referred to a undergone a rapid air-cool. Saracen sword, but it may just as well have meant what Microhardness range 236-286; average = 269 VPH. it said, an Indian sword. Out of these 10 swords, 8 are made of hypereutectoid Dinnetz (2001) has collected numerous literary steel, or steels hypereutectoid in places. Of the others, references to these in medieval Spain. We may two specimens (#9 and #10) are eutectoid steels, and quote, among others, the carbon content of one (# 9) cannot be accurately (i) Ibn al-Labbana (eleventh century) who referred to determined, but was probably at least eutectoid. And, ‘Indian swords’. of course, the eutectoid steels might perhaps have come (ii) Abu Bakr al-Sayrafi (twelfth century) who from a steel hypereutectoid in other places suggested that Indian (hinduwani) swords should It would have been very tempting to try and be used because they were sharper than other counterfeit these valued blades, and many swords and better able to pierce the heavy armour other workshops seem to have followed similar worn by the Christian soldiers. methods, which were already well-established in Europe. (iii) Al-Zuhri (twelfth century) who said that Seville Swords with their maker’s name as a variant spelling produces ‘Indian steel’. show more diverse microstructures. The methods of (iv) Ibn-Abdun (twelfth century) who said that makers their manufacture, the attained, as well as of scissors, , scythes etc. in Seville may only the variant spellings, together suggest that they may use [materials translated as] steely iron mudakkar well have come from other workshops, which were or cast steel amal al-tara’ih. endeavouring to copy the high-carbon blades of the (v) Ibn Hudhayl (fourteenth century) who described original “Ulfberht” workshop. One possible way would Frankish swords as mudakkar with ‘steel edges on have been by small pieces of steel an iron body, unlike those of India’. onto a billet of iron, and forging that into a blade before it. The sharp edge that could be formed might well fool the less discerning customer, but with a depth of only a few millimetres it would not have survived Indian swords many sharpenings. An opportunity arose through the kindness of the Summary family of the Nizam to examine a number of broken blades from the princely armoury of the Nizams of 1. These H+T swords do not resemble later European Hyderabad. swords in any way. 2. The making of H+T swords ceases around the time Specimen object microconstituents C% VPH that the Volga trade route closes; this linked the 1 dagger F + P 0.4 280 Baltic to areas where crucible steel was made. 2 dagger F + P 0.1 170 3. Only the H+T swords show hypereutectoid steels – 3 sword blade P + F 0.5 210 none of their copies do. 4 sword blade TM (0.9) 515 4. There are written references in Indian swords in 5 sword blade P + C 1.0 260 medieval Muslim Spain – collected by Dinnetz 6 sword blade TM (0.8) 550 7 sword blade vfP (0.9) 300 8 sword blade TM + F 0.8 410 Of course, a crucible steel does not have to be 9 sword blade F 0 170 hypereutectoid – some of these H+T swords are 10 sword blade vfP 0.8 370 eutectoid – as are many much later Indian swords.

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The carbon contents are estimated; those in brackets, Microhardness (Vickers, 100g) range 423- after normalisation. 476; average = 455 VPH

The metallography of these specimens has been described elsewhere (William s, 2007b). A further group Hyderabad 13 of samples from Hyderabad swords has recently been is part of a single-edged -blade. studied. Only the blades, and a shield, are discussed A specimen was detached and mounted so that the here. blade was examined in cross-section. The microstructure consists of a fairly uniform mixture of fine-grain ferrite 12 shield C + TM > 1.0 455 and pearlite (corresponding to a steel whose carbon 13 sword blade F + P 0.2 215 content varies from 0.3% - 0.5%C) with very few, 14 sword blade vfP 0.8 290 small, irregular inclusions. Could this be a 15 knife C + P > 1.0 415 European steel? The photomicrograph was taken 18 knife F + P 0.1 140 F = ferrite, P = pearlite, TM = tempered , C = cementite, at about the mid-point of the blade. vfP = very fine pearlite A smaller specimen was mounted separately for microhardness testing. So 7 out of 10 of the swords (plus a shield and a Microhardness (Vickers, 100g) range 204- knife) from the princely Arsenal of Hyderabad seem to 236; average = 215 VPH have been made of crucible steels. None of them display the segregation of cementite that would have led to a “wootz” pattern, although the shield does. One out of the Hyderabad 14 10 is a , and the remaining 2 are steels of is part of a single-edged knife-blade. low- to medium-carbon content. In each case, a sample A specimen was detached and mounted in two parts was taken showing a complete cross-section. so that the blade could be examined overall in cross- Even accepting that this sample of swords would section. The microstructure consists of uniform very probably have been of higher quality than average, it fine pearlite, with a very few isolated grains of ferrite is still remarkable that so many display such excellent (corresponding to a steel of perhaps 0.7% - 0.8%C), and metallurgy. Hyderabad may well have been making the no visible slag inclusions. So this may well also have best blades in India because of the decline of the Mughal been a crucible steel. Empire. If these blades were made for the retainers of A smaller specimen was mounted for microhardness the Nizam they are indeed of very high quality. testing. Numbers 4, 6, and 10 have all undergone some form Microhardness (Vickers, 100g) range 266-308; of heat-treatment to increase their hardness from its average = 292 VPH. already respectable level to a truly impressive one.

Hyderabad 15 Hyderabad 12 is part of a single-edged knife-blade. Fig.1 is a segment from the rim of a circular shield. A specimen was detached and mounted so that the shield was examined in section. The microstructure consists of a groundmass of a ferrite-carbide aggregrate. This is irresolvable in places, and granular in others, but does not show a lamellar arrangement visible anywhere. (It might be tempered Figure 1 Blade no. 15 from Hyderabad martensite) Part of the cross-section occupied by cementite A specimen was detached and mounted in two parts particles arranged in rows. This is evidently a crucible so that the blade could be examined overall in cross- steel (perhaps between 1% and 1.5%C) which has section. The microstructure consists of a groundmass of undergone some form of heat-treatment to harden it. fine pearlite, with parallel rows of cementite particles. The parallel rows of the cementite suggest the original These rows extend to the cutting edge without appearing existence of a surface pattern. to be packed more closely at the edge, Fig.2

202 CRUCIBLE STEEL IN MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN AND INDIAN SWORDS

Microhardness (Vickers, 100g) range 397-434; average = 416 VPH

Figure 2 A cross-section of blade 15 showing parallel rows of cementite inclusions in a dark-etching groundmass. Where these lines intersected the surface of the blade, a pattern could be generated after suitable etching. but they are further apart at the back of the blade. Fig.3 Figure 4 A cross-section of blade 15 near to back showing the rows of cementite having been spread out by forging. Scale bars 50 microns

Hyderabad 18 is part of a (two-edged) knife blade. The microstructure is a fairly uniform mixture of ferrite and divorced carbides (corresponding to a steel of perhaps 0.1% - 0.2%C) with carbide–free bands in the center of the cross-section. Traces of a “ghost” microstructure are visible within the ferrite grains. After etching with Oberhoffer’s reagent, these features are accentuated. This knife has evidently been made by piling pieces of high- and low-phosphorus iron together and forging them into a piled structure. Figure 3 A cross-section of blade 15 near to the edge. Note that Microhardness (Vickers, 100g) range 129-185; the rows of cementite have not been moved together by forging. average = 140 VPH . The edge has been formed by grinding The best examples of both show some form of heat treatment being employed. Retained austenite might This is evidently a crucible steel (perhaps between pose a problem in steels of the highest C% - it is possible 1% and 1.5%C) which has been forged to shape and the that an isothermal transformation was employed rather edge then finished by grinding. The parallel rows of than a full quench. One may speculate that this was the cementite suggest the original existence of a surface the secret of the swords ascribed to the smith known as pattern where they intersected the surface. Fig.4 Asadollah.

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Conclusions than a sort of “satin chrome” finish after etching), they may have commanded a lower , despite being Crucible steel is frequently discussed as if it were a mechanically superior. What heat-treatments patterned single entity. It is becoming clearer - and conferences swords were subject to is a topic for further research. like this one have done much to clarify this - that there are many different methods of making it, with many different results. Initially, it may have started as a means of References “improving” a bloom by reheating it in a covered container, perhaps with medicinal herbs to help it Coupland S., 1990, Carolingian arms and armour in the recover its strength. Certainly, some loss of slag, and nineth century, Viator, 21: 29-50. some gain in carbon would have improved the bloom, Dinnetz, M.K., 2001, Literary evidence for crucible and encouraged the ironmasters to persist with the use steel in medieval Spain, Historical Metallurgy, 35: of this technique. With longer periods of time in the 74-80. crucible, enough carbon might have been absorbed to Jankuhn, H. 1951, Festschrift für G. Schwantes, lower the temperature at which iron will start to liquefy Hamburg, 212-229. (γ iron with 1% C at around 1350ºC, with 1.5%C at Lorange, A.L.,1889, Den yngre jernalders svaerd, around 1250ºC). An ingot liquefied in places might have Bergen, been the starting point for some of these Viking swords. Müller-Wille M., 1970, Eine neue Ulfbehrt – Schwert, Complete leading to an entirely homogenous Offa, 27: 65-91. product would have been a later development. Petersen J., 1919, De norske vikingesverd, Kristiana. Ironically, the patterned swords esteemed in later Samuels L.E., 1999, Light microscopy of carbon steels, centuries were the product of a less homogenous ingot Materials Park, Ohio, 266-269. – their “watered-silk” patterns depended on a very Williams A., 2007a, Crucible steel in medieval swords, high C% and segregation of the cementite. The more in and Mines ed. S. La Niece, D. Hook, P. splendid patterns may have been attained at the expense Craddock, London, Archetype Press with the British of the swords’ toughness. Museum, 233-241. Those swords which were homogenous and Williams A., Edge D., 2007b, The metallurgy of some successfully heat-treated seem to have been of a lower Indian swords from the Arsenal of Hyderabad and C%, which would have required a higher temperature elsewhere, Gladius, 27:149-176. to make. Without a distinctive surface pattern (other Williams A., 2009, A metallurgical study of some Viking swords, Gladius, 29 : 121-184.

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