ISSN 1744-036X ISSN 1744-036X TODAY HANDWRITING TODAY

HandwritingHandwritingHandwriting TodayTodayToday Number 9 2010 Number 9 2010

Handwriting Today - Number 9 2010 Handwriting Today - Number 9 2010 Published by the National Handwriting Association Published by the CharityNational Number Handwriting 1051157 Association Charity Number 1051157 Numbernumber 15 Autumn 9 autumn 2016 2010 number 9 autumn 2010 Handwriting Today

Journal of the National Handwriting Association

Registered Charity No. 1051157

Website: www.nha-handwriting.org.uk

Chair: Angela Webb Vice chairs Catherine Elsey Mary Howard

Handwriting Today is published annually and is mailed free to NHA members Contents

Editorial 2 Research Articles 3

• - or keyboard? The influence of the tool on reading and writing performance in preschool children • New handwriting technologies: how the tablet screen surface affects students grapho-motor execution • Handwriting Quality Analysis of Block Letters and Words

Research Digest 23

• A comprehensive meta-analysis of handwriting instruction • Developing interactions between language and motor skills in the first three years of formal handwriting education • Eye movements during the handwriting of words: individually and within sentences • Developmental test of visual-motor integration (VMI): An effective outcome measure for handwriting interventions for kindergarten, first-grade, and second-grade students? • A comparison between students who receive and who do not receive a writing readiness interventions on handwriting quality, speed and positive reactions. • The effect of touch-typing program on keyboarding skills of higher education students with and without

learning disabilities . • Grapho-motor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter • Unique handwriting performance characteristics of children with high functioning autism spectrum disorder • Dyslexic children fail to comply with the rhythmic constraints of handwriting • Spelling impairments in Spanish dyslexic adults

Current Issues 35

• We need to talk about ‘dysgraphia’ • Updates on the Joining Debate

Tips for Teaching 41

• ‘P Checks’ explained

Handwriting in the Media 49 Review of Resources 56 NHA News 62 Conference Reviews 69

Handwriting Today 1 Editorial Editorial

I am pleased to present the NHA’ annual journal once again by Ewan Clayton, is entitled ‘Who for 2016. There have been great developments in Needs Handwriting’. In it we see how the the field of handwriting during the past year and press cover all aspects of handwriting from the the content of the journal reflects this activity. functional importance of children of being able to write fluently and fast, through the emotional/ It begins with the Research section, edited by Dr personal aspects of handwriting as expressed by Emma Sumner, which contains three interesting some journalists, to the beauty of handwriting, research articles addressing critical questions featuring artists from the Smithsonian collection. around the relationship between handwriting and technology. In the ever-growing research Laraine Erlanderr-Lawrence has produced digest, ten articles are summarized which look the Resources Review which includes writing at handwriting interventions and the effect of materials and suggests some useful apps to support handwriting on other aspects of development, the teaching of handwriting. It is encouraging to particularly with regard to handwriting difficulties see that despite the increasing use of technology, linked with various developmental disorders. pen and and paper manufacturers are producing an ever-growing range of exciting The Current Issues section examines the use of products to tempt novice writers and to enhance the term ‘dysgraphia’, something which causes the writing experience for skilled writers. consternation among parents and professionals

alike. A look at how the term is used in different . The NHA News section showcases the work of countries is followed by an examination of how the charity throughout the year and includes a descriptors for developmental disorders are report on another successful Members’ Day. established. The possible issues around defining and labelling handwriting difficulties in particular We again include reports on conferences which are also discussed. In the concluding part of this NHA members have attended through the year, section there are two short updates on last year’s particularly those which have relevance to topic – The Teaching of Continuous Cursive handwriting. Lesley Harding, who has collated handwriting - by the authors who contributed to this section for two years, has now to step down that topic in 2015. from the post but we are very grateful to her for managing this section to date. The Tips for Teaching section this year focuses on the physical competences required for I would like to end by thanking all those who producing good handwriting – the ‘P Checks’. have contributed to the journal, both committee It follows on from an article in a former NHA members and others. They all take their roles very journal by Gwen Dornan on the ‘S Rules’ for seriously and we are proud of the high standard of teaching handwriting. Written by Catherine Elsey content which they provide. We are also grateful and her OT colleagues, it sets out the process to Karen Nicholas for organizing the printing of factors which need to be in place for handwriting the journal and to Laraine Bateman for collecting movements to develop. Optimal performance is all the material and for checking it. I hope you described as well as some ideas for correcting will find it an interesting and stimulating read. poor execution.

Our Handwriting in the Media section, written Angela Webb. Editor.

2 Handwriting Today Research Research Articles Articles Compiled by Emma Sumner

The use of technology to replace or support Abstract handwriting is increasingly debated, as technology In order to compare the effects of handwriting continues to advance. In this section we include vs. typewriting training on reading and writing three research articles that consider the role of performance, we developed an intense training handwriting and new technology in some way. program for preschool children attending Providing support for the teaching of handwriting, German kindergarten with 16 training sessions. the first article directly compares training Eight letters of the German alphabet were handwriting or typing in pre-school children. trained either by handwriting or by typing on a This study by Kiefer and colleagues provides a computer keyboard using closely matched letter comprehensive account of the effect of the writing learning games. Letter recognition, naming and tool on other aspects of literacy development, writing performance as well as word reading such as letter recognition, reading and writing. and writing performance were assessed. Results The second article questions what we really know did not indicate a superiority of typing training about the writing process when handwriting over handwriting training in any of these tasks. on a tablet surface. Denis Alamargot and Marie In contrast, a superiority of handwriting over France-Morin raise an important point for typing training was found in word writing, and, consideration – that using a pen on a glass (tablet) as a tendency, in word reading. The results of surface will inevitably require a different form of our study, therefore, support theories of action- motor control than when writing on paper. This perception coupling assuming a facilitatory

study took a developmental approach, pinpointing . influence of sensory-motor representations age-related differences (primary-aged children established during handwriting on reading and vs. adolescents) in handwriting performance on a writing. tablet screen. Finally, the third article outlines the development of a new handwriting programme that Introduction is administered on tablet devices in the classroom. Mastering literacy is a key skill to acquire for Using advanced methodology, Simonnet and success at school and in professional life in Anquetil have devised an interactive programme societies (Gut, Reimann & Grob, 2012). In recent that provides feedback on the execution of years, the mode of writing in adults, but also in handwriting for children and teachers. children, has been subject of a dramatic change: Pen- or keyboard? The influence of the Digital writing devices associated with the use of writing tool on reading and writing computers, tablet computers or mobile phones are performance in preschool children increasingly replacing writing by hand (Radesky, Markus Kiefera, Stefanie Schulerb, Carmen Schumacher & Zuckerman, 2015). These Mayerb, Natalie M. Trumppa, b, Katrin changes of writing habits have been shown to be Hilleb & Steffi Sachseb, c, aUlm University, associated with less proficient basic hand-motor Department of Psychiatry, Ulm, Germany, skills. In adults, a high frequency of keyboard use bUlm University, ZNL Transfer Center for for producing written text in everyday life has Neuroscience and Learning, Ulm, Germany been shown to relate to less precisely controlled cUniversity of Education Heidelberg, arm–hand movements (Sulzenbrück et al., 2011). Department of Developmental Psychology, Given that children in our present days may get Heidelberg, Germany their first everyday writing experiences by typing Email: [email protected] on a computer or mobile phone much before they

Handwriting Today 3 Research Articles

master handwriting (Mangen & Velay, 2010), it several training studies in preschool children is important to know how this dramatic change and adults showed that handwriting training of in writing habits in the digital age affects written new letters gave not only rise to better spelling language acquisition. accuracy (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990) or memory for words (Mangen, Anda, Oxborough Regarding the influence of these modes of & Bronnik, 2015), but also improved letter written language acquisition, handwriting vs. recognition in a subsequent test compared typing, two competing theoretical approaches with typing training (Longcamp et al., 2008; are possible. The motor program associated with Longcamp et al., 2005). typing is obviously easier than that associated with handwriting. This easiness of typing on In order to contribute to this debate, we developed digital devices is taken as an argument in favor an intense training program for preschool of writing training with typing to accelerate children attending German kindergarten with 16 writing in young children or in children with less training sessions, which were distributed over developed sensory-motor skills (Calhoun, 1985; four weeks on four days per week. This study Genlott & Gronlund, 2013; Genlott & Gronlund, is reported in full detail elsewhere (Kiefer et 2016). al., 2015). Letter recognition, letter naming and initial letter writing performance was assessed However, when comparing handwriting with before and after training. Reading and writing

typing, not only the easiness of the motor . performance of four-letter words, which could be programs, but also their quality and the formed from the trained eight letters, were tested associated sensory-motor experiences (haptic, only post-training. motor, visual etc.) must be considered. With respect to quality, handwriting and typing have fundamentally different properties (Mangen & Methods Velay, 2010). Handwriting requires carefully For our training study (for more details see, producing the shape of each letter, whereas in Kiefer et al., 2015), we recruited 23 children (12 typewriting the motor program is not related female) aged between 4;10 and 6;3 years in two to the letter shape and, as a result, no such kindergartens within the area of Ulm, Germany. grapho-motor component is present. Hence, In Germany, children typically start to attend motor programs associated with handwriting school at the age of six years. All children were provide an additional informative memory healthy according to the parents’ reports. The trace and may contribute to the representation sample was split in two matched groups, which of the shape of a letter (James & Engelhardt, were assigned to the handwriting (n = 12) and 2012). Such interactions between action and typing (n = 11) training conditions, respectively. perception are important elements of embodied Groups did not differ with regard to age, gender or grounded cognition theories, which state that and phonological awareness. Prior to the study, cognition is essentially grounded in modality- the children had not received any formal writing specific sensory and motor systems (Barsalou, education. However, some children were able to Simmons, Barbey & Wilson, 2003; Kiefer & write their own names. Prior letter knowledge Pulvermüller, 2012). In line with this suggestion, was comparable across groups.

4 Handwriting Today Research Articles

After this general introduction, children were trained individually on days one and two with the four letter learning games described below (see also Figure 1):

Letter zoo: Children learned to associate animal pictures with the corresponding initial letter of the animal names (e.g., “elephant”, and the letter “E”). Children were then presented with three pictures of animals and had to write or type four times the initial letter of the animal name on each picture (Fig. 1A).

Puzzle: The children received a puzzle consisting of four parts, either on a sheet of paper or on a notebook screen (Fig. 1B). The puzzle showed Figure 1. Overview of the training tasks used for objects starting with one of the letters to be written language training in preschool children. trained. There were three different objects per The same tasks were applied for typing and letter. Initially, all parts of the puzzle were shown handwriting training. They differed only with . with their backside up. Children were instructed regard to the writing mode (typing on a laptop to write/type the letter to be trained on the keyboard vs. handwriting on a sheet of paper) in backside of each part (e.g., A). both training conditions. Adopted from Kiefer et al. (2015). Rhyme completion: The experimenter showed the children a sentence containing a pair of Across four weeks, eight letters of the German rhyming words either on a sheet of paper or on alphabet (L, I, O, A, M, S, T and E) were trained the computer screen (Fig. 1C). The children with letter games adopted from a German school were told that the letter to be trained (e.g., M) is booklet on literacy training (Reddig-Korn, Fritz, missing once in each word. A gap indicated the Mai & Schmitt, 2003). Training procedure was missing letter. Depending on the training group, identical for both the handwriting and typing the children wrote/typed the missing letter in the program, except for the writing medium. In the gap. If the child inserted the letter correctly, the handwriting training program, children wrote the experimenter read the sentence with the rhyming letter with a pen on a sheet of paper. In the typing words aloud. program, children typed the letter on a notebook keyboard, where only the keys with letters were Letter tracing: Children received sheets of paper visible. Training sessions lasted about 25 min and with the letter clearly printed above and printed took place on four days in each week resulting in with unconnected dots below (Fig. 1D). In both a total of 16 sessions. Each week, two new letters groups, the children were instructed to recognize were trained. On day one of each week, the first the letter printed in dots and to reproduce it either new letter was introduced, on day two the second by handwriting or by typing. one. In both training groups, the new letters were introduced to the children using a short story. Days three and four of each week served to repeat

Handwriting Today 5 Research Articles

all trained letters with a variation of letter learning paper. In this task, only the trained eight letters games to render the training more motivational were analyzed. Of course, possible differential for the children. Training in weeks one to four training effects between groups cannot be was comparable, except for the introduction of unequivocally interpreted in this task because new letters and for the repetition of an increasing in the typing group writing mode at test differed number of letters (week 1: two letters, week 2: from that at training. four letters, week 3: six letters, week 4: eight letters). During training, the children received Word writing. The experimenter read the four feedback regarding the correctness of their words LILI (the name “Lili”), OLI (the name response. “Oli”), SALAMI (‘salami’), TASTE (‘key’) aloud at a slow pace. The child was told to write or to type the word depending on the training program. Test tasks of letter recognition, reading and writing Letter recognition. Each child was presented Results with a card showing one of the eight letters to be An overview of the test results as a function of learnt among three visually similar pseudoletters. training mode (typing vs. handwriting) is given The task was to select the real letter among the in Figure 2. For the full detail of results, we refer distractors. to the original publication of the study (Kiefer et

. al., 2015). Letter naming. Each child was sequentially shown all 26 letters of the alphabet on a card Letter recognition (Figure 2A). Both groups ordered by difficulty (according to Reddig-Korn showed increased letter recognition performance et al., 2003). The child was instructed to say post-training compared to pre-training (writing “stop”, when the letter was familiar, and asked to group: t(11) = 2.994, p = .006; typing group: name the letter. t(10) = 3.108, p = .006), but this training effect did not differ between groups (t(21) = 0.299, p Word reading. Each child received cards with the = .384). words OMI (‘grandma’), TAL (‘valley’), TESA (‘tape’), which were formed from the trained Letter naming (Figure 2B). Training increased letters. The child was told to read each word letter naming performance (writing group: t(11) aloud. = 3.276, p = .004; typing group: t(10) = 5.186, p < .001) in each group, but this increment did not Letter writing. The experimenter sequentially differ between groups (t(21) = 0.426, p = .674). read the trained letters to the child aloud. Each of the letters was read aloud twice in random order Word reading (Figure 2C). Word reading was only (L, T, S, I, A, O, T, M, I, E, O, L, M, S, E, A). assessed after training. There was a tendency for The child was instructed to write down the letter superior reading performance in the handwriting on a sheet of paper or to type it on the keyboard group compared with the typing group (t(14) = depending on the training program. 1.364, p = .097). Note that accuracy distribution in the handwriting group ranged from zero to Free letter writing. Each child was instructed to perfect performance (all three words named write with a pen all familiar letters on a sheet of correctly) and was much larger than accuracy

6 Handwriting Today Research Articles

distribution in the typing group, which varied typing training (t(21) = 1.76, p = .047, d = 0.63). between zero and one correct response. Results obtained before training confirm that initial letter writing knowledge was comparable for the handwriting and typing groups. However, as differences between handwriting and typing training groups cannot be interpreted after training due to a differential match between training (handwriting vs. typing) and test mode (handwriting only), we do not further discuss findings of this task.

Word writing (Figure 2F). Word writing carried out by handwriting was superior to word writing carried out by typing (t(21) = 1.744, p = .048, d = 0.76). This test was only administered after training.

Discussion

. We investigated the influence of two modes of written language training on letter recognition, reading and writing performance in matched groups of preschool children (Kiefer et al., Figure 2. Letter recognition, reading and writing 2015). In one group of children eight letters were performance of the preschool children in the trained by writing them with a pen on a sheet typing vs. handwriting training conditions. of paper, whereas in the other group training Shown are mean scores (number of correct involved typing the same set of letters on a responses) or mean percentage scores (relative computer keyboard. Overall, the results of our frequency of correct responses) on the y axis. study were relatively clear-cut. In none of the test The bars indicate the standard error of the mean tasks administered to the children after training, within each condition. did we find superior performance after typing training compared with handwriting training. Even in tasks such as single letter writing, in Letter writing (Figure 2D). Letter writing carried which the easier motor program associated out either by handwriting or typing did not differ with typing could be most advantageous, between groups (t(21) = 0.097, p = .462). This accuracy was not higher in the typing than in test was only administered after training. the handwriting training group. Thus, our results are inconsistent with the notion that the easiness Free letter writing (Figure 2E). Training increased of the motor program associated with typing is free letter writing performance in each group beneficial for written language training (e.g., (t(11) = 4.927, p <.001; t(10) = 1.796, p = .05). Genlott & Gronlund, 2013; Genlott & Gronlund, Handwriting training resulted in a significantly 2016), at least in the present study focused on greater increment of performance compared with children without disabilities.

Handwriting Today 7 Research Articles

However, results of our study at least partially (Kiefer et al., 2015). Overall, letter recognition support embodiment or grounded cognition performance before training was relatively high theories because superior accuracy for even in these preschool children, presumably handwriting training was found in several word because children were already familiarized with reading and writing tasks. We found superior some letters earlier in their lives. This reduces word writing accuracy after handwriting training the likelihood to observe differential effects of compared with typing training. This replicates the two training regimens. earlier work (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1990) and suggests that sensory-motor memory traces Interpretation of the results of our study is limited acquired during handwriting training support by the small sample size in both training groups. spelling of words, presumably due to improved Despite this limitation, our work demonstrates memory for letters (Longcamp, Zerbato- that experimental training studies in preschool Poudou & Velay, 2005) and words (Mangen children are a promising way to study modes of et al., 2015). Unlike our findings and those literacy training within naturalistic kindergarten by Cunningham and Stanovich (1990), other settings. Our study clearly demonstrates that the studies found comparable writing performance easiness of the motor program associated with after handwriting and typing training (Ouellette typing on digital devices does not facilitate written & Tims, 2014; Vaughn, Schumm & Gordon, language acquisition compared with handwriting 1992). Presumably, the divergent results can be training. Of course, our results do not preclude

explained by the different length of the training . the possibility that typing on digital devices program (16 days as in our study vs. one or a might be useful to support writing in children few days), age and literacy status of the children with motor impairments that affect handwriting. (largely preliterate preschool children as in our Most importantly, we found that children of the study vs. elementary school children), training handwriting training group performed better material (words vs. pseudowords) or test tasks than those of the typing group particularly in (writing/typing as in our study or multiple choice tasks involving reading and writing at the word recognition memory test). level. Our results therefore support embodiment theories assuming a facilitatory influence of In our study, word reading accuracy tended to sensory-motor representations established during be higher in the handwriting group, although handwriting on reading and writing performance. this difference was not statistically significant, presumably due to the small sample size and the relatively large variability in the handwriting References group. Nevertheless, in line with embodiment Barsalou, L. W., Simmons, W. K., Barbey, A. K., & theories, this observation suggests that the motor Wilson, C. D. (2003). Grounding conceptual knowledge in modality-specific systems.Trends program associated with handwriting facilitates in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 84-91. word recognition compared with typewriting. Calhoun, M. L. (1985). Typing contrasted with handwriting in language arts instruction for In contrast to our expectations and to previous moderately mentally-retarded students. findings (Longcamp et al., 2008; Longcamp et Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 20, 48-52. al., 2005), handwriting training did not improve Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Early letter recognition and letter naming performance spelling acquisition - Writing beats the computer. compared with typing training in our study Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 159-162.

8 HandwritingHandwriting Today Research Articles

Genlott, A. A., & Gronlund, A. (2013). Improving literacy children: The good, the bad, and the unknown. skills through learning reading by writing: Pediatrics Perspectives, 135, 1-3. The iWTR method presented and tested. Reddig-Korn, B., Fritz, M., Mai, M., & Schmitt, F. Computers & Education, 67, 98-104. (2003). Das Zauberalphabet. Übungen. Leipzig: Genlott, A. A., & Gronlund, A. (2016). Closing the gaps Ernst Klett Grundschulverlag GmbH. - Improving literacy and mathematics by ict- Vaughn, S., Schumm, J. S., & Gordon, J. (1992). Early enhanced collaboration. Computers & Education, spelling acquisition - Does writing really beat the 99, 68-80. computer? Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, Gut, J., Reimann, G., & Grob, A. (2012). Kognitive, 223-228. sprachliche, mathematische und sozial- emotionale Kompetenzen als Prädiktoren New handwriting technologies: how the späterer schulischer Leistungen:. Zeitschrift für tablet screen surface affects students’ Pädagogische Psychologie, 26, 213–220. graphomotor execution James, K. H., & Engelhardt, L. (2012). The effects of a b handwriting experience on functional brain Denis Alamargot & Marie-France Morin a development in pre-literate children. Trends in Human and Artificial Cognitions (CHArt) neuroscience and education, 1, 32-42. lab, University of East Paris-Créteil, Paris, Kiefer, M., & Pulvermüller, F. (2012). Conceptual France representations in mind and brain: Theoretical b Research Chair in Reading and Writing developments, current evidence and future directions. Cortex, 48, 805-825. Learning in Young Children (CREALEC), Kiefer, M., Schuler, S., Mayer, C., Trumpp, N. M., Hille, Faculty of Education, Sherbrooke K., & Sachse, S. (2015). Handwriting or University, Quebec, Canada typewriting? The influence of pen- or keyboard- . Email : [email protected] based writing training on reading and writing performance in preschool children. Advances in Abstract. Cognitive Psychology, 11, 136-146. In this article, we provide a summary of an Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J. C., Anton, J. L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., & Velay, J. L. (2008). original and recently published study (see Learning through hand- or typewriting influences Alamargot & Morin, 2015, for details) aiming visual recognition of new graphic shapes: to ascertain how handwriting with a plastic- Behavioral and functional imaging evidence. tipped pen on the screen of a digital tablet, as Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 802-815. opposed to handwriting on a sheet of paper Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M. T., & Velay, J. L. (2005). The influence of writing practice on with a , affects grapho-motor letter recognition in preschool children: A execution in students. Twenty-eight children comparison between handwriting and typing. from Grades Two and Nine (mean age 7 and 14 Acta Psychologica, 119, 67-79. years, respectively) were asked to handwrite the Mangen, A., Anda, L. G., Oxborough, G. H., & Bronnik, alphabet and their names and surnames under the K. (2015). Handwriting versus keyboard writing: Effect on word recall. Journal of Writing two conditions. Kinematics were recorded using Research, 7, 227-247. the tablet, controlled by Eye and Pen software. Mangen, A., & Velay, J.-L. (2010). Digitizing literacy: Results showed that handwriting on the tablet Reflections on the haptics of writing. In M. H. surface with a plastic-tipped pen primarily Zadeh (Ed.), Advances in Haptics (pp. 385-402). affected pen pauses in the second graders and Rijeka: InTech. Ouellette, G., & Tims, T. (2014). The write way to spell: pen movements in the ninth graders, suggesting Printing vs. typing effects on orthographic a disturbance in letter trajectory calculation in learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. the younger participants and reduced control Radesky, J. S., Schumacher, J., & Zuckerman, B. (2015). of muscular adjustment in the older children. Mobile and interactive media use by young This pioneering study contributes to our

Handwriting Today 9 Research Articles

understanding of the effects of introducing new Handwriting on a smooth tablet surface: what writing technologies in schools and we discuss is the impact on pupils? how it is disconcerting to see just how little The advent of new technologies in schools means handwriting research comparing pen and paper that students now have to write in different with digital tools (e.g., keyboard and computer) media using a variety of tools (e.g., keyboard, has been published. virtual keyboard (tablet), pen or finger on a tablet surface), and no longer just with pen(cil) and paper (see Wollscheid, Sjaastad, Tømte, Handwriting across technologies & Løver, 2016). While this new technological As Caporossi and Alamargot explained back reality may arouse fresh interest in writing, it in 2004, today’s handwriters, in addition to the does not necessarily make the activity itself traditional pen and paper, can use a range of any easier, and may even impose new cognitive tools, including typewriter keyboard and paper, constraints that are not immediately perceptible. screen, keyboard and mouse, and finger or This can be precisely the problem when students and tablet, to produce a written trace that use digital tablets, writing on the screen with a their readers subsequently have to decode. It plastic-tipped pen. Studies assessing the effect was the Sumerians who invented writing, using of the grapho-motor constraints imposed by the a (stylus) to inscribe characters in clay particularly smooth tablet surface, are still few tablets. Given that the modern day pen works and far between probably because this tool

on the same principles, it can, by extension, be . has only very recently been introduced into the described as an ancestral and universal means classroom. Nonetheless, as Wann and Nimmo- of writing. With this tool, writers have to create Smith (1991) pointed out, we all find it hard to all the signs (letters, spaces, punctuation) write on a smooth and slippery surface, such themselves, and are responsible for ensuring that as when we sign our name on the back of a the finished product is legible. With the advent credit card. Writing with a plastic-tipped pen on of mechanization, printing presses and later the glass surface of a tablet produces a similar typewriters took over the chore of producing sensation of sliding over a slippery surface and, the letters and standardized their shapes. we can assume, that this disturbs the fine motor Although typewriters controlled the shape, control required for adjusting pen movements. spacing and alignment of the letters, writers still had to generate the layout, but even this was Here, we provide a summary of an original taken out of their hands when computerization and recently published study (see Alamargot & came along. By dematerializing the written Morin, 2015, for details). In this study, we sought trace, word processors freed writers from the to ascertain how handwriting with a plastic-tipped one remaining chore of hard returns and word pen on the screen of a digital tablet, as opposed to breaks, which were automatically calculated handwriting on a sheet of paper with a ballpoint as the text was being typed. The introduction pen, affects grapho-motor execution in Grade Two of touchscreen tablets further modified writing and Grade Nine French-speaking students. We conditions, maintaining the benefits of word assumed that, by modifying the perceptual (i.e., processing but allowing for direct manual propriokinaesthetic) feedback that students are interventions (with or without a stylus), as with accustomed to receive when they write on paper a pen and paper. in the classroom, the smooth surface of a tablet

10 Handwriting Today Research Articles

screen, coupled with a plastic-tipped pen, would translational force exerted on the pen to move make it more difficult for them to perform their it was generated by a 40-g load, while vertical handwriting movements. Furthermore, based on pressure was exerted on the pen by adding a studies of the development of handwriting skills, series of weights (10, 20, 30, then 40 g) (see Fig. we hypothesized this modification in feedback 1). would differently disturb younger and older students (i.e., before and after motor programme acquisition). Because younger students rely more heavily on perceptual feedback to form letters, the reduced proprio-kinaesthetic information available to them would presumably lead them to pause longer between letter segments, in order to work out how to assemble them. By contrast, owing to their mastery of motor programmes, more advanced writers (above the age of 9 10 Figure 1. Apparatus used to confirm the very years) would be able to produce larger letter low friction coefficient of the tablet surface segments more fluently and without any major (reproduced here with permission from Human pauses while writing (Accardo, Genna & Borean, Movement Science). 2013). As the propriokinaesthetic system continues to contribute to the implementation . Results indicated that the screen surface (written of motor programmes and the ability to modify on with a plastic tip) had a far lower friction and correct erroneous trajectories (Bard, Turrell, coefficient than the 80 g/m² paper surface (written Fleury & Teasdale, 1999), we reasoned that the on with a ballpoint tip), generating a higher pen change brought about by the screen/plastic tip movement speed (mean: 47.27 vs. 5.18 cm/s) for combination would induce adjustments to pen the same translational force. This difference was movements by older students. We predicted that observed whatever the pressure exerted on the they would seek to maximize proprio-kinaesthetic pen. This first part of the experiment confirms feedback by increasing the pressure they exerted that handwriting with a plastic-tip on a screen is on the pen and, possibly, the size of the letters far from being harmless. they produced, thereby increasing their speed of movement. It remains then to evaluate the consequences of such lack of friction - and accordingly in the proprio- kinaesthetic feedback, on children handwriting Experiment details performance. This question led us to run the second To test the hypotheses, we ran a two-part part of our experiment, in which we asked second experiment. The first part served to confirm the and ninth graders (UK equivalents: Year 3 and very low friction coefficient of the tablet surface Year 10) to write out (i) their name and surname versus a sheet of paper. Friction can be defined twice, starting with uppercase letters (see Pontart as the force resisting the relative motion of et al., 2013), and (ii) the letters of the alphabet in material solid surfaces sliding against each other joined lowercase (Abbott & Berninger, 1993). In (kinetic friction). Like Wann and Nimmo-Smith both cases, students were invited to write in their (1991), we used an articulated arm that held the usual handwriting, as quickly and accurately as pen on the surface and constrained its path. The possible. A total of 14 second graders (4 boys, 10

Handwriting Today 11 Research Articles

girls; mean age = 7.53 years) and 14 ninth graders Main results of the study (7 boys, 7 girls; mean age = 14.45 years) took part Results revealed an effect of writing surface in this experiment. They came from three schools for each measure we considered. Handwriting on the outskirts of the French city of Poitiers. None on the screen tablet with a plastic tip led to a of the children had ever written with a pen on a decrease in letter legibility (for the first name screen tablet before. None had repeated a grade, surname task) and an increase in letter size nor displayed any learning disabilities or disorder (for both the alphabet and first name surname of fine motor skill. tasks), regardless of age. Concerning the interaction with grade, our hypothesis of The two writing tasks were performed on an LCD different handwriting disturbances in second digitizing screen tablet (Wacom Cintiq 21UX) versus ninth graders was generally confirmed. linked to a laptop computer (Apple MacBook) More specifically, the effect of surface on pen and recorded using Eye and Pen® software movement and pausing differed according to (Alamargot, Chesnet, Dansac, & Ros, 2006; grade. Writing on a screen with a plastic tip, Chesnet & Alamargot, 2005). Eye and Pen® as opposed to a sheet of paper with a ballpoint, records eye movements (eye positions provided only affected movement in ninth graders, by an oculometer at regular intervals) and pen increasing both pen pressure and pen speed, movements on a graphic tablet (either classic or whereas in second graders it had an effect on with an inbuilt screen). For the purposes of the pauses, increasing their duration. These results

present study, we recorded the signals generated . were coherent with our hypothesis and the by the tablet, but without the associated eye development of grapho-motor execution and movements. motor programme mastery.

The students wrote directly on the tablet, using a pen (Wacom InkPen) with a plastic tip (no ), Second graders: Problems calculating letter and on an A3 sheet of 80 g/m² paper placed on the segment trajectories’ tablet, in which case the same pen was equipped The pattern of results for second graders with a ballpoint. They performed the task twice: suggested that they had greater difficulty first in the paper ballpoint configuration, and calculating segment trajectories when they second in the tablet plastic tip configuration. This handwrote on the screen tablet surface with a order changed from one participant to the next. plastic tip. By dramatically changing the proprio- The Eye and Pen® software recorded the position kinaesthetic information available to them, the of the pen tip on the tablet screen/sheet of paper very low friction generated by the tablet plastic (x-axis and y-axis) and the state of the tip (with tip combination forced these students to pause or without pressure) in real time. Associated for longer between segments (i.e., between the with a timer (in ms), these measures allowed various parts (strokes) of the letters, and between us to calculate the main writing kinematics letters). This extra time was probably needed to parameters, including letter production duration, carefully analyse the previous segment of the pen speed, and pause (motionless pen) duration letter (formed using unusual information) and and frequency. In addition to these temporal adjust the next one accordingly. Despite these criteria, we assessed the legibility of letters pauses, children still produced larger and less using Evaluation Tool of Children’s Handwriting legible letters, suggesting poorer motor control (ETCH; Amundson, 1995) criteria. in this method.

12 Handwriting Today Research Articles

Ninth graders: Problems regulating handwriting review, Wollscheid, Sjaastad and Tømte (2016) gestures. listed only a dozen scientific studies assessing By contrast, results for the ninth graders indicated the cognitive changes introduced by digital that they had problems with the online regulation devices, compared to handwriting with a pen of initial motor commands (Bard et al., 1999). and paper. Results so far argue against these new To compensate for the decrease in proprio- technologies, as handwriting with pen and paper kinaesthetic feedback caused by writing with the consistently comes out on top. This traditional plastic-tipped pen on the smoother tablet surface, method appears not only to be less cognitively they pressed down harder on their pen, amplified costly than keyboard use for children (Connelly their movement (letter size) and increased their et al., 2007), but also to facilitate letter learning pen speed. Even so, this online adaptation of and recognition among both children and adults. movement kinematics proved insufficient, and In the experiments they conducted with adults, the resulting letters were therefore less legible Longcamp et al. (2006, 2008) found that single- and pause durations slightly longer, albeit less letter recognition was faster and more efficient than for second graders. when these letters had been learned in handwriting versus typewriting sessions. In the case of learning through handwriting, brain activation What these results tell us analyses indicate that the motor areas recruited These results indicate that handwriting on the for drawing the letters are also activated during tablet surface with a plastic-tipped pen primarily . reading. The handwriting movements memorized affected pauses in the second graders and pen while learning the letters therefore contribute to movements in the ninth graders, suggesting that their subsequent recognition. This facilitation letter and its constitutive segments trajectory effect has also been demonstrated in children by calculation was disturbed in the younger Longcamp, Zerbato-Poudou, and Velay (2005), participants and control of muscular adjustment who showed that pre-schoolers who have learned was reduced in the older children. The latter result letters by drawing rather than typing them have was recently replicated in adults (whose grapho- better letter recognition performances. motor programmes are supposed to be highly automatized) by Gerth and colleagues (2016), Lastly, although technological advances suggest confirming that even for expert hand-writers, the that typing will one day supplant handwriting, use of a plastic tip on a tablet surface can affect we hold the view that the keyboard is simply a gesture control. staging post between handwriting on paper and handwriting in a digital medium. Invented more than 100 years ago with the first typewriters, and To conclude, technology is not always recycled to digitize handwriting in the IT age, there synonymous with progress in handwriting is nothing modern about the keyboard. Indeed, it This study contributes to our understanding of the has changed very little since its invention, even effects of introducing new writing technologies though typewriters are now obsolete. The order of in schools, particularly handwriting on a screen the keys (AZERTY or QWERTY), for instance, with a pen. It is disconcerting to see just how little was established not for the typist’s convenience handwriting research comparing pen and paper but to keep apart letters that frequently followed with digital tools (e.g., keyboard and computer) each other so that their levers would not jam. has been published. In their recent literature We have therefore inherited a flawed keyboard

Handwriting Today 13 Research Articles

which, moreover was designed for adult users, Louvain-la-neuve : Academia-Bruylant. not young learners. We believe that the future Chesnet, D., & Alamargot, D. (2005). Analyse en of writing lies not with a keyboard but with a temps réel des activités oculaires et grapho- motrices du scripteur: intérêt du dispositif “Eye tablet designed for handwriting probably with and Pen”. L’Année Psychologique, 105 (3), 477- a stylus, a tool dating back thousands of years. 520. It is therefore important to design software that Connelly, V., Gee, D., & Walsh, E. (2007). A comparison can automatically recognize the letters produced of keyboarded and handwritten composition and by individual users and convert them into digital the relationship with transcription speed. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77 (2), 479- characters. Rapid progress is being made in this 492. area, but we also need to improve the tablet Gerth, S., Dolk T., Klassert A., Fliesser M., Fischer surface, so that it becomes just as practical to M.H., Nottbusch G., & Festman, J. (2016). write on as a sheet of paper. It was with this in Adapting to the surface: A comparison of mind that we conducted the present pioneering handwriting measures when writing on a tablet computer and on paper. Human Movement study. Science, 48, 62-73. Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J.C., Anton, J.L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., & Velay, J.L. References (2008). Learning through Hand- or Typewriting Abbott, ., & Berninger, V. (1993). Structural equation Influences Visual Recognition of New Graphic modeling of relationships among developmental Shapes: Behavioral and Functional Imaging skills and writing skills in primary and Evidence. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

. intermediate grade writers. Journal of 20(5), 802–815. Educational Psychology, 85, 478-508. Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J.-C., & Velay, J.- Accardo, A.P., Genna, M., & Borean, M. (2013). L. (2006). Remembering the orientation of newly Development, maturation and learning influence learned characters depends on the associated on handwriting kinematics, Human Movement writing knowledge: A comparison between Science, 32, 136-146. handwriting and typing. Human Movement Alamargot, D., & Morin, M.-F. (2015). Does handwriting Science, 25 (4-5), 646-656. on a tablet screen impact students’ graphomotor Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M.-T., & Velay, J.- execution? A comparison between grades 2 and L. (2005). The influence of writing practice on 9. Human Movement Science, 44, 32-41. http:// letter recognition in preschool children: A dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2015.08.011 comparison between handwriting and typing. Alamargot, D., Chesnet, D., Dansac, C., & Ros, C. Acta Psychologica, 119 (1), 67-79. (2006). Eye and Pen: a new device for studying Pontart, V., Bidet-Ildei, C., Lambert, E., Morisset, reading during writing. Behavior Research P., Flouret, L., & Alamargot, D. (2013). Influence Methods, 38(2), 287299. of handwriting skills during spelling during Amundson, S. (1995). Evaluation tool of children’s primary and lower secondary grades. Frontiers handwriting. Homer, AK: OT Kids. in psychology, 4, pp. 1-9. DOI : 10.3389/ Bard, C., Turrell, Y., Fleury, M., & Teasdale, N. (1999). fpsyg.2013.00818. Deafferentation and pointing with visual double- Wann, J. & Nimmo-Smith, I. (1991). The control of step perturbations. Experimental Brain Research, pen pressure in handwriting: A subtle point. 125, 410-416. Human Movement Science, 10, 223-246. Caporossi, G., & Alamargot, D. (2014). L’écriture Wollscheid, S., Sjaastad, J., & Tømte, C. (2016). The manuscrite : analyse comparative et méthodes impact of digital devices vs. pen(cil) and paper d’études en temps réel. L’exemple du logiciel on primary school students’ writing skills - A Eye and Pen. In C. Leblay & G. Caporossi (Eds). research review. Computers & Education, 95, 19 Le temps de l’écriture : enregistrements 35. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.12.001 et représentations (pp.125-146). Coll. “Sciences Wollscheid, S., Sjaastad, J., Tømte, C., & Løver, N. du langage : carrefours et points de vue” (2016). The effect of pen and paper or tablet

14 Handwriting Today Research Articles

computer on early writing – A study. teachers and children from 3-7 years of age Computers & Education, 98, 70 80. during the handwriting learning process. The main objective of the IntuiScript project is to offer Handwriting Quality Analysis of Block an advanced digital writing experience at school Letters and Cursive Words by using tablet and tactile digital devices (with Damien Simonnet & Eric Anquetil finger touch and stylus pen, see Figure 1). This INSA Rennes, Avenue des Buttes de project: (1) allows children to work in autonomy Coesmes, F-35043 Rennes with online and real time feedback; (2) proposes IRISA, CNRS UMR 6074, Campus de pedagogical exercises that are adapted to the level Beaulieu, F-35042 Rennes of the children based on the automatic analysis of Email: [email protected] their handwriting; and (3) provides precise off- Abstract line analysis of children’s writing (i.e., order, IntuiScript is an innovative project developing direction, shape) to help teachers to understand a digital workbook providing feedback during children’s writing skills and difficulties. the handwriting learning process for children from three to seven years old. In this context, the paper presents a method to analyse handwriting quality that responds to the expectations of the IntuiScript educational scenario: on-line and real time feedback for children, an automatic . detection of children’s mistakes which then guide the pedagogical progression, and a precise (a) (b) analysis of children’s writing which can be saved to help the teacher to understand their skills and Figure 1. First in-class experiment of the difficulties. This paper presents the first stage of IntuiScript project (a) with tablet tactile devices, results from this project, considering the analysis and (b) example of writing the word ‘Lundi’ of block letters and cursive words. Block letters (e.g., ‘Monday’). were analysed with regards to four different ______criteria global, shape, order and direction, that For more information about the project, see: are merged on a single score called multi-criteria. http://intuiscript.com/1,2 Cursive words were analysed as letters, bigrams https://www-intuidoc.irisa.fr/en/projet- and trigrams with a global criterion. Results intuiscript/1,2 shows the multi-criteria architecture for block letters is able to precisely characterise mistakes made by children. Finally, using this program, Related Work coherent scores can be provided for letters, Writing is a fundamental skill that is necessary bigrams and trigrams of cursive words. for learning and conveying knowledge. In the literature, handwriting quality is related to legibility and kinematics (Dinehart et al., 2015). Introduction The former corresponds to letter shape and its This paper examines handwriting quality analysis associated readiness (readability). The latter as part of an innovative project, IntuiScript1,2, concentrates on the writing process (e.g. order, which is developing a digital workbook to help direction, fluidity) that must be efficient to be able

Handwriting Today 15 Research Articles

to produce fast and legible text. More precisely, In sum, approaches for medical systems (Accardo a written symbol is composed of strokes marked et al., 2013; Guinet et al., 2010; Jolly et al., 2013) by the pen stopping and being lifted from the use mainly the kinematic aspect, by opposition page (see Figure 4b). An elementary stroke is to educational systems (Falk et al., 2011; Hu et defined as a sub-stroke delimited by singularity al., 2009) that pay more attention to legibility points, and correspond to elements such as line, features and use simple kinematic features (e.g., half circle (see Figure 4c). Thus, the writing velocity and acceleration). Legibility is often process requires three central skills: a complete evaluated with low-level features related to the visual representation of each letter, a recognition letter recognition task that makes it difficult of elementary strokes in letters, and the ability to to evaluate quantitatively the correctness of a reproduce a letter as a sequence of elementary criterion (e.g., shape in Kulesh et al., 2001). strokes respecting the direction (Schickedanz, This paper presents handwriting analysers for 1999). educational systems applied to block letters and cursive words. There are two typical applications resulting from handwriting analysis: medical and education systems. In these two streams, a range of measures Our Approach has been put forward to assess handwriting A user-centred approach is taken that includes quality. For example, Guinet et al., (2010) several cycles of conception followed by

focus on the kinematic aspect (i.e., velocity, . experiments. Feedback from children and duration, fluency, pauses) to detect handwriting teachers, related to these experiments, are used pathologies. Whereas, Jolly et al., (2013) analyse to improve the next version of the education handwriting velocity to identify children with scenario. There are two pedagogical progressions developmental coordination disorder (DCD). depending on the abilities of the child: the From a developmental perspective, Accardo block (single) letters where the writing process et al., (2013) studied handwriting kinematics is known, and the cursive writing that they are of children writing on digital tablets. They learning. Designed by educational experts, and considered a number of features (e.g., number illustrated by Figure 2, the scenario for each of strokes per letter, peak velocities and pen lift progression is based on three hierarchical steps duration) and found that handwriting is related adapted to the skills and difficulties of each to four important kinematic domains: velocity, child. It is important to note that the automatic spatial arrangement, automation and motor adaptation of pedagogical exercises is only planning. Similarly, Falk et al., (2011) used five possible with online handwriting analysis, such primitives – legibility, form, alignment, size as the one presented in this paper. and space - to quantify handwriting proficiency in children. Other research considering the — Block letters: First, based on video examples production of Chinese characters has identified containing rules about shape, order and three types of errors: stroke production errors direction, children have to write each letter (i.e., stroke reversal, linking of separate strokes, of a given word. On-line feedback with a broken strokes), stroke sequence errors (i.e., colour scale indicator is given (see Figure 2 g, wrong sequencing of components) and stroke h, i, j). In the application, examples of letters relationship errors (i.e., relative length and correspond to dynamic animations that can position; Hu et al., 2009; Tan, 2002). be repeated as many times as children want.

16 Handwriting Today Research Articles

Then, if the system detects some incorrectly given, with the same approach as individual written letters, it proposes to children to letters (see Figure 2c). work on individual letters (see Figure 2b). On-line feedback allows them to measure — Cursive writing: Children work first on an autonomously their progress. Finally, if the individual letter (see Figure 2d). Then, if system detects that the handwriting is still the written production is correct, they work incorrect, an exercise with letter primitives on bigrams and trigrams (see Figure 2e and (e.g. horizontal/vertical/slant line, loop) is 2f).

(a) Word (b) Letter (c) Primitive

.

(d) Letter (e) Bigram (f) Trigram

(g) (h) (i) (j) Figure 2. Hierarchical methodology that enables children to be autonomous. For block letters, the analysis is first done on letters of a word (a), then on single letters (b) and primitives (c), if required. For the cursive letter, the analysis is first done on a letter (d), then on bigrams (e) and trigrams (f). Feedback is given with a colour scale indicator drawn under each gesture with the following colouring code: very good (green with a dark star) (g), good (green) (h), average (orange) (i) and incorrect (red) (j).

Similar to other assessment tools (Falk et al., with the analysed model (i.e., U). In contrast, the 2011; Kulesh et al., 2001; Li-Tsang et al., 2013), inter-class scores evaluates the confusion with the proposed approach evaluates the quality other classes (i.e., how a sample U is different of a handwritten movement with regards to a from another model, e.g. V). These two aspects reference model using intra-class and inter-class are fundamental for online handwriting analysis, scores (see Figure 3). For example, the intra-class which is different from score evaluates the similarity of a given sample U tools that use only the inter-class scores.

Handwriting Today 17 Research Articles

based on four criteria: global, shape, order and direction. Order and direction criteria are correct if the order and direction of elementary strokes (see Figure 4c) are correct. Order is determined by identifying the order of median strokes (see Figure 4d) in a gesture. Direction uses features based on local changes of directions. Finally, Figure 3. An Analysis of an example U. The the multi-criteria classifier combines the results analysis approach is based on two complementary of global, shape, order and direction classifiers aspects: intra-class (i.e. the similarity of the to give an overall result relating to all of these example with the analysed model: U) and inter- aspects combined. class (i.e. the difference with other models indicating by a confusion degree of other classes, e.g. V) scores.

Features and Classifiers designed to recognise Handwriting Patterns (a) (b) Delaye and colleagues (2013) use HBF49, which

is a generic set of features designed for gesture . recognition. It is composed of dynamic features that depends on the writing process (e.g., starting and ending positions, proportion of down-strokes trajectory, angle of the initial vector, inflexions), and visual features that focus on the appearance (c) (d) of the writing results (e.g., 2D histogram of point). This set of features captures multiple Figure 4. The original gesture from a digital criteria: shape, order, direction and global. device (a), and its decomposition in strokes A classifier is acquired with an incremental (delimited by pen up) (b) and elementary strokes supervised algorithm (Almaksour & Anquetil, (c) with the drawing direction and order. Median 2011; Almaksour & Anquetil, 2013) that allows strokes are represented by thicker lines in (d). the computation of intra-class and inter-class scores. In the rest of the paper, the analysis score refers to the fusion of these scores. These Analysis of Cursive Writing algorithms are incremental algorithms to let The analysis of cursive writing concentrates on teachers expand models with their own drawing the development of an analyser providing a global but, for now, this aspect is outside the scope of feedback to children because errors such as order this paper. and direction are less common with this type of writing. First, based on descending areas and singularity points (see Figure 5b), letter segments Multi-Criteria Analysis of Block Letter (see Figure 5c) are extracted, as in Anquetil et al Writing (1997). Then, the global approach used for block The handwriting analysis of block letters is letters is improved by adding features related to

18 Handwriting Today Research Articles

descending areas which are stable parts in the speed, and to stay concentrated during the whole cursive writing process. session of 20 minutes, which is often difficult for young children. Some of them were so involved that they did not want to stop.

(a) (b) O S D

(c) SO D Figure 5. The original gesture (a) and the extraction of descending areas (lines in orange) and singularity points (cross) (b) that are used to extract the segmentation (c). .

S D S,D Experimentation and Results We now present results after the first experimental (a) Models (b) Analysis Results trial3,4, of the block letters scenario conducted in four preschools with 171 children. During a two Figure 6. Qualitative results with the multi- hour session, with workshops lasting 20 minutes criteria scores. (a) shows the model and (b) the each, groups of 7-8 children were writing block analysis results and where strokes are coloured letters that formed words that would spell the from the first to the third with red, blue and green days of the week. They received automatic (the begin and end of each stroke is represented feedback from the colour scale indicator (as respectively with a circle and a cross). S, D and shown in Figure 2), reflecting the correctness of O indicates respectively an error of shape, order the written letter. and direction relatively to models chosen.

Before discussing the qualitative and quantitative Figure 6 shows quantitative results with a colour results of the handwriting analysis tool, it is scale indicator decreasing with errors made by important to note feedback from children about children (i.e. shape, order and direction). In this first experimentation with tactile digital this figure, arbitrary weights have been chosen devices. In-class experiments demonstrated that for each criteria in the multi-criteria score children quickly get familiar with the application and tried to improve the evaluation score. Moreover, the personalised feedback allowed 3 https://vimeo.com/142233890 children to progress with autonomy at their own 4 https://vimeo.com/140660028

Handwriting Today 19 Research Articles

(50% global, 30% shape, 15% order and 15% improvements compared to the global classifier direction) but teachers can customise the weight for block letters. The independent analysis of of each criterion to give the best feedback to each criteria is only given to teachers to help children depending on their abilities and the them during the intervention to identify the type teachers’ pedagogical target for this exercise. For of errors produced by children. Finally, feedback instance, teachers can choose to work mainly of children and teachers about the use of tactile on the shape for the legibility, or to emphasise digital devices in school has been very positive. order and direction which are important skills in preparation for cursive writing. The next steps in IntuiScript project will be the analysis of fluidity, which is a fundamental criterion to characterise cursive writing and the introduction of an authoring mode. More specifically, this mode will allow teachers to define their own models by firstly asking the teacher to draw letter samples and secondly (a) di by consolidating with child samples collected during the remediation to adjust the model to the teacher expectations.

. Acknowledgements This work takes place in the context of a three- (b) lun year research project founded by the French government as part of innovative projects Figure 7. Qualitative results on the cursive (BPI): IntuiScript (http://intuiscript.com/). The writing. authors are grateful to their industrial partners (Script&Go, Microsoft), educational experts, Experiments related to the cursive analysis Brittany region and LOUSTIC laboratory for are still done with ‘days of the week’ words. their collaboration. Qualitative results illustrated by Figure 7 show the classifier decreases the confidence score with the deformation of the cursive sequence. References Almaksour, A., & Anquetil, E. (2011). Improving premise structure in evolving takagi-sugeno neuro-fuzzy classifiers.Evolving Systems, 2, Conclusion 25–33. This paper has presented a multi-criteria analysis Almaksour, A., & Anquetil, E. (2013). Ilclass: Error- of block letters and a global analysis of words driven antecedent learning for evolving takagi- applied in the context of the innovative project sugeno classification systems.Applied Soft IntuiScript, which focuses on the development Computing, 19, 419–429. Accardo, A. P., Genna, M., & Borean, M. (2013). of a digital workbook to help teachers and Development, maturation and learning influence children during the handwriting learning process. on handwriting kinematics. Human movement Results on a dataset collected in four preschools science, 32, 136-146. with 171 children have shown significant Bouillon, M., & Anquetil, E. (2015). Handwriting

20 Handwriting Today Research Articles

analysis with online fuzzy models. In Conference Jolly C. & Gentaz. E. (2013). Analysis of cursive letters, of the International Graphonomics Society, 71- syllables, and words handwriting in a french 74. second-grade child with developmental Delaye, A., & Anquetil, E. (2013). Hbf49 feature set: coordination disorder and comparison with A first unified baseline for online symbol typically developing children. Frontiers in recognition. Pattern Recognition, 46, 117-130. psychology, 4, 1-10, Dinehart, L. H. (2015). Handwriting in early childhood Kulesh, V., Schaffer, K., Sethi, I. & Schwartz, M. education: Current research and future (2001). Handwriting quality evaluation. implications. Journal of Early Childhood In International Conference on Advances in Literacy, 15, 97-118. Pattern Recognition, 157-165. Falk, Tam, Schellnus, & Chau. (2011). On the Li-Tsang, C. W. P., Wong, A. S. K., Leung, H. W. H., development of a computer-based handwriting Cheng, J. S., Chiu, B. H. W., Linda, F. L., assessment tool to objectively quantify & Chung, R. C. K. (2013). Validation of handwriting proficiency in children.Computer the Chinese handwriting analysis system (chas) Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 103, for primary school students in Hong Kong. 102-111. Research in developmental disabilities, 34, 2872- Guinet & Kandel. S. (2010). Ductus: A software package 2883. for the study of handwriting production. Schickedanz, J. A. (1999). Much More than the ABCs: Behavior Research Methods, 42, 326-332. The Early Stages of Reading and Writing. ERIC. Hu, Z-H., Xu, Y., Huang, L-S., & Leung, H. (2009) A Tan, C. K. (2002). An algorithm for on-line strokes Chinese handwriting education system with verification of Chinese characters using discrete automatic error detection. Journal of Software, 4, features. In International Workshop on Frontiers 101-107. in Handwriting Recognition.

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22 Handwriting Today Research Research Digest Digest Compiled by Emma Sumner, with contributions from Lynsey O’Rourke and Olivia Afonso

It is, once more, encouraging to see a motor skills enhance handwriting skills and, high number of research papers related to finally, they determined the effectiveness of handwriting published in 2015. Each year there specific methods used to teach handwriting. To seems to be new handwriting research, spanning be included in the analysis, published studies a range of interesting topics. Here we present had to (1) involve participants in the specified short summaries of ten studies published last age range (K-12), (2) contain an intervention year, with a further four papers listed at the end and control group, (3) employ a true- or quasi- for those that may be interested. The selected experiment to test the intervention, (4) measure topics consider handwriting interventions and legibility and/or fluency, (5) be written in the effect of handwriting on other aspects of English, and (6) contain relevant statistics to development, such as language and wider written compute effect size results. Moreover, studies compositional skills. The second half of the that were conducted within schools exclusively reviews identify handwriting profiles in various for students with disabilities were excluded. developmental disorders (Developmental As is typical for a meta-analysis, effect sizes Coordination Disorder, Dyslexia, and Autism were calculated to demonstrate the size of the Spectrum Disorder). difference between two groups (i.e., intervention vs. control). The various computations for this Santangelo, T., & Graham, S. (2015). are listed in the full paper. Of note, out of a A comprehensive meta-analysis of possible 459 handwriting instruction studies, handwriting instruction. Educational . only 80 experiments met the inclusion criteria. Psychology Review, 1-41. Handwriting is a foundational skill from which In the 80 studies, handwriting instruction ranged written composition can develop. In particular, from relatively short and focused sessions (e.g., it is important for children to produce legible copying letters) to longer and more thorough and fluent handwriting, but for young writers the programs (e.g., multi-component instruction development of these skills often need supporting across several months). The control condition through direct instruction. Intervention studies was either no instruction at all, or instruction have been published but, in this comprehensive that was not directly related to handwriting (e.g., review of the literature, Santangelo and Graham phonological awareness training). Following successfully employ a meta-analysis approach handwriting instruction, positive effects on to bring together the findings of a range of improving legibility were found for 85% of the studies that have examined the effectiveness of studies. Further, students who received 10 or different methods of teaching handwriting. more hours of instruction made greater gains in this respect. Positive gains were also found for A literature review of studies focused on fluency in 87% of the handwriting interventions. handwriting instruction between kindergarten Here, older students appeared to make greater and 12th grade (K-12; ages 5-18) was fluency improvements as a result of handwriting conducted. The purpose of the meta-analysis instruction, compared to younger children. was to determine whether teaching handwriting enhances legibility and fluency (i.e., how Only 7 out of the 80 studies considered whether quickly children write), and subsequently results handwriting instruction improved children’s in better writing performance. The authors also written compositional skills (i.e., writing quality, considered whether efforts to improve students’ length). Indeed, handwriting-instructed students

Handwriting Today 23 ResearchDigest

made greater gains than peers who did not receive The aim of this study was to investigate instruction in the quality of their writing and how language, handwriting and fine-motor how much they wrote. Research often suggests performance evolve in the first years of primary that training handwriting to become automatic school, and the relationship between these will free up working memory resources to skills. Using a longitudinal approach, Dutch devote to higher-order compositional aspects of children were assessed in Grades 1, 2 and 3 writing (i.e., planning, reviewing the text), and (UK equivalents, Year 2-4). Language skills the findings here provide some support for this. were determined by reading and spelling performance on national, school-based tests. A The notion of teaching motor skills (i.e., manual learning output percentage was provided by the dexterity development) as a way to improve school, in which raw performance is considered handwriting was not found to be supported, relatively to the performance of the norm group demonstrating weak effects when compared (children of the same age). Handwriting was to specific, targeted handwriting training. assessed by means of the Concise Assessment However, individualised handwriting instruction Scale for Children’s Handwriting (BHK), a and teaching via technology has demonstrated standardised copying task which provides significant improvements in legibility for handwriting speed and legibility scores. Finally, both children with and without handwriting to assess fine-motor ability, a loop-writing task difficulties. In particular, using self-evaluation was administered. In this task, children were

as part of handwriting instruction was beneficial . asked to draw loops of different height (12, 9, for legibility, as well as copying individual 6 and 3 mm) at three different paces (by means letters from models and memory. of an acoustic signal of either 1, 2 or 3 Hz), to assess the effects of time constraints. The overall findings from the meta-analysis strongly suggest that explicitly teaching Results revealed that handwriting performance handwriting not only improves students’ increased over the three years. Language legibility and fluency, but also results in better abilities increasingly met the requirements quality writing. Additionally, the research of the grade, and errors and variability in the evidence suggests that focused intervention is loop-writing task decreased. Between Grades 1 most beneficial, as opposed to general motor and 2, all language and motor scores improved, skill training. Future intervention studies would with measures of handwriting speed showing benefit from considering the wider impact of the largest increment. Between Grades 2 and 3, transcription skills (i.e., handwriting) on the a large effect was found for handwriting speed, writing process (composition) and writing but no improvement was observed for the other development. variables. Significant positive correlations between reading and spelling scores were Bosga-Stork, I. M., Bosga, J., Ellis, J. found for all grades. Reading, spelling ability, L., & Meulenbroek, R. G. J. (2015). and variability in loop writing significantly Developing interactions between language correlated with handwriting speed only in and motor skills in the first three years Grade 1; meaning the better children were at of formal handwriting education. British reading, spelling and producing loops, the faster Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural their handwriting speed. Only spelling ability Science, 12, 1-13. was related to handwriting speed in Grade 2.

24 Handwriting Today Research Digest

However, no correlations between the language the writing tasks, each word or sentence, was measures and handwriting speed measure were presented aurally; whereas, for the reading found by Grade 3 (UK, Year 4). Finally, slow task, the sentence was presented on a piece hand-writers that were identified in Grade 1 of paper. It was expected that eye movement remained slow in Grades 2 and 3; yet, although patterns would differ between tasks; however, these slow writers demonstrate lower reading no specific differences were hypothesised. and spelling performance in Grades 1 and 2, they were able to reach a similar level in the Measures taken included: number of fixations language measures to faster writers by Grade 3. (the number of times a participant fixed their gaze during a task), duration of fixations, mean The results demonstrate that handwriting speed fixations over time (fixations per second), and consistently progresses during the first three total dwell time (sum of fixations). In addition, years of primary school in the Netherlands, but handwriting movements were recorded and language learning and fine-motor ability (e.g., analysed for: the number of strokes, the loop writing) show a less consistent pattern. horizontal space that a word occupied, total The fact that handwriting speed is correlated distance travelled by the pen, and average with reading and spelling in Grades 1 and 2 absolute velocity (the average speed at which but not in Grade 3 indicates that handwriting each stroke is produced). becomes an autonomous skill as children mature. Furthermore, the findings reveal that . Different gaze patterns were found depending slow writers in Grade 1 remain slow in Grades on whether the participant wrote or read the 2 and 3, even though they are eventually able presented words. Participants made more to catch up in language skill. The authors stress fixations when writing a word (mean = 8.55) the need for teachers and therapists to monitor than when reading a word (mean = 2.30). handwriting speed alongside literacy abilities Furthermore, participants made longer fixations and broader motor skill, as well as recognising when writing a word and subsequently showed that timings of assessment may influence the a longer dwell time for writing (3.38 seconds) outcomes to some degree. than reading (0.52 seconds) the target words. Participants also made more fixations per Sita, J. C., & Taylor, K. A. (2015). Eye second when writing (2.57) than when reading movements during the handwriting of (1.62), suggesting the additional time spent words: individually and within sentences. fixating when writing as opposed to reading Human Movement Science, 43, 229-238. was not only due to more time spent on task. Gaze behaviour during the handwriting The authors interpret these extra fixations as process is rarely considered. In this study, related to the production needs of writing and, the eye movements of 13 adults (aged 18-40) therefore, not indicative of the participant only were monitored and compared during writing reading what has been written. and reading tasks. Participants faced three conditions: they wrote a word in isolation, wrote Further, participants made more fixations and the word in a sentence, and read a sentence had a longer overall dwell time when writing aloud with the word in it. The stimuli comprised words alone than when writing the word within 6 words, which were used in each condition a sentence. However, there was no difference and were presented in a randomised order. For in durations of fixations. Distance travelled by

Handwriting Today 25 ResearchDigest

the pen positively correlated with the number part in this study. Children were randomly of fixations. Similarly, the more horizontal split into two groups (intervention vs. control) space a word occupied, the more fixations and underwent pre- and post-test assessments occurred during the writing of that word. These (e.g., VMI and the Test of Handwriting Skills- correlations were stronger when words were Revised [THS-R]). The intervention group was written as part of a sentence than when written administered the Size Matters Handwriting alone. Authors consider that this may be because Program (SMHP) which consisted of forty writing a sentence is a more natural writing task 20-minute sessions over an 8-week period. and causes the relationship between fixations The control group participated in their usual and handwriting to be stronger. Finally, a larger handwriting instruction in the classroom. font and faster production times were noted for For the VMI, children had to copy geometric individual words than for words in a sentence. forms; and for the THS-R, children completed Authors suggest that the size of handwriting the manuscript writing booklet, which required influences the rate at which fixations occur writing lower and uppercase letters. To assess and that fixations relate to spatial factors of handwriting the Minnesota Handwriting handwriting. Overall, this study supports the Assessment (MHA) was used, which considers notion that eye movements during writing are rate, legibility, form, alignment, size, and related to the act of text production, and not spacing. only to reading the text produced.

. Results revealed no changes in the VMI scores Pfeiffer, B., Moskowitz, B., Paoletti, A., between pre- and post- test. This means that Brusilovskiy, E., Zylstra, S. E., & Murray, despite those children receiving specific T. (2015). Developmental test of visual- handwriting (and thus motor) intervention their motor integration (VMI): An effective visual-motor integration scores as measured by outcome measure for handwriting the VMI did not appear to improve. In contrast, interventions for kindergarten, first- over-time improvements were seen on the grade, and second-grade students? The THS-R and MHA for both groups, and more so American Journal of Occupational Therapy, in the intervention group. Finally, the correlation 69, 1-7. between VMI and handwriting measures while The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test significant, were small to moderate. of Visual-Motor Integration (VMI) is an assessment tool often used in occupational The reported findings do not support the use of therapy services to examine an individual’s the VMI as an outcome measure for assessing ability to integrate both visual and motor skills. change in handwriting following intervention. Some also use the VMI as an outcome measure The VMI was not considered to be sensitive after handwriting interventions. However, the enough to measure change. The findings authors of this paper question whether there highlight that although both the VMI and a is enough solid evidence to warrant using the handwriting task require integration of motor VMI in the latter context. The purpose of this and visual skills, the VMI must be a different study was to investigate the effectiveness of the construct from handwriting or, like the other VMI as an outcome measure. handwriting measures in the study, changes should have been observed. Notably, if only the A sample of 207 children, aged 5-8 years, took VMI had been used, then the conclusion would

26 Handwriting Today Research Digest

have wrongfully been that the handwriting Prior to and following the intervention, children program was not beneficial. Care should be were asked to: (1) write their own name, (2) taken if using the VMI to inform decisions copy the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and about students’ performance and access to (3) copy one three-word sentence. From these services, and measuring change/improvement. handwriting samples, handwriting readiness Pfeiffer and colleagues reinforce that the VMI was assessed using the Hebrew Handwriting was never intended to assess handwriting Readiness Assessment (HHRA). The measures ability, nor screen for handwriting difficulties, of the HHRA were grouped into: quality of and argue for the need to incorporate additional letters (quality of lines used to form the letter, handwriting measures when monitoring the line intensity, directionality of letter formation effectiveness of interventions. and the quality of the finished letter), orientation in space (spatial orientation of letter parts within Lifshitz, N., & Har-Zvi, S. (2015). A letters, letter placement on the lines, spacing comparison between students who between letters, and spacing between words), receive and who do not receive a writing and quality of writing of one's own name readiness interventions on handwriting (using the features mentioned previously). quality, speed and positive reactions. Additional measures included handwriting Early Childhood Education, 43, 47-55. speed (measured in seconds), whether a child This study investigated two writing started writing immediately or after a delay, interventions and their effect on handwriting . whether they appeared relaxed during the task, in Israeli kindergarten children (mean age, 5 and whether they expressed self-confidence or years). The authors compared the 'traffic light' not. writing program and the 'word and sound' program. Children were assigned to one of the After 12 weeks, children's name-writing intervention programmes, both of which took improved for both groups: this improvement did part across twelve (weekly), 20-minute sessions not differ between groups. On most measures in groups of five. of handwriting readiness, the children in the traffic light intervention group improved more Fifty-five children took part in the traffic light than those in the control group. Letter and word intervention. In this intervention, three coloured spacing, however, was improved equally across dots are used to guide letter formation: a green both groups. Although behavioural measures dot at the start point of a letter, a yellow dot suggest that both groups enjoyed writing for the middle and a red dot at the end. Each more after the interventions than before, lesson focused on groups of letters with similar the handwriting readiness group showed a structures; for example, letters with straight significantly larger increase in positive reactions lines were grouped together. Given the nature of than the control group. There was no difference this intervention, it was anticipated to relate to in handwriting speed between groups. In sum, gains in handwriting performance. As a control it was found that 12 weekly session of the condition, the word and sound program was traffic light handwriting intervention program administered to 46 children. This is a method increased handwriting readiness, as determined of teaching phonological awareness. Children by several of the measures from the HHRA, learnt to identify beginning and end sounds of significantly more so than a phonological words and to segment words phonetically. awareness program. The results suggest that

Handwriting Today 27 ResearchDigest

specific letter formation practice leads to better and were practised together with the previously overall performance in handwriting readiness. taught letters. The practice began with non- words and moved on to copying words. The Weigelt Marom, H., and Weintraub, units were taught in 14 sessions of 45 minutes N. (2015). The effect of touch-typing by college teachers or senior occupational program on keyboarding skills of therapy students, and the researchers checked higher education students with and the fidelity of the instruction. without learning disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 47, 208-217. Results revealed that the group with LD Although students with reading and/or had a slower keyboarding speed than their writing difficulties often use the computer peers without LD in the pre-test. Moreover, to circumvent their difficulties, the fact that keyboarding speed decreased in the post-test many of them are not skilled typewriters may in the non-LD group and increased in the LD hinder their academic achievement. This study group, but this effect did not reach statistical tested the effect of a touch-typing instructional significance. The authors postulated that this programme on keyboarding skills in higher may be due to the fact that participants were education students with and without learning forced to change their habitual patterns of disabilities (LD). The aims of the study were to keyboarding at this stage, slowing-down determine whether the program would increase their production. However, in the long-term

keyboarding speed, maintaining similar levels . assessment, keyboarding speed increased of accuracy, and to assess the long-term effect for both groups. Interestingly, the LD group of the program on the keyboarding skills. showed a similar performance in the long-term measurement as the non-LD group in the pre- Forty-four Hebrew-speaking students (24 with test. It seems that all participants benefited from LD and 20 without LD) participated in all phases the instructional programme. These findings of the study, which included an assessment of support the effectiveness of this instructional reading and writing abilities to determine group programme, particularly for individuals with membership (with or without disabilities) and LD. an evaluation of keyboarding skills before the Huau, A., Velay, J.-L., and Jover, M. training (pre-test), immediately after the end of (2015). Graphomotor skills in children the training (post-test) and 3 months after the with developmental coordination disorder termination of the instruction (long-term test). (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new Keyboarding skill was evaluated by recording letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318- keyboarding speed and accuracy in a copying 332. task. The level of keyboarding ability was recorded using a 5-point scale, ranging from Children with Developmental Coordination typing with one hand and using frequent visual Disorder (DCD) frequently present with feedback (1) to using both hands while relying handwriting difficulties, often reflected by poor on kinaesthetic feedback (5). legibility, greater dysfluency and more pausing time. Several hypotheses have been proposed The instructional software, called “Easy to explain these difficulties, including the Fingers”, consisted of 18 training units in existence of a problem with muscle stiffness, which two letters were introduced in each unit difficulties in organising the motor output, or

28 Handwriting Today Research Digest

less effective motor learning ability. This last the fast condition. Significant differences were hypothesis is assessed in the present study. observed on the BHK test, with lower quality scores recorded for children with DCD. Children aged 8-11 years with and without DCD performed several handwriting tasks In sum, children with and without DCD varying in length (letters, words, and sentences) differed in their grapho-motor execution when and speed (normal, fast). They also performed a constraints were added to the task. Children new letter (a meaningless symbol) learning task with DCD were more affected by speed and on a digitising tablet. The Concise Assessment length constraints, and also showed more Scale for Children’s Handwriting (abbreviated variability in their handwriting performance. to BHK), a standardised test in which children Increased variability is often associated to are asked to copy a text, was administrated to poorly automatised movement. Thus, the evaluate the quality of the handwritten product. authors claim that this evidence could support As children wrote on the surface of a digital the existence of a deficit in motor learning tablet that recorded the xy coordinates of the in children with DCD. However, they do pen, additional measures of trajectory length, acknowledge the possibility that this pattern mean trajectory velocity, number of stops and may be a consequence of neuro-motor noise, pen pressure were also taken. A coefficient of which would disturb handwriting execution. variation (CV) was calculated as a measure of More research is necessary in this area, in the intra-individual variability (i.e., within-person . hope of being able to provide suggestions to performance) across trials. The quality of the move forward handwriting interventions for new letter was evaluated by means of visual this population. inspection. Rosenblum, S., Simhon, H. A. B., & Gal, E. (2015). Unique handwriting Results showed that children with DCD produced performance characteristics of children poorer quality new letters than children without with high functioning autism spectrum DCD and that the intra-individual variability disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum for quality and velocity was higher in the DCD Disorders, 23, 235-244. group. This means that children with DCD were less consistent with regards to velocity profiles Handwriting difficulties have previously been and quality of the output. The difference between reported in children with an autism spectrum groups was larger when the model of the new disorder. However, little is known about the letter was not present. In the handwriting tasks, handwriting profile of children with high- the two groups differed in trajectory length, functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD; with longer trajectories in the DCD group. They i.e., those with high IQ). This study aimed also exhibited greater variability for trajectory to characterise handwriting performance of than the control group. The difference between children with HFASD by considering both groups in trajectory length and pen pressure product (e.g., legibility) and process (e.g., increased with the length of the handwriting kinematic) measures. task. Children with DCD were slower than children without DCD in the normal condition, Thirty children with HFASD were compared but faster in the fast condition. Larger group to 30 typically-developing (TD) children: differences were observed for pen pressure in both groups aged 9-12 years. All children

Handwriting Today 29 ResearchDigest

were recruited in Israel and thus wrote using a measures best predicted group membership. Hebrew script. A digital writing tablet was used This revealed that handwriting speed, mean pen to record and analyse handwriting. Children stroke height, and spatial arrangement were the wrote with an ink pen on to a piece of paper over best measures to differentiate between the two the surface of the tablet. They were instructed groups, with poorer performance evident in the to write their name, to copy a paragraph, and children with HFASD. to write a story based on a picture that was shown in front of them. Handwriting was Together these findings highlight that children analysed based on: pen tilt (the angle between with HFASD write with a smaller range of pen the pen and surface), on-paper stroke duration, motions, but produce bigger letters that require in-air stroke duration (when the pen is raised more time to produce them. Larger letters above the paper), stroke width, stroke height, indicate a less mature ability and the finding of and pen pressure. As well as these process longer stroke durations and more time on-paper measures, the Hebrew Handwriting Evaluation suggests that children with HFASD invest a large (HHE) was used to rate global legibility, the amount of energy into the mechanical aspect of number of letters erased and/or overwritten, writing production. Rosenblum and colleagues unrecognisable letters, and spatial arrangement. suggest that the difficulties experienced by the The HHE was only implemented to evaluate HFASD group may be due to impaired fine the paragraph copying task. Number of letters motor abilities. Future research is required

and words written in the set time were also . to understand whether the pen tilt reflect fine recorded. motor deficits. It is, however, important to note that the HFASD group presented with high Significant differences were found between variability on the handwriting measures, which the two groups (HFASD vs TD) on all process means heterogeneous performance and that measures. Across all three writing tasks (name consideration of individual children may be a writing, copying, story writing), children with better way to profile handwriting difficulties. HFASD were found to spend more time on- Pagliarini, E., Guasti, M. T., Toneatto, paper, had significantly higher and wider letter C., Granocchio, E., Riva, F., Sarti, D., strokes and their pen tilt range was significantly Molteni, B., and Stucchi, N. (2015). lower. Dyslexic children fail to comply with the rhythmic constraints of handwriting. Assessment of legibility also revealed Human Movement Science, 42, 161-182. significant group differences. The written text of children with HFASD was deemed less legible The study addressed whether deficits in motor and had poorer spatial arrangement than their ability, such as handwriting, are present in peers, although the two groups produced an developmental dyslexia, and whether these equivalent number of unrecognizable letters and deficits may be due to a problem in the temporal corrections. Children with HFASD also wrote binding of events. To this end, the authors significantly fewer letters in the first minute of tested two principles of rhythmic organisation: the copying task but, interestingly, there were isochrony and homothety. Isochrony refers to no differences in the number of words written the proportional relationship between the speed in the free-style writing task. Further statistical of a movement and the length of its trajectory analyses were conducted to determine which in order to keep the duration of the movement

30 Handwriting Today Research Digest

constant. In handwriting this means, for and DD_DY groups. Interestingly, although the example, that if we have to write bigger than duration of individual letters was similar for TD usual we will increase our writing speed so the children in the three conditions, DD and DD_ approximate letter duration remains similar to DY children produced longer durations in the the duration in the usual size. Homothety refers Big than in the Spontaneous condition. Writing to the invariance in the relative duration of the speed was found to be related to reading speed components of a movement. This means that and receptive vocabulary, reflecting that faster if the same word is written at different speed writer were those children with better reading rates, the relative duration of each letter will be and vocabulary skills. kept roughly the same. The results confirm the presence of difficulties Children with developmental dyslexia (DD) in handwriting in developmental dyslexia, without any signs of dysgraphia, were compared even in the absence of dysgraphia. Namely, to children with developmental dyslexia it seems that children with developmental and dysgraphia (DD_DY) and also typically dyslexia may have problems to comply with developing children (TD). All children were the rhythmic principles of isochrony and between 8-11 years old and their first language homothety, demonstrated by slow speed when was Italian. They performed a task of reading the task demands are manipulated. Correlation words and non-words, a non-words repetition analyses suggest that these problems with task, a receptive vocabulary test and a writing . rhythmic timing may underlie both reading task. In the writing task, participants were and handwriting difficulties in developmental required to write on a digitizing tablet the dyslexia. Italian word burle (‘jokes’) in different scripts Afonso, O., Suárez-Coalla, P., & Cuetos, (cursive and block script in capitals), and in five F. (2015). Spelling impairments in Spanish different conditions: Spontaneous, Big, Small, dyslexic adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. Fast and Slow. A scribbling task was also doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.0046 administrated to test motor abilities without a linguistic component. Spelling difficulties are a frequent complaint among adult writers with dyslexia. However, To be expected, TD children read faster and there is little research into the nature of the more accurately than children with DD and DD_ spelling deficits seen in this population. Some DY, and obtained higher scores in the non-word authors attribute spelling difficulties in adults repetition and receptive vocabulary tests. The with dyslexia to poor phonological awareness. writing task results revealed that all three groups Others have suggested that errors are due to exhibited a similar average speed when writing poor orthographic-lexical representations. If spontaneously, but that both groups with DD spelling difficulties are due to poor phonological wrote more slowly and more dysfluently than awareness, then the spelling of non-words the TD group in the Big and Fast conditions. In (novel words with consistent phonological- the analysis of the duration of individual letters, orthographical mapping) would be impaired. significant differences were observed between If the orthographical representations are TD children and both groups of DD children only impaired, then errors would appear in non- in the Big condition. However, no difference predictable spellings (words with inconsistent was observed in this variable between the DD phonological-orthographical mappings).

Handwriting Today 31 ResearchDigest

Further, analysis of spelling production while participants without dyslexia, supporting claims handwriting can reveal insights into how that spelling difficulties persist into adulthood individuals process words and the relationship for writers with dyslexia. Consistency affected between transcription skills (i.e., handwriting both groups equally. Accuracy was poorer, and and spelling). latencies and inter-letter-intervals were longer, for inconsistent words than consistent words. Participants in this study were native Spanish The authors felt that these results do not support speakers. Twenty adults with dyslexia were differences in phonological-orthographical matched by age and gender to 20 adults without mapping between groups. Interestingly, the dyslexia (8 males; 12 females). Participants group with dyslexia showed longer latencies for took part in two tasks: a spelling to dictation the copy task than the spelling to dictation task, task and a direct copy transcoding task. In the while the control group showed the opposite spelling to dictation task, participants were pattern. Therefore, the authors suggest that, for presented auditory stimuli and were asked to participants with dyslexia, it is the access to the write down the word that was presented. In the orthographic representation that is impaired. direct copy task, participants were presented In support of this, the dyslexic group showed with visual stimuli (words in lower case) larger latency effects of word frequency and and were asked to copy the word. For both word length than the control group, suggesting tasks, participants were instructed to write in deficits in the orthographic lexicon and the

uppercase script (i.e., capital letters) as fast and . graphemic buffer in dyslexia. accurately as possible. They wrote on paper which was placed on top of a digitizing tablet These findings suggest that writers with that recorded their writing. The stimuli for both dyslexia struggle to store or recall spellings tasks consisted of 32 Spanish common nouns, when handwriting. Difficulties with spelling which varied in phonological-orthographical appeared to influence the production of consistency (consistent vs. inconsistent), word handwriting, evidenced by adults with dyslexia frequency (high vs. low) and word length pausing for longer before starting to write a (short vs. long). Accuracy, latency (the time difficult word. between the presentation of the stimulus and the occurrence of the first contact of the pen with the digitizer), inter-letter intervals (the Further readings time between the last pen lift in production of Alstad, Z., Sanders, E., Abbott, R. D., Barnett, A. L., a letter and the first pen down in production of Henderson, S. E., Connelly, V., & Berninger, the next letter), and duration (the time from the V. W. (2015). Modes of alphabet letter first pen down and the last pen lift per word) of production during middle childhood and adolescence: interrelationships with each each response was measured. other and other writing skills. Journal of Writing Research, 6, 199-231. Generally, accuracy was poorer for participants Brossard-Racine, M., Shevell, M., Snider, L., with dyslexia than the control group. Belanger, S. A., Julien, M., & Majnemer, A. Participants with dyslexia showed difficulty (2015). Persistent handwriting difficulties in producing words whether stimuli were children with ADHD after treatment with presented visually or aurally. They showed stimulant medication. Journal of Attention longer latencies and inter-letter intervals than Disorders, 19, 620-629.

32 Handwriting Today Research Digest

Jongbloed-Pereboom, M., Peeters, A., Overvelde, A., Scordella, A., Di Sano, S., Aurelli, T., Cerratti, Nijhuis-van der Sanden, M. W. G., & P., Veratti, V., Fano-Illic, G., & Pietrangelo, Steenbergen, B. (2015). Learning of writing T. (2015). The role of general dynamic letter-like sequences in children with physical coordination in the handwriting skills of and multiple disabilities. Research in children. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 580, Developmental Disabilities, 36, 150-161. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00580

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Handwriting Today 33 .

34 Handwriting Today Current Current Issues Issues Compiled by Angela Webb

We need to talk about ‘dysgraphia’ difficulties are widely acknowledged, there is a The NHA is often asked about the use of the reluctance to use the term ‘dysgraphia’ in the UK term ‘dysgraphia’ as a diagnosis for children as we do not have a consensus on what it actually with poor handwriting and this is now becoming means and not all those who use the term share a quite a contentious issue. The term appears with common understanding. increasing frequency in the media, in journal articles and in reports from educational and Let’s unpick this issue and examine what we clinical psychologists who use it to describe the currently know. First, as suggested above, it individual strengths and weaknesses in children’s would seem logical to equate ‘dysgraphia’ with handwriting, but many people, professionals and other similar disorders, interpreting it as ‘a parents alike, question what exactly it means. disability of handwriting’ (dys = disturbance of + graphia = graphic skill). But when we look Two particular problems have been brought to our more closely, what does a ‘disturbance of graphic attention. In some instances parents find the term skill’ mean in terms what a child can and cannot appears in a report on their child but guidance is do? Handwriting is very complex, requiring a not given as to the nature, extent or severity of coordinated blend of motor, perceptual, linguistic the difficulty. In others, we hear of those who, and orthographic skills of the highest order. aware of their child’s difficulty with handwriting, Handwriting performance can be disturbed by seek a diagnosis to trigger the necessary support weakness in any one or in all of these areas and

or concessions but then express surprise when . no child will present exactly the same package of this is not forthcoming. Additionally, from a impairment as another. Also, graphic skill is just teaching perspective, those who work with one component of the wider skill of writing, the children with handwriting difficulties often ask essence of which is the generating and developing if and how they should be using the term. And of ideas which are translated into linguistic units in the field of research, studies into handwriting and then organized and crafted to create a piece performance increasingly differentiate their trial of text. In some domains, ‘dysgraphia’ is used to groups according to whether or not the children describe all of these processes. are ‘dysgraphic’ but not always is the way in which these children are grouped transparent. A further confusing factor we need to be aware In all these cases, a clear definition would be of is that the term 'dysgraphia' is used differently helpful. in different countries. In the Netherlands, for example, it is used to describe those who struggle In the current climate of recognized ‘dys’-orders, with the mechanics of handwriting as measured such as dyslexia, dyspraxia (Developmental on a particular standardized test (the BHK1). Coordination Disorder), dyscalculia, etc., In contrast, in the USA the term is either used a similar term relating to handwriting, i.e. synonymously with a 'handwriting difficulty' ‘dysgraphia’, would not seem out of place. It with three subgroups of dysgraphia highlighted would be particularly helpful for describing ('dyslexic', 'motor' and 'visuo-spatial') depending children who struggle to handwrite but who do on the main features displayed, or confusingly, not meet the criteria for any other developmental it is used to describe a “learning disability of disorder. In other words, the difficulty they written expression” which is an umbrella term experience with handwriting is an isolated describing the whole writing process which may problem. However, although handwriting include poor organization or planning of ideas.

Handwriting Today 35 CurrentIssues

Even within these two countries, usage is not as linguistic deficits or problems with executive consistent. function.

The position here in the UK is that we have no set This leaves us without a universal diagnostic established guidance, or a diagnostic term from term to flag up the presence and severity ofa a reliable authority on defining a handwriting handwriting difficulty, which is one reason why disability specifically. For the diagnosis of most the discussion about ‘dysgraphia’ has come to known developmental disorders of childhood, the fore. We have to ask why is there nothing out such as Attention Deficit Disorder (AD/HD), there for this specific identification and how we Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) should proceed towards establishing something? and disorders on the autistic spectrum (ASD) UK psychologists are guided by the APA’s Diagnostic One answer comes from the fact that in order for and Statistical Manual (DSM) while those in there to be a universal and consistent definition Europe favour the International Classification of of any difficulty it is important to understand Diseases (ICD). Despite the increasing general the process by which developmental disorders use of ‘dysgraphia’, the term does not appear in come to be recognized (and thus included its own right in either of the major international in the diagnostic and statistical manuals). In classification systems (DSM-52 or ICD-103) to order for a diagnosis to be given, there have describe specifically a handwriting difficulty. to be both standardised ways of measuring the

In the 2013 revision of DSM-5, ‘dysgraphia’ is . child’s performance in the specified area and entered under ‘specific learning disabilities’ and also set and agreed cut-off points to distinguish states: those who meet the criteria for the disorder “…dysgraphia is the term associated with and those who do not. At present, there is no specific learning disabilities in writing. It consensus here with regard to handwriting and is used to capture both the physical act of its measurement tools, let alone the wider quality writing and the quality of written of written expression. To take the physical act expression”. of handwriting first, difficulties may occur in any of several different aspects (e.g. speed, The above description of dysgraphia relates to legibility, fluency, automaticity, sustainability). both the mechanics of handwriting and, more We now have a standardized assessment test generally, to the ability to express oneself for measuring handwriting speed in the UK in writing, with all that that entails in terms (the DASH4) and are soon to be able to use the of language ability and the organization and newly developed Handwriting Legibility Scale5.

planning of text. This general interpretation does ______not attempt to identify the handwriting-only 1 Hamstra-Bletz, De Bie and Brinker (1993). The Concise Evaluation aspect of the difficulty and is unsatisfactory on Scale for Children’s Handwriting (BHK). two counts: First, there needs to be some way of 2 American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. American Psychiatric Publishing, identifying and evaluating the core mechanical Inc. process of producing handwritten text (which 3 World Health Organisation. (1992). International Classification of may in turn affect the quality of the content), and Diseases and Disorders (10th ed.). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organisation. second, it should be recognized that poor written 4 Barnett, A., Henderson, S. E, Scheib, B., & Schulz, C. (2007). Detailed expression may result from reasons which are Assessment of Speed of Handwriting. UK: Pearson Education. not linked to the physical production of text, such 5 Barnett, A., et al, (2015). The Handwriting Legibility Scale (in press).

36 Handwriting Today Current Issues

However, can we standardize the assessment of using seven different writing criteria (generation fluency, automaticity or sustainability? To our and development of ideas, organisation, cohesion knowledge, no test has been developed to measure and unity, sentence structure, grammar, vocabulary, these factors, yet they may be just as significant capitalization and punctuation). The test carries in interfering with the smooth production of the assumption that weakness in any or all of these handwritten text as the other measures. areas can impact negatively on the quality of written expression and as well as producing an overall grade One possible response to this question might be on the scale, the specific locus or loci of impairment to adopt the basic diagnostic criteria to be met, can be identified using these categories. Whilst this such as those of the DSM-5 entry on DCD. If test has proved useful for research, there has been we substitute the term ‘handwriting’ for ‘motor no guidance on what level of performance would coordination’ in the list below we could make a be consistent with a ‘dysgraphia’ diagnosis and it start. The following are the criteria to be met for is currently left with the individual psychologists a diagnosis of DCD to which I refer: to use their professional judgment as to whether the levels of impairment are sufficient to warrant a Criterion A: “performance in daily ‘dysgraphia’ label. activities that require motor coordination is substantially below that expected, There is one additional issue I would like to given the person’s chronological age and discuss at this point, arising from a recognition

measured intelligence”. . that handwriting is, to a great extent, a motor skill. It is often believed that all poorly coordinated Criterion B: “significantly interferes with children, such as those with DCD (dyspraxia), academic achievement or activities of have ‘dysgraphic’ or handwriting problems. daily living”. Again, this can be misleading. Despite ‘a difficulty with handwriting’ being a listed feature of DCD, Criterion C: “the poor motor coordination some children with that diagnosis are able to write observed cannot be accounted for by any well enough in certain ways or in certain contexts. medical or neurological condition”. For example, some can produce tidy and legible handwriting but at the expense of quantity. Others Criterion D: “the difficulty cannot be may be able to handwrite fast and produce a lot of explained by global delay”. text, though with poor control, affecting legibility. Some can write competently for short periods At least within this framework, the functional of time but are vulnerable to fatigue. There is impairments of poor handwriting would be no ‘typical’ handwriting profile associated with recognized. DCD. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that poor handwriting results not only from Looking next to the quality of written expression, DCD. This is particularly true if the difficulties this also needs to be standardized if the criteria of are not motoric in origin or if poor control is the DSM-5 are to be met. Currently, this aspect of based on a different problem, such as impulsivity. writing is often measured for research purposes Difficulties are frequently reported in children using the Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions ______(WOLD - Written Expression component)6 where 6 Rust, J. (1996). The Manual of the Wechsler Objective Language Dimensions (WOLD): UK edition. London: The Psychological writing can be rated holistically or in more depth Corporation.

Handwriting Today 37 CurrentIssues

who meet the criteria for other developmental Assessment can also be made about the possible disorders, such as ADHD, dyslexia, Speech and need for alternative or additional writing modes or Language Impairment (SLI) and among those on the use of extra time for exams. the autistic spectrum (ASD), not to mention those with more significant learning difficulties, such Angela Webb. Psychologist. as Cerebral Palsy or Down’s Syndrome. It is not ______7 Henderson, S. E, Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement solely a DCD characteristic. Lastly, we also need Assessment Battery for Children (2nd ed.). London, UK: The to recognize that there are a significant number of Psychological Corporation children whose handwriting difficulty occurs as an isolated problem and cannot be linked with any Updates on the Joining Debate other known impairment, as mentioned above. In last year’s NHA journal we launched a debate on the teaching of Continuous Cursive To summarise the current position, we at the handwriting. Articles from three specialists in the NHA would advocate caution over using the term teaching of handwriting offered evidence which ‘dysgraphia’. It would seem clear from the examples challenged current practice. The questions raised described above that it at present causes confusion were threefold: over meaning. It has different interpretations in 1. Is it essential to teach children to write in different settings and whether it is used for research a continuous cursive style, such as the or in a clinical context where professional judgment D’Nealian used in the USA?

plays a part. However, this is certainly not to avoid . 2. If so, should this style be taught from identifying handwriting difficulties or to under- the outset when children are first estimate the level of distress and frustration which introduced to letterforms – i.e. in problems with handwriting can cause. At the Reception (5 years of age) in the UK? NHA we recommend that handwriting difficulties 3. What would happen if children used a should continue to be recognized through targeted part- or un-joined style instead? assessment to focus on the type and severity of Below are responses from two of those authors the problem. This way the impact on the child can bringing us up to date with developments since be evaluated and appropriate intervention can be those articles were published. delivered. Where the difficulty is severe enough to significantly impede the child’s ability to access the curriculum, alternative or additional means of The Hybrid Writer transcription should be made available. We also A recent article published online by the New York recommend that the specific aspect of handwriting Times (20 June 2016) entitled ‘Why Handwriting Is which is problematic should be noted, be it accuracy, Still Essential in the Keyboard Age’ by Perri Klass legibility, speed, automaticity and/or sustainability, summarizes the above debate above very succinctly1. using the increasing number of good assessment In it she referred to current research evidence by tools available to us (such as the DASH, Movement American researcher Prof. Virginia Berninger and ABC-27 and HLS). Additionally, highlighting the her colleagues advocating that we should be teaching locus of the difficulty – be it with motor skill, with children to become “Hybrid Writers”2. By this she visual perception, with linguistic fluency, with meant that we should not be asking which mode of orthographic competence or with the organizational transcription children should be taught but that we aspects of writing – will also lead to planning the should embrace the notion that all modes are important, most effective intervention or accommodation. but at different ages. In summary, Dr. Berninger quoted

38 Handwriting Today Current Issues

research suggesting that children need introductory in 2017. In a nutshell, Y2 pupils cannot achieve the training in printing, then two years of learning and ‘working at greater depth’ level unless they are ‘using practising cursive, starting in grade three (our Year 4), the diagonal and horizontal strokes needed to join and then some systematic attention to touch-typing. letters in most of their writing’. She based her statement on evidence that learning individual letterforms for printing supports reading This is interpreted by some to mean a fully cursive development3, but that cursive handwriting is beneficial script, despite the National Curriculum for English to both spelling retention and to compositional aspects requirement for Y2 of writing4. The final stage is to teach keyboarding start using some of the diagonal and skills with the suggestion that learning to touch-type, horizontal strokes needed to join letters with the advantages to composing of becoming fast and understand which letters, when adjacent and automatic typers. Becoming proficient in all to one another, are best left unjoined three modes of writing enables the young adult to use whichever mode best serves the purpose of the task. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ uploads/attachment_data/file/335186/PRIMARY_ Angela Webb national_curriculum_-_English_220714.pdf ______

1 http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/06/20/why-handwriting-is-still-essential-in-the- keyboard-age/?contentCollection=smarter-living&hp&action=click&pgtype=Hom In many schools, ‘getting children to join early’ is epage&clickSource=story-heading&module=second-column-region®ion=top- seen as a sensible solution to these demands. There news&WT.nav=top-news does not appear to be any questioning of whether this 2 Berninger V, Abbott R, Cook CR, Nagy W (2016). Relationships of Attention and Executive Functions to Oral Language, Reading, and Writing Skills and Systems in Middle . is developmentally appropriate, just a optimism that Childhood and Early Adolescence. J Learn Disabil. 2016 Jan 8. pii: 0022219415617167. it is the best way forward. Parents are being involved 3 James, KH, Engelhardt L (2012). The effects of handwriting experience on functional brain development in pre-literate children. Trends Neuroscience Education. 1(1): 32–42. in the teaching with programmes such as Letter Join. 4 Alstad Z, Sanders E, Abbott RD, Barnett AL, Henderson SE, Connelly V, Berninger http://www.letterjoin.co.uk VW (2015).Modes of Alphabet Letter Production during Middle Childhood and Adolescence: Interrelationships with Each Other and Other Writing Skills. J Writ Res. 6(3) 199-231. As a handwriting tutor, I am seeing young children who are struggling with the added complexity of Teaching fully cursive writing in Reception: a ‘lead in strokes’. Parents are quite often confused year later too and unable to help. For very young children A year later and the teaching of continuous cursive moving schools, the variety of letter forms can handwriting to very young children remains prove daunting. popular. One reason for this is the changes to assessment of writing in the KS1 and KS2 SATs https://www.gov.uk/government/ publications/2017-interim-frameworks-for- teacher-assessment-at-the-end-of-key-stage-1 https://www.gov.uk/government/ In the schools I have visited this year as an INSET publications/2017-interim-frameworks-for- provider, there is anxiety about handwriting teacher-assessment-at-the-end-of-key-stage-2 provision. Myths and misunderstandings abound. There is an urgent need for informed discussion For the first time, the assessment of Writing at the end and practice which reflects developmental needs of KS1 and KS2 includes specific essential handwriting rather than pedagogical fashion. requirements. These were modified after protests during trialling in 2016, but will be implemented fully Pam Hulme

Handwriting Today 39 www.stabilo.co.uk www.stabilo.co.uk

STABILO EASYstart range are ergonomically designed to focus on comfort and effi ciency. Using an ergonomic product will help to avoid tiredness and potential damage to the posture of the hand. Therefore, it is vital to have the correct tools during the most important part of a child’s life. With different versions for left and right-handers their tri grip zones encourages the recommended dynamic tripod grip to improve childrens handwriting and hand posture. STABILO EASYstart range are ergonomically designed to focus on comfort and effi ciency. Using an ergonomic product will help to avoid tiredness and potential damage to the posture of the hand. Therefore, it is vital to have the correct tools during the most important part of a child’s life. With different versions for left and right-handers their tri grip zones encourages the recommended dynamic tripod grip to improve childrens handwriting and hand posture.

Supported by the

40 Handwriting Today

Supported by the Tips for Tips for Teaching Teaching Compiled by Catherine Elsey, Jo Moore, Michelle Van Rooyen

‘P Checks’ explained expected to master handwriting. They should be Handwriting is a highly intricate skill and able to control and regulate the action of their unlike an innate skill such as walking, it needs large muscles and thereby their joints (shoulder to be taught. This relies upon sound teaching and hip girdle, trunk, neck, elbow, wrist, knees principles, an opportunity to practice, a supportive and feet) using gross motor control. Gross motor environment and access to efficient tools. control and postural regulation and stability facilitates the precise movement of the small The ability to write efficiently and legibly is muscles (fingers, eyes) required for handwriting required to meet the demands of the National to become easier. Curriculum. Once learned, the mechanics of writing should be executed automatically. To help facilitate comfortable, fluent, legible Handwriting requires more than just fine motor handwriting, the National Handwriting control as it involves many senses including Association has produced a poster entitled ‘Good vestibular, proprioceptive and tactile, plus praxis, Practice for Handwriting’, which is divided into cognition and language skills. Because of this two key components: ‘Prepare for P checks’ and complexity, even small difficulties can impact ‘S Factors for success’. The focus of this article children’s ability to reach and maintain their is the first of these, ‘Prepare for P checks’. potential at school often leading to a loss of self- confidence. The ‘P checks’ are used to support the process of

. handwriting and are used to support the process All children should have the necessary set of basic of handwriting and cover Posture, Pencil grasp, skills and controls in place before they should be Paper position and Pressure and fluency.

Handwriting Today 41 Tips for Teaching

.

42 Handwriting Today Tips for Teaching

1. Posture pain or suffering fatigue and will present as a Assuming and maintaining correct posture when reluctance to write, poor presentation or legibility, writing is a key component of gaining a stable slow writing speed and reduced output. position for writing. Without a stable position it is much more difficult to comfortably hold a Optimising chair and table heights helps to pencil and direct it efficiently for handwriting. encourage a stable sitting posture for writing. Adaptive equipment is available for those that Poor posture can be a root cause of common struggle with the underlying stability, gross and handwriting difficulties such as experiencing fine motor skills required.

POSTURE GUIDELINE:

 Feet flat on the floor or on a wide based raised surface  Knees at a right angle with 2-fingers space behind the knee to avoid compression  Sit on the chair so hips are positioned at approximately 90° with the back supported  Sit approximately a fist-distance away from the table AND  Table height adjusted so that forearms rest on the top without the need to lean

forwards (too low) or raising the shoulders/arms. (too high)  Surface clean, smooth and uncluttered  Consider introducing a writing slope to help with wrist position and posture (remember to adjust seating height to higher position if introducing slope). With the table at the correct height, the forearm is supported making it easier to control the movement of the writing hand and wrist so reducing fatigue. Having the table too high will force the child to raise their shoulders inducing greater fatigue: having the table too low will cause the child to slump forwards increasing strain on the trunk, neck, arm, wrist and fingers making it more difficult to make controlled precise movements. The child will also slump forwards if their chair is set too far back from the table, regardless of chair and table height.

Standing desks are being introduced at some schools to encourage activity as part of measures to improve health and behaviour. Whilst chair height is not relevant for standing desks, having the desk at the correct height remains important for good posture when writing.

By ensuring correct posture and position at an early stage, including for pre-writing activities, good practice is introduced. This facilitates the development of writing skills as the child grows and the demands on handwriting become more (kidzoccupationaltherapy.com)

Handwriting Today 43 Tips for Teaching

onerous. Correcting bad habits later is more Children and adults can be seen to use a difficult for both child and teacher and takes wide range of different pencil grasps, often longer. because they have not learnt differently or as compensation for postural instability elsewhere. Holding the pencil too close to or too far from 2. Pencil grasp the tip or holding too tightly will cause tension Before a child is asked to write, it is important and thereby difficulties with handwriting. An that they are developmentally ready to do so. inefficient pencil grasp will cause discomfort, The teacher will be able to assess when a child impacting motivation, fluency and legibility and has developed the essential skills. In Early create difficulty sustaining speed. Years, most children will manage pre-writing tasks only, which are designed to introduce the When developing handwriting skills, the child basic movements and ‘feel’ required for writing. needs to see the pencil to monitor their Asking a child to hold a pen or pencil and write writing. Adopting an appropriate pencil grasp before they are developmentally ready can create and wrist position will help them to do this, difficulties with handwriting when they are older. especially if left-handed.

When appropriate, introducing the correct pencil There is a wide range of specialist , grasp is beneficial for developing fast, efficient, and adaptive grips available to purchase. A more

legible handwriting in the longer term. A dynamic . detailed guideline can be found in the NHA tripod grasp, with the pencil held between booklet entitled ‘NHA TOOLS’ (available soon thumb, index and middle finger is considered from www.nha-handwriting.org.uk). However, optimal as it provides greater stability, but allows focusing on the writing tool alone will not the precise movements needed to form letters. solve handwriting difficulty – take care when To be effective, this grasp must be supported by recommending specialist pens and pencils and a stable wrist resting on the writing surface and trial several options as what helps one writer may positioned below the writing line. cause greater discomfort for another.

PENCIL GRASP GUIDELINE:

 Check the child is developmentally ready before asking them to write  A dynamic tripod pencil grasp is the most efficient and is expected by end of Year 1.  Address an inappropriate grasp in the early learning stages and later if it is causing discomfort or impacting speed  Consider corrective action using adaptive grips or specialist writing tools, but always trial several options to find the most appropriate

44 Handwriting Today Tips for Teaching

3. Paper position compensatory strategies impacting legibility Having the writing paper positioned correctly and presentation. However, ocular motor (eye and stabilised with the non-writing hand is movement) difficulties will also tend to be as important as pencil grasp for sustained fatiguing, especially when having to be focussed handwriting. When writing, the wrist and hand on an extended writing task. If a child rubs their will naturally step along a left to right path across eyes frequently or complains of headaches when the paper, but at an angle to the body. Optimally writing, it can be a sign of visual acuity or ocular therefore, the writing paper should be positioned motor difficulties. An eye test will detect visual so that the hand can follow this natural path. For acuity difficulties, but other factors can make a right hander this will be to have the top left the eyes work harder than they need to, causing corner of the paper angled down to the left. For fatigue. a left-hander, the opposite is best, having the top right corner angled down to the right. Also the Direct sunlight will tend to reflect brightly off paper should not be directly in front of the child white writing paper and create deep shadows when writing, but slightly offset, to the right for depending on a child’s position in the class a right hander and to the left for a left hander. By relative to the windows. Having to write in having the paper at an angle and offset slightly, these conditions makes the eyes work hard the child is more able to see what their hand to compensate for the fluctuating light levels. is doing when writing and their wrist will step Some children will be able to cope with this along a more comfortable path. . better than others, but it is better to try to keep light levels as constant as possible. Using Correct paper position is vitally important during artificial light or blinds at windows can be the early years of handwriting development, as effective and writing on coloured, rather than bad practice can lead to compensatory strategies, white paper, will reduce glare from reflected such as hooked-wrist in left-handers, which are sunlight. difficult to remedy in later years. The teacher will be able to identify the best measures for each child, but ocular motor Lighting, Glare and Visual Stress difficulties should not be ignored, as left Incorrect posture and writing position will tend unaddressed will tend to demotivate children to to cause fatigue when writing and introduce writing regardless of lighting levels.

PAPER GUIDELINE:

 Tilt and offset the paper according to the writing hand  Move the paper up or down to facilitate a comfortable reach  Consider glare from paper and overhead lighting  Consider a specialist vision assessment if visual stress continues

Handwriting Today 45 Tips for Teaching

4. Pressure writing paper and encourage the child The act of writing should leave a clear trace on to press less hard to avoid a carbon the paper, neither too faint nor too dark. When copy learning to write, pencil pressure is likely to • Use a 2H pencil to give more sensory vary depending on the demands of the task and feedback so there is no need to press so stage of development. Most children will learn hard through experience as to how much pressure Use a and encourage they should exert through the pencil on to paper. the child to press lightly so as not to Marks which go through to the next page can break the lead indicate excessive pencil pressure. • Use a grey lead pencil to shade in a picture using light grey, medium grey The manner in which the child holds the pencil and dark grey. Then discuss how can impact the amount of pressure exerted onto applying different amounts of pressure the paper when writing. Trialling a range of pens/ changes the shade of grey pencils and grips can be a good place to start (see • Write on a single sheet of paper when above). To help a child learn how much pressure writing at a desk or table. A firm surface to apply when writing the following activities can help to limit the amount of pressure may be beneficial: the child can use. • Place a handwriting sample on the table

. that is “too dark”, “too light” and “just Handwriting warm ups: right”. Encourage the child to check Pressing too hard can be symptomatic of their handwriting against the sample. anxiety or tension. Providing guidance and encouragement for some simple exercises prior Light pressure to and during the handwriting session such as Use carbon paper underneath and chair lifts, palm presses, finger pulls or deep encourage child to press harder to make a breaths can help. carbon copy Use ‘light up’ pens and press harder so as Heavy pressure to activate the light Use carbon paper underneath the

PRESSURE GUIDELINE:

 The just-right pressure eases writing across the page, which is important for fluency and reducing the risk of pain during handwriting  Try some handwriting warm ups before and during the task  Use teaching tools such as carbon paper, mechanical pencils and ‘light-up’ pens to demonstrate appropriate pressure

46 Handwriting Today Tips for Teaching

The S Factors are the teaching steps which …….all the S Factors …… underpin the gradual development of legible, fluent and comfortable handwriting -the product. Posters and flyers are available for purchase Beginning with the vital importance of teaching from the website(www.nha-handwriting.org.uk). Shape (letter formation), the S Factors mirror There are different sizes suitable for classroom the requirements of the National Curriculum for display and individual prompts. English (Writing) Key Stage 1 & 2, and offer a useful assessment tool for the Interim Assessment Catherine Elsey, Jo Moore, Michelle Van requirements for 2016. Rooyen

.

Handwriting Today 47 Introducing

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16_124 - Staedtler - NHA A4 Advert.indd 1 08/06/2016 09:31 Handwriting in Handwriting in the Media the Media Compiled by Ewan Clayton

‘Who Needs Handwriting’ had reached Australia and New Zealand. Small Business.co.uk kicked off the year on February 2nd with a run down of statistics for One interesting spin off in the press from BIC’s the state of handwriting in Britain today.i They campaign was a long item in The Atlantic on reported a survey by Job-Site CV Library of the ball point pen.iii It was an experience based 2000 of its users that 62.8 of users believe that piece with the Canadian artist and teacher Josh future generations won’t write on the job – Giesbrecht reflecting on how it felt to write with eliminating handwriting from the workplace. It a biro compared to his recently rediscovered quotes the NHA reporting that one in ten students . Over the course of his lifetime he don't own a pen, and continues ‘However, had noticed a paradox - that his cursive script there are signs pen and paper are still valued had become more disconnected and less joined in the workplace, with 73.3 per cent of UK up at the very time at university when he had professionals preferring a handwritten to-do list to write the most. He wondered why this might over an electronic one. More than half (55.9 per be so. He attributes the effect to changes in cent) feel that handwriting is important in the his writing instrument of choice. Whereas a workplace for signing contracts, 98.5 per cent fountain pen ‘wanted’ to join letters, the biro of professionals still use pens in the workplace, he had adopted had to be pressed in to the page and 88.2 per cent of businesses still provide staff in order to write and this altered his rhythm with pens and paper.’ It is the figure of 98.5% and ligaturing. He quoted Rosemary Sassoon’s

that is striking. This represents how things are . observation that a biro has to held more upright now rather than speculation about possible if it is to work properly, so the tool can also futures. The current reality is that only 1.5% of require a modified pen hold. Could the biro have work places don't involve the use of pens. been partly responsible for the death of cursive?

Headline fears about the disappearance of The debate about contemporary practice is writing rippled round the world in 2016. The certainly a fascinating one. Looking at the press ripple followed the continued roll out of a on handwriting each day over the last year I programme by BIC, the pen manufacturer. could not help but notice a further paradox. On Their ‘Fight for your Write’ campaign to ‘save the one hand we have surveys such as the one handwriting’ has a further aim, to place more commissioned by BIC showing more than half of the company’s pens in classrooms, but of primary school parents in New Zealand think it has provided a focus for activism around handwriting will die out in 20 years' time, raising handwriting in many countries. It featured four questions about how useful it is to teach it,iv and claims for handwriting: ‘increased creativity, on the other hand frequent stories from the tech better critical thinking, boosted self confidence, world highlighting the increasing penetration and a correlated improvement in reading of handwriting software into the digital world capability with writing prowess.’ii In each as a way of interacting with technology. This country the programme has reached, BIC has year we will be able to handwrite directly on to focused on surveys asking parents of 5-11 year the face of smart watches both on the Android olds about their perceptions of writing and then and Apple operating systems, the ability to enlisted the views of researchers within tertiary write on tablets and Ipads has increased, and education. The campaign was active in the on mobile phones too. We have also seen the United States last summer and by the winter it introduction of the Apple pencilv and more

Handwriting Today 49 Handwritingthe Media in

powerful handwriting recognition software has the screen back to paper,” Jens Henning been developed including algorithms that learn Koch, executive vice president of marketing to recognize written forms much as humans at , said in a phone interview. “You do.vi Handwriting is fast becoming the newest can write a letter on a weekend and then use way to interact with technology. Parents may it during the week with your device at work.’ fear the disappearance of handwriting but those Mr. Koch noted that the system allows the developing our new technology seem to want to added benefit of sending a note in the writer’s harness it for the future. own handwriting, something that might be comforting and special to the receiver. And, One of the stories that gained traction throughout “when you write something, you reflect,” he the year was an argument for creativity that added. “A traditional note is a very personal would deepen into handwriting as having a statement.”vii unique signature in the brain’s activity with possible far reaching implications. Simon Jenkins, writing in the Guardian (20/8), expressed similar views and ended with a plea In the autumn of last year, The New York Times for beauty: (30/11) quoted our own Gwen Dornan, from the NHA, ‘“I think people are beginning to ‘Handwriting should be free. It is the outward realize that the act of writing is an enormous manifestation of an individual personality.

part of general literacy. It does appear to use . For instance, computers may claim to “read” a different part of the brain than typing,”’ The personal signatures written in single letters. context for the comment was an item on the One day they will prefer digital prints or new technology of smart pens, that appeared eyeball recognition, but such signatures have in the paper’s ‘Style and Fashion section’. all the character of a train timetable. We love ‘The pen may be an antiquated device for to sign our names with a unique and possibly the texting generation, but for many it’s indecipherable squiggle. It is our icon, our still relevant — and often prized — device private hieroglyph. for writing everything from a greeting card to a shopping list.’ But pens are evolving Handwritten text is an expression of meaning. A ‘Montblanc, the German company known for love letter conveys its message in its , its luxury pens and leather goods, introduced declaring itself in curls and swoops, in size and the e-StarWalker writing instrument, which is tilt, in long pauses and fast scribbles. Claims compatible with the Samsung Galaxy Note 4 that a handwriting analyst can really “decode” smartphone. The instrument comes with a flip such script are to me dubious. What I am cover for the Galaxy Note 4 that contains a sure of is that any communication confined to digital identification chip, allowing the user to printed fonts loses a wealth of significance in access fonts and various kinds of calligraphy translation’. and 3-D imagery from Montblanc templates, as well as a choice of six virtual fountain pen I suspect that the triumph of printed writing nibs and colors of virtual ink. Many of the nibs will be short lived. Perhaps it is paper and post duplicate the intricate ones that Montblanc has offices that are on the way out, and handwriting created over its 90 years. The e-Starwalker on screens will catch on. Perhaps separated comes with a device to switch the nib from letters will merge back into the cursive under the

50 Handwriting Today Handwriting in

the Media

demand for speed. New scripts and spellings will to print. “Their brains don’t distinguish letters; evolve. Writing will change, like any language, they respond to letters the same as to a triangle,” fashioned by practiceviii to the conveyance of she said. sense. Please just let it be beautiful.” After the children were taught to print, patterns of brain activation in response to letters showed In the Times Educational Supplement (31/1) increased activation of that reading network, Roshan Doug reflected on his experiences including the fusiform gyrus, along with the learning both Punjabi script and handwriting inferior frontal gyrus and posterior parietal in English and argued that ‘Ultimately, cursive regions of the brain, which adults use for handwriting can provide you with a sense of processing written language — even though connectedness; it can open your imagination the children were still at a very early level as and reflect your identity in the shape and writers.’ construction of your printed words’. Denying our pupils this means of expression robs them ‘But can we actually stimulate children’s of ‘a form that individualises them’. As a poet brains by helping them form letters with their he regrets this potential loss. hands? In a population of low-income children, Dr. Dinehart (from Florida International As the academic year drew to its conclusion the University) said, the ones who had good early argument for beauty was often balanced with fine-motor writing skills in prekindergarten did writing about the new neuro-scientific research . better later on in school. She called for more on handwriting. The New York Times (20/6) research on handwriting in the preschool years, had the most solid commentary in an article and on ways to help young children develop headed ‘Why handwriting is still essential in the skills they need for “a complex task” that the Keyboard age’.ix It was followed up by a requires the coordination of cognitive, motor substantial piece in the Daily Mail (22/6) ‘Why and neuromuscular processes.’ This is the the Ipad generation still needs to write’.x kind of research that underlay BIC’s campaign claims. The New York Times article quoted Dr Berninger of Washington University ‘ “This The article concluded, “What we’re advocating myth that handwriting is just a motor skill is is teaching children to be hybrid writers,” said just plain wrong,” Dr. Berninger said. “We use Dr. Berninger, “manuscript first for reading — motor parts of our brain, motor planning, motor it transfers to better word recognition — then control, but what’s very critical is a region of cursive for spelling and for composing. Then, our brain where the visual and language come starting in late elementary school, touch-typing.’ together, the fusiform gyrus, where visual stimuli actually become letters and written The interesting thing here is that the debate words.” You have to see letters in “the mind’s is becoming more nuanced, both about the eye” in order to produce them on the page, she complex sets of skills that need to be acquired said.’ and, as we saw earlier, about the directions that future technology may take us. ‘Karin James, a professor of psychological and brain sciences at Indiana University, did brain For those of us interested in the neuroscience scans on children who did not yet know how around writing I recommend a radio programme

Handwriting Today 51 Handwritingthe Media in

‘Who needs handwriting?’ If you have time to foundation of Londinium in 43AD. The earliest follow up on only one thing in this review this datable fragment (now the earliest handwriting might be it. It would certainly get a discussion known in Britain) comes from January 8th going amongst those who listen together. 57AD; it's a financial record. The writing is in a You can listen, or read the transcript, on the form of quickly written Roman capitals known Freakonomics websitexi for February 10th. as old roman cursive, the shapes of the letters What I found fascinating - listening in person are broken into strokes that made sense to write to many of the researchers whose comments in the wax material with which the tablets were we read about in the press - is that here they covered. The letter O, for instance, can often be speak to their own ideas and usually at greater made in two strokes, looking a bit like a pair of length than in the papers. The station is based brackets. in the USA, so it reflects the debate over there about the introduction of the common core From the 1st century to the 21st - an item curriculum, but there is much more than this broadcast by ITV caught my eye in January within this podcast. (9/1).xv Artist Rosalind Wyatt, a textile artist who had originally trained as a calligrapher, Now for a few lighter topics. Throughout the was creating a modern day Bayeux Tapestry year Donald Trump’s signature took quite a by stitching people's stories onto articles pasting from the graphologists! The best visual of clothing and shoes. She was looking for

is in The Washington Post (15/9).xii Its HUGE, . people to add to the collection, which already yes I mean HUGE! included one of Stephen Lawrence’s shirts stitched with the essay he was writing when ITV screened comments in January from Prince died. Rosalind takes up the story: "The Stitch William about his father’s ‘terrible’ handwriting, lives of London is a textile installation telling but in the process reveals he wrote to his boys the story of London through text and textile. at Eton, sometimes at midnight, falling asleep It will feature 215 garments hung together to in the process. As someone who has had a form one complete tapestry to follow the path letter from his Dad every Monday for the last of the River Thames. Each garment features 48 years I connected with the commitment to its story through the handwriting of the person written communication that this revealed. who wore the garment. This is stitched by hand and by eye and this technique is called 'writing London’s early history has been given a new with a needle'". chapter through the discovery of ‘hundreds of Roman wax tablets’ found during excavations And finally an interesting visual feast: The for Bloomberg’s new headquarters at Mansion Atlantic ran an article in May ‘The Beauty of House. It was widely reported (3/6) in The Handwriting’ (10/5)xvi featuring the handwriting Times,xiii the Daily Mailxiv and on the BBC but I of many of the artists in the Smithsonian refer you also to a local paper The Oxford News collection. It’s an eclectic mix but it shows who interviewed the scholar who deciphered you how varied, individual and expressive them. With only 19 tablets having been found handwriting can be. up to this point the discovery of some 410 more represents a quantum leap in the information i http://smallbusiness.co.uk/handwriting-at-work-under- we have about a slice of history soon after the threat-study-finds-2504501/

52 Handwriting Today Handwriting in

the Media

ii http://time.com/3982285/bic-writing-hand-benefits/ x http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/ article-3651327/Why-iPad-generation-needs-learn- iii http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/ write-Experts-forming-letters-key-cognitive-process- archive/2015/08/ballpoint-pens-object-lesson-history- reading.html handwriting/402205/ xi http://freakonomics.com/podcast/who-needs- iv http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/education/74756743/ handwriting/ survey-suggests-handwriting-could-be-written-off-in-20- years xii https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/compost/ wp/2015/09/03/trump-signed-the-pledge-what-story- v Why handwriting recognition on the iPad isn't a joke does-his-handwriting-tell/?utm_term=.9bd21cad2218 anymore | Macworld xiii http://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/earliest- vi http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/11/science/an- handwriting-in-britain-found-on-roman-tablets- advance-in-artificial-intelligence-rivals-human-vision- dnc6g6jjm abilities.html xiv http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/ vii http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/01/fashion/desk-set. article-3619586/Earliest-handwritten-notepads- html?_r=0 unearthed-London-Discovery-410-wooden-tablets- provides-glimpse-life-city-s-earliest-Romans.html viii https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/ aug/20/printed-word-handwriting-meaning-calligraphy xv http://www.itv.com/news/london/2016-01-19/artists- call-for-garments-with-a-story/ ix http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/06/20/why- . handwriting-is-still-essential-in-the-keyboard- xvi http://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/ age/?r=0 archive/2016/07/the-art-of-handwriting/488963/

Handwriting Today 53 .

54 Handwriting Today .

Handwriting Today 55 Review of Resources Compiled by Laraine Erhlanderr-Lawrence Review of Resources

Berol by Papermate: NHA Corporate Member recognise dyspraxia and understand the impact www..co.uk on the individual child alongside the simple but effective strategies to help support them. Jimbo- The Replay Premium Erasable gel Fun plays an important role in trying to dispel pens feature Gel Ink Technology that ensures fears and misconceptions that interventions they erase cleanly and leave no mess or damage on behalf of these children will be costly and to the writing surface. Their ribbed grip gives a time consuming. It was devised and is run by useful surface to encourage control while writing Cathy Parvin who was trained by the National and the medium tip 0.7mm makes them ideal for Handwriting Association (NHA) and now older children to use. The pen tops have erasers organises INSETs for teachers. The CPD INSET and the packs contain bright colours alongside training packages are a feature of the reach of black and blue thereby encouraging art work Jimbo-Fun. Further information can be found on which can be corrected. For additional economy www.dyspraxia-ed.co.uk. they are refillable. Jimbo-Fun currently has two resource packages and offers assessments in order that the right Eco-Eco: level of intervention can be established. Firstly, www.ecoecostat.co.uk Junior Jimbo-Fun has been designed for children in Reception and Year 1 aged 4y 6m to 6y 0m.

Eco-Eco is a price-friendly stationery company . producing 100% recyclable products including Junior Jimbo-Fun has an initial assessment A4 pockets and A5 presentation display booklets. for Reception and Year 1 which aids the early The booklets are a good size for children who find identification of difficulties. There is an effective handwriting challenging as they do not demand a handwriting improvement programme which large amount of content to be completed as they is easy to implement and has been designed to have 20 pockets for display. target the skills needed for handwriting. It also has a training film, equipment, certificates, a carry case, full notes and information on the helpline. Jimbo-Fun: It is suitable for both schools and parents to www.dyspraxia-ed.co.uk use. Price £99.99 (inc VAT) and £7.50 delivery. There is free delivery on multiple orders. All Jimbo-Fun is a non-profit organisation whose profits from the kits is used to help children with primary aim is supporting children with dyspraxia. The font style used by the children dyspraxia/DCD (Developmental Coordination in their schools can be selected when ordering Disorder) in education. Free advice and support is to avoid confusion when using the programmes: offered to teachers, professionals and parents via the continuous cursive font varies from the pre- the dedicated helpline at Dyspraxia Education. cursive font in respect to lead in strokes. All profits from Jimbo-Fun are used to run their helpline* at www.dyspraxia-ed.co.uk The second package is called Jimbo-Fun and has been designed for children in Year 2 and above, The founders of Jimbo-Fun recognise that the aged 6y 6m - 10y 0m. It is currently priced at most effective way to support children in schools £119.99 (inc VAT) and £7.50 delivery, with free is to ensure that all teaching staff are trained to delivery on multiple packages.

56 Handwriting Today Review of Resources

Jimbo-Fun was assessed by Jenny Thornton, proved very popular with a group of children Senior Paediatric Occupational Therapist, and using them to decorate ‘stained glass’ designs on Derek Styles, a Paediatric Optometrist, and plastic to hang in the windows. They free the deemed to be very promising. It was trialled using child to get on with the art work without using a large cohort of children and Specialist Teachers brushes and water which can prove difficult for from the Worcestershire Learning Support Team. some children. The paint sticks are also supplied It is now being used extensively throughout in ‘Dayglo’ and ‘Metallic’ versions. The sticks the Worcestershire schools and the county OT have a satisfying silky feel when applying to the Departments. There is much interest amongst surfaces. SENCos, teachers and parents who report seeing a more positive attitude towards writing amongst the children who had been introduced Magic Whiteboard: to the programme. Jimbo-Fun starts with an www.magicwhiteboard.co.uk assessment to establish a baseline. Together with an adult helper, the child works through Dragon’s Den winners in 2006, Magic Whiteboard six levels of daily exercises which take between has developed their range of products and class 15-20 minutes and can either be administered as packs of A4 Reusable Whiteboard Handwriting differentiated practice within the literacy lesson Notebooks as an alternative to mini whiteboards or as a separate intervention. This is essentially are now available. They are feint-ruled with practiced daily because the child needs to build . handwriting lines and have 8 easy to wipe clean up muscles and develop co-ordination to work pages. They are made from super smooth heavy towards a successful outcome. paper and can be used with any dry marker or correctable marker. They also supply their own Comments about Jimbo-Fun from the children: dry markers, which are retractable, non-toxic and ‘It’s great because it helps me a lot’, ’My writing refillable. doesn’t hurt anymore’, ‘My teacher put me on gold because of my writing’, ‘I wish I could keep doing Jimbofun I’m sad it’s finished’. Further Nexus: NHA Corporate Member information can be seen on the websites www. www.nexus-euro.co.uk dyspraxia-ed.co.uk and www. jimbofun.co.uk or by contacting Cathy Parvin, Director Dyspraxia The Nexus ECO Writer Refillable Rollerball Education 07736000979 / 01905 676118 Pen incorporates an ergonomic grip designed to encourage good handwriting and can be used successfully by both left and right handers. The Little Brian: design encourages correct positioning of the www.brianclegg.co.uk fingers and less stress on hand muscles. They are packaged with both blue and black cartridges Little Brian Paint Sticks provide an enjoyable, and have been designed with a clear pen barrel clean and convenient way to paint. They are to allow for name cards to be put inside. The ink water soluble, child friendly solid paint sticks flows freely when writing at any angle. The use that twist up and down like glue sticks. They of cartridges allows the pen to be used multiple glide smoothly on paper, card, glass, plastic and times rather than be quickly disposable and thus acetate. The colours are clear and bright. These earns its Eco credentials. Spare cartridges are

Handwriting Today 57 Review of Resources

sold in bags of 300 thereby making the product Also new to the market is the Kachiri which has classroom friendly and the pens can be ordered a triangular latex-free grip. It is a retractable in boxes of 30. These prove very satisfying to ballpoint pen giving a 0.5mm line. The Fiesta move as they don’t slip around in the fingers is an automatic pencil which has the advantage and therefore don’t need to be gripped tightly. of having a grooved finger grip and replaceable Nexus also have new triangular pencils in dark eraser. The new Energel Permanent is waterproof grey with a yellow end which have a non-slip and useful for school trips outdoors in the British surface. weather! It has a stylish modern look with a metal pocket grip. also has a correction Nexus are currently supplying School Kits to pen named Correct Express which has a unique meet the needs of the classroom. They consist evaporation system giving a super quick even of the Nexus Peg to Pen School Kit and the drying result. The line creates a flat surface for Nexus Peg to Pen Early Years Kit. The kits neat re-writing. There is a fine metal tip and include triangular pencils, triangular dustless application can be successfully targeted. The chalk pieces, dry wipe writing boards and cloths, opaque white fluid provides excellent first-time colour markers, pegboards and cards and link coverage. As the ink is valve-controlled, there and lace boards for the younger children. 90 is no need for shaking and there are no resultant Eco Writers are included in the extensive kits for blobs. They are available in packs of 12. older children. More information on the contents

of the kits can be found on their website. . Stabilo: NHA Corporate Member www.stabilo.com Pentel: www.pentel.co.uk New and unique to Stabilo is the EASYbirdy. It is an ergonomically designed fountain pen Pentel recently introduced the Slicci Metallic designed with left and right handed versions. range. These pens have ultra-smooth The grip zone is made from non-slip material flowing pigment gel ink which is quick drying. which promotes a relaxed hold. The nib can The popular 0.8mm tip gives approximately be fitted by the retailer at 3 different angles to a 0.4mm line width. The barrel is sleek, provide the optimum hand posture to help avoid attractively coloured and shorter in length than possible muscle fatigue. There are two viewing previous ranges. The ease of use and range of windows for monitoring ink levels. The standard shimmering metallic colours makes the pens cartridges contain erasable ink. The pens come popular with a wide range of pupils. They are in a range of vibrant colour combinations and are available in gold, silver, metallic green / brown light to hold. / violet / sky blue / red and pink. Excluding the ink, these pens have been made from 87% recycled materials. The 0.7mm tipped range Staedtler: NHA Corporate Member gives approximately a 0.35mm line width. To www.staedtler.co.uk; compliment the metallic range, the Pentel Extra www.teachersclub.staedtler.co.uk Fine Paint Markers prove useful for art work when wording is required or fine lines. They are New to Staedtler is their Staedtler Teachers’ Club. available in packs of 12. It is a free platform for primary school teachers

58 Handwriting Today Review of Resources

to find and access free Staedtler product samples, has been designed to enable a child to work at curriculum-linked teaching resources and fun the 20degree optimal angle when writing. The competitions to keep pupils busy and encourage back of the slope has an additional compartment them to develop a pride in their writing. Staedtler to hold a book for reading or referring to when have been supplying the educational market for writing. It can also be used to house a coloured 50 years and their products include instantly overlay with room to put the reading book recognisable products such as the yellow and underneath for children with visual difficulties. black striped Noris HB school pencils. New The dimensions are width 30cm, length 35cm products also include the packs of Noris colour and maximum height 13cm. A pack of rubber pencils which have high-break resistance and feet is supplied to stop the slope moving on can be successfully used by children who find a table top and dycem or bulldog clips can be pressure on the crayon difficult to regulate. They used to stabilise the paper and keep sheets in have an ergonomically soft surface and are easy place. to grip. These pencil crayons are made from Wopex in a new manufacturing procedure and the resultant homogeneous lead glides smoothly Write Size: across paper. Their non-slip velvety line makes www.writesize.co.uk them attractive to pupils who usually find colouring difficult. They can be bought in packs Write Size produce a range of pencils made to of 12 or up to 288 of assorted colours with free . scale for children’s hands. The pencils have sharpeners for classroom use. been developed to lessen the strain on a child’s hand, by having a wider diameter, softer core and they come in three lengths. The first size Special Direct: NHA Corporate member is for children aged 2-6 years, the second is www.specialdirect.com for 6-10 years and the largest is for 10+ years. TTS www.tts-group.co.uk The pencils are hexagonal in shape and grey coloured. New to the market is the pack of 5 Developmental Grips which range in size from 2.5 to 5.0 cm and are spherical in shape. They Apps and gadgets: were designed by an OT to support individuals The following apps have been published recently who have difficulty in organising and sustaining to assist with development of handwriting. a functional grip on a . The These apps are not free, but are useful additions largest grip allows a claw grip to be organised to the toolkit for anyone helping children learn on the pen and as the motor skills and eye hand to write. coordination for pen use increases, the size of the developmental grip reduces down. When • ‘Cursive Writing Wizard’ - by the smallest size is mastered a chunky pen can L’Escapadou Apps. Available for then be tried. Notes on usage are included in i-Phone, i-Pad and Android. This the pack. versatile app is a very visual aid to the development of cursive writing. Have a Also new to the market is the Comfy Read look at the YouTube demo for the different Write A3 sized clear or green plastic slope. It fonts, styles and features the app offers.

Handwriting Today 59 Review of Resources

• ‘Penpals at home’ – by Cambridge • ‘Squiggle Wiggle Writer’ – available University Press – a book available from from Amazon and other outlets. A Amazon and other outlets with motorised vibrating pen that provides accompanying free app for i-Phone additional sensory writer to help with and Android. This book and proprioceptive and tactile awareness. accompanying app is useful for helping Can be used as a motivation aid for parents support the development of children who are reluctant to use a pen or directionality for correct letter formation, pencil. enhancing what the children learn at school.

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60 Handwriting Today .

Handwriting Today 61 NHA News NHA Compiled by Karen Nicholas News

Suzanne Tiburtius BA MA for Your School: A Practical Guide” with Sheila Henderson in 2005. Our NHA colleague, Suzanne Tiburtius died on March 2, 2016 after suffering from In her latter years on the NHA committee, Alzheimer´s for some years. Suzanne was an Suzanne came to specialize in the training early member of the then Handwriting Interest of teaching assistants whom she regarded as Group (HIG), moving on to the executive crucial in raising standards in the classroom committee by 1993 where she remained until and the courses she ran for this particular group too ill to contribute further. were always over-subscribed. She also held the role of Information Officer, responding Around the time she joined the NHA, Suzanne to enquiries from the public, and in the days had moved down to Kent from Leicestershire before email, handwriting her responses which where, she had worked some time as a teacher she delivered to the post office by bicycle! Her in both primary and secondary schools. In Kent dedication and level of expertise in the field she worked with the Schools Psychological of handwriting will be remembered by all who Service which mainly focused on dyslexic worked with her. pupils. When the newly formed Cognition and Learning Service began its function in primary Angela Webb and secondary schools in the county Suzanne was appointed as a member of the team, . travelling to a designated number of schools and dealing mainly with issues of literacy. Whilst working in primary schools Suzanne became aware of the very poor standards of handwriting and developed her own approach to demonstrate that handwriting could and should be actively taught by teachers who were skilled in this respect. Suzanne was also very much involved with in-service training in the county, which inevitably revolved mainly round handwriting. She was particularly interested in helping the older pupils of 15 and 16.

A prolific and clear writer, Suzanne’s list of publications included “Write on Target: Cursive Handwriting - A Structured, Fast and Effective Way to Teach Handwriting” in 1993 and “Parents and Reading” in 1995. She also co-authored two books for the NHA: “Handwriting in the Secondary School: Not a Secondary Skill!” With Beverly Scheib in 2003 and “Developing a Handwriting Policy

62 Handwriting Today NHA News

NHA Members’ Day and AGM, Saturday 5th slowly and carefully) and not ‘write’ (with rhythm March 2016 at Scope, London N7 9PW and speed)? A transcript of Dr Marquardt’s talk The annual Members’ Day is now firmly can be accessed in the Members Only section established as an important event in the of the NHA website and provides detail of other handwriting calendar. It is a great occasion for all interesting discoveries he has made. members, including the corporate members from supportive companies and the NHA committee, Pam Hulme, a member of the committee, treated to meet together to exchange ideas. us to an account of her work in supporting handwriting at two schools in her locality. She The programme follows a pattern that has emphasised the pressures that are currently upon gradually been honed to include a variety primary school teachers and how she sought to of elements: presentation of some current help them to develop fluent writers in addition research to keep everyone up-to-date with new to the other tasks required of them. Pam has a developments; demonstrations of practical wonderfully patient, practical and clear-thinking experience from either individual or committee approach that must be appreciated both by the members - or both; the AGM of the association, teachers who are planning their strategies and the which includes the Chair’s report to up-date children she works with. Pam also explained the members about the association’s activities during current requirements of the National Curriculum the year, and a session to discuss items of interest for handwriting and some of the changes to SATs that have been raised by members during the . assessment that will be in place this summer. day. There are deliberately generous refreshment pauses between the presentations to give time to The second presentation of practice in schools was look at the stands provided by many of NHA’s from two members from Cheshire. Megan Dixon, corporate members, to exchange views with Director the Aspirer Teaching School Alliance, other members and meet up with old friends. and Charlotte Clowes, Assistant Head and Key Stage 1 leader from St. Alban’s Catholic Primary The keynote presentation for 2016 was by School in Macclesfield, together introduced Dr Christian Marquardt from Munich who us to the work of the Bootcamp underway at introduced us to some fascinating research that Charlotte’s school, supported by the Aspirer gave many people pause for thought. He makes Teaching School Alliance. They described the use of electronic tablets which, as been shown process of setting up and implementing their at previous Members’ Days, enable researchers action research project and provided video to analyse the movements made when writing examples of the children to illustrate their work. and therefore gain a greater understanding of the It was fascinating to see ideas based on research processes involved. One of his demonstrations being played out in practice. – using one of the members present – clearly showed that the conscious effort to emulate a There was a lively buzz throughout the sample style of writing rather than writing the refreshment breaks when members were text freely resulted in slower and less rhythmical networking with others, holding discussions at writing. This does question the value of copying the corporate members’ stands and collecting exercises and the desire for ‘neatness’ that are so samples - including a copy of the new poster that prevalent in much handwriting teaching. Perhaps NHA has published this year. This summarises we are teaching children to ‘draw’ letters (i.e. important elements in handwriting teaching: ‘P’

Handwriting Today 63 NHA News

Checks (reminders about posture and position pulled in a rewarding surplus. etc.) and ‘S’ Factors (a checklist of points to Members’ Day is now showing a profit. consider while writing – size, spacing etc.) which Operational expenses include paying we hope will be of help to busy teachers. our dedicated Administrator and Finance Officer and covering the costs of executive and sub-committee meetings. Telephone Date for the Diary: Next Members’ Day will conferences are used where possible to be on Thursday 4th May 2017. minimise costs. The increase in our income means that Gwen Dornan, Committee Member our accounts will need to be examined. They do not require an official audit, however. Minutes of the National Handwriting Association The accounts were proposed as a true and proper Annual General Meeting record of the charity’s finances. They were passed Scope, 6 Market Road, London N7 9PW unanimously. 5th March 2016 Additional comments from the Chair Apologies for absence • We have kept a strict rein on our

Ewan Clayton, Sheila Henderson, Joanna Moore, . activities for a number of years in order to Melissa Prunty, Emma Sumner. limit expenditure. • We are now in the position of being able Minutes of the 2015 AGM to think about the best ways of making These were approved, accepted and signed. use of our increased income. These might include: Matters arising ◦ training for Teaching Assistants None ◦ reducing the cost of courses for professionals Treasurer’s Report ◦ developing our regional network. • In 2015 there was a 22% increase in Other ideas from members would our surplus, as compared with 2014. be welcomed. Following Dr Marquardt’s Finances grew through increased presentation one suggestion made was a membership, courses, donations, publication on the subject of movement, advertising and sales. linking it to the question of joining There has been an increase of 18% in handwriting. A working party could subscriptions. Membership is world wide possibly be set up to look at this matter in (17+ countries). Subscription fees have greater depth. risen, as was agreed. Advertising through the journal has Chairman’s Report (attached) increased 25% from 2014 and shows a In addition to the information contained 10 fold increase in the last 5 years. in the written report, which was read to In-depth course. The Halifax course ran the assembled members, Angela Webb at a loss last year, but the London course reported that a meeting is to be held with

64 Handwriting Today NHA News

Communicate-Ed to see if we can Date of next AGM collaborate to provide an on-line course The next Members’ Day and AGM will be on along the lines of the in-depth course. Thursday May 4th 2017. • There was a special presentation made The moving of the date from March to May is to Gwen Dornan for all her work and necessary to allow for the examination of our support over the years. Gwen is willing accounts. to remain on the committee, but is Members’ Day/AGM will be held on a weekday. stepping back from some of her Records show that weekday meetings attract a responsibilities. larger number of attendees.

Election of officers National Handwriting Association Chair: Angela Webb. AGM Proposed by Bob Erhlanderr Lawrence. Seconded 5th March 2016 by Dr Sidney Chu. Agreed unanimously. Chairman’s Report This is the occasion when I have a chance to report Vice-Chair: Catherine Elsey. the work of the NHA conducted through the year

Proposed by Angela Webb. Seconded by Gwen . and I am always impressed when I go through the Dornan. diary on how much has been achieved since we Agreed unanimously met at the last AGM.

Vice-Chair: Mary Howard. To begin with I am happy to report that our Proposed by Pam Hulme. Seconded by Lesley membership continues to increase steadily. This Harding. is across all categories of membership and we are Agreed unanimously. now represented in over 17 countries.

Honorary Treasurer: Bob Erhlanderr-Lawrence. The website continues to be our main source of Proposed by Catherine Elsey. Seconded by contact with our members and others and we are Michelle Van Rooyan. please to offer an addition to the home page in the Agreed unanimously. form of live Twitter feeds. We also have YouTube clips of dynamic aspects of handwriting nearly Honorary Secretary: Hilary Cook. ready, after some editing, to add. It has also been Proposed by Laraine Erhlanderr-Lawrence. proposed by some committee members to add a Seconded by Gwen Dornan. regular blog to that. Agreed unanimously. An exciting development this year is, as was The Committee. The rest of the committee were mentioned at the start of the day, the extension of returned en bloc, unanimously. our reach. First, a new regional interest group has been set up in West of London Handwriting Group Any Other Business by Dr. Mellissa Prunty of Brunel University. The No matters raised. inaugural meeting attracted over 80 participants,

Handwriting Today 65 NHA News

many of whom expressed interest in helping to run in schools since we last met and continue to hope it in the future. We wish them well. In addition, a for more. group of senior OTs approached us from Ireland, keen to set up an independent Handwriting Forum We delivered our in-depth ‘Teaching and based on the NHA model. Starting in Galway, learning of handwriting’ course in March in they have already gathered together a group of London last year and then in Halifax in July. therapists, teachers and educational psychologists The course is currently running in London all interested in promoting this initiative. Mellissa with a full number of delegates. At the request Prunty and I went over to Galway in January this of last year’s participants. A 6th day has been year to help launch the group and provide the added to the schedule to allow for discussion on content for their first two-day conference. Exam Concessions and for greater interaction between participants. Requests for this course A further development has been the building have been received from Durham and Colchester of relations with other European countries this year but lack of resources on NHA’s part who are also interested in the NHA model. has constrained us. We are currently exploring In particular, researchers from Germany, whether we could offer the course online to meet Netherlands and Belgium met at a Writing the demands in different parts of the country and conference in Amsterdam last year and again are holding talks with Communicate-Ed with this at the DCD conference in Toulouse. There was in mind for the future.

discussion about the possibility of setting up of . a European Handwriting Forum. Following this, Our annual journal was well received again in I was honoured to be invited to speak at the 1st the autumn. We are grateful to all those who International Handwriting Symposium in Bolzano contributed, particularly the section editors in the Tyrol where further discussion regarding – Emma Sumner, Ewan Clayton, Laraine possible liaisons ensued, including also research Erlanderr-Lawrence and Lesley Harding - who psychologists from France and Switzerland. At did an excellent job as always. We were able this meeting, the issues surrounding handwriting to debate the important topic of the value of in each country were shared and we all were reaching continuous cursive handwriting from surprised by the degree of commonality between the outset, something which is taking hold in the different countries. The purpose and many schools but which concerns many teachers practicalities of forming such a group have yet to and therapists. We hope that the arguments raised be worked out but the enthusiasm is there. will be helpful to our members. Mellissa Prunty will take over the editorship for 2016 assisted Nearer home our day-to-day work continues. by Meryl Coleclough, a handwriting tutor with Our in-service training programmed continues editorial experience, and we are grateful to them and 14 schools have received training this year. both for their commitment. Several have asked for return visits to keep the momentum of raising writing standards alive and Our publications list saw a new item this year I am delighted to report that Rathbone Primary – a ‘Tips for Teaching’ sheet on Keyboarding. School, who demonstrated their work at last year’s Created from a journal article by Amanda meeting, have since been rated “Outstanding” by McLeod and Simon Harwood, which discusses Ofsted. We are fortunate to have four new in- the relative merits of both modes of transcription, service training deliverers helping with our work keyboarding and handwriting, this item offers

66 Handwriting Today NHA News

practical strategies for teaching children to Psychologists. Lecturers who have attended our touch-type. Thanks to the drive of Michelle van courses using our materials so we are encouraged Rooyen, the text for the new ‘Tools of the Trade’ that the influence continues are teaching these booklet has been finalized and we are hoping to modules. attract sponsorship from our corporate members to get that published. Finally, our new Schools We have items of personnel news to report. First, poster – “P Checks and S Rules” – is to be we received the very sad news late last year that launched today and is available for purchasing in one of NHA’s founder members, physiotherapist three different sizes. Jane Taylor, had died after falling from her bicycle on her way to the beach in her beloved Our publicity team has new management to Dorset. Jane started the Handwriting Interest report. Gwen Dornan has stepped aside from Group, as NHA was formerly known, with her duties in this area after gallantly holding her teacher friend, Jean Alston. They began the fort for several years. Michelle van Rooyen by meeting after work nearly 40 years ago to has kindly taken her place and we have a new discuss their concerns that handwriting needed committee member to help her in Holly Swinton to be nurtured if it was going to survive. From who completed the in-depth handwriting course this it grew in size and influence and the NHA last year. was born. Although Jane had reduced her work for NHA lately, she always inspired us and she

Our tutor list, run by Mary Howard, is still in . was regarded by all as a friend as well as close great demand and as always we need to recruit colleague. She is greatly missed. more tutors especially outside London. Please do let Mary know if you are available to work with We would like to congratulate Amanda McLeod children and would like your name to appear on on her new baby, Rowan, and look forward to that list. having her back with us after her maternity leave is complete. We have a new member on the Our outside work with other agencies – PATOSS, committee, Holly Swinton, and in addition, we Dyspraxia Foundation, Dyslexia Action, hope that both Meryl Coleclough and Charlotte Movement Matters and DCD UK - continues Clowes will find time to join us in the coming as before and for the first time we have been months. We are grateful to them for their ideas asked also to participate in World Literacy Day, and enthusiasm. At this point I would like to coordinated from Australia. We are to attend a show my appreciation to all those who work on meeting about our role in this at the beginning of the NHA committee. They give their time and next month. expertise most selflessly and the impact of their work is felt throughout the year. In addition I must I spoke last year of our concern that handwriting thank our two employed offices, Karen Nicholas would no longer feature in the university teaching and Laraine Batemen, for their dedication and at the Institute of Education here in London now immensely hard work day to day. I am extremely it has amalgamated with University College grateful as always to all of them and on your London. However, the news is here is better than behalf acknowledge our gratitude. expected: Motor Development and Handwriting are still taught on two Masters courses and on Angela Webb. Chair of the National Handwriting the Ed Doc course for prospective Education Association. March 2016

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68 Handwriting Today Conference Conference Reviews Reviews Compiled by Lesley Harding

ISC SEN Conference 10th International conference of the British 12th November 2015 Dyslexia Association London March 2016 Oxford The recent annual conference in London marked the 10th anniversary of this prestigious Attended by 600 delegates, this conference event which is aimed at SENCos, Directors reviewed and discussed current issues in the field of Learning, LS staff and SMT members who of dyslexia with many presentations including wish to enhance their understanding of SEN the impact of handwriting difficulties. provision in their schools. Also included was a wide-ranging exhibition and an opportunity Highlights of this conference for handwriting to network. Barry Huggett OBE, Chair of the included Prof. Marketa Caravolas presenting ISC SEN Group, opened the conference and a discussion on the relationship between introduced a wide range of speakers including quantitative and qualitative measures of Lindsay Peer CBE speaking on the use and handwriting. Prof. Sonia Kandel provided interpretation of EP reports; Fintan O’Regan evidence of the interaction between spelling on successfully managing ADHD; Dr Tilly and handwriting processes in children with and Mortimore on tailoring study skills to match without dyslexia. individual learning needs; Sue Webb and Louise

Wood from Ease Training on the use of IT with . Dr. Olivia Afonso. Early Career Research Fellow dyslexics and dyspraxic pupils. The sessions were followed by an address by Delyth Lynch on Mindfulness and an important legal update by The SIG Writing Conference Tracey Eldridge-Hinmers, Veale Wasborough June 2016 Vizards on SEN, Disability and Reasonable Liverpool Hope University Adjustments Duty. The SIG Writing conference is held every two The ISC SEN Conference this year is being years and is a forum for sharing research on held on 18th November 2016 (iaps.uk/courses) writing more generally but includes research and includes Troubleshooting handwriting on handwriting and typing. The conference difficulties by Catherine Elsey, Vice Chair programme reflected the current role of NHA and Occupational Therapist. Also to technology in writing and in particular there support handwriting this year is an input from were some interesting studies on typing, writing Jenny Lim, Senior Occupational Therapist on tablets and speech to text software. and SENCo, Fairley House School. The new conference looks very exciting and invaluable Typing to all in the field of supporting children and Luxi Feng and colleagues in the United States young people in schools with SEND. presented a meta-analysis of the contribution of handwriting on writing and whether Laraine Erhlanderr-Lawrence. SENCo handwriting can be replaced by keyboarding.

Handwriting Today 69 ConferenceReviews

They analysed the contribution of handwriting suggested that speech to text software could fluency to writing development and explored be an effective tool for teaching composition the relationship between handwriting and strategies, but that its effectiveness depends on keyboarding. They found that handwriting students' familiarity with the software. fluency contributes to writing significantly and consistently. They also found that performances Handwriting on fluency of handwriting and keyboarding Michael Fliesser & colleagues in Germany were significantly related, especially on speed. examined the influence of motor abilities on They emphasised that writing performance can early handwriting. They tested 41 pre-schoolers be improved if students receive handwriting in early handwriting (copying loop patterns), instruction and that keyboarding is an accessible non-loco-motor stability (one-leg stance and alternative. sitting on a stool without touching the floor), loco-motor abilities (variation in gait speed and Tablets jumping), manipulative abilities (throwing and Sabrina Gerth and colleagues in Germany catching) and manual dexterity (posting coins examined the influence of the writing surface. and threading beads). Regression analyses They examined pre-schoolers, second graders showed that early handwriting performance was and adults writing on a tablet compared to paper. primarily influenced by manipulative abilities They recruited three groups with varying levels and manual dexterity. Loco-motor abilities

of handwriting automaticity and administered . exhibited no effect. They concluded that motor three tasks measuring: grapho-motor abilities, abilities, specifically manual dexterity, seem to visuo-motor abilities and handwriting be influential for early handwriting. performance. All tasks were performed twice, once on a tablet with a pen and in a separate Interesting Research Question session on paper attached to a tablet. Online David Galbraith & Veerle M. Baaijen (United measures (e.g., writing duration, writing Kingdom) considered the effects of reduced velocity, strokes and number of inversions visual feedback on writing. 90 undergraduate in velocity were collected. The comparison students were given 30 minutes either to write between tablet and paper surfaces revealed a an essay about one of two current affairs topics faster writing velocity for all groups and all tasks or to make notes in preparation for an essay. on the tablet. They concluded that the smoother Half the students wrote as normal; the other tablet surface presents an additional challenge half wrote using an inkless pen. However, there for handwriting learners because it requires were no significant effects of reduced visual additional control of handwriting movements. feedback on quality of writing. By contrast, there were significant effects on the generation Speech to Text Software of ideas, with writers in the reduced visual Katrina Haug & Perry Klein (Canada) looked at feedback condition retaining more of the ideas the effect of speech-to-text software on learning produced before writing, and generating fewer a new writing strategy. The study tested the new ideas after writing. These findings indicate effects of composition modality on learning that, although writers may be able to maintain a persuasive writing strategy. They asked the linguistic quality of text when writing with students to complete six lessons in one of two reduced visual feedback, they achieve this modalities: speech or handwriting. The results by adapting the way they generate their ideas

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during writing. children with and without DCD; Handwriting versus Keyboarding. Children with DCD Dr. Mellissa Prunty. Lecturer in Occupational spend more hours writing than their typically Therapy, Brunel University. developing peers because it physically takes them longer, the rules of writing are not embedded; their movements and writing postures differ. This Developmental Coordination Disorder UK research showed that for a child with DCD, the Conference. spacing of work, writing postures and movement 22nd-23rd July 2016 patterns that are evident in writing by hand are University of Leeds also evident in keyboarding,. A keyboard is not necessarily going to eliminate all of the child’s The 6th Biennial conference of DCD UK entitled difficulties. Whether a child writes or types, the ‘From Identification to Support and Intervention’ importance of accurate assessment and teaching was well attended and brought together for correct posture and technique was highlighted. professionals from all over the world, from a range of disciplines to share research findings Melissa Prunty from Brunel University London and discuss issues relating to all aspects of DCD. presented her research into the impact of pauses It was an extremely well organised event with on handwriting production for a child with DCD. welcome drinks hosted by David Sugden and a She highlighted the lack of automaticity in conference dinner. The informative and thought- . handwriting, even with familiar words. Writing provoking keynote speeches, oral presentations, was predominantly un-joined in the child with focus groups and posters captured the attention DCD in comparison to their typically developing of delegates, provoking discussion, reflection peer group. An intervention model approach on current practice and sharing of the practical rather than a consult model was recommended. applications of the theory and research. It may be that a child with DCD will require access arrangements/additional time in writing- One of the keynote addresses was given by based school tasks because of the identified Amanda Kirby, University of South Wales, well ‘pauses’. With the increased emphasis on joined known author and clinician. She outlined the handwriting in the National Curriculum, and impact a rocky motor profile continues to have Melissa’s research findings, what will this mean for a child with DCD into adulthood when the for a child with DCD? scaffolding support structure of parents/school/ services reduce but the demands of adult life Amanda Waterman from the School of increase. The accumulative effects of DCD Psychology, University of Leeds provided an on a person’s participation in daily life, sports, overview of the unique Born in Bradford project education/employment, friendships, and mental which has monitored how multiple factors impact well-being were explored. on the development in deprived multi-ethnic populations, tracking over 13000 families from Dido Green from the Department of Occupational pregnancy through life. Amanda highlighted Therapy, Tel Aviv University and Centre of some of the research looking at motor and Rehabilitation, Oxford Brookes University cognitive development within the primary school presented research on the comparisons of upper population. The engineering perspective added limb kinematics and writing performance among an interesting dimension.

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The final keynote speech given by Bouwien Smits-Engelsman explored the purpose and use of handwriting in modern society, recent handwriting literature in context of the EACD DCD guideline and the Dutch guideline for handwriting intervention were considered. Bouwien gave an interesting insight into the studies that have used the Systematic Evaluation of Handwriting Problems (SOS) to evaluate the quality and quantity of handwriting. Practical examples using task orientated training in conjunction with self-evaluation to guide effective handwriting instruction was well received by delegates.

Two common themes arose at the conference, the first, in relation to children presenting with coordination difficulties having low Vitamin D levels and thus screening for this should be part of

the DCD assessment process. The second related . to raising fitness by increasing the opportunities for children with DCD to participate in sports and leisure. With the aim being to increase fitness levels, reduce secondary health problems, enhance mental well-being, reinforce motor skills, and foster social participation.

Lesley Harding. Occupational therapist

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76 Handwriting Today Notes for contributors

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Books: Argyris, C. (1990). Overcoming organisational defences: Facilitating organisational learning. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Journals: Bartram, P.& Wolfendale, S. (1999). Educational Psychology Services: The pursuit of quality assurance. The Role of service level agreements. Educational Psychology in Practice, 15 (1), 30-45.

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Handwriting Today - Number 15 2016

Published by the National Handwriting Association Charity Number 1051157