Dawn of the Centaur Era? Equine-Based Human Development and a New Age in the Evolving History of Human-Horse Relations

“When one tugs at a single thing in nature, he finds it attached to the rest of the world.” – John Muir

DAWN OF THE CENTAUR ERA? EQUINE-BASED HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND A NEW AGE IN THE EVOLVING HISTORY OF HUMAN-HORSE RELATIONS

Christine Elizabeth Clarke

Master of Arts (History), University of New Brunswick, 2009 Bachelor of Arts (Interdisciplinary Honours & History Major), St. Thomas University, 2008

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Interdisciplinary Studies

in the Graduate Academic Unit of School of Graduate Studies

Supervisor(s): Fred Mason, Ph.D., Faculty of Kinesiology

Examining Board: Michael Dawson, Ph.D., Associate Vice-President (Research), Dept. of History, St. Thomas University R. Steven Turner, Ph.D., Dept. of History Cynthia Stacey, Ph.D., Dean of Renaissance College

External Examiner: Katrina Merkies, Ph.D., Dept. of Biosciences, University of Guelph

This dissertation is accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK

January, 2016

In the last decades of the twentieth century a new industry emerged from the practice of partnering people with horses in interactive activities for the purpose of mental-health therapy and human development. In the late 1980s, as various equine-based health and wellness practices emerged from the margins to gain popularity and credibility in mainstream Western society, some practitioners developed a new paradigm which actively engaged horses as sentient beings capable of consciously aiding in human health, wellness, and social development. Practitioners working within this new paradigm altogether rejected the otherwise common praxis of coercive dominance by humans over animals. Over the past quarter century, this new paradigm and praxis expanded from marginalized experimental idea to increasingly popular professional practice striving for legitimacy as a therapeutic industry in North America, South America, Europe, Australia, and parts of Africa, and in doing so challenged historical social norms and perceptions about horses and created the potential for altering the millennia-old relationship humans have had with them.

Existing literature on human-animal relations suggests a global trend of increasing compassion in human-animal relations since the advent of the humane movement in the 1860s, which was reflected in more gentle ways of working with animals. The Equine-Based Human Development (EBHD) industry which revolutionizes the historic human-horse relationship dynamic emerges from this development, at a time when academics in the Western world were also beginning to reconsider social norms regarding engagement with nonhuman animals. The beginnings of human-animal relations studies overlaps with the emergence of the EBHD industry, as well as with an era of social movements including those championing environmental and animal rights. The philosophies and values of the modern development of EBHD examined herein offer new insight into the larger, ever-changing history of human-animal relations, and especially the history of human-horse relations.

This dissertation builds on the literature examining the histories of human-animal relations, and specifically human-horse relations, by exploring the contemporary emergence of the Equine-Based

Human Development industry which has received little scholarly attention to date. In addition to detailing this missing piece of human-horse history, this work contributes to the larger field of human- animal relations by presenting another dimension of nonhuman-animal agency and highlighting its implications for further studies.

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DEDICATION

For all my four-legged teachers, especially KC and Autumn.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I’d like to begin with gratitude, and offer my sincere thanks to those who aided in the completion of this dissertation and degree. There are a great many to whom I owe deep gratitude for their support over the years -- too many to name all individually, but several in particular.

First, I could not have accomplished any of this research without the love and support of my family, to whom I have eternal gratitude. My mother, Marilyn Chapman, deserves much appreciation for encouraging me in this pursuit from the very beginning, and for teaching me to never give up. And without the constant love and encouragement of my partner, Taylor Gray, it is unlikely I would ever have finished this marathon endeavour. I have infinite gratitude for him and his extraordinary patience and support, and the countless hours he kindly assisted in brainstorming and editing throughout my research and writing process. As well, the affection and regimented play-breaks insisted upon me by our dogs Doc and Zoe, and cats Dharma, Koda, and Fang, made trying stages of research and writing much easier to endure.

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my original and principal advisor, Dr. Rusty

Bittermann, for his continuous support, patience, motivation, and for always asking poignant questions which incented me to deepen and strengthen my research from various perspectives. I would not have begun, nor finished, this degree without his generous mentorship and persistent encouragement throughout its entirety.

I would like to thank Dr. Margaret MacCullum, too, for her extraordinary generosity, expert editing support, insightful comments, and warm encouragement.

Many, many thanks go, as well, to Dr. Michael Dawson, for his enduring support over the past years and through the full development of my degree and this dissertation. I have so appreciated his thorough oversight, and wonderful sense of humor when my stress-level needed reprieve!

Further, I would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Fred Mason for his kindness and generous willingness to think and work outside-the-box in lending himself to the task of supervising the completion of this dissertation, and my degree.

As well, I am very grateful to the members of my examining committee: Dr. R. Steven Turner, Dr.

Cynthia Stacey, and Dr. Katrina Merkies, who generously contributed their time and expertise to my dissertation, thereby making it possible for me to achieve the esteemed designation of this doctoral degree.

I also wish to thank Dr. Mary McKenna and the Interdisciplinary Studies Department for their generous and timely support and for accepting me as one of their graduate students.

And, I would be remiss if I did not articulate my appreciation for each of those who supported my research into the fascinating development of Equine-Based Human Development work, from the dedicated library staff at the HIL, especially those aiding my countless document delivery orders – to each of the Horse Wisdom practitioners and professionals who shared their stories and unique perspectives. Without their first hand experiences, there would be holes in the chronology and narrative depicted in the pages of this dissertation.

Most especially, however, I must express my gratitude for each of the horses I have known and loved across my lifetime, especially KC and Autumn, who inspired my research from the very beginning.

These four-legged teachers generously shared their wisdom and guided my process throughout. They have been my personal passion for as long as I can remember, and I am very grateful to have had the privilege of dedicating the last six years of my life to researching and writing about changing perspectives and positive potential for the relationships our species share.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...... x Chapter One: Introduction ...... 1 Defining the Paradigm ...... 11 Literature Review ...... 22 Chronology of Scholarship ...... 23 Scholarly Themes ...... 36 Chapter Two: Ripple Effects from a Twentieth Century “Revolution” in Horsemanship ...... 55 Introduction ...... 55 Historical Context ...... 56 Classical Horsemanship ...... 58 Mediterranean, and Old World Horsemanship ...... 63 New World Horsemanship ...... 65 The “Revolution” ...... 67 The Ripple Effects...... 86 Chapter Three: From Physiotherapist to Psychotherapist: The Horse in Human Health ...... 91 Introduction ...... 91 The Growth of Animal Assisted Therapies ...... 95 Within AAT: Hippotherapy and Therapeutic Riding ...... 108 Emergence of the EBHD Industry ...... 119 Figure 3.1 ...... 126 Conclusion ...... 130 Section II: The Beginning of an Industry and a New Age in the Horse-Human Relationship..... 133 Chapter Four: The Emergence of EBHD in the 1980s and 1990s ...... 134 Introduction ...... 134 1980s – Experimenting with Concepts...... 135 1990s – The EBHD Industry Emerges ...... 149 Conclusion ...... 173

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Chapter Five: The Popularization of an Industry ...... 175 Introduction ...... 175 The 2000s ...... 176 Spreading the Word, Expanding the Client Base: People & Publications ...... 177 The Pioneers ...... 177 The Second Generation of Leaders ...... 187 Seeking Legitimacy: Industry Research & Governance ...... 198 Chapter Six: The 2010s: Promoting a New Paradigm ...... 205 Conclusion ...... 240 Chapter 7: Conclusion ...... 244 Foundation for Change: The History and Context ...... 246 The Centaur Industry ...... 251 Timing Matters ...... 255 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 262 Interviews ...... 262 Industry websites and promotional material ...... 262 Industry Related Memoirs and Autobiographies ...... 278 Popular Accounts of EBHD and related Industries ...... 280 Secondary Sources ...... 282 Journal Articles & Reports ...... 282 Dissertations & Theses ...... 306 Books ...... 309 CURRICULUM VITAE ......

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….126

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAA – Animal Assisted Activity

AAI – Animal Assisted Intervention

AAT – Animal Assisted Therapy

ADD – Attention deficit disorder

ADHD – Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

AHA – American Hippotherapy Association

CanTRA – Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association

CARD – Community Association of Riding for the Disabled

CBEIP – Certification Board for Equine Interaction Professionals

E3A – Equine Experiential Education Association

EAAT – Equine assisted activities and therapy

EAGALA – Equine-Assisted Growth and Learning Association

EAHAE – European Association of Horse Assisted Education

EAL – Equine-Assisted Learning

EAP – Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy

EAQ – Equine Assisted Qualifications

EBHD – Equine-Based Human Development

EFL – Equine-Facilitated Learning

EFMHA – Equine-Facilitated Mental Health Association

EFMHW – Equine-Facilitated Mental Health and Wellness

EFP – Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy

EFW-Canada – Equine Facilitated Wellness – Canada

EGEA – Equine Guided Education Association

FEEL – Equine-Facilitated Education and Learning

FEEL – Facilitated Equine Experiential Learning

HEAL – Human-Equine Alliances for Healing

HETI – Federation of Horses in Education and Therapy International

HHRF – Horses and Humans Research Foundation

IFEAL – International Foundation for Equine Assisted Learning

LEAD – Leadership through Equine Assisted Discovery Program at the University of Guelph in Ontario

NAEFW – National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness

NARHA – North American Riding for the Handicapped Association

PATH Intl. – Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International

PTSD – Post-traumatic stress disorder

RDA – Riding for the Disabled Association

RDI – Federation of Riding for the Disabled International

SAFE Professionals – Standards for Assisted and Facilitated Equine Professionals

SPCA – Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

STIRRP – Sierra Tucson Integrated Riding Resource Program

TROT – Therapeutic Riding of Tucson

Chapter One: Introduction

As a young woman entered the doorway of her barn, seven horses popped their heads over the stall doors, ears forward, watching her. Several of them nickered a greeting. The woman smiled and greeted them all in return, and then proceeded to explain to the herd that she had a client coming to work with them. She had not yet met the woman who had contacted her entirely by e-mail to schedule an Equine-Based Human Development (EBHD) session, or as she calls it, a “Horse Wisdom” experience. The EBHD facilitator knew her client’s name, Sarah, and that she was a corporate lawyer who worked at a big firm, but nothing else.

After Sarah arrived, got settled, and learned the basics of “Horse Wisdom,” the EBHD facilitator invited her to begin with an activity called “Meet the Herd.” As the name suggests, the participant genuinely meets the horses from the barn aisle while they remain in their individual stalls. There are two rules: the participant must not talk, nor touch the horses. The goal is to enliven the participant’s observation, intuition, and sense of emotion as conscious resources for accessing information through social exchange. The EBHD facilitator instructed

Sarah to take her journal and jot down absolutely every idea that came into her mind as she stood outside each horse’s stall, trying to get a sense of their personalities, age, status or role in the herd, and paying attention to the feelings the horses aroused in her.

Sarah began approaching each horse’s stall, walking swiftly and wearing a broad smile.

The horse in the first stall looked at her and then moved to the back of its stall and appeared to ignore her. Sarah waited for a minute or so, staring at the horse as if trying to will it closer to her, then let out a slight huff and moved her body and her attention to the next stall. The second horse put its head out of the stall to see her when she arrived, but after only a moment turned and also moved to the back of its stall. This horse circled a few times, appearing

1 somewhat restless, pausing briefly at the back of the stall with each circle. Sarah did not wait as long with this horse and, again, moved on. The third horse behaved much like the first. A look of confusion and frustration flashed briefly across Sarah’s face, then she restored the trained smile she had begun with and moved to observe another horse. She still had not made any notes in her journal, indicating that she did not think that she had observed anything informative in her encounters with the three horses. The fourth stall Sarah approached was

Dreamer’s.

Dreamer lifted his head over the door of his stall gently when Sarah arrived in front of it, but almost immediately he retreated into his stall with a sharp squeal and nostrils flared, and began racing in circles. Sarah instinctively jumped a little and stepped backwards, catching her own startled breath in her throat as she observed the horse’s display of intense anger and anxiety. After what felt like an eternity for Sarah (so she expressed later), but was really only a minute or two, she turned to look at the facilitator, eyes wide, mouth agape, and seemingly paralyzed with fear. Sensing a poignant moment for insight, the facilitator broke the rule of silence to prompt Sarah into conscious self-awareness. “Sarah, what are you feeling right now?” she asked. A look of horror washed over Sarah’s face, as if she had been found guilty of something terrible. At that moment, Dreamer halted his frantic circles and stood at the door to his stall, reaching gently with his nose as close to Sarah as he could stretch. He began licking his lips and chewing the air. The facilitator explained, “Whatever you’re feeling, Dreamer is using horse language to encourage you to pay attention to that feeling. Being honest about it with yourself is making him relax; that’s what those silly mouth movements of his mean.”

Tears began to flow from Sarah’s eyes. Dreamer started stretching his neck further and began making exaggerated yawns repeatedly while Sarah sobbed. Dreamer continued to yawn and lick and chew as closely and attentively to Sarah as he could reach for the duration of her

2 tear spell, his ears focused on her the entire time. “I was frustrated with myself and angry I wasn’t doing it right, meeting the horses I mean,” Sarah said sheepishly when her sobs subsided, looking at the ground. Dreamer snorted softly. “You made it sound so easy to meet the herd, but each horse kept rejecting me. I know I should have done something differently, but I couldn’t make them like me. In my world, failure is NOT an option. But I couldn’t even get a horse to stick around when I walked up to meet it, and then this one hated me so much it started to freak out! When you asked how I was feeling I felt like such a fraud! I can’t get it right, I don’t know what to do, and I felt like you could see right through me. I was scared I was failing.”

Dreamer snorted loudly, three times, as she made her final statement, then continued licking and chewing and reaching his soft nose for Sarah’s shoulder. A little startled by his timely and emphatic response, Sarah looked up at the horse and noticed for the first time that he was trying to reach her. She stepped closer to the horse and he nuzzled her gently. A smile of humbled delight stretched across Sarah’s face. After a few moments, Sarah turned to the facilitator and asked with genuine curiosity, “What changed?”

“You did,” the facilitator replied. Sarah looked at her quizzically. “You decided to be honest about how you feel. When you began this activity, you were more focused on worrying about doing the exercise wrong and feeling like a failure than you were conscious of making an emotional connection with the horses. The first three moved away from you because, although you were smiling at them, they could sense you weren’t really feeling happy. In horse herds, when someone is inauthentic or dishonest about how they feel it puts the whole herd at higher risk to predators. You were trying to make the horses believe you felt differently than you really felt. You might not have been trying to maliciously manipulate them, but you were trying to deceive them – and maybe even yourself. But horses rely on emotional resonance for

3 communication in their herds. That means they feel the emotions of their herd-mates in close proximity to them; it means they also feel the real emotions we’re experiencing as well. And when we lie about how we’re feeling to horses, it makes them feel unsafe. That’s why the first three distanced themselves from you. They sensed you were trying to trick them, and you just explained you were.” Sarah stared at the facilitator for a moment, reflecting on her explanation. “But, why did this horse react so intensely? And how did he forgive me so quickly?”

“Dreamer, the horse you’re snuggling with now, is one of the lead horses in this herd,” the facilitator replied. “When you approached his stall, he chose to help you see yourself the way the horses were seeing you. As a leader of the herd he has more confidence dealing with uncertainty and it’s his job to help keep his herd safe. He decided to help you be safe as well.

His big reaction in the stall demonstrated intense fear and anger, but as you can see now from his snuggles, he is neither angry with nor afraid of you. He was mirroring your emotions, the ones he felt through emotional resonance. He stopped when you admitted to yourself how you were really feeling – before you said anything at all. He felt your shift in awareness, and he stopped mirroring your emotions when you became consciously aware of them yourself. And when you continued to be honest about how you felt by speaking about it, he really started to encourage you to continue by communicating every sign of relaxation he could, yawning, stretching his neck, and licking and chewing the air, even trying to nuzzle you affectionately. He didn’t forgive you; he was never upset with you to begin with. He was trying to help you stay safe in the way horses do. He wanted you to be honest about how you feel, because in the world of horses, honesty about emotions keeps the herd safe. He put on that big display because he was acting out the emotions you were ignoring or trying to hide. When you

4 stopped trying to deceive everyone about how you felt, he immediately wanted to be near you.”

“But I hadn’t stopped feeling that way when he tried to be near me,” Sarah said, questioningly. “Why would Dreamer want to be near me or encourage me to feel angry or frustrated or afraid? Those are all bad emotions! Don’t I have to be happy and confident in order to win their trust and respect?”

“You just have to be honest,” the facilitator said. “Horses rely on emotion like a language. For them, there is no good emotion or bad emotion. Instead, every emotion holds an important piece of information that horses rely on to keep themselves and their herd alive and well. Knowing when one member of the herd is content and happy is just as important as knowing when another member is angry or frustrated, and when anyone in the herd feels fear, the whole herd responds by running away from the potential danger. If the cause of that fear turned out to be a plastic bag instead of a mountain lion, no one is shamed for the action; the herd simply goes back to grazing in the new location. Horses would rather be safe than sorry.

They are expert empaths, and compared to us humans, horses are geniuses of emotional intelligence. They communicate among their herds through emotional resonance, and they communicate with people exactly the same way – if we know how to listen.”

*****

Sarah’s “Horse Wisdom” experience occurred in 2013 at Dempster Stable in Saint John,

New Brunswick, facilitated by the owner of Gratitude Works: Personal & Professional

Development Ltd., one of many EBHD organizations that have begun offering these sorts of experiences in the past quarter century. Today, the practice of EBHD, engaging horses in human mental health, wellness, and social development, is conducted by horse enthusiasts, mental health professionals, executive coaches, and education and training

5 facilitators/consultants across much of North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Central and South America and Africa. Most practitioners of these kinds of equine- engagement experiences operate independently or in affiliation with small businesses variously identified as offering services in areas such as mental health, wellness, education, personal or professional development, and luxury leisure. Collectively, these practitioners and their practices promote human social development by engaging people with horses in contexts which create opportunities for people to learn from equine instincts. No single official title yet exists to encapsulate all of these services or all of those offering them; Equine-Based Human

Development (EBHD) is the term I have coined to refer to the collective enterprises which together comprise the emerging fields of practice.

The EBHD industry came into being in the final decades of the twentieth century in the midst of developments which were changing the historic human-horse relationship dynamic from a relationship in which humans treated horses as property to one in which they treated them as partners. In the late 1980s, a new paradigm appeared on the margins of mainstream

Western society which actively engaged horses as conscious participants aiding in human health, wellness, and social development, and rejected the otherwise common praxis of coercive dominance of animals by humans. Over the course of the past quarter century, the paradigm-shifting praxis expanded from marginalized experimental treatments to increasingly popular professional services. As EBHD practitioners sought recognition and legitimacy for their contribution to a therapeutic industry, they articulated premises and developed activities that implicitly and sometimes explicitly challenged historical social norms and perceptions about horses, and altered the millennia-old relationship that humans have had with them. As the

EBHD industry attracts more participants and more popular and scholarly attention, it is

6 beginning to change the way that people in Western society think about, understand, and interact with horses.

As a new industry with a steadily increasing number of practitioners seeking professional legitimacy for their work, EBHD appears to be developing along similar trajectory as many of the nineteenth and twentieth-century health and helping professions. The idea of

“professions” as separate and distinct from “occupations” has been widely considered by scholars from various disciplines in the recent decades. Since the mid-nineteenth century, at least, skilled service providers and their client populations have debated the merits of specialized knowledge and training, issued credentials and regulatory oversight by government or governing organizations, and related variances in fees-for-services. On the one hand, practitioners who invest much of their time, money, and energy in acquiring the knowledge and skills believed to be necessary to provide quality services have long been wary of

“quackery,” or practitioners with little or false knowledge, operating as economic competitors and potentially harmful healthcare providers. On the other hand, Western society’s general public has a long history of valuing freedom of choice, including the right to choose healthcare providers and services without external regulation or oversight. As such, the terms

“professional,” “profession,” and “professionalization” are richly infused with cultural meaning.

In essence, these terms refer not only to generalized occupations or skills, rather, they indicate specialized knowledge and skills cultivated through extensive and formal education with regulatory safeguards and certifications. “Professionalism,” refers to much more than a collection of behaviours, it speaks to legal licensing of service-based work and externally validated designation of expertise. Obtaining such legitimacy of practice provides many advantages for workers, but is very difficult to achieve, as is demonstrated by fields like

Nursing and Social-Work. Many EBHD proponents are seeking “professionalization” of their

7 industry, and appear to be following a similarly tumultuous trajectory as other “helping professions.”1

EBHD practices originated in the American Southwest in the late 1980s within institutes that specialized in addiction rehabilitation and behavioural remediation for youth.

The original practices were developed for the purpose of building self-esteem, responsibility, trust, and soft skills among youth participants, to aid in their recovery. Early practitioners observed that when troubled humans worked with horses in therapy programs, the humans developed gentle and respectful relationships with the large herbivores. In the process, the human client learned social skills, such as clear and authentic communication, self-confidence, and emotional resiliency that they could transfer to their human-to-human relationships.

During the late 1990s, such horse-based practices began to organize into a professional industry. Official associations and steering committees formed around the idea of interacting with horses for the purpose of developing human potential. At first, the people exploring these new inter-species possibilities were primarily interested in therapeutic initiatives and focused on mental health and wellness. Later, the emerging industry expanded to include practitioners without mental health care credentials or licenses; the new style of interacting with horses also appealed to teachers, experiential learning educators, executive coaches, and those engaged in human social development more generally.2

1 R. D. Gidney, and W. P. J. Millar, Professional Gentlemen: The Professions in Nineteenth-Century Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 3-6, 49-51, 53-58, 85-88; Pamela Abbott, and Liz Meerabeau, The Sociology of the Caring Professions 2nd Ed. (London: UCL Press, 1998), 1-16, 20-50, 54- 69, 73-80, 178-195w, 255-262; Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 2-8, 19-39, 40-52, 104-135, 159-166; Wilbert Ellis Moore, The Professions: Roles and Rules (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1970), 3-83; Michael Burrage, and Rolf Torstendahl, Professions in Theory and History: Rethinking the Study of the Professions (London: Sage Publications, 1990), 1-21, 151-175, 177-199; Michael Burrage, and Rolf Torstendahl, The Formation of Professions: Knowledge, State and Strategy (London: Sage, 1990), 1-10, 11-23, 151-173. 2 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November

What unites the many entities grouped under the broad title of EBHD is their perspective on the role of the horse in the therapy or development program offered to the human client. EBHD practitioners seek to see beyond the physical abilities of horses to engage with them as sentient beings capable of consciously aiding in human health, wellness, and social development. Such an orientation challenges historical norms of thinking about, understanding, and engaging with horses, thereby creating the basis for a new interspecies relationship dynamic. The experience of those engaged in the new industry suggests that positive human development is achievable not only by interacting with horses – humans have done that for millennia -- but by working with and learning from the instincts of the equine species. Proponents of EBHD believe that mental health and social benefits for humans are accessible by engaging the willing cooperation of horses as partners in human development processes rather than understanding and treating horses as property to be dominated or coerced into submissive obedience.3

Many practitioners also believe EBHD processes also benefit the horses involved. While concern for equine welfare is articulated throughout the EBHD industry, about half of the proponents view horses as tools to be used for human benefits while the other half view horses as valued partners fully conscious of their own agency in human development. The former group tend to select very docile, highly trained and submissive horses for their practices. The latter group frequently select “rescued horses,” which have experienced some form of trauma or neglect, in effort to help rehabilitate the animals through the EBHD

23, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 1-4, 27-70; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), viii-ix, 1-5, 6-34. 3 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 47-48, 71; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 67-69.

9 processes as well. Some EBHD practitioners even report the benefits for, and enjoyment of, horses involved are so noticeable following engagement in EBHD activities that horse-owners at local boarding stables frequently request their horses be included whenever possible. Horse- owners often find their horses to demonstrate greater relaxation, affection, and happiness following participation in EBHD activities.4

EBHD pioneers challenged social norms and popular perspectives about horses’ potential to influence and aid human wellness and development. The collective EBHD efforts invited consideration of a paradigm shift in the human-horse relationship and, by extension, the history of human-animal relationships more generally. In the 1960s and 1970s, social revolution and environmentalism were significant themes in popular culture, and powerful social movements achieved some success in advancing human rights, freedoms, and equality, and in extending the idea of rights to encompass non-human animals.5 At the same time, and inspired by some of the same sentiments and commitments, a handful of innovative and compassionate horse enthusiasts in North America and Western Europe began experimenting with new concepts in their work with horses. What they discovered in the process, nearly

4 Esterina Fazio, Pietro Medica, Cristina Cravana, and Adriana Ferlazzo, “Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Responses of Horses to Therapeutic Riding Program: Effects of Different Riders,” Physiology & Behavior 118 (2013): 138-143; K. Merkies, Sievers A., Zakrajsek E., MacGregor H., Bergeron B., and König von Borstel U, “Preliminary Results Suggest an Influence of Psychological and Physiological Arousal in Humans on Horse Heart Rate and Behaviour,” Journal of Veterinary Behaviour 9, (2014): 242-247; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 5 Bryan D. Palmer, Canada's 1960s: The Ironies of Identity in a Rebellious Era (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009), 247-309; Simon Hall, American Patriotism, American Protest: Social Movements Since the Sixties (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 1-8, 9-25; Jeff Kisseloff, Generation on Fire Voices of Protest from the 1960s: An Oral History (Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2007), 1-5; David Mark Chalmers, And the Crooked Places Made Straight: The Struggle for Social Change in the 1960s (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), xv-xviii, 88-100, 118- 134, 146-167, 168-194; Simon Hall, Peace and Freedom: The Civil Rights and Antiwar Movements in the 1960s (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 1-12, 187-194; James Morton Turner, The Promise of Wilderness: American Environmental Politics Since 1964 (Seattle, Washington: University of Washington, 2012), 1-13, 71-100, 183-262.

10 simultaneously yet on different continents, was a profound capacity in horses to aid in the personal development, emotional healing, relationship building, and leadership capacities of their human counter-parts. Moreover, what eventually emerged as EBHD had roots in older and more established industries such as therapeutic horseback riding, and Animal Assisted

Therapy. As well, EBHD drew on a developing style of intentionally compassionate horsemanship known as Natural Horsemanship.6

By the 1980s and 1990s, EBHD industry practices and understandings were beginning to coalesce around principles of interspecies trust and respect which had growing popular appeal. EBHD practice encourages humans to learn to understand and engage with the instinctive nature of the equine species in order to develop social skills which are transferable to, and valuable in, human-to-human relationships. The industry’s central principle, that horses be engaged as intelligent and sentient beings conscious and intentional in their own agency, stands in stark contrast to the more widely recognized form of human-horse relationship predicated on domination and coercion.

Defining the Paradigm As a whole, the EBHD industry brings humans together with horses in a variety of activities and interactive engagements for the purpose of human development, whether educational, therapeutic, or both. Some forms of EBHD are strictly intended to deal with emotional and mental health issues of the human client as part of psychological treatment and therapy. Other forms of EBHD relate to human psychology but only from the perspective of building relationships or leadership skills, such as those appropriate to professional development training. Still others combine the full spectrum of EBHD practice to offer holistic

6 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 78-80; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 25, 33, 66-69, 153-158, 188, 194-195.

11 human development including educational and therapeutic components through a variety of equine-guided activities.7

The EBHD industry is still young. Not only does it lack a single, unanimously accepted title, it also lacks a single, unifying definition and description of practice. While EBHD practitioners have established several national and international organizations, none have legal authority to require practitioners to belong to any accrediting organization or to adhere to external oversight of their practices. Thus, while the industry continues to grow and mature, there is no central regulation or standardization of the wide variety of titles, definitions, and descriptions used in the practice of equine-assisted or equine-facilitated learning and therapy.

Variations in titles as well as styles and scopes of practice employed by industry practitioners are currently moderated, for the most part, simply by personal codes of honour and local reputation among practitioners. Ultimately, prospective participants or clients of the EBHD industry must rely on their own due diligence when selecting a potential business or individual to facilitate their equine-based experiences. So far, this does not appear to have hindered the growth of the industry, but it does contribute to delays in widespread industry legitimization and inclusion as an accepted form of therapy in mainstream or alternative healthcare and insurance coverage.8

7 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 27-30, 65-69, 217-263, 269-425; Isabelle “Boo” McDaniel, “What Exactly is Equine Facilitated Mental Health and Equine Facilitated Learning,” NARHA Strides Magazine, Winter 1998; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 105-113, 126-134, 190-200. 8 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013.

Whatever description or style EBHD practitioners adopt, EBHD works by relying on equine instinctive behaviour as an interactive indicator of human social and emotional skills. In essence, EBHD proponents claim that people can gain insight into their relationship patterns and social and emotional intelligences by letting horses be horses, freely engaging with people in simple activities. These interactions, within parameters determined by the horse, are a means to adjust, train, and strengthen human skill sets necessary for good relationships.

Drawing on their understanding of equine behavioural psychology and instinct, and human learning processes, practitioners of EBHD design and facilitate activities in partnership with horses to illuminate their human clients’ natural strengths and weaknesses in social and emotional skills, and to create opportunities to consciously improve these skills through further interaction with horses.9

Horses are highly social herd animals. In contrast to many of the culturally celebrated predator animals such as the alpha wolf or the king lion of the jungle, horses are prey animals which maintain survival priorities and strategies very different from their predators. It is horses’ instinctively heightened sense of awareness and emotional sensitivity that, EBHD practitioners claim, make these animals highly effective teachers and therapists.10

9 Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 85-90, 183-213; Isabelle “Boo” McDaniel, “What Exactly is Equine Facilitated Mental Health and Equine Facilitated Learning,” NARHA Strides Magazine, Winter 1998; Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-45; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 9, 31, 123-125; Martine Hausberger, Hélène Roche, Séverine Henry, and E. Kathalijne Visser, “A Review of the Human–Horse Relationship,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 109, (2008): 1–24. 10 Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-45; Linda Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds: Expanding our Potential through the Way of the Horse (Novato, California: New World Library, 2003), xviii-xx, 18-20, 197-199; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 27-30, 34-35, 83-88; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 161-163.

Horses evolved living in family herds depending on social relationships for survival.

The EBHD field is based on the notion that horses use emotion as a language, and emotional resonance as a means of communicating important survival information among all members of the herd. Effectively, horses use emotion as information to understand and communicate critical details and decisions among their family units so as to navigate environments, find food and water, avoid predation, and perpetuate their species. Thus, proficiency in emotional and social intelligences is a critical component of equine biological survival strategy. Compared with humans, EBHD practitioners consider horses to be geniuses of social and emotional intelligence.11

Pioneers of the EBHD industry observed that when given the freedom to engage naturally, horses interact with people as they interact with other horses, providing experiential learning opportunities for people to develop skills in emotional and social intelligence through interaction with nonverbal, prey animals. Horses’ capacity to teach and heal people comes from their instinctive social behaviours. Biologically, humans evolved to rely heavily on faculties of reason and logic. We think, rationalize, and problem solve. Horses, on the other hand, evolved to rely more heavily on faculties of emotion and non-verbal communication in social interaction. They feel, reflect, and respond.12 While we enjoy a certain aptitude for emotional and social intelligences, horses possess exponentially heightened acuity as a result of their different evolutionary priorities and survival strategies. The equus caballus species had been refining these skills as its central survival strategy for thousands of years prior to the

11 Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-10, 28-39, 41-43, 90-91, 100-110, 287; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 22-25, 276- 278. 12 Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-10, 40-44; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 14-15, 20, 32, 311; Lynda Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’: The Culture of ‘Natural Horsemanship',” Society & Animals 15 (2007): 217-239.

14 evolution of homo sapiens on the planet. Thus, according to EBHD practitioners, when we engage with horses we engage with genuine masters in areas in which we are only amateurs.13

Using these equine instincts, interpreted by human facilitators, is the basis of EBHD practices.14 As Dr. Allan Hamilton, an award winning researcher, explains:

The reason the horse can become such a gifted teacher for us is because he does not need an inner voice. He doesn’t think in words at all. He feels. … More than thirty million years of evolutionary pressure have turned the horse into the quintessential prey animal. ... Working with horses gives us the opportunity to return to a primal, nonverbal state of awareness. Without the interference of language, we reconnect with the energy shared among all life forms.15 Additionally, work with horses in EBHD activities shares the same general benefits drawn from all animal assisted therapies. The non-human animals involved in animal assisted therapies offer honest, non-judgemental engagement and feedback which fosters an environment of trust and self-confidence for the human participants.16

Almost all EBHD activities are conducted on the ground, beside the horse(s) rather than mounted on their backs. The ground-work structure strengthens the spirit of equality and genuine partnership with horses emphasized by EBHD programs. Frequently, horses are given permission from their human handlers to decide when and how they wish to participate in

13 Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-10; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 14-23, 160-163. 14 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 85-113; Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-10; Linda Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds: Expanding our Potential through the Way of the Horse (Novato, California: New World Library, 2003), 165-169; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 108, 241; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 6-34. 15 Allan J Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, MA: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 3, 8. 16 Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 35-124; Aubrey H. Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), 23-25, 67, 145-146, 179-181, 267-269.

EBHD activities, with the freedom to decline participation entirely. Often, the activities with the horses are conducted without any kind of harness equipment which would force, restrict, or control the movement of the horses. The liberty of the horses involved requires the human participants to engage the horses through gentle and charismatic communication rather than manipulation by force and physical control. The humans must learn to motivate the horse to willingly work with them, thus fostering leadership skills. Such experiential learning, EBHD theorizes, is then easily transferable out of the stable yard and into human-human social interaction.17

Industry practitioners identify and define their style of practice on the basis of the core philosophies of their work in partnership with horses and their individual professional credentials. Most commonly, practitioners identify as offering either equine-assisted or equine- facilitated programs, the language difference being a somewhat contested issue within the industry and representing important differences in operating philosophies. The equine-assisted school of thought generally views the role of the horse in EBHD as an assistant to, or tool for, human facilitators to use in systematically structured activities. The instinctive behavioural response(s) of the horses to the human participants are still central elements of insight, education, and therapy in equine-assisted modalities of EBHD, but the agency of understanding is identified with the human facilitator and not the equine partner(s) in process. Conversely, the equine-facilitated school of thought generally views the role of the horse as active agent in

17 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 35-80; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 61-63, 319, 417-418; Ashley Symington, “Grief and Horses: Putting the Pieces Together,” Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 7, no. 2 (2012): 165-174; Cora Maziere and Olen Gunnlaugson, “A Case for Developing Spiritual Intelligence in Leaders through Equine Facilitated Learning,” The Journal of Values-Based Leadership 8, no. 1 (2015): 10.

16 all education and therapy activities, supported by human facilitator partners in the process.

The role of leadership in these practices is shared between the human facilitator and the equine partners. In this model, horses are invited to consciously and freely engage with human clients in a safe environment supervised by a human facilitator. The educational or therapeutic processes in equine-facilitated style EBHD sessions are often left to the horse to initiate while the human facilitators serve as interpreters of equine behaviour and engagement cues. In practice, the two schools appear quite similar; however, their differences illuminate the wide range of thought underlying the paradigm shift embedded in the industry as a whole.18

Once EBHD practitioners establish their preference for an equine-assisted or equine- facilitated approach, they commonly self-categorize into one of two main streams of practice, the psychotherapy and mental health and wellness stream, or the experiential education and personal or professional development stream. Licensed therapists frequently identify their practices as therapy or mental health counselling, while other EBHD practitioners are encouraged by the industry community to designate the limits of their professional training with words such as education, learning, wellness, or coaching.19

Women and children represent the largest client populations that access EBHD services. Some EBHD professionals limit their scope of practice to women only, and images of women with horses vastly outnumber images of men on EBHD websites and marketing

18 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 217-265; Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 1-10, 95, 299; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, And Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 56, 108, 413-415. 19 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 241-254.

17 materials across the industry. Some industry practitioners speculate that because horses are prey animals, not predators, they represent feminine energy, while at the same time the horse has long been admired for its power and strength, all of which may attract women seeking empowerment.20

Many EBHD practices and programs work specifically with youth, and in many cases, youth at risk or youth in trouble. Indeed some youth EBHD programs were developed through state and national justice systems in the USA.21 Similarly, a large number of boarding schools, particularly in the Southwestern United States, incorporate EBHD programs in their business strategies. These schools range from high achievement International Baccalaureate boarding schools to residential youth treatment and recovery centers for alcohol and drug addictions.22

20 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008); Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011), 35-37; Amy Kristine Pretcher, “An Assessment of Equine Assisted Growth Learning Association and Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship Programs in Montana,” (Master's Thesis, Montana State University, 2014); Linda Kohanov, The Tao of Equus: A Woman's Journey of Healing & Transformation through the Way of the Horse (Novato, California: New World Library, 2001), xv, 3-4, 7, 15-16, 25, 38-39, 124-125 183-190, 213-216, 270, 303-304, 324; M. Toukonen Cuffari, “The Relationship between Adolescent Girls and Horses: Implications for Equine-Assisted Therapies,” (Doctoral Dissertation, Kent State University, 2011); J. Tramutt, “Opening the Gate: Cultivating Self Awareness and Self Acceptance through Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy,” (Master's Thesis, Naropa University, 2003); Darlene Joy Chalmers, “Fulfilling the Fundamentals of Life: A Grounded Theory of the Process of Human-Horse Relationship Development,” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Calgary, 2014); Lynda Birke and Keri Brandt, “Mutual Corporeality: Gender and Human/Horse Relationships,” Women's Studies International Forum 32, no. 3 (2009): 189-197. 21 “Equine Assisted Therapy,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Deborah L. Frame, “Practices of Therapists Using Equine Facilitated/Assisted Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Adolescents Diagnosed with Depression: A Qualitative Study,” (Doctoral Dissertation, New York University, School of Social Work, 2006); Darlene Joy Chalmers, “Fulfilling the Fundamentals of Life: A Grounded Theory of the Process of Human-Horse Relationship Development,” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Calgary, 2014). 22 Verde Valley School, “Home,” last modified 2015, accessed September 16, 2015, http://vvsaz.org/; Inbalranch.com, “In Balance Academy-A Therapeutic Boarding School for Adolescents Suffering from Drug or Alcohol Abuse,” last modified 2015, accessed September 16, 2015, http://www.inbalranch.com/; Sierratucson.crchealth.com, “Premier Psychiatric Hospital - Sierra Tucson,” last modified 2015, accessed June 3, 2015, http://sierratucson.crchealth.com/about/articles/premier-psychiatric-hospital/; Yahoo

Increasingly specialized EBHD programs are marketed to support military veterans and victims of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Corporate executives and entrepreneurs are another significant client population for EBHD services. The Equine-Facilitated Education or

Learning sector of the industry markets creative and dynamic customized opportunities for business people and professionals to work outside the office in order to develop new perspectives and access valuable insights to benefit their professional lives and improve success, or to build team spirit within a corporate organization. Many Equine-Facilitated

Mental Health and Wellness specialists also serve the Fortune 500 companies and executive leadership or management teams and CEOs.23

Increasingly, a handful of prison system rehabilitation programs in North America have begun to employ EBHD industry specialists to offer programs to teach inmates social skills such as communication, compassion, teamwork, respect, and responsibility in partnership with wild, untrained, rescued, or retired horses. Under the supervision and guidance of one or more

News, Finance, “Garfield Park Academy: Anti-Bullying Message Moves from the Schoolyard to the Barnyard, as Horses Help Disabled Students Learn Compassion and Problem-Solving,” 2012, accessed January 16, 2015, http://finance.yahoo.com/news/garfield-park-academy-anti-bullying-145336701.html. 23 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Allanhamilton.com, “Equine Assisted Therapy,” last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; Coachingwithhorses.com, “About Kathy Pike - The Academy for Coaching with Horses,” last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://coachingwithhorses.com/about-kathy-pike; Miraval Spa, “Wyatt Webb | Miraval Equine Experience | Miraval Resort,” Miravalresorts.com, last modified 2015, accessed July 25, 2015, http://www.miravalresorts.com/plan_your_stay/specialists/wyatt_webb/; Barbara Newell Abrams, “Exploring Therapists' Conceptions of Equine Facilitated/Assisted Psychotherapy for Combat Veterans Experiencing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder,” (Doctoral Dissertation, Northcentral University, Arizona, 2013); Robin E. Johnsons, “Horses in Therapy: An Exploration of the Treatment of Trauma Using Equine Assisted Therapies,” (Master's Thesis, Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2013); J. M. Kouba et al., “Equine- Assisted Therapy and Recovery from Combat Trauma,” in American Society of Animal Science Annual Symposium, Horse Species Symposium (90:3: Journal of Animal Science, 2012), 653, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.jtmtg.org/JAM/2012/abstracts/661.pdf; Jan Yorke, Cindy Adams and Nick Coady, “Therapeutic Value of Equine–Human Bonding in Recovery from Trauma,” Anthrozoos 21, no. 1 (2008): 17-30; Coachingwithhorses.com, “About Kathy Pike - The Academy for Coaching with Horses,” last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://coachingwithhorses.com/about-kathy-pike; Taffy Brodesser-Akner, “The Merchant of Just Be Happy,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/29/business/the-merchant-of-just-be- happy.html?pagewanted=all.

19 professional horsemen or women, the inmates in these equine programs are required to train the horses they are assigned, often wild mustangs, in order to prepare them for sale.24

Whether facilitated by a licensed mental health professional or a master horseman or horsewoman, or designed for youth, military veterans, prison inmates, or corporate management teams, EBHD is ultimately about helping people develop critical soft skills through understanding and interacting with the instincts and evolutionary strategies of the horse. The phrase ‘Horse Therapy’, as EBHD is frequently called by the public and in media publications, identifies the central role of the horse as active agent in achieving desired outcomes. Herein lies the historical social significance of the new EBHD industry: it offers a new way for people to think about horses and the potential for human development in a new relationship with equine partners.

For millennia, horses have been valuable contributors to human society. Upon domestication, horses spread across every continent on which humans settled. Horses enabled more efficient management of livestock herds and enhanced the pace and productivity of human transportation over land. They carried travellers to new lands, merchants to neighbouring and far-away cities, and soldiers into battle. For a time, horses allowed nomadic tribes to conquer most of their known world. Symbolically the horse is understood by many cultures to represent strength, power, freedom, grace, and beauty.

Equestrian sport and leisure activities are commonly referred to as “the sport of kings”. Horses

24 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Allanhamilton.com, “Equine Assisted Therapy,” last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; Mike Wise, “Partners, Horse and Man, in Prison Pasture,” The New York Times, 2003, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/10/sports/partners-horse-and-man-in-prison-pasture.html; Judy L. Cushing, James D. Williams and Robert F. Kronick, “The Wild Mustang Program,” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 22, no. 3-4 (1995): 95-112.

20 served as such strong and agile beasts of burden for so much of human history in both rural and urban labour that the power of many machines is still measured in units of horse-power.

EBHD opens a new area of human-horse co-operation, as its practitioners show that horses can serve as effective and efficient facilitators of human mental health, wellness, and social development. The growing popularity of this new field of equine-based human development represents a new chapter in the long history of the human-horse relationship, carrying with it questions about the potential for all human-animal relationships. The emerging

EBHD industry actively elevates the horse from its historical place as beast of burden to a position of relative equality as partner and, in some cases leader, teacher, and/or healer for human students. This new industry, still unorganized, de-centralized and diffuse, has nonetheless reached a level of development which makes it possible to provide an historically contextualized understanding and definition of EBHD, and to examine the significance of the emerging EBHD field in relation to the history of human-horse and human-animal relations more broadly.

This dissertation considers the social evolution of the emerging EBHD industry, describing the most prominent beliefs and perspectives of the practice, as articulated by EBHD pioneers and practitioners. It touches briefly on the subjects of psychological process and efficacy of the emerging industry, but it neither condones nor condemns any of the practices described therein. Such analysis and assessment, both of the potential value for human participants as well as issues of welfare concerning the industry’s equine participants, fall outside the scope of this historical narrative and the qualifications of the author. Nevertheless, this dissertation aims to provide the ground-clearing research about the emerging EBHD industry on which more evaluative studies might subsequently build. As such, this dissertation builds on the literature examining the histories of human-animal relations, and specifically

21 human-horse relations, detailing a missing piece of human-horse history, while also contributing to the larger field of human-animal studies by presenting another dimension of nonhuman-animal agency and highlighting its implications for further studies. The emerging field of Equitation Science, in particular, as well as scholars currently examining animal cognition and welfare more generally, are well suited to facilitate such research and have already begun evaluative studies of EBHD and related fields’ implications on equine welfare.

This growing literature provides a valuable source of insight into the equine experience, from the perspective of the horse. Notably, this research cautions that the fields of EBHD and its predecessors AAT and Natural Horsemanship may be open to criticisms, such as anthropomorphizing the animals involved, and ascribing them with higher cognitive abilities than they may have. Although the horse's role in EBHD represents a newly emerging area of scholarship which could lend validation to the industry’s programs, this dissertation neither assesses nor evaluated these, or the field of EBHD itself.

Literature Review Horses have long received scholarly attention for their significance in war and in spreading human civilization, ideas, language and culture, as well as in providing humans with means of transportation and sources of physical labour, in both rural and urban settings. Our partnership with the horse enabled great human advances, culturally and technologically, socially and scientifically, and economically and intellectually. But that partnership also enabled great devastation of human populations and cultures through mounted warfare, and significant destruction of the global environment through the rapid spread of human populations, increased capacity for human manipulation of landscape through horse-assisted

22 farming, mounted hunting, and extended human travel and exploration for expanded settlement.25

Horses have been active agents in shaping much of human history, but their historiographical presence has largely been relegated to the background of human-centric histories. Historical research which considers the horse as the central subject remains relatively new, with most such publications appearing with the advent of cultural history in the 1980s.

Thus, the history of human-horse relationships remains underdeveloped. The following broad chronological review of major works demonstrates the relative paucity of research in this field.

Similarly, a thematic review of the existing literature demonstrates that most research on human-horse relations adopts a human-centric rather than a horse-centric or even human- horse joint-agency perspective.

Chronology of Scholarship Among the earliest histories of the horse was George Gaylord Simpson’s Horses: The

Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World and through Sixty Million Years of History

25 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006); Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books, 2007); David W Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007); Deborah O'Daniel Cantrell, The Horsemen of Israel: Horses and Chariotry in Monarchic Israel (ninth-eighth centuries B.C.E.), (Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2011); Louis A DiMarco, War Horse: A History of the Military Horse and Rider (Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing, 2008); Gavin Robinson, Horse Supply in the English Civil War 1642-1646 (Reading, Berkshire: University of Reading, 2001); Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992); Ann Norton Greene, Horses At Work: Harnessing Power In Industrial America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008); Leah M. Grandy, “The Era of the Urban Horse: Saint John, New Brunswick, 1871-1901,” (Master's Thesis, University of New Brunswick, 2004); Clay McShane and Joel Tarr, “The Decline of the Urban Horse,” Journal of Transport History 24 (2003): 177-199; Jennifer Olds, “And the Horse you Rode in on: The Role of the Equestrian in Tudor and Stuart Literature,” (Master's Thesis, California State Polytechnic University, 2003); Gay MacDonald, “Horsemanship as a Courtly Art in Elizabethan England: Origins, Theory, and Practice,” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1982 Sandra L. Olsen and Cynthia Culbertson, (eds.) A Gift from the Desert: The Art, History and Culture of the Arabian Horse, (Lexington, Kentucky: International Museum of the Horse, Kentucky Horse Park, 2010); Sandra Olsen, “Hoofprints,” Natural History 117, no. 4 (2008); John Langdon, Horses, Oxen, And Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Pita Kelekna, The Horse In Human History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

(1951). Simpson was a paleontologist and his work focused on the evolution of the horse, from fossil evidence to modern breeds with brief consideration for the utilitarian roles horses have played in human history.26 Two studies published in 1955 are among the earliest contributions to scholarship about human-horse relations. Senior Ethnologist of Anthropology at the

Smithsonian Institute, John C. Ewers, wrote The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture: with

Comparative Material from other Western Tribes, originally published by the Bureau of

American Ethnology, and Frank Gilbert Roe wrote The Indian and the Horse. Both books illustrated the role of the horse in Plains Indian culture by examining mobility, hunting, war, trade, recreation, and spirituality, as well as the daily interaction between aboriginal peoples and the horses in their care, handling, riding, training, and breeding.27

In 1980, Robin Law published The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa. Building on Jack Goody’s research on the importance of horses and cavalry in West African development28 and Humphrey Fisher’s work

26 George Gaylord Simpson, Horses: The Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World and through Sixty Million Years of History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951); A. S. Romer, "Book Review: Horses: The Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World and Through Sixty Million Years of History," Review of Horses: The Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World and Through Sixty Million Years of History, by George Gaylord Simpson. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 29 no. 2 (1954); Conway Zirkle, "Book Review: Horses: The Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World through Sixty Million Years of History." Review of Horses: The Story of the Horse Family in the Modern World and Through Sixty Million Years of History, by George Gaylord Simpson. Isis. 43 no. 1 (1952): 80-81. 27 John C. Ewers, The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture with Comparative Material from other Western Tribes (Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969); Verne F. Ray, “Review of the Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture,” Review of the Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture with Comparative Material from other Western Tribes by John C. Ewers, Oregon Historical Quarterly 72, no. 1 (Mar., 1971): 81-82; George A. Talbot, “Review of the Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture,” Review of the Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture with Comparative Material from other Western Tribes by John C. Ewers, Ethnohistory 3, no. 4 (Autumn, 1956): 421-424; Erminie Wheeler-Voegelin, “Review of the Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture,” Review of the Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture with Comparative Material from other Western Tribes by John C. Ewers, Indiana Magazine of History 52, no. 2 (June 1956): 212-214; Frank Gilbert Roe, The Indian and the Horse, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955). 28 Jack Goody, Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa, (London: Oxford University Press, 1971); Jack Goody, and Kwame Arhin, Ashanti and the Northwest, (Legon: University of Ghana. Institute of African studies, 1965).

24 on the arrival of horses in Northern Nigeria,29 Law argued that the advent of horses and cavalry in West Africa came later than previously imagined and did not displace sedentary cultures with mounted warriors. Law showed that horses were employed widely in West Africa between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries when Atlantic trade routes enabled the importation of North African horse breeds and the associated technology of harness equipment like saddles, stirrups, bits, armour, and cavalry-style military technique. Law argued that the widespread use of horses in West Africa both contributed to, and supported, the slave trade, as with more horses, more slaves were needed for their care. Although Law discussed the role of horses in the politics, economy, and society of West Africa, he did not describe the actual relationship between humans and their horses.30

In 1983 the British Agricultural History Society published a collection of conference papers with the title Horses in European Economic History: A Preliminary Canter. The collection did not offer a comprehensive history of the horse in Europe, and a reviewer questioned whether ‘hippological history’ was possible, suggesting that the horse would continue to provide a topical focus through which scholars would contribute to other, more established historical research categories.31 John Langdon’s Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation:

29 Humphrey J. Fisher, “‘He Swalloweth the Ground with Fierceness and Rage’: The Horse in the Central Sudan, II. Its Use,” The Journal of African History, 14, no. 3 (1973): 355-379; Allan G. B. Fisher, and Humphrey J. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa: The Institution in Saharan and Sudanic Africa and the Trans-Saharan Trade, (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1971). 30 Robin Law, The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1980); Donald R. Wright, “Review of The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa,” Review of The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa by Robin Law, The International Journal of African Historical Studies 15, no. 2 (1982): 292-294 DOI: 10.2307/218555; Alan Ryder, “Review of The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa,” Review of The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre- Colonial West Africa by Robin Law, African Affairs 81, no. 322 (Jan., 1982): 135-136. 31 F. M. L. Thompson, Horses in European Economic History: A Preliminary Canter, (Reading: British Agricultural History Society, 1983); E. L. Jones, “Review of Horses in European Economic History: A Preliminary Canter,” Review of Horses in European Economic History: A Preliminary Canter by F. M. L. Thompson, The Economic History Review 37, no. 2 (May, 1984): 295-296 DOI: 10.2307/2596912.

The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (1986) adopted that approach, covering four centuries of economic history and human-horse relations in the context of a quite specific inquiry about what factors influenced innovation and change as

English farmers adapted the technology they used with oxen to more efficient and productive horse-powered harnesses and equipment which allowed for greater versatility and speed in farm operations. According to one reviewer, Langdon “retrieves the horse from a historiographic limbo of collars and shoes and generously offers us a rich consideration of its economic and social role in English agrarian development.”32

Peter Edwards, in The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England, examined another aspect of English economic history as illustrated in records of horse sales and horse theft.

Edwards suggested that King Henry the VIII’s desire for larger mounts for military campaigns against France stimulated the horse trade, and he described the horse breeding and trading economy, together with the geographic regions of production and marketing of these four- legged commodities. This work offers valuable insight into the social origins of an early capitalist economy in England and Europe, but, in focusing on horses as commodities, not as

32 Kathleen Biddick, “Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500,” Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 by John Langdon, The American Historical Review 93, no. 2 (Apr., 1988): 401-402 DOI: 10.2307/1859943; John Langdon, Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Rosamond Faith, “Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500,” Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 by John Langdon, The Economic History Review 40, no. 4 (Nov., 1987): 648-649 DOI: 10.2307/2596398; George Ovitt, Jr., “Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500,” Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 by John Langdon, Isis 78, no. 3 (Sept., 1987): 486-487; Bradford B. Blaine, “Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500,” Review of Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 by John Langdon, Speculum 64, no. 4 (Oct., 1989), 993-995.

26 partners in commerce or labour, Edwards does not consider the relationships of the horse traders with the horses from which they made their living.33

Major additions to the literature on the horse in human history in the 1990s also paid little attention to the relationships between horses and their human handlers. Ann Hyland’s

Equus: the Horse in the Roman World (1990) discussed Roman horsemanship from multiple thematic perspectives, including breeding, veterinary practices, military and civil uses of horses and related equipment and training preferences. Hyland is an avid horsewoman and her focus was horses as mounts, not harnessed for labour. Critics commented that her expertise as a horsewoman and on matters of the horse was not matched by equal knowledge of Romans.

Nevertheless, one reviewer prefers Hyland’s book to more recent works as a comprehensive survey of horses in the Roman World, and Equus has been widely cited.34

Historian Alfred Crosby, writing in 1993, said “human history cannot be understood if historians overlook equines,” and called for a large book on the subject of horses in human history. He noted that a recent encyclopaedic reference book by archaeozoologist Juliet

Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies (1992), provided a good starting place for such a work.35 Sandra L. Olsen edited a collection of 10

33 Peter Edwards, The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Richard Lachmann, “Review of The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England,” Review of The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England by Peter Edwards, The American Historical Review 95, no. 3 (Jun., 1990), 814-815; J. R. Wordie, “Review of The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England,” Review of The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England by Peter Edwards, The Economic History Review 42, no. 2 (May, 1989), 269-270 DOI: 10.2307/2596210. 34 Ann Hyland, Equus: The Horse in the Roman World, (London: Batsford, 1990); K. D. White, “Review of Equus: The Horse in the Roman World,” Review of Equus: The Horse in the Roman World by Ann Hyland, The Classical Review New Series, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1992), pp. 122-124; H. Sidebottom, “Review of Equus: The Horse in the Roman World,” Review of Equus: The Horse in the Roman World by Ann Hyland, The Journal of Roman Studies Vol. 84 (1994), 238-239 DOI: 10.2307/300915; David W. Anthony, “Review of The Horse in Human History,” Review of The Horse in Human History by Pita Kelekna, Journal of Anthropological Research Vol. 66, No. 3 (Fall 2010), 401-403. 35 Alfred Crosby, "Book Review: Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies," Ethnohistory 41 no. 1 (1993): 201-202; Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992).

27 essays published as Horses Through Time (1996), examining the evolution of horses and the varied roles that horses have played in human history, but the essays contributed little to the understanding the history of the human-horse relationship. University of Oxford Zoologist

Marion Stamp Dawkins, in a review of Olsen’s book, echoed Crosby’s sentiment with a call for more research focused on the historical relationship between humans and horses.36

In 1999 the Equine Veterinary Journal heeded this call and published a special issue on the horse in human history with articles on domestication, ethology and behaviour, development of equestrian culture, the impact of horses on rural labour and economies, cultural perceptions about the horse, and nutrition and stable management. Included in this volume is an article by I. H. Robinson, “The human-horse relationship: how much do we know?” noting the lack of research on this topic and the potential breadth and depth such research could provide to our understanding of both horses and human history.37

Robinson’s call for a new research agenda was echoed but not much heeded in work about the horse in historical context published in the new millennium by scholars from various disciplinary backgrounds. In 2000, Audrey Wipper’s article "The Partnership: The Horse-Rider

Relationship in Eventing" identified the long history and significance of the human-horse relationship and asked why sociologists had not given it more attention.38 The 16 science-based articles in The Domestic Horse: The Origins, Development and Management of Its Behaviour, published in 2005 as part of the Cambridge University Press series on domestic animals,

36 S. M. Dawkins, "The Nature of Horses, S. Budiansky; Horses through Time, ed. S. L. Olsen," Review of The Nature of Horses by Steven Budiansky and Horses through Time edited by Sandra L. Olsen, Nature – London, 1997. (6623): 341; Sandra L. Olsen, Horses through Time, (Boulder, Colorado: Roberts Rinehart Publishers for Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1996). 37 I. H. Robinson, “The Human-Horse Relationship: How much do We Know?” Equine Veterinary Journal 31, no. 28 (1999): 42-45; P. D. Rossdale, (ed.) “Special Edition: The Role of the Horse,” Equine Veterinary Journal 31, no. 28 (1999): 4-72. A reverse search in the digital archives revealed that Robinson’s article and each of the others included in Equine Veterinary Journal’s special issue have been cited by only a scant few subsequent scholarly work. 38 Audrey Wipper, “The Partnership: The Horse-Rider Relationship in Eventing,” Symbolic Interaction 23, no. 1 (2000): 47-70.

28 offered scant examination of the human-horse relationship in its discussion of the historical and evolutionary development of the horse.39

Edward J. Chamberlin’s Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations (2006) drew on archaeology, biology, art, literature, and ethnography to tell the story of horse-human relations as a broad and sweeping big history. Written by a professor of literature, not an historian, the book “shares stories of horses at work, at war, and at play, in paintings, books, and movies, and ponders the intelligence of horses, their skill and strength as well as their grace and beauty.”40

Chamberlin’s stories show how the human-horse relationship has structured major facets of civilization, including labour, transportation, politics, warfare, and even spirituality.

Throughout, Chamberlin portrays the horse-human relationship from the perspective of a horse. Chamberlin’s insight into the significance and intricacy of the human-horse relationship reveals the horse as a significant active agent in the co-creation of human history.41

Chamberlin’s Horse, which was generally well-received by scholars, asks deep questions about human nature, and invites readers to consider how horses may help us find the answers.42

A collection of essays published the same year as Chamberlin’s book explored some of the same questions across a smaller geographic region and a shorter time frame. Greg Bankoff,

Sandra Scott Swart, and P. Boomgaard’s Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in

39 Daniel S. Mills and Sue M. McDonnell, (eds.) The Domestic Horse: The Origins, Development and Management of its Behavior, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 40 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations, (New York: BlueBridge, 2006), cover description. 41 Chamberlin, Horse, (New York: BlueBridge, 2006), 71-78, 95-98, 102-108. 42 Kendra Coulter, “Herds and Hierarchies: Class, Nature, and the Social Construction of Horses in Equestrian Culture,” Society & Animals 22, no. 2 (2014): 135-152; J. B. Campbell, and Lawrence A. Tritle, The Oxford Handbook of Warfare In the Classical World, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Claudia Notzke, “An Exploration into Political Ecology and Nonhuman Agency: The Case of the Wild Horse in Western Canada,” The Canadian Geographer / Le Géographe canadien (2013); Peter Mitchell, Horse Nations: The Worldwide Impact of the Horse on Indigenous Societies Post 1492, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); C. Wayne McIlwraith and Bernard E. Rollin, Equine Welfare, (Oxford: Wiley- Blackwell, 2011); Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People, (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Ashley Symington, “Grief and Horses: Putting the Pieces Together,” Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 7, no. 2 (2012): 165-174

Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, 1500-1950 treated the horse as central to human history and as agent of change. The various essays examine how the introduction of horses by colonizing powers affected the indigenous human, and also how horses changed human understanding of the natural world when they responded to new environments in ways that differed from intended breeding outcomes. The book was well received by historians, but did not quite deliver on the editors’ promise to provide a new way of looking at the history of non- human animals – an animal- or horse-centric history. The authors remained anthropocentric in their writing. Nonetheless the collection was a transitional step between standard human- centric histories and a new focus on horse-centered agency.43 Similarly, Anne Elena McCabe’s A

Byzantine Encyclopaedia of Horse Medicine: The Sources, Compilation, and Transmission of the

Hippiatrica (2007), a technical reference book on the veterinary treatment of equine ailments, offered evidence of human care and concern for horses, giving some insight into the emotive relationships people shared with the animals.44

Two influential horse-centered works by historians published in 2007 and 2008 challenged previously held assumptions about the horse in nineteenth-century history: Clay

McShane and Joel A. Tarr’s The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century and Anne Norton Greene’s Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America. Earlier

43 Peter Edwards, “Review of Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, 1500-1950,” Review of Breeds of Empire: the 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, 1500-1950 edited by Greg Bankoff, Sandra Scott Swart, and P. Boomgaard’s, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Vol. 52, No. 2 (2009), 339-342; Margaret E. Deny, “Review of Breeds of Empire: the 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, 1500- 1950,” Review of Breeds of Empire: the 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, 1500-1950 edited by Greg Bankoff, Sandra Scott Swart, and P. Boomgaard’s, Agricultural History Vol. 83, No. 3 (Summer 2009), 420-421. 44 Anne Elena McCabe, A Byzantine Encyclopaedia of Horse Medicine the Sources, Compilation, and Transmission of the Hippiatrica, (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007) 1-8, 150-154, 187-188, 190.

30 works considered the horse as a precursor to mechanization,45 but these books argued that, rather than horses being displaced from urban centres by machines, the nineteenth century was more of a golden age of horses because their capacities shaped urban space and economies.46 For example, the development of horse-drawn street-cars for mass transit changed and organized road transportation, facilitated the development of modern city structures with a downtown core, residential communities and parks, and a periphery of suburban regions.47 Greene summarized the significance of horses in nineteenth-century

America by saying that the horse economy “was the urban economy,” describing how various breeds were developed and produced for different work needs or social preferences and discussing how the development of roads and transportation systems – even ferries – were constructed with horse power in mind. Horses’ bodies were valued not only for physical labour but for the production of manure for sale for fertilizer, with even their carcasses providing harvestable and saleable commodities, from hides and meat to hair and hooves.48 Greene noted that horses were so common in urban settings between 1860 and 1920 that city dwellers or workers likely saw more horses every day than did rural cowboys or farmers,49 and that widespread equine diseases nearly paralyzed American life and business. Greene also discussed the role of horses in war, in particular the American Civil War, including breeding strategies for military steeds, systems of purchase and transportation of the animals as stock,

45 Peter N. Stearns, The Industrial Revolution In World History (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993), no pages, digital book; Arnold Thackray, "Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution," History of Science 9, (Jan 01, 1970): 76-89; Steven King and Geoffrey Timmins, Making Sense Of The Industrial Revolution (Manchester [UK]: Manchester University Press, 2001), 84-85, 170-171, 385-387. 46 Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 17; Anne Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America, (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2008), 9-10, 29. 47 McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City, 57, 82-83. 48 Ann N. Greene, “Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century,” Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century by Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, Technology and Culture Vol. 49, No. 2 (Apr., 2008), 462-463. 49 Greene, Horses at Work, 166.

31 and details of their care, nutrition, harness, and equipment. Greene’s work focused largely on the horse, with humans as users or consumers of the animals, and she treated horses unsentimentally, as ‘living machines’, draft animals, beasts of burden “indispensable” and

“irreplaceable as industrial workers” and an energy technology which was neglected in historical literature.50 McShane and Tarr showed that the horse was also a consumer within the urban economy, where whole industries existed to feed, harness, and care for them, from veterinarians to “horse barbers.” Rather than examine in great depth the intimate or personal relationships people shared directly with horses, McShane and Tarr’s book examines the overarching relationship between horses and urban America in the nineteenth century.51

These authors are experts in urban history, not horses, yet their books offer a detailed study of the role of the horse in nineteenth century urban America. Their topics include economic markets, power and leisure, but also the horse’s role in shaping urban environments and municipal regulation, and they acknowledge the horse’s agency in determining the development of urban landscapes. The authors are attentive, too, to how the demands of urbanization impacted horses, with specific and purposeful breeding programs to produce

50 Greene, Horses at Work, 44, 199. 51 McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City; Ann N. Greene, “Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century,” Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century by Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, Technology and Culture Vol. 49, No. 2 (Apr., 2008), 462-463; Bruce Laurie, “Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century,” Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century by Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, Journal of Social History Vol. 42, No. 3 (Spring, 2009), 819-821; Thomas A. Kinney, “Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America,” Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America by Ann Norton Greene, The Business History Review Vol. 82, No. 1 (Spring, 2008), 136- 138; D. Scott Molloy, “Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century,” Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century by Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Journal of American History Vol. 94, No. 4 (Mar., 2008), 1246-1247 DOI: 10.2307/25095353; Jeffrey S. Adler, “Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century,” Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century by Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History Vol. 39, No. 1 (Summer, 2008), 136-137; Werner Troesken, “Review,” Review of The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century by Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Journal of Economic History Vol. 68, No. 1 (Mar., 2008), 318-320.

32 horses with the stature and endurance to maximize their efficiency.52 Both authors dealt with the growth of humane movements such as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals although, as the authors explained, sometimes the concern about how animals were treated arose as much from owners’ interest in preserving and prolonging the productivity of horse- labour as from attention to what was necessary for the animals’ well-being or for a healthy horse-human relationship.53

Donna Landry’s Noble Brutes: How Eastern Horses Transformed English Culture (2008) suggested a growing scholarly interest in exploring human-animal relations. Landry, a Professor of English at the University of Kent, examined the changing relationship between horses and humans in British culture as a result of British mercantile exchange and proto-imperial expansion in the Ottoman Empire, using fiction such as Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels and other artistic works to reveal cultural attitudes to human-horse relationships, including discussion of animal agency and acknowledgement of equine intelligence. The oxymoronic title

Noble Brutes indicated the gradual paradigm shift experienced by some of the British elite who engaged with Eastern culture in person or by reading horsemanship manuals. As a result,

Landry argued, they shifted their attitudes toward, and relationships with, horses from practicing coercive dominance over wild brutes to that of considering the animals as cherished,

52 Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 9-20; Anne Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America, (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2008), 85-118, 134-135. 53 Greene, Horses at Work, 9; Margaret E. Derry, “Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America,” Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America by Ann Norton Greene, Indiana Magazine of History Vol. 106, No. 4 (December 2010), 414-415. This review says horses have been neglected by academic historians until very recently, and that only since 2006 has a small flurry of such publications come to rise on the subject of the horse – Green’s Horses at work is one of them; Thomas A. Kinney, “Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America,” Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America by Ann Norton Greene, The Business History Review Vol. 82, No. 1 (Spring, 2008), 136-138; Paul W. Rhode, “Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America,” Review of Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America by Ann Norton Greene, The Journal of Economic History Vol. 69, No. 3 (Sep., 2009), 890-891. Rhode says Greene’s arguments echo Robert Fogel’s findings on railroads, that horses were integral to revolutionizing transportation in America.

33 intelligent partners who would willingly obey respectful riders, and whose training required affection, not pain or punishment. However, Landry concluded that the tradition of coercive dominance proved difficult to shed, especially among uneducated labourers.54

Landry’s book, like those of Green and McShane and Tarr, dealt with horses and social change in a relatively limited time and place. Pita Kelekna’s The Horse in Human History (2009), on the other hand, attempted a much larger, comprehensive history of horses as they have interacted with humans and changed human history. Like Landry and Chamberlin, Kelenka used some literary sources, and she also drew on her expertise as an anthropologist to highlight the active agency and significance of human-horse relations in many societies and locales, across millennia. The Horse in Human History is organized thematically, regionally, and chronologically so that each chapter can be read individually or as part of a larger narrative.

Covering 6,000 years and nearly every continent, this big-history discusses horses in terms of their economic and military value to humans, as well as their political and cultural significance.

The Horse in Human History showed that the horse not only served as harnessable motive power in human history but was also at the centre of complex cultural matters such as the acquisition of social prestige through horse ownership and breeding programs, the promotion of moral values related to care and treatment of the animals, and the development of horse- related spiritual beliefs, ceremonies, myth, and lore.55 Kelekna’s work incorporated everything from equid fossil records from the Americas and across Eurasia to cross cultural literary works featuring the noble quadrupeds such as the Song of Roland, the Rgveda, the Shahnameh, and

Canterbury Tales, and dozens of important historical events in which horses, arguably, played a

54 Donna Landry, Noble Brutes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). 55 Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 110-113, 224-230, 239-240, 253-258, 217-220, 82-91.

34 significant role.56 Kelekna received both praise and criticism for her “eagerness to plunge into any aspect of human history,” but her attempt to cover so much time and territory produced uneven results. She briefly mentioned important technological developments associated with the horse such as the stirrup, bits, saddles, and horseshoes, while describing much less horse- specific things like literary plotlines in far greater depth. Most significantly, Kelekna was criticized for not doing enough primary research and making little use of the literature in scholarly journals.57 As is common with histories of human-horse relations, Kelekna’s work is predominantly about humans, rather than a history of horses themselves or the interactive relationships between equine and human species in different times and places. Kelekna’s work was important for illustrating the broad and sweeping presence and impact of horses in human history, but not the specific role or agency of horses in that history.

Since Kelekna published her book, the relatively neglected subject of the horse in human history appears to be gaining more attention from scholars of diverse backgrounds. The

Horse as Cultural Icon: the Real and Symbolic Horse in the Early Modern World, edited by Peter

Edwards, K. A. E. Enenkel, and Elspeth Graham (2012) is an interdisciplinary collection of 16 articles on aspects of the horse in human history, including the significance of the horse in class systems, colonialism, gender relations, art, economy, sport and leisure, and the care, management, training and welfare of horses. The broad range of the articles demonstrated the extensive impact and presence of the horse in human history and indicated the need for further scholarship on the multi-faceted history of human-horse relations.58 In May, 2014, a two-day conference titled “War Horses of the World” brought scholars and equine enthusiasts

56 David W. Anthony, “Review of The Horse in Human History,” Review of The Horse in Human History by Pita Kelekna, Journal of Anthropological Research Vol. 66, No. 3 (Fall 2010), 401-403. 57 David W. Anthony, “Review of The Horse in Human History,” Review of The Horse in Human History by Pita Kelekna, Journal of Anthropological Research Vol. 66, No. 3 (Fall 2010), 401-403. 58 Peter Edwards, K. A. E Enenkel and Elspeth Graham, The Horse as Cultural Icon: The Real and Symbolic Horse in the Early Modern World (Leiden: Brill, 2012).

35 to the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London to hear papers on topics from the 17th to the 20th centuries, and from Europe, Asia and North America.59

Despite the importance of the horse in the history of war, agriculture, art, urban development, and so many other areas, much of the scholarly work on the history of the horse and on horse-human relationships published since the early 1980s has been written not by historians but by scholars from disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology, zoology, veterinary sciences, and sociology. This trend, which is likely to continue, has affected the questions and themes that are most commonly addressed in the literature.60

Scholarly Themes As with most relationships with a lengthy history, the human relationship with the horse is multidimensional and lends itself to a wide variety of topics and themes for academic inquiry. A survey of the literature revealed a pattern of three major categories that scholars often use to identify or frame the scope of their research about the history of the horse. The

59 Papers presented covered a broad range of studies including: “Of Mules and Men: Challenging Relationships in WWI,” by Faith Burden and Ben Hart (The Donkey Sanctuary); “Slave Horse/War Horse: The Narragansett Pacer in Colonial and Revolutionary Rhode Island,” by Charlotte Carrington, Roger Williams University; “Returning the Pony to Village Conflict: Mounted 'Dacoits' in the Pacification Campaign in Burma, 1886-89,” by Michael W. Charney, University of Tokyo and SOAS; “Animal Power as a Factor in Ottoman Military Decline, 1683-1918,” by William G. Clarence-Smith [SOAS, University of London]; “"Where gasoline can't go": Equine patriotism and the American Red Star Animal Relief Campaign during World War I,” by Janet M. Davis, University of Texas at Austin; “The Influence of Eastern Blood on English Cavalry Horses during the course of the Seventeenth Century,” by Peter Edwards, University of Roehampton; “Cavalry in Civil Conflict: The Mounted Branch of London's Metropolitan Police,” by Ed Emery, SOAS, University of London; “The Story of Comanche: Horsepower, Heroism and the Conquest of the American West,” by Karen Jones, University of Kent; “‘I see them Galloping!’: War, Affect and Performing Horses in Matthew Lewis's Timour the Tartar,” by Monica Mattfeld, University of Kent; “‘Bound together by very Close Ties of Affection’: Human-Equine Bonding in Canada's Great War,” by Andrew McEwen, University of Calgary; “The Politics of Reproduction: Horse Breeding and State Studs in Prussia, circa 1750-1890,” by Tatsuya Mitsuda, Keio University, Japan; “Memories of Japanese Military Horses of World War II,” by Aaron Skabelund, Brigham Young University; “Horses as Animal Property in the Countryside of Anatolia during the First Half of the 17th century,” by Onur Usta; and “‘In Autumn our Horses are Well-fed and Ready for Action’ – the Ch'ing Empire and its Mongolian Cavalry,” by Veronika Veit, University of Bonn. 60 A recent call for papers posted to H-Net in December, 2014 by Professor of History and Director of the American Studies Program at California State University Long Beach, Brett Mizelle, sought collaborators for a new multi-disciplinary work, not History-specific, on the subject of Equestrian Cultures, or the role of the horse in human cultures, from 1700 to the present.

36 first category considers horses as a symbol or instrument of power and prestige for their human masters. The second category presents the horse in terms of its diverse and harnessable physical power, as a living machine. The research in these two categories documents the many areas in which horses have been employed in human history, but primarily from a perspective of non-sentient agency. The third category, the least-developed in the literature, recognizes the horse as an agent in history and as a partner to humans.

Scholarship about the horse published in the last two decades by historians has tended to be narrowly focused on singular themes or time periods and generally falls within the first and second categories, while other disciplines have produced broader studies and explored in greater depth the historical agency and the relationship between humans and horses.

The scholarship which considers horses as symbols or instruments of social or political power and prestige includes an appreciation of the horse as muse, from fine art to fiction novels and Shakespearian literature.61 As noted by J. Edward Chamberlin and others, the elegance, grace, and speed of horses have captivated people’s attention and imagination for millennia, hence the cave paintings of running horses in prehistoric eras. Owning a horse was

61 Peter Edwards, K. A. E Enenkel and Elspeth Graham, The Horse as Cultural Icon: The Real and Symbolic Horse in the Early Modern World (Leiden: Brill, 2012); Sandra L. Olsen and Cynthia Culbertson, (Eds.) A Gift from the Desert: The Art, History and Culture of the Arabian Horse, (Lexington, Kentucky: International Museum of the Horse, Kentucky Horse Park, 2010); Gay MacDonald, “Horsemanship as a Courtly Art in Elizabethan England Origins, Theory, and Practice,” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1982); Catherine Johns, Horses: History, Myth, Art (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006); Jennifer Olds, “And the Horse You Rode in on: The Role of the Equestrian in Tudor and Stuart Literature,” (Master's Thesis, California State Polytechnic University, 2003); J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How The Horse Has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006); Anna Sewell, Black Beauty: The Autobiography of a Horse (New York: Doubleday Press, 1922); Bruce Thomas Boehrer, Animal Characters: Nonhuman Beings in Early Modern Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010); Karen Raber, “Shakespeare and Animal Studies,” Literature Compass 12, no. 6 (2015): 286-298; Anthony Austen Dent, Horses in Shakespeare's England (London: J.A. Allen, 1987); Bert O. States, “Horses in Macbeth,” The Kenyon Review 7, no. 2 (1985): 52-66; Erica Sheen, “‘Why Should a Dog, a Horse, a Rat, have Life, and thou no Breath at All?’: Shakespeare's Animations,” in Renaissance Beasts: Of Animals, Humans, And Other Wonderful Creatures, ed. Erica Fudge (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 87-100; Charity Diane Henson, “Shakespeare: Horse Imagery and the Human Condition,” (Thesis, James Madison University, 1998).

37 valuable for most anyone throughout much of human history, but the cost of caring for a horse and of developing breeds suitable for specialized leisure activities such as racing or riding made horse ownership a sign of privileged social status. Certain horse breeds and pedigrees offered greater cultural prestige than others, and Donna Landry, Greg Bankoff, Sandra Scott Swart, and

P. Boomgaard, and Margaret Elsinor Derry have described the development of highly differentiated markets for horses, ranging from nag sales at country fairs to the importation of exotic steeds from international and inter-continental stock to meet demands for high-prestige animals.62 Scholarship on the equestrian culture among nobility and high society63 demonstrates how horse ownership reinforces class distinctions. Other scholars have noted that the popular appeal of the horse in sport and spectacle is expressed across classes, from rough-stock rodeos, parades, and circus performances to the more exclusive venues of posh polo clubs and the competitors’ circle in Olympic stadiums.64

62 Donna Landry, Noble Brutes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008); Peter Edwards, The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Margaret Elsinor Derry, Horses in Society a Story of Animal Breeding and Marketing, 1800-1920 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006); Greg Bankoff, Sandra Scott Swart, and P. Boomgaard, (eds.) Breeds of Empire: The 'Invention' of the Horse in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa 1500-1950 (Copenhagen: NIAS, 2007). 63 Kendra Coulter, “Herds and Hierarchies: Class, Nature, and the Social Construction of Horses in Equestrian Culture,” Society & Animals 22, no. 2 (2014): 135-152; Gay MacDonald, “Horsemanship as a Courtly Art in Elizabethan England Origins, Theory, and Practice” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1982); J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How The Horse Has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006); Greg Bankoff, Sandra Scott Swart and P. Boomgaard, (eds.) Breeds Of Empire: The 'Invention' Of The Horse In Southeast Asia And Southern Africa 1500-1950 (Copenhagen: NIAS, 2007); Donna Landry, Noble Brutes: How Eastern Horses Transformed English Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). 64 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006); Rebecca Cassidy, The Sport of Kings Kinship, Class, and Thoroughbred Breeding in Newmarket (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Susan Nance, “Game Stallions and other ‘Horseface Minstrelsies’ of the American Turf,” Theatre Journal 65, no. 3 (2013): 355-372; James C. Nicholson, “More than Just a Horse Race: A Cultural History of the Kentucky Derby,” (PhD diss., University of Kentucky, 2010); Jackie C. Burke, Equal to the Challenge: Pioneering Women of Horse Sports (New York, Howell Book House, 1997); Ann Hyland, The Endurance Horse: A World Survey from Ancient Civilizations to Modern Competition (London: J.A. Allen, 1999); John H. Humphrey, Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).

Some scholars argue that cultural representations of human-horse relationships convey messages not only about class and social hierarchy but also about appropriate gender roles. Lynda Birke and Keri Brandt noted in, “Mutual Corporeality: Gender And Human/Horse

Relationships” that while girls and women predominate contemporary equestrian culture, icons of the Wild West, rodeos, and ranch life almost always depict male cowboys, and equestrian imagery related to politics or military are typically gendered male.65 For example, political and military monuments featuring horses also predominantly feature male leaders or soldiers. Even posh equestrian sports are made masculine by their designation as “sport of

Kings” as Rebecca Cassidy’s, The Sport of Kings Kinship, Class, and Thoroughbred Breeding in

Newmarket, points out. However, with the rise of women’s history, and gender studies in general, historians are recognizing women’s role in the historic relationship between humans and horses. Deborah Simonton’s A History of European Women’s Work: 1700 to the Present showed that much “horse work” traditionally depicted as men’s work was indeed conducted by women as well, and Jackie C. Burke’s Equal to the Challenge: Pioneering Women of Horse

Sports recorded the skill with which women have competed on horseback, when permitted the opportunity.66

65 Lynda Birke and Keri Brandt, “Mutual Corporeality: Gender and Human/Horse Relationships,” Women's Studies International Forum 32, no. 3 (2009): 189-197. 66 Deborah Simonton, A History of European Women's Work: 1700 to the Present (London: Routledge, 1998), 30-34, 43, 120, 128, 158, 163-165; Rebecca Cassidy, The Sport Of Kings Kinship, Class, and Thoroughbred Breeding in Newmarket (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Jackie C. Burke, Equal to the Challenge: Pioneering Women of Horse Sports (New York, Howell Book House, 1997); Karen J. Blair, Women in Pacific Northwest History: An Anthology (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 9-10, 241-243; Miriam Adelman and Jorge Dorfman Knijnik, Gender and Equestrian Sport (Dordrecht: Springer, 2013); Lynda Birke and Keri Brandt, “Mutual Corporeality: Gender and Human/Horse Relationships,” Women's Studies International Forum 32, no. 3 (2009): 189-197; M. Adelman, and F. A. Moraes, "Breaking their way in: Women Jockeys at the Racetrack in Brazil," in Advancing from the nineteenth to the twenty-first centuries, eds. M. T. Segal and V. Demos, 99-124 (Bingley: Emerald, 2008); K. Dashper, “‘Dressage is Full of Queens!’ Masculinity, Sexuality and Equestrian Sport,” Sociology 46, no. 6 (2012): 1109-1124; A. Game, “Riding: Embodying the Centaur,” Body & Society 7, no. 4 (2001): 1-12; V. Dreisbach (Ed.), Why We Ride: Women Writers on the Horses in their Lives, (Berkeley: Seal Press, 2010); Sarah Pink, Women and Bullfighting: Gender, Sex, and the

For horse as for humans, however, life for the majority is not a ride in the park, as is apparent from the literature in the second category of work on the horse in human history, in which the horse is treated as a source of harnessable power to make work lighter for humans.

This body of work includes both descriptions of the commodification of the horse as a source of motive power in industry, agriculture, and transportation, as well as the concomitant decommodification when the humane movement tried to protect working horses from maltreatment. Scholars such as Ann Norton Greene (Horses at Work), Juliet Clutton-Brock

(Horse Power), Joel Tarr and Clay McShane (The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the

Nineteenth Century), and others, in describing the role of the horse at work, in both rural and urban settings, demonstrated that the horse was essential technology in human history.67 In the Age of Industry, however, exploitation of horses’ physical power and speed became so common and cruel, scholars explain, that humane movement activists began lobbying on the animals’ behalf. Ann Norton Greene’s Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America for example, described the growing concern among some horse cab drivers, but not all, in nineteenth century America for the welfare and preservation of their four-legged partners.

She, among other historians, referenced Anna Sewell’s novel, Black Beauty, as an example of both the kind of treatment horses commonly received in the nineteenth century, and the humane movement lobbyists’ creative endeavours to improve the treatment of horses and

Consumption of Tradition (Oxford: Berg, 1997); Muriel Feiner, Women and the Bullring (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003); Joyce Gibson Roach, The Cowgirls (Denton, Texas: University of North Texas Press, 1990); Mary Lou LeCompte, Cowgirls of the Rodeo (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993). 67 Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008); Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992); Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007); Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, “The Decline of the Urban Horse,” Journal of Transport History 24 (2003): 177-99; Kevin James Crisman and Arthur B Cohn, When Horses Walked on Water (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998).

40 other domestic animals.68 McShane and Tarr argued as well that the industrial mechanization of horse-power, in which horses were replaced with inanimate units of horsepower, transformed the horse from a beast of burden once valued greatly for its raw strength to an outdated and replaceable piece of equipment, and led to its slow but steady disappearance from most urban settings.69

Broader historical studies have described the role horses played in the dissemination of trade goods, ideas, religions, languages, and peoples at various times and places, although for the most part, the human transactions are the central subjects of study, with tangential recognition that the speed and strength of the horse facilitated human process(es). During the era of pastoralist pioneers across the Eurasian Steppes from the fourth to third millennium BC, domestication of the horse gave rise to mounted nomadic cultures with unprecedented mobility and associated extensive cultural and technological adaptations.70 According to scholars including Kelekna and David W. Anthony, such early human-horse relations also triggered standardized and shared language and systems of writing, measurement, and coinage across vast geographic distances and resulted in a major increase in overland trade

68 Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008), 200-205, 243, 252-253; Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987, 125-140. 69 Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City, 45-50, 165-177. 70 Anthony’s research contributes to Kelekna’s research in this period, while other works such as Robert Drews’s Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe, and Barry Cunliffe’s By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia develop this period of human-horse relationship history further. Robert Drews, Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe (New York: Routledge, 2004); Barry Cunliffe, By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); Ute Luise Dietz, “Horseback Riding: Man’s Access to Speed,” In Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, eds. Marsha Levine, Colin Renfrew, and Katie Boyle, 189-199, (Cambridge: Macdonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, 2003), 189-199; Norbert Benecke and Angela Von den Dreisch, “Horse Exploitation in the Kazakh Steppes during the Eneolithic and Bronze Age,” in Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse, eds. Marsha Levine, Colin Renfrew and Katie Boyleed, 69-82, (Cambridge: McDonald Institute, 2003), 69-82.

41 which, in turn, stimulated maritime commerce and trade route development as well.71 Kelekna argued, for example, that Islamic faith along with Arabic learning and scholarship expanded in accordance with the rapid pace and expansive reach of the horse. Additionally, Kelekna pointed out that the horse breeds and horsemanship traditions and techniques of the desert nomads varied from those in Europe, and that conflict based or mercantile interaction between the two regions in this period led to the “world’s first systematic long-distance maritime transport of horses.…[and] the emergence of the equestrian military orders –

Christian warrior monks and Muslim slave Mamluks…”72 Donna Landry’s Noble Brutes examined the horse trade industry between the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa, and

England and Europe in still greater detail.73 Edward J. Chamberlin’s Horse explored the idea that horses have long represented movement, in and between different human cultures, through history and around the globe, an idea other scholars address as well.74 According to

71 Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 1-2, 380- 405; David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007), 4-19, 75- 77, 341-345. 72 Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 5. 73 Donna Landry, Noble Brutes (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008); Francis Michael Longstreth Thompson, ed., Horses in European Economic History: A Preliminary Canter (Great Britain: British Agricultural History Society, 1983); John Langdon, Horses, Oxen, and Technological Innovation: The use of Draught Animals in English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Robin Law, The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre- Colonial West Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1980); Peter Edwards, The Horse Trade of Tudor and Stuart England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 74 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006), 45, 52-54, 77-132; Ute Luise Dietz, “Horseback Riding: Man’s Access to Speed,” in Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation And The Horse, eds. Marsha Levine, Colin Renfrew and Katie Boyle (Cambridge: Macdonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, 2003), 189-199; Merton C. Flemmings, “Traveling Technologies,” in Along The Silk Road, ed. Elizabeth Ten Grotenhuis (Washington, D.C.: University of Washington Press, 2002), 107-12; Richard C. Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2000); Dorian Gerhold, Road Transport before the Railways: Russell’S London Flying Waggons (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Dorian Gerhold, Carriers and Coachmasters: Trade and Travel before the Turnpikes (Chichester, West Sussex, England: Phillimore, 2005); Johannes Kalter, “Aspects of Equestrian Culture,” in Heirs to the Silk Road: Uzbekistan, eds. Johannes Kalter and Margaret Pavaloi, 168-187, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 168-187; Peter Raulwing, Ed., Select Writings on Chariots, other Early Vehicles, Riding and Harness (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 42-52, 77-99, 106-135, 439-451,

42 the scholarly literature, movement is what horses do, and exploiting that movement is how humans used horses most.

Within the broad category of military history, scholars have contributed to horse history in both the categories of horse as symbol or instrument of power and prestige and horse as harnessable motive power. Scholars have examined how the mobility that horses provided to humans enabled military invasions of sedentary urban centres, inspired developments in weaponry and transportation technology, including massive road construction across Eurasia for equid transportation, and fostered selective breeding to produce larger horses for use in combat purposes. Whether pulling chariots, carrying nomadic warriors, wearing chain metal and carrying chivalrous knights, or transporting supplies to soldiers at the front lines, the horse is part of human military history.75 According to both macro research surveying the role of horses in war across cultures and centuries76, and more

479-486; Nikolay N. Kradin, “Nomadism, Evolution, and World-Systems: Pastoral Societies in Theories of Historical Development,” Journal of World-Systems Research 8, no. 3 (2002): 368-388; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History; McShane and Tarr, The Horse In The City; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power; Landry, Noble Brutes; Greene, The Horse at Work. 75 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006), 133-198; David W. Anthony, “Bridling Horsepower: The Domestication of the Horse,” In Horses Through Time, ed. Sandra L. Olsen, (Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart, 1996), 57-82; David W. Anthony and Dorcas R. Brown, “Eneolithic Horse Exploitation in the Eurasian Steppes: Diet, Ritual, and Riding,” Antiquity, no. 74 (2000): 75-86; Horses and Humans: The Evolution of Human-Equine Relationships, eds. Sandra L. Olsen, Susan Grant, Alice M. Choyke, and Laszo Bartosiewicz (British Archaeological Reports International Series, 1560, Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006); David W. Anthony, Dorcas R. Brown, and Christian George, “Early Horseback Riding and Warfare: The Importance of the Magpie Around the Neck,” in Horses and Humans: The Evolution of Human-Equine Relationships, eds. Sandra L. Olsen, Susan Grant, Alice M. Choyke, and Laszo Bartosiewicz (British Archaeological Reports International Series, 1560, Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006), 137-156; Thomas S. Asbridge, The First Crusade (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Louis A DiMarco, War Horse: A History of the Military Horse and Rider (Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing, 2008); Steven Runciman, The First Crusade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Robert Drews, Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe (New York: Routledge, 2004); Jonathan Riley-Smith, Ed., The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 76 Kelekna, The Horse In Human History; Erik Hildinger, Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to 1700 A.D. (New York: Sarpedon, 1997); Ann Hyland, The Medieval Warhorse from Byzantium to the Crusades (Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Book, 1996); Chelsea A. Medlock, “Delayed Obsolescence the Horse in European and American Warfare from the Crimean War to the Second World War,” (Master's Thesis, Oklahoma State University, 2009); Frazier Hunt and Robert

43 narrowly focused research on single case-study examples,77 the war horse was in many ways the measure of an individual or army’s wealth and tactical strength in battle for millennia. The military might of the mounted Mongols and their Ottoman successors who invaded Europe on their Turkish horses, scholars argue, pushed Western European countries to develop ocean travel and trade routes “in order to circumvent the Muslim stranglehold of Middle Eastern trade routes.”78 Works like Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran’s Mongols, Turks and Others:

Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World further explore this period and the horse culture of

Mongolia in greater depth.79 What’s more, the horsemanship skill of cavalrymen was critical in battle. As Louis A. DiMarco explains in his, War Horse: A History of the Military Horse and Rider, careful and precise management of cavalry horses’ behaviour in battle contributed significantly to whether soldiers’ lives were lost or spared, and battles won or lost.80 However scholars including Ann Hyland, Jean Bou, and Lee Windsor argue that, much like work horses in rural and urban labour, war-horses, which for centuries held enormous value for their human handlers, became obsolete and were altogether replaced in the twentieth and twenty-first

Hunt, Horses and Heroes: The Story of the Horse in America for 450 Years (New York: Scribner's Sons, 1949); Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992); Ann Hyland, The Horse In The Ancient World (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2003); Ann Hyland, The Horse in the Middle Ages (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Pub., 1999); Ann Hyland, The Medieval Warhorse from Byzantium to the Crusades (Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Book, 1996); Ann Hyland, The Warhorse, 1250-1600 (Stroud: Sutton, 1998). 77 Deborah O'Daniel Cantrell, The Horsemen of Israel Horses and Chariotry in Monarchic Israel (ninth- eighth centuries B.C.E.), (Winona Lake, Ind: Eisenbrauns, 2011); Jordan Claridge, Horses for Work and Horses for War the Divergent Horse Market in Late Medieval England, (Edmonton: University of Alberta, 2011); Gavin Robinson, Horse Supply in the English Civil War 1642-1646, (Reading, Berkshire: University of Reading, 2001); Ann Hyland, Equus, The Horse in the Roman World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990); Ann Hyland, Training the Roman Cavalry (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1993). 78 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 5 79 Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran, Mongols, Turks and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World (Leiden: Brill, 2005); Christopher I Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2009); Morris Rossabi, “All the Khan's Horses,” Natural History 103, no. 10 (1994): 48-50. 80 Louis A DiMarco, War Horse: A History of the Military Horse and Rider (Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme Publishing, 2008); Jean Bou, Light Horse: A History of Australia's Mounted Arm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Ann Hyland, Training the Roman Cavalry (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1993).

44 century with new technology and machinery. The general consensus among scholars of military history and horses is that even as horses contributed constructively to the development of human civilization, they were also used in violent and destructive endeavours. Beginning in

1493 when Christopher Columbus brought 50 warhorses on his second voyage to the Americas, thereby reintroducing the species to North America, the horse enabled colonization of horseless peoples, strengthened military campaigns and mercantile exchange, enabled transportation and labour power for the development of agriculture and industry, and fostered an addictive pace of progress with which human civilizations generated immense wealth, knowledge, and power, but at an enormous price.81 Kelekna, for example, argued that, “while accelerating the rate of progress, well into the twentieth century the horse’s speed and strength also conferred a military might that inflicted untold suffering on millions.”82

Nevertheless, nostalgia for the iconic war-horse and its military value remain strong among traditionalists like Brigadier General Hamilton S. Hawkins of the US Army, and scholastic inquiry about the horse in military history remains a prominent topic of study today.83

81 Ann Hyland, Training the Roman Cavalry (Phoenix Mill: Alan Sutton, 1993); Jean Bou, Light Horse: A History of Australia's Mounted Arm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Ann Hyland and Lesley Skipper, The Warhorse in the Modern Era (Stockton-on-Tees: Black Tent Publications, 2010); Lee Windsor, Steel Cavalry: The 8th (New Brunswick) Hussars and the Italian Campaign (Fredericton, New Brunswick: Goose Lane Editions, 2011); Alexander M. Bielakowski, “General Hawkins's War: The Future of the Horse in the U.S. Cavalry,” The Journal of Military History 71, no. 1 (2007): 127-138; Jordan Claridge, Horses for Work and Horses for War: The Divergent Horse Market in Late Medieval England (Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta, 2011); Deb Bennett, Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship (Solvang, California: Amigo Publications, 1998); John C. Ewers, The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture with Comparative Material from other Western Tribes (Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969); Robert V. Hine and John Mack Faragher, The American West (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2000); Margaret Elsinor Derry, Horses in Society a Story of Animal Breeding and Marketing, 1800-1920 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006); Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1972). 82 Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 6. 83 Alexander M. Bielakowski, “General Hawkins's War: The Future of the Horse in the U.S. Cavalry,” The Journal of Military History 71, no. 1 (2007): 127-138; Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History (London: Reaktion Books, 2007); Jordan Claridge, Horses for Work and Horses for War: The Divergent Horse Market in Late Medieval England (Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta, 2011).

The third category of horse-history related research, which recognizes the horse as historical agent and human partner, is gaining scholarly attention from various disciplines.

Considerable research exists detailing the ways horses have been exploited and employed by and for humans as resources for millennia, but very little scholarship considers the perspective of horses as active and conscious agents in mutual partnership with humans.84 Chamberlin’s

Horse: How the Horse Has Shaped Civilizations is an exception to this pattern and demonstrates equine agency in human history, creatively employing fictional narrative to give a voice to the equine species itself.85 There is little in the historical record to tell us how common people in any period or place typically thought about their horses other than as practical aids in livelihood, and so scholars must turn to the literature of and about various cultural places and periods. The novel series Lonesome Dove, for example, tells the story of pioneering ranchers of the West in the 1870s. The author, Larry McMurtry, includes in this series a significant scene in which one main character, Captain Woodrow Call, gifted his favourite horse to his son as a means to communicate his love for the boy, and by extension, his horse. Such examples exist in many novels, such as the famous Black Beauty by Anna Sewell, which scholars like Anne Norton

Greene cited in her discussion of human-horse relationships and humane movement concerns.86

84 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006); Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Juliet Clutton- Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992); Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007); Sandra L. Olsen, Horses through Time (Boulder, Colorado: Roberts Rinehart Publishers for Carnegie Museum of Natural History, 1996); Sandra L. Olsen, M. A. Littauer and Ingrid Rea, Horses and Humans: The Evolution of Human-Equine Relationships (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2006). 85 J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How the Horse has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006). 86 Larry McMurtry, Lonesome Dove (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985), 834-838; Anna Sewell, Black Beauty: The Autobiography of a Horse (New York: Doubleday Press, 1922); Ann Norton Greene, Horses At Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008), 200-203, 243, 252-253; Jack Schaefer, Shane (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1954).

An emerging field of scholarly research dealing with the relationships humans have shared with non-human animals, both in the contemporary period and through history, provides some insights for historians interested in the human-horse relationship.87 This new, multi-disciplinary field, called Human-Animal Studies (HAS), is now pursued in both popular and academic forums, including the Animals and Society Institute in Ann Arbour, Michigan88, the New Zealand Center for Human-Animal Studies, and the Animal Studies Program at

Michigan State University. Additionally, an online community list-serve, H-Animal.org, launched in 1995 is dedicated to the study of human-animal relationships.89 Historians are prominent contributors to this new field, but no work has yet considered the newest evolution in the human-horse relationship which informs the Equine-Based Human Development (EBHD) industry.90

Many Human-Animal Studies (HAS) works have considered the significance of companion animals and some have investigated the impacts and potential of the Human-

Animal Bond.91 James Serpell’s, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human-Animal

87 Margo DeMello, Teaching the Animal (New York: Lantern Books, 2010); Margo DeMello, Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human-Animal Studies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012); Garry Marvin and Susan McHugh, Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies (New York: Routledge, 2014); Cary Wolfe, “Human, all too Human: ‘Animal Studies’ and the Humanities,” PMLA-publications of The Modern Language Association of America 124, no. 2 (2009): 564-575. 88 The Animals and Society Institute operates with the mission to develop “knowledge in the field of human-animal studies, support practice to address the relationship between animal cruelty and other violence, and promote action to protect animals through the adoption of ethical, compassionate public policy.” Ria Nancoo, “Animals and Society Institute - About Us,” Animalsandsociety.org, last modified 2015, accessed September 11, 2015, http://www.animalsandsociety.org/pages/about-us. 89 H-Animal formed under the parent directory of Social Sciences and Humanities scholars - H-Net.org and interdisciplinary journals Anthrozoos (1987) and Society and Animals (1993). Linda M. Hines, “Historical Perspectives on the Human-Animal Bond,” American Behavioral Scientist 47, no. 1 (2003): 7- 15. 90 Margo DeMello, Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human-Animal Studies (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012); Garry Marvin and Susan McHugh, Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies (New York: Routledge, 2014). 91 Linda M. Hines, “Historical Perspectives on the Human-Animal Bond,” American Behavioral Scientist 47, no. 1 (2003): 7-15; Froma Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds I: The Relational Significance of Companion Animals,” Family Process 48, no. 4 (2009): 462-480; Froma Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds II: The Role of Pets in Family Systems and Family Therapy,” Family Process 48, no. 4 (2009): 481-499; James Serpell, In

Relationships considers the inherent moral dilemma and hypocrisy in human cultures which love and pamper some animals while overlooking cruelty, exploitation, and routine consumption of others. Serpell also discusses the issue of agency from the perspective of companion animals benefiting human health, but gives little attention to horses.92 The

Representing Animals anthology, edited by historian Nigel Rothfels explored issues of agency and ethics in human-animal relationships, drawing connections between how we think about nonhuman-animals due to unconscious cultural training, and how we think about our world and ourselves, but these studies largely limited consideration of the horse to brief anecdotal comments or ignored equines altogether.93

Harriet Ritvo, an historian and major contributor to the HAS discipline, offered a slightly different approach to the topic of agency in The Animal Estate: The English and Other

Creatures in the Victorian Age where she considered human-animal relationships in 19th century England. In her study of human-animal relationships, Ritvo observed a hierarchical and human supremacy structure which paralleled cultural tendencies of dominance and superiority in an era of intense imperialism and class consciousness. Ritvo’s research includes consideration of the horse, providing a valuable analysis of common perception and social norms in human-horse relationships during the Victorian period. According to Ritvo, the horse was appreciated above most non-human animals, even more than some social classes of peoples, and considered among the most prized servants of humanity in the Victorian period,

the Company of Animals: A Study of Human Animal Relationships (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Allen M Schoen, Kindred Spirits: How the Remarkable Bond between Humans and Animals can Change the Way We Live (New York: Broadway Books, 2001); P. Elizabeth Anderson, The Powerful Bond between People and Pets: Our Boundless Connections to Companion Animals (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2008). 92 James Serpell, In the Company of Animals: A Study of Human Animal Relationships (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 93 Nigel Rothfels, Representing Animals (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002).

48 but any idea of equine agency in a human-horse relationship did not exist in Ritvo’s period of study.94

Commonly, human-animal studies or histories present humans as central to historical scholarship, with nonhuman animals as the ‘other’ rather than as equal partners in historical agency. Most scholars focus largely on ‘why’ and ‘how’ people do things with or to animals.

For example, Richard Bulliet’s Hunters, Herders, and Hamburgers: The Past and Future of

Human-Animal Relationships discusses how animals existed within human history, as opposed to illustrating the centrality of the agency of another species in the shaping of human history.95

A popular theme in the HAS literature links human cultural disconnection from non- human animals with ideologies and concerns related to the environmental movement, the humane movement, and the emergence of increasing popular and professional interest in animal-assisted and nature-therapies. The existing literature offers a variety of perspectives but focuses on the causes, symptoms, and anticipated consequences of such a disconnect between people and the natural world. While scholars and professionals in psychology and mental health have begun to explore the possibilities of intentionally reconnecting people with animals and nature for therapeutic purposes, these new relationships and supporting industries remain uninvestigated from an historical perspective.96

94 Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987). 95 Richard W. Bulliet, Hunters, Herders, and Hamburgers: The Past and Future of Human-Animal Relationships (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005). 96 Kathryn Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2008); P. Elizabeth Anderson, The Powerful Bond between People and Pets: Our Boundless Connections to Companion Animals (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2008); A. M. Beck, “The Biology of the Human-Animal Bond,” Animal Frontiers 4, no. 3 (2014): 32-36; C. C. Charles, “Building Better Bonds: Facilitating Interdisciplinary Knowledge Exchange within the Study of the Human-Animal Bond,” Animal Frontiers 4, no. 3 (2014): 37-42; Ronen Berger and Mooli Lahad, The Healing Forest in Post-Crisis Work with Children: A Nature Therapy and Expressive Arts Program for Groups (London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2013); Linda Buzzell and Craig Chalquist, Ecotherapy: Healing with Nature in Mind (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 2009); Martin Jordan, Nature and Therapy: Understanding Counselling and Psychotherapy in Outdoor Spaces (London: Routledge, 2014); Peter H Kahn, The Human

The existing literature on human-animal relations suggests a global trend of increasing compassion in human-animal relations since the advent of the humane movement in the

1860s, and that this was reflected in more gentle ways of working with animals. As well, a growing number of scholars dedicated to understanding equine cognition and how horses process environmental data, and to improving equine welfare, began to formalize and publish important new research, Equitation Science, around the turn of the twenty-first century; further discussion of this literature is offered in Chapter Six. Thus, the emergence of the EBHD industry and a revolution in horsemanship seem to have appeared at a time when people of the Western world began to reconsider how to think about, and engage with, nonhuman animals in an academic way. The beginning of human-animal relations studies overlaps with the emergence of the EBHD industry, as well as with an era of social movements like the environmental and animal rights movements. With development of environmental history, cultural history, world history, and human-animal relations scholarship in the latter half of the twentieth century, the EBHD industry appears to have emerged at a time in history when we began to think of ourselves in relation to others - and no longer simply other humans but all forms of life.

As with much of the existing historical scholarship on the history of the horse and human-horse relationships, my research fits within and makes connections between several disciplinary fields and across multiple sub-disciplines of History. Social movement history is relevant in understanding EBHD’s subtle but real ties to the relatively quiet but persistent

Relationship With Nature (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999). Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2005); Eva M. Selhub and Alan C. Logan, Your Brain on Nature: The Science of Nature's Influence on Your Health, Happiness, and Vitality (Mississauga, Ontario: John Wiley & Sons Canada, 2012).

50 humane movement. My research also documents the history of an industry which only began to formalize in the last four decades. More immediately, however, this history is part of the history of the horse and of the interdisciplinary field of Human-Animal Studies [HAS], focusing on those aspects of the horse-human relationship which informed the development of EBHD in the last half-century in the English speaking Western world.97

Research to understand the context for the emergence of the EBHD industry drew from the existing literature on the horse in human history. Further insight into the timing and development of the EBHD industry came from a survey of the seminal texts of the HAS field, research into the history of the environmental and humane movements, and social histories of the second half of the twentieth century. Contemporary promotional publications, training manuals, and websites of national and international EBHD related organizations, associations, trainers and facilitators were important sources for identifying key debates over the nature of this new practice, and the organizations that vied to represent the industry.

Surveying industry publications and websites of active practitioners in the field, and tracing their careers back to their training and certification, revealed common connections to the people who were influential in establishing the EBHD industry. These people were also,

97 While many research projects consider only a narrow sliver of the field, the central subject of Human- Animal Studies is quite broad and therein lends itself easily to investigation from a wide variety of academic disciplines. Many of the seminal works and scholars of Human-Animal Studies come from disciplines other than History in large part because of the interdisciplinary nature of the subject and the short history of the field. Even the journals associated with human-animal relations are interdisciplinary publications. History, Philosophy, Sociology, and Literary Studies represent the largest contributing disciplines on the H-Animal network. Jonathan Balcombe, “Animals & Society Courses: A Growing Trend in Post-Secondary Education,” Society & Animals 7, no. 3 (1999): 229-240; Kenneth Shapiro, “The State of Human-Animal Studies: Solid, at the Margin!” Society & Animals 10, no. 4 (2002): 331-337. H-Animal, a unique academic discussion network within the H-Net forum, offers ‘Ruminations’ on the subject of HAS from the perspectives of History: "The History of Animals" Erica Fudge Published May 25, 2006; Sociology: "The Sociology of Human-Animal Interaction and Relationships" Clinton R. Sanders Published May 25, 2006; Literature Studies: "One or Several Literary Animal Studies?" Susan McHugh Published July 17, 2006; Philosophy: "Animals in Anglo-American Philosophy" Clare Palmer, Published December 18, 2006; and "Animals in Continental Philosophy" Matthew Calarco, Published April 23, 2007. (http://www.h-net.org/~animal/) Accessed March 10, 2009.

51 largely, the authors on the subject from around the world. Many of the key people involved in the emergence of EBHD have published or self-published autobiographies which provide primary sources for piecing together much of the industry’s history. Moreover, the most prominent leaders of EBHD shared the stories of their personal experiences in private interviews conducted for this dissertation.

The first section of this dissertation presents the historical background and context of the emergence of the EBHD industry as a whole. Rather than repeat what others have already written about the larger history of the horse-human relationship, my work continues from the segmentation and organization of Pita Kelekna’s The Horse in Human History. She described the chronology of the horse-human relationship from 60 million years ago (beginning with only equid paleontology) to the twentieth century, discussing the impacts of the horse on everything from agriculture, metallurgy, and trade, to the dissemination of ideas and inventions, warfare, religion, language distribution, and colonial expansion. My research does not duplicate this work, but some chapters of this dissertation explore the development of the art of horsemanship and the importance to some notable leaders and warriors through history of a genuine partnership with one’s horse. The dissertation examines the influential industries which preceded and contributed to the emergence of the EBHD industry, beginning with the evolving historical and contemporary revolution in horsemanship from coercive dominance to gentle partnership, and the historical incorporation of non-human animals, specifically horses, in human health practices and therapeutic treatments.

The second section of this dissertation presents a narrative of the emergence of the

EBHD industry and the revolutionary paradigm it represents in the larger history of the human- horse relationship, addressing the following questions: What is the history of EBHD industry?

Who was influential in its development and how, when, and why did it emerge as a distinct

52 approach to human-horse relationships? What challenges has the developing industry faced, and what is the current state of EBHD practice and popular influence? The chapters in this section identify the people who were the major agents of change shaping the emerging EBHD industry, and the contemporary social context in which they acted. The final chapter reflects on the historical significance of the EBHD industry, looking specifically at how the emerging field and practice of EBHD fits within the larger patterns of human-horse and human-animal relations. This chapter highlights the new relationships that humans have begun to develop with horses during the last half-century, and shows how close analysis of the history of the

EBHD industry helps us better understand changing human/animal relations in general and how those changes matter to human health and social development, conceptualized broadly.

Kelekna concluded her overview of the horse in human history by arguing for an end to the human-horse partnership as a solution to larger world issues. She argued that it is time to stop our rapid physical developments that have been enabled over the past 6,000 years through our partnership with the horse in order to return our attention to the development of the evolutionary strength of our own species – intellect. Kelekna calls for a conscious shift from an age of horse-power to a new age centered around human brain-power.98 The emergence of the EBHD industry shows the possibility of a new development in the horse-human relationship that is quite different from that proposed by Kelekna. The history of EBHD suggests that, rather than withdrawing from our relationships with horses, the way to heal or strengthen ourselves and our world is through stronger, more intentional, and mutually respectful connections with others. Intellect is important, but in order to solve social or environmental dilemmas, relationships matter most. EBHD suggests that a greater investment in our

98 Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 402-404.

53 partnership with horses has the potential to unlock untapped wisdom and restore balance to our relationships with other people, species, and the environment as a whole. This dissertation seeks to better understand humans’ relationship with horses, and particularly how this relationship has recently expanded to engage the horse in roles as teacher and healer in a new industry emerging around the globe.

Chapter Two: Ripple Effects from a Twentieth Century “Revolution” in Horsemanship

“In their attitudes to their animals humans have always been as confused as they are in any other relationship, mixing compassion with cruelty and altruism with commercial greed. Great numbers of horses, reared either in preparation for their sacred journey into the next world, or for warfare, were presumably always well fed and cared for. Even greater numbers of ordinary horses, donkeys, and mules that were used for draught and travel in the ancient world, as in more recent times, had short lives, during which they were subjected to starvation and unbearable hardship.”1

Introduction The EBHD industry promotes a dynamic paradigm of human-horse relationships that is centred on values of respect, compassion, gentleness, and understanding. Such inter-species relationship values, although of critical importance to the development of the EBHD human- horse relationship and associated industry, are not necessarily unique to it; these characteristics were first introduced by the preceding equestrian revolution to Natural

Horsemanship in the second half of the twentieth century. Natural Horsemanship offered people another way to think about, understand, aim to control, and communicate and engage with horses; it drew attention to the inefficiencies, and criticized the perceived cruelty, of the mechanized intermediation typical of common horsemanship in the twentieth century. The revolution to Natural Horsemanship sought to restore older, somewhat forgotten, methods of horsemanship wherein the horse is engaged more as sentient partner and less as laborious servant or chattel.

The "revolution” in interspecies understanding and shifts in historic human-horse relations achieved by the Natural Horsemanship industry created an opportunity for the emergence of the EBHD industry in the final decades of the twentieth century which would, in

1 Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992), 180-181.

55 turn, further catalyze the on-going transformation in human-horse relationships and interspecies understandings more generally. The popular appeal of Natural Horsemanship, developed in large part through inspirational story-telling and emotive demonstrations by pioneering practitioners, including the famous “horse-whisperer” Monty Roberts, generated a high degree of social legitimacy, understanding, and contextualization for the human-horse relationship. Early EBHD adopters, practitioners, and observers were able to draw from this success in developing an industry wherein EBHD practitioners would effectively engage horses in leading individuals through learnings on life, leadership, health, and relationships.

Although the concepts and methods made popular by the Natural Horsemanship and

EBHD industries are innovative within a modern, Western Society, what is contemporarily presented as the innovative principles of Natural Horsemanship can be traced back to schools of horsemanship presented in recorded history from Xenophon’s work in the fifth century BCE.

Natural Horsemanship and the more recent EBHD industry thus offered changes to the collective understanding of human-horse relationships, primarily by re-populating and expanding horsemanship teachings and practices from Classical antiquity.

Historical Context Archaeological research suggests horses first appeared in human systems as a food- source prior to their domestication and the subsequent evolution of human-horse relationships. There is an emerging consensus among historians and archaeologists that the practice of horseback riding, traditionally considered the pinnacle of the human-horse relationship, began in Eurasia prior to 3100 BCE, although the precise date remains widely debated. In the intervening history, a wide variety of understandings, practices, and philosophies relating to horse handling, riding, and care—or ‘horsemanship’ as it is collectively

56 and contemporarily referred to—has developed and evolved cross-culturally.2 Horsemanship is the practice of handling and controlling horses for riding and driving for pleasure, competition, transportation, and labour, including the ability to catch, lead, and work with one or more horses. Such abilities are understood as competencies exhibited from the ground as well as proficiently from a mounted position on horseback. The measure of effectiveness for any horseman or horsewoman is to be found in the skill and ease with which they manage and control all movement of their horse(s). In short, the goal of efficient horsemanship is the effective control of organic horse power.3

The traditions of horsemanship include a broad spectrum of approaches ranging from relationships based on pain-induced control to ones based on gentler methods relying less on authoritative control and more on cross-species understanding and teamwork.4 Natural

Horsemanship developed as a response to concerns about the cruelty of “traditional” horsemanship’s reliance on pain-induced control, and focused on gentler practices developed specifically in consideration of the horses’ experiences.5 Natural Horsemanship popularized

2 Marsha A. Levine, “Domestication and Early History of the horse,” in The Domestic Horse: The Origins, Development and Management of its Behavior, eds. Daniel S. Mills and Sue M. McDonnell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 5-7; Marsha A. Levine, “Botai and the Origins of Horse Domestication,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 18, no. 1 (1999): 72-73, doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0332; David Anthony, Dimitri Y. Telegin, and Dorcas Brown, “The Origin Of Horseback Riding,” Scientific American 265 no. 6 (1991): 94-100, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1291-94; David W. Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007), 220-221; Juliet Clutton-Brock, Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1992), 11-12, 53-58; D.S. Mills and Sue. M. McDonnell, The Domestic Horse: The Origins, Development and Management of Its Behaviour, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 7; Pita Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 21-55. 3 Lynda Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’: The Culture of ‘Natural Horsemanship,’” Society & Animals, 15 (2007): 217-239; Neil Blake, The World of Dressage, (Fort Collins Colorado: Caballus Publishers, 1973), 9. 4 Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, 201-222; Mills and McDonnell, The Domestic Horse, 11- 16, 20-26, 160-165, 196-8; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 71-82, 121-124; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 36-38, 67-79, 96-99, 136-140,180-184, 217-221, 247-252, 262-265. 5 Robert M. Miller and Richard A Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship: And what it Means to Mankind, (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyon's Press, 2005), 8, 2-15, 169-177; Robert M. Miller, Natural Horsemanship

57 methods which prioritize partnership, trust, and unity between humans and horses in direct opposition to dominance and coercion. The core theme at the heart of Natural Horsemanship, found in a wide variety of associated practices, is that people can work with and lead horses— that is, engage in horsemanship—more effectively without the use of force.6

The late twentieth century “revolution” in Natural Horsemanship was ground-breaking as a mainstream twentieth century style of horsemanship, but the general principles and practices of Natural Horsemanship originated more than two millennia ago. While the

“revolution” in horsemanship emerged in the Southwestern USA in the contemporary era, this style of horsemanship was popular among dedicated horsemen of the Mediterranean region at least 2500 years ago.7

Classical Horsemanship Limited written records exist describing the history of the working-class human-horse relationship; nonetheless, historical military and ruling-class records provide some insights into historic trends and developments in horsemanship and broader human-horse relationships and perspectives. The fifth century BCE writings of Ancient Greek soldier and horseman, Xenophon, clearly describe a preference for gentle, thoughtful, and compassionate horse training techniques among his peers.8 Xenophon was a noble Athenian and spent years serving his

Explained, (Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press, 2007), 4-6; Birke, “Learning to Speak Horse,” 217- 239. 6 Ray Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses: An In-Depth Study of Horse/Man Relationship, (Fresno, California: Pioneer Pub. Co., 1978), 1-8, 16-17, 38-43; Bill Dorrance and Leslie Desmond, True Horsemanship Through Feel (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press, 2001), 11-12, 60, 72-83, 104, 134, 152- 4, 182-198; Tom Dorrance and Milly Hunt Porter, True Unity: Willing Communication Between Horse and Human, (Tuscarora, Nevada: Give-It-A-Go Enterprises, 1987), 6-7,12-14,36; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 3, 117; Robert M. Miller and Patrick Handley, Natural Horsemanship Explained: From Heart to Hands, (Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press, 2007), 1-8, 166-172. 7 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 13-15, 169-182; Mills and McDonnell, The Domestic Horse, 33-34. 8 Xenophon and M. H. Morgan, The Art of Horsemanship (Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2006), 15, 62-63, 79-86; J. K. Anderson and Xenophon, Ancient Greek Horsemanship, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961); Mills and McDonnell, The Domestic Horse, 33, 184; Elizabeth Peplow, Encyclopedia of the Horse, (San Diego, California: Thunder Bay Press, 1998), 16.

58 country as a cavalryman, dedicating much of his life to his horses. In his horsemanship training manual for Greek soldiers, Xenophon advocates gentle training which intentionally fosters horses’ courage and trust in their riders and handlers. Horses trained in this way were more valuable in war, as fearful horses who do not trust the leadership of their rider made dangerous mounts. Xenophon insisted that gentleness and compassion, "understanding and an appeal to the animal's [the horse's] mentality...are always preferable to brute force."9 He also warned that it was always ill-advised for men to work with horses while in a state of anger, famously comparing horses with dancers in explaining that the artful beauty and skilled potential of each must be carefully developed and are impossible to achieve with pain or fear tactics such as whips or spurs.10 Xenophon represents the earliest known horseman concerned with building his horses’ confidence and winning their trust, but in his writing he acknowledged other horsemen he respected.11 Xenophon’s explicit warnings against methods of cruelty and dominance suggest, however, that such tactics were prevalent enough to justify opposition in a written training manual.

Gentleness and compassion as primary method of horsemanship are believed to have been practiced by master-horsemen following Xenophon although few instances appear in recorded history.12 Juliet Clutton-Brock argues that “[c]ompassion for animals is a feature that runs all through the writing of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and it is not surprising since, not only did the wealth of the people rest in their livestock, but animals and people lived so closely together.”13 Horses were valued for their role in war by Roman people, and one emperor mandated provision of nourishment and care for retired chariot horses who had been

9 Hans Handler and Erich Lessing, The Spanish Riding School (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972), 52. 10 Xenophon and Morgan, The Art of Horsemanship, 25-26, 36-38, 70-76 11 Xenophon and Morgan, The Art of Horsemanship, 15, 62-63, 79-86. 12 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 2005, 169-182. 13 Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 120.

59 weakened in races or war. Horses were of such critical importance to the Roman Empire that acquisition of military mounts from North Africa served as a regular tax. Moreover, the struggle to obtain enough cavalry horses, “is likely to have been one deciding factor in the final overthrow of the Romans, around AD 460, by mounted Franks, Goths, and Vandals whose bowmen were far more experienced at fighting on horseback than the Romans.”14 Expansion of the Roman Empire integrated the various European, Asian, and North African methods of horsemanship in Roman culture, as the best of the Empire’s opponents were commissioned into mercenary cavalries for Rome. Skilled horsemanship was also considered a mark of honour for boys and men in the Roman Empire.15

The military transition to heavy horse and armoured knights of the Middle Ages changed the style of horsemanship and methods of battle dramatically. Although medieval knights are among the most glamorous popular stereotypes of the age, these metal-covered cavalrymen lacked fine horsemanship skills compared to their earlier contemporaries. Knightly warfare and jousting competitions required only very basic riding skills, as heavily armoured horses and their riders charged opponents in a straight line. Information on continuities and changes in everyday riding and horsemanship for transportation, labour, leisure and sport in classes other than the military and nobility in early history is sparse.16

Each culture which relied on the power of the horse for labour, transportation, and/or war in early history developed its own styles and methods of horsemanship, but war and trade

14 Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 120-122. 15 Margaret Ruth Lawrie, “The Horse in Roman Society” (Master's Thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria, 2005), 6-29, 52-57; Lawrie argues that horses were not as highly valued in Roman culture as in Greek culture. Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 123-124; Ann Hyland, Equus: The Horse in the Roman World, (London: Batsford, 1990), 24-27, 209; Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, (London: Reaktion Books, 2007), 40-43; Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 56; Robert Drews, Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe, (New York: Routledge, 2004), 56-58. 16 Lawrie, “The Horse in Roman Society,” 6-29; Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 56; Robert Drews, Early Riders, (New York: Routledge, 2004), 56-58; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 121- 124,156; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 209-239, 260-280,333-343; Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, (London: Reaktion Books, 2007), 40-43.

60 with one another resulted in widespread sharing of ideas. Through the process of mercantile exchange, culturally diverse peoples also observed, shared, adopted, and adapted ideas and practices, including methods of horsemanship. The Byzantine and Ottoman Empires perpetuated integration of skilled horsemanship from conquered or combatant regions into their own military techniques, eventually developing the legendary heavy-armoured knights.

Over centuries, the ruling and military elite adopted the methods of horsemanship they perceived to be the most effective and impressive from Europe, Asia, North Africa, and the

Arabian Peninsula. These Empires preserved certain valued techniques and ancient traditions while, no doubt, losing others in the process of evolving their own schools of horsemanship.17

The long and intricate history of war and trade across Europe, North Africa, and the Eurasian

Steppes produced a hodge podge of horsemanship techniques which may have originated in one isolated culture or another, but eventually became entwined by horsemen across much of the Old World.18

Despite periods of war, shifts in ruling cultures, and changes in military technique and strategy, the philosophy and method of Early Greek, or Classical Horsemanship, persisted in elite riding academies and breeding programs in Europe, with the support of various European

Royal Courts and influenced most significantly by French and Austrian horsemen.19 A return to

Classical horsemanship first occurred in Europe during the Renaissance period, beginning in

Naples, Italy, where Federico Grisone established a riding academy in 1532. It, and a later-built

17 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 195-208, 209-214, 241-244; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 113- 120, 121-124, 129-139. 18 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 172-184, 187-191, 195-208, 209-223,235-237, 241-244, 277-278, 295, 325-332, 333-344, 353; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 113-120, 121-124, 129-139; Donna Landry, Noble Brutes, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 2-10; Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, 3-7; Drews Early Riders, 57-8; A. Azzaroli, An Early History of Horsemanship, (Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1985), 66-70. 19 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 172-184, 187-191, 195-208, 209-223,235-237, 241-244, 277-278, 295, 325-332, 333-344, 353; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 113-120, 121-124, 129-139, 156; Landry, Noble Brutes, 2-10; Drews Early Riders, 56-58; Azzaroli, An Early History of Horsemanship, 66-70; Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 40-43.

61 riding academy in Rome, specialized in training young nobles from across Europe in the equestrian skills necessary for a courtly education. Grisone developed his reputation in large part after studying the recovered writings of Xenophon, and his own book, Ordini de Cavalcare, published in 1550, paraphrased much of what Xenophon had written. However, Grisone's practical methods and associated training recommendations and choice of equipment are now criticized as being crude and forceful, rather than following the genuine classical art of gentle horsemanship.20

In France, Antoine Pluvinel de la Baume, who was highly respected as an equestrian and confidant of King Henry IV, advocated philosophies synonymous with contemporary

Natural Horsemanship. At the riding academy that Pluvinel established in Paris, he taught a different method of horsemanship than the one that he had learned from the famous, though cruel, Italian horse-masters.21 Pluvinel "sought to eliminate all violent treatment of horses, and to achieve obedience through praise, demonstrated affection, and rewards.” Development of the horse was not the only purpose of artful horsemanship for him, for he believed that developing the rider’s mind could also be achieved by encouraging them to think through their actions in the saddle.22

Nearly a century after Pluvinel, Francois Robichon, Sieur de la Gueriniere gained great fame as a horseman in the Classical art of riding. Gueriniere opened a riding academy under the title "Ecuyer Academiste" in 1715 and published a highly popular riding manual in

1729, Ecole de Cavalerie, contenant la connaissance, l'instruction et la conversation du cheval.

20 Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 58-61; Jennifer O. Bryant, The USDF Guide To Dressage, (North Adams, Massachuetts: Storey Pub, 2006), 3-5. 21 Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 58-61; Bryant, The USDF Guide To Dressage, 3-7. 22 Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 59-61.

Gueriniere is remembered as having revolutionized horsemanship in Europe by banishing cruelty and brutality from the art of Classical Horsemanship, now called Dressage.23

Among the later riding academies established by 'riding masters' around Western

Europe, the Spanish Riding School in Austria is notable for its influence not just on horsemanship but on horse genetics. In 1559-60 the royal Austrian Stallburg Renaissance building was constructed in Vienna; it continues to house the Spanish Riding School’s Lipizzaner

Stallions. By 1580 horses were brought from Spain to stand at stud, initiating bloodlines of the ideal horse for the Classical style of horsemanship.24 During the First and Second World Wars, people at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria carefully recorded the wisdom and philosophies of this artful horsemanship previously held only as oral histories and hid breeding stock of the prized horses in the countryside. The horsemanship of the Spanish Riding School gained widespread popularity following the Second World War when the director of the School initiated international performance tours of the Lipizzaner Stallions demonstrating the most advanced movements of Classical Horsemanship to public audiences.25

Mediterranean, and Old World Horsemanship A different heritage of compassionate horsemanship originating with nomadic desert tribes in North Africa spread through the Iberian Peninsula and to the New World, eventually influencing the development of Natural Horsemanship more directly than Classical

Horsemanship. This horsemanship became part of the hybrid Moorish culture of early Islamic

Arabs and North African Berber people. The successful Moorish conquest of the Iberian

Peninsula in the eighth century introduced many Moorish influences including the breeding

23 Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 60-62; Bryant, The USDF Guide To Dressage, 3-7. 24 Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 62-83, 116-129; Bryant, The USDF Guide To Dressage, 3-7; “The History: Spanische Hofreitschule,” Spanish Riding School Website, Accessed January 15, 2015. http://www.srs.at/en/tradition/the-history/. 25 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 365-366, 404; Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 62-83, 116-129; Bryant, The USDF Guide to Dressage, 3-7; “The History: Spanische Hofreitschule,” Spanish Riding School Website, Accessed January 15, 2015. http://www.srs.at/en/tradition/the-history/.

63 and culture of Arabian and Berber horses and horsemanship. The Moors rode swift and agile horses with limited armour which allowed them to defeat the Spanish knights on their larger horses encumbered with heavy armour. When the marriage of Queen Isabella of Castile and

King Ferdinand of Aragon unified Spain, “[t]he Spanish turned the tables on the Moors and began their own holy war. Spain developed the concepts of the ‘Christian knight’ in order to drive out the invaders. This new fighting man was to become one of the great glories of Spain, indeed one of the greatest warriors of history. He had a new type of horse now and a new style of riding. All of this the Spanish had learned from the Moors.”26 Although the Moors were driven from Spain, their contributions remain intrinsic to Spanish culture today, in architecture, sport, military strategy, and horsemanship. Both herding culture and bull fighting on horseback have Moorish antecedents.27

Moorish traditions valued horses as much, or more, than did Classical Horsemanship.

For the nomadic desert tribes of North Africa, horsemanship was a way of life and horses their most valued assets, with horsemanship built on the idea of partnership, and horses often considered members of human families. Such deep understanding and appreciation of the equine species was transferred, in part, to the Spanish culture of horsemanship, and embedded particularly among those who made their living working livestock on horseback – the vaqueros, more so than the caballeros (Spanish gentlemen). This heritage also contributed to the success of the Spanish Christian Knights of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the

Conquistadors. For many Iberian horseman, as with their North African counterparts, their

26 Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, 3-5. 27 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 209-254, 259-280, 344-348 375-378; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 80-83, 129-132; Andrea Hopkins, A Chronicle History of Knights, (New York: Barns and Noble Books, 2004), 92-93; Alberto Bouroncle, “Violence and Social Order: An Approach to Spanish Bullfighting,” In, Meanings of Violence: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, eds., Goran Aijmer and Jon Abbink, (Oxford: Berg, 2000), 25-75.

64 mounts were their most prized possession and most trusted companions and partners. Such traditions later inspired, and were in turn propagated by, the Natural Horsemanship industry.28

New World Horsemanship Both Classical and Spanish style horsemanship made their way to the New World in the

Columbian exchange.29 The Conquistadors “brought their love of horses and their knowledge of Arab horsemanship with them, along with their horses and the breeding stock of cattle….

The Spanish invaders of Mexico gave rise to the vaquero tradition on this [North American] continent.”30 Vaquero horsemen employed intentional calmness and conscious body language communication in daily ranch life and work with horses. Rather than breaking the spirit of the animal to acquire a submissive and instinctively deadened servant-like response, vaquero tradition valued the sensitive instincts and spirited courage of their horses as assets to be nurtured and preserved through a partnership based on trust and understanding of one another.31 The history of North American cattle ranching and its pioneering horsemen evolved from Spanish vaquero tradition and its Moorish antecedents. By the eighteenth century, settlers of English descent had taken up cattle ranching in the American southwest and

28 Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, 1-7; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 23-24; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 209-252, 259-280, 375-378; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 80-83, 129-132; Ann Hyland, The Medieval Warhorse from Byzantium to the Crusades, (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton, 1994), 8, 113-114, 117; H. H. Sheukh Zayed Bin-Sultan al- Nahyan, “Introduction,” in The Arabian Horse: History, Mystery, and Magic, ed. Hossein Amirsadeghi, (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1998), 7-9; Ann Hyland The Horse in the Ancient World, (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton, 2003), 20-22, 30-35; Hyland, Equus: The Horse in the Roman World, 24-27, 209; Robin Law, The Horse in West African History: The Role of the Horse in the Societies of Pre-Colonial West Africa, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 160-175. 29 Alfred Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, 30th Anniversary Edition, (Westport Connecticut: Praeger, 2003), 77-105; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 348-354; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 140, 143-144; Gianni Granzotto, Christopher Columbus, trans. Stephen Sartarelli, (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1985), 102, 110, 133, 139, 147, 277-278; John Stewart Collis, Christopher Columbus, (London: Sphere Books, 1989), 82-83, 93-99, 105, 108-109, 119-121. 30 Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, 5. 31 Clayton, Inderwood, and Hoy, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, xvi, 2 – 66; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 151-152; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 6-15, 23-34, 59; Deb Bennett, Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship, (California: Amigo Publications, 1998), 109-111, 313-318, 362-365, 381-382.

65 adopted and adapted vaquero horsemanship to their own traditions, giving rise to both the simple and practical cowboy and the fancier buckaroo icons of the West. Each spread the cattle ranching industry and the vaquero tradition north, east, and west from California and Texas.32

Eventually the vaquero cattle ranch workers, who preserved Moorish horsemanship techniques and philosophies in their daily work, inspired the founding fathers of the Natural

Horsemanship Revolution -- not elite caballeros. The vaquero tradition was preserved organically by men (and likely some women too) working cattle for a living on the open ranges of Mexico and the American Southwest as oral tradition, not explicitly taught or performed anywhere, but perpetuated in the daily life of workers who genuinely appreciated their horses and valued understanding and respect in their partnerships.33 Although some works in the

“western” genre of fiction books and films, and even some country and folk songs may refer to vaquero-style horsemanship, this tradition was only explicitly recorded in print by pioneers of the Natural Horsemanship Revolution in the late twentieth century.34

Thus, the practice of Natural Horsemanship is less a “revolution,” as it is marketed, and more a renewal of much older methods and principles of horsemanship which originated in

North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, which made their way to North America with Spanish colonialism, with possible links to Ancient Greek culture and writings. The intense priorities of

32 Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, xv-xvii; J. Edward Chamberlin, Horse: How The Horse Has Shaped Civilizations (New York: BlueBridge, 2006), 126-129; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 344-379; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 140, 143-153; Bouroncle, “Violence and Social Order: An Approach to Spanish Bullfighting,” in Meanings of Violence: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, eds., Goran Aijmer and Jon Abbink, (Oxford: Berg, 2000), 25-75; Edward Larocque Tinker, Centaurs of Many Lands, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964), 27-39. 33 Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, xv-xvii, 2-69, 140-145; Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 118-129; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 26-33; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, x-xiii, 38-40; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 371-378, 385-387, 404. 34 Jack Schaefer, Shane (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1954); Larry McMurtry, Lonesome Dove (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985); Michael Blake, Dances With Wolves (Robbinsdale, Minnesota: Fawcett, 1988); Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, xv-xvii, 3-7; Handler and Lessing, The Spanish Riding School, 118-129; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 26-33; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, x-xiii, 38-40.

66 self-awareness and control on the part of the rider, and reliance on subtle communication between horse and rider critical to the Natural Horsemanship “revolution,” were prevalent in the art of both Classical and Vaquero schools of horsemanship. Both demonstrate a high level of compassion and appreciation for horses in horsemanship history similar to that which

Natural Horsemanship advocated in the second half of the twentieth century.

The “Revolution” Natural Horsemanship drew from a repertoire of earlier methods and paradigms developed in Africa and Europe and brought to North America; nonetheless, these methods and paradigms were considered revolutionary within the context in which Natural

Horsemanship emerged during the second half of the twentieth century, when horses still suffered from their loss of status during the Industrial Revolution. The values that informed both colonialism and the Industrial Revolution did not include much concern for welfare of the horse. Global colonialism normalized systematic exploitation of natural resources and indigenous peoples. Industrial Revolution ideals perpetuated devaluation and exploitation of human, animal, and natural resources further still as mechanization of labour was championed in pursuit of unprecedented productivity. Consistent with political and economic trends, social norms in these periods perceived the value of non-human animals – including horses – as something to be mass produced, harnessed, and exploited.35 As horses became available as common draught animals for urban and rural labour, popular perception of horses shifted so the beasts became largely objectified singular units of horsepower to be harnessed for maximum output productivity, rather than companions, partners, or prized assets that demonstrated one’s high status. The Natural Horsemanship “Revolution” thus emerged as a

35 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty: The Autobiography of a Horse, (New York: Doubleday, 1922), 56, 64, 109- 110, 112, 124, 130, 133, 134-138, 139-146, 173-174, 198, 201-203, 204-206; Monty Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses (New York: Random House, 1997), xiii-xv, 39; Greene, Horses At Work, 195; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 15, 154-164.

67 response that looked to older traditions to counter a relatively recent trend in horse-human relationships; indeed Natural Horsemanship can be considered a “counter-revolution” to the equine-specific impacts of the Industrial Revolution.36

Precisely when and how the customs of gentleness and compassion disappeared from popular horsemanship is not recorded, but it likely coincided with similar cultural trends and patterns in other human activity. As the human population grew exponentially between the fifteenth and nineteenth century, agricultural production pressure rose accordingly. The patterns of social hierarchy and systematic exploitation of labourers, human or animal that typify global colonization and industrialization appear to have fostered a culture of cruelty, linear or dominance-based relationship structures, and social belief in human supremacy and dominion over all other life. These social norms, in turn, were consistent with a kind of horsemanship which intentionally sought to “break” horses’ spirits, forcing them into submissive obedience to their human masters by means of pain and fear.37 In essence, before the rise of Natural Horsemanship, daily life and work was largely “a hell for horses.”38

Evidence of gentleness and compassion for the horse did exist among a few elite schools of horsemanship, but training by way of brute force, intimidation, and absolute dominance was more common in the modern history of human-horse relations. The industrial mechanization of labour reduced the once noble steed to beast of burden. As Ann Norton

Greene noted, “work on a treadmill reduced a horse to nothing more than a machine used for

36 Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 154-164; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 369-375, 391-393, 404- 405; Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work: Harnessing Power in Industrial America, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2008), 164-199; Susan D. Jones, Valuing Animals: Veterinarians and their Patients in Modern America, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 23. 37 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty: The Autobiography of a Horse, (New York: Doubleday, 1922), 56, 64, 109- 110, 112, 124, 130, 133, 134-138, 139-146, 173-174, 198, 201-203, 204-206; Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, xiii-xv, 39; Greene, Horses At Work, 195; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 15, 154-164. 38 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 135.

68 its power.”39 According to Linda Kalof, horses suffered terrible and lifelong cruelty in England in the eighteenth century and for 150 years after the Industrial Revolution.40 “Horses… were forced to pull heavy loads and beaten unmercifully… and endured ever more pain and suffering as they died subjected to cruel slaughtering practices…. …hundreds of old and diseased horses were slaughtered weekly in knackers’ yards…. After a prolonged waiting time of intense hunger and thirst”.41 During, and following, the Industrial Revolution, horses were widely replaced by machines, or harnessed to machines to power them. For example, horses harnessed to treadmills powered ferry boats rather than swift-footedly pulling carriages across diverse terrain in partnership with a trusted driver. Intelligence, agility, or loyalty to human handlers were no longer necessary for horses to be valuable to their owners or horse-power ‘operators’.

Monotonous and repetitive tasks became the new use for singular or teamed units of horse- power, which made individual horses replaceable commodities. When skill was removed from labour and productivity became the ultimate goal, individual value plummeted, and so did concern for equine health and welfare.42 According to Clutton-Brock, “The welfare of farm animals received little professional attention apart from the common-sense treatments of the farmer and farrier until the end of the eighteenth century.”43

Concomitant with the changed status of horses, popular methods of horsemanship became largely reduced to the uncaring, often cruel, master-slave relationship dynamic such as

39 Greene, Horses At Work, 195. 40 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 135-140. 41 Linda Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 137-8. 42 Clayton, Hoy, and Underwood, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, 140-145; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 14-15, 147-164; Monty Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, (New York: Random House, 1997), xiii-xv, xxiv, 14, 39; Kevin James Crisman and Arthur B. Cohn, When Horses Walked on Water, (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998), 46-60, 130-135, 224-226; Clay McShane and Joel A. Tarr, The Horse in the City: Living Machines in the Nineteenth Century, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 2, 55-59, 164-178, 184; Ann Norton Greene, Horses at Work, 164-199; Susan D. Jones, Valuing Animals: Veterinarians and their Patients in Modern America, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 23; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 404. 43 Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 160.

69 that described so vividly in Anna Sewell’s Black Beauty, originally published in 1877. As

Humane and Quaker Movements formed in defence of various exploited interest groups, they slowly and quietly attracted additional lobby groups and challenged the popular perception and social acceptance of cruelty.44 By 1824 the first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to

Animals (SPCA) emerged in England, followed by the American SPCA’s incorporation in 1866 in

New York and the Canadian SPCA in 1869 in Montreal. However, despite committed efforts, the Humane Movement remained on the fringes of society. After years of effort, SPCAs were successful in gaining some popular support yet only a modicum of government approval.45

Animal welfare legislation enacted in England and various locations around Canada and the

USA in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries imposed minimal requirements on owners and handlers of horses, and a handful of other non-human animals, requiring that they show that animals in the their care have access to food, water, and rudimentary shelter.46

44 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty: The Autobiography of a Horse, (New York: Doubleday, 1922), 56, 64, 109- 110, 112, 124, 130, 133, 134-138, 139-146, 173-174, 198, 201-203, 204-206; Linda Kalof, Looking At Animals in Human History, 124-136; McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City, 36-59; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 160; Georgia Sitara, “’Kindness, Justice and Mercy’: A History of the Toronto Humane Society, 1887-1917,” (Master’s thesis, University of Toronto, 1994), 1-31, 48, 51-56; Diane L. Beers, “A History of Animal Advocacy in America: Social Change, Gender and Cultural Values, 1865-1975,” (Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University, 1998), iv, 1-14. 45 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 124-128, 137-140; McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City, 28, 36-51; Kathryn Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement, (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2008), 241-271; Bernard Oreste Unti, “The Quality of Mercy: Organized Animal Protection in the United States, 1866-1930,” (Doctoral Dissertation, American University, 2002), iii, 4-10; Georgia Sitara, “Humanitarianism in the Age of Capital and Empire: Canada, 1870-1890,” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Victoria, 2007), iii-iv, 19-20, 39-41, 67-116; Susan J. Pearson, “‘The Rights of the Defenseless’: Animals, Children, and Sentimental Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century America,” (Doctoral Dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2004), iii, 2-11, 15, 20-23, 32-34, 38-41, 42-93. 46 Charles D. Niven, History of the Humane Movement, (New York: Transatlantic Arts, 1967), 57-61, 82- 83, 88-89, 91-93; Sydney H. Coleman, Humane Society Leaders in America, (Albany, New York: American Humane Association, 1924), 27-38, 115-118, 126, 208; Oreste Unti, “The Quality of Mercy: Organized Animal Protection in the United States, 1866-1930,” iii, 4-10; Sitara, “Humanitarianism in the Age of Capital and Empire: Canada, 1870-1890,,” iii-iv, 19-20, 39-41, 67-116; Pearson, “‘The Rights of the Defenseless’: Animals, Children, and Sentimental Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century America,” iii, 2-11, 15, 20-23, 32-34, 38-41, 42-93; Malamud, Kalof, and Pohl-Resl, eds., A Cultural History of Animals in the Modern Age, 139-161; Greene, Horses at Work, 200-204, 225-227, 233-325, 240-243; Jones, Valuing Animals, 12, 35-40, 137-149, 201-207; James Turner, Reckoning with the Beast: Animals, Pain, and

Technological advances of the early twentieth century eventually replaced, and all but eliminated, the horse from labour, transportation, and war. Horses proved to be particularly vulnerable to machine gun fire in war, being a larger and easier target than human soldiers, and their casualties could cripple an army’s supply chain. Tanks superseded cavalry forces as offensive shock tactic intimidation and offered greater strength against opponent armies. After millennia as the greatest innovation in transportation, labour, and war, the horse was reduced to practical redundancy in a matter of decades with the invention of the combustion engine.47

Tractors and heavy equipment offered the power of a herd of horses in one versatile machine that could outlive their four-legged predecessor, and did not require food and water every day.

Automobiles offered greater speed and prestige for travel than did riding or driving a horse- drawn carriage. As Ann Norton Greene notes, “horses became quaint vestiges of a preindustrial world.”48

No longer the necessary motive power for work or transportation, the twentieth century horse re-emerged as a symbol of status and luxury property for leisure, sport, and amusement. When horses were employed in circuses, rented as leisure mounts, or trained as competitive athletes, however, the audience, riders, or owners were rarely the people responsible for training the animals and had little opportunity for emotional investment in, or intimate understanding of, the horses with whom they engaged in leisure activities. Such disconnect paralleled industrial concern for productivity – trainers were paid to make horses perform or deliver in whatever pursuit they were instructed, by whatever means necessary,

Humanity in the Victorian Mind, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 15-38, 40-58, 75-76, 124; Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987), 125-165; Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 124-140; Shevelow, For the Love of Animals, 241-242, 269-271, 277-278; PANB (Provincial Archives of New Brunswick), MC386 (New Brunswick Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) C1950/1/1 of 4, “Educational Material,” “By-Laws, Acts,” “By-Laws, 1957”. 47 Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 400-402, 404-405; Greene, Horses at Work, 119-163, 240-243; McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City, 165-180; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 162-164. 48 Greene, Horses at Work, 4.

71 and if the horse, or the trainer, failed to meet the objective, they were easily replaced.

Bloodlines and conformation were valued by elite horse enthusiasts, and some individuals maintained an appreciation for their horses and intentionally sought to cultivate deep relationship bonds of partnership, but in the early twentieth century such inter-species compassion served more as an economic liability than an asset according to social norms of the time.49 Without the sentimental or practical value they once held for their owners, the horse was a lowly servant, and the culture of disposability would leave any emotional relationship with a horse vulnerable to the pressure to make a living.50

It was not until the second half of the twentieth century that conventional cowboys and equestrians were ready or willing to reconsider philosophies of gentleness and compassion in horsemanship. At that time, the idea of partnership with horses had long since disappeared from common methods and practices of horsemanship. Common practice in horsemanship had long been imbued with intentional cruelty and disregard for the welfare of the horse. Broken bones were common side effects of the processes cowboys systematically employed to intentionally break young horses’ spirits as standard training for any discipline or occupation.

The ideal horse had learned, through pain and fear, to dissociate from its instincts and never challenge any human command. Partnership was not the common goal of common horsemanship; absolute submission and obedience to human dominance was.51

Early advocates of Natural Horsemanship struggled to persuade their peers to adopt practices based on gentleness and compassion which appeared in stark contrast with common

49 Kalof, Looking at Animals in Human History, 156-164; Ritvo, The Animal Estate, 18-25; McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City, 84-101, 176-177; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 15, 177, 180-181; Kelekna, The Horse in Human History, 379, 404-405. 50 Greene, Horses at Work, 183-184; McShane and Tarr, The Horse in the City, 84-101, 176-177. 51 Hayes, M. Horace, Illustrated Horse Breaking, (London, W. Thacker & Co: 1896), 1-39, 147-165; Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, xiii-xv, 39; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217-239; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 38, 294; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 193.

72 horsemanship practices of the time. Notably, the horse industry today commonly describes the methods of horsemanship common in second half of the twentieth century as ‘traditional horsemanship’. Many equestrian peers of all disciplines in the 1960s and 1970s simply scoffed at the earliest demonstrations, unimpressed and adamant that the cruel techniques of the colonial and industrial eras were both proper and necessary. Natural Horsemanship pioneers were ridiculed for their sensitivity, and accused of weakness and risky stupidity because of their refusal to intimidate or train with pain.52 In spite of the criticism these horsemen, and later horse women as well, advocated that gentleness, compassion, respect, trust and the pursuit of genuine partnership work more efficiently and effectively as strategies to train horses than the common pain and pressure alternatives.53

The term ‘Natural Horsemanship’ is somewhat confusing because its principles are not at all natural to the people practicing this style of horsemanship; rather Natural Horsemanship applies training methods reliant on behavioural psychology believed to be natural to the horse.

The central ideas and methods of Natural Horsemanship are not particularly complex, but they rely on a practice of consideration for the experience of the horse, from the horse’s perspective. Natural Horsemanship requires an immense capacity for self-awareness, self- control, and inter-species understanding on the part of the horseman. Effectively, the art of

Natural Horsemanship obliges human practitioners to be compassionate inter-species leaders,

52 Buck, film (New York, New York: Directed by Cindy Meehl, Cedar Creek Productions, 2011); Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, xiii-xv, 57 109-117, 149, 246-250; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 38, 294; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a- horseman/. 53 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship; Rashid, Considering the Horse, 36-38, 49-50, 78-79, 97-99, 103-105, 162, 230, 255, 314; Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, xxxv, 22-29, 40, 94; Waran and Casey, “Horse Training,” in The Domestic Horse, 184-195; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217- 239; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 4, 10-11, 24, 29, 117-118, 167-168, 198, 209, 247, 294-361; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 9-16, 17-23, 30, 32-33; Hunt, Think Harmony With Horses, 1, 5, 7-8,27, 42-43; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than AaHorseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a- horseman/.

73 speak the language of the horse with precision, and consider the needs and experience of the horse as the first priority.54

Practitioners of Natural Horsemanship train themselves to understand and act in accordance with equine instinct rather than their own. This training method intentionally raises the status of equines from beasts of burden to sentient beings and partners in process.

Horsemanship strategy derived from basic human instinct typically includes focused determination, clear end goals, and exertion of absolute control of the horse to achieve those goals. Essentially, Natural Horsemanship reverses this and promotes learning to understand the horse while controlling oneself. Understanding of, and intentional engagement with, equine behavioural psychology differentiates Natural Horsemanship from other methods of training.55

Horses and humans evolved to rely on very different sets of biological concerns and priorities as well as social survival strategies. The horse negotiates herd relationships through movement, body language, and other silent cues, whereas humans, not unlike many of our primate cousins, rely heavily on physical aggression, intimidating sounds and gestures, and

54 Miller & Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 14, 57, 124, 149, 165, 172, 193, 314; Buck Brannaman and William Reynolds, The Faraway Horses (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press, 2003), 1-2, 180,198; Mark Rashid, Considering the Horse: Tales of Problems Solved and Lessons Learned, (Boulder: Johnson Books, 1993), 9-10, 12-14, 16-22, 193; Monty Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, (New York: Random House, 1997), xix-xxx, 6, 9-16, 22-25, 30-32, 113, 169-170, 213-125, 244, 257; Natalie K. Waran and Rachel Casey, “Horse Training,” in The Domestic Horse, eds., D.S. Mills and S.M. McDonnell, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 184-195; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217- 239; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 11, 77, 84, 95, 113, 195, 294; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, xv-xvi, 6, 9-16; Hunt, Think Harmony With Horses, 1-8,10, 16, 23-24; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/. 55 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship; Rashid, Considering the Horse, 36-38, 49-50, 78-79, 97-99, 103-105, 162, 230, 255, 314; Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, xxxv, 22-29, 40, 94; Waran and Casey, “Horse Training,” in The Domestic Horse, 184-195; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217- 239; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 4, 10-11, 24, 29, 117-118, 167-168, 198, 209, 247, 294-361; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 9-16, 17-23, 30, 32-33; Hunt, Think Harmony With Horses, 1, 5, 7-8,27, 42-43; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a- horseman/.

74 even violent tantrums to establish dominance roles within partnerships and social groups. As prey animals, horses are highly sensitive to sound and movement and instinctively respond to threats these represent with fear and flight; horses resort to fighting only as a defence when escape is not a viable option. Thus, Natural Horsemanship rejects methods of horsemanship conducted in accordance with human instincts which may achieve basic desired training responses from horses, but are inefficient because horses become panicked and confused when humans posture aggressively. Horsemanship conducted in accordance with equine instinct, on the other hand, allows room for understanding and relaxation for both the horses and humans involved.56 Hence, while traditional methods of horsemanship were rational for the psychology and social behaviour of the human species, Natural Horsemanship is revolutionary in large part because it strives to correspond compassionately with the psychology of the horse.57

The early pioneers of Natural Horsemanship were mostly working cowboys of the

American Southwest who seemed to value their personal ethics and their relationships with their horses more than their reputation among human peers. Many of these individuals came to identify themselves as working on the horses’ behalf, acting as translators for horses and their humans, and “helping horses with people problems” rather than correcting “problem horses.” The pioneers of Natural Horsemanship demonstrated fierce loyalty to their horse teachers to the extent of losing or refusing paying clients who failed to accept their process or respect the needs of their horses. In no uncertain terms, these individuals believed they

56 Lee Boyde and Ronald Keiper, "Behavioural Ecology of Feral Horses," in The Domestic Horse, eds. D.S. Mills and S.M. McDonnell, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 55 – 82; Claudia Feh, "Relationships and communication in socially natural horse herds," in The Domestic Horse, eds. D.S. Mills and S.M. McDonnell, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 83 – 93; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship,72-76, 98-101, 103-104. 57 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 36, 78-80, 97, 98-102; Lynda Birke, “Talking About Horses: Control And Freedom In The World Of ‘Natural Horsemanship’,” Society & Animals 16, no. 2 (2008): 107-126; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/.

75 worked with or for horses and trained humans in proper horsemanship, not the other way around.58 At first, proponents of this style of horsemanship were men who made their living by working in a saddle on the open range. They did not give public lectures or demonstrations about their methods or produce books or training videos. Instead, they shared their methods and their passion for horses with those who watched them work and found inspiration in what they saw, either practically, emotionally, or both. Those who used gentler ways and sought meaningful partnership with their horses were, for most of recent history, a minority in an otherwise rough industry.59 Only a very few individuals, mostly men, emerged as key players in the Natural Horsemanship revolution. To the general public who have read their books or observed their horsemanship demonstrations, these individuals are often called ‘horse whisperers’. Tom and Bill Dorrance, Ray Hunt, Monty Roberts, and Pat Parelli remain the most widely known leaders in professionalizing and popularizing various training and gentling techniques which all share a central concern for the horse’s experience and emotional well- being.60

Tom Dorrance was the youngest boy in his family of eight, born and raised on a large cattle ranch in Oregon in the early twentieth century. He frequently referred to himself as “the horse’s lawyer”, always advocating thoughtful, gentle horsemanship methods. Dorrance says that what has become known as the art of Natural Horsemanship just made sense to him, as he

58 Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, v-vii; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 15, 29-36, 47-48, 49-52; Hunt, Think Harmony With Horses, 7-8, 25-28, 37-43; Rashid, Considering the Horse, 23-38; Brannaman with Reynolds, The Fawaway Horses, 199-218, 229-252. 59 Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 5-7, 24-25, 225-226; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, xii-xiii. 60 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 25-50; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse,’” 217-239; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse: Exploring the Power of the Horse-Human Relationship, (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 54-55, 76-79, 88-89, 103, 144; Brannaman with Reynolds, The Fawaway Horses, 229-252; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/.

76 tended to be a peacemaker, even as a child. Dorrance consciously worked to establish and maintain a friendly relationship with every horse he engaged with. Apart from the horses he worked with, Dorrance credited his older brother Fred, who died young in a hunting accident, as his best teacher or mentor in horsemanship. He also acknowledged inspiration from the vaquero tradition of horsemanship which he experienced in California, where he and his wife

Margaret eventually settled.61 Dorrance taught many students, gave many horsemanship demonstrations and practitioner clinics, and published one book, True Unity: Willing

Communication Between Horse and Human. A man of few words, Dorrance cleverly captured and delivered most of his lessons and insights in short phrases he repeated often. These sayings left lasting impressions on his students and continue to be quoted and paraphrased by his successors and those he inspired.62 The most prominent of Dorrance’s lesson phrases include:

1. Observe, remember, and compare. 2. Make the wrong things difficult and the right things easy. 3. Let your idea become the horse’s idea. 4. Be as gentle as possible and as firm as necessary. 5. The slower you do it, the quicker you’ll find it. 6. Feel what the horse is feeling, and operate from where the horse is. 7. Do less to get more. 8. Take the time it takes. 9. The horse has a need for self-preservation in mind, body, and spirit. 10. The horse is never wrong.63

The subject of many newspaper and magazine articles, Dorrance was bothered by the loss of privacy he and his wife experienced as the Natural Horsemanship industry attracted popular attention. Although Dorrance, who died in 2003, is widely recognized as the founder of Natural

61 Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, vii-xiii, xv-xvi, 1-7; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 26-28; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/. 62 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 26-30; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More Than A Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom- dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 37-123, 125-130, 131-132. 63 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 28.

Horsemanship, he disliked the commercialization of a way of being with horses that was dear to his heart, and personally profited little from it.64

After Tom Dorrance, the two most widely known and highly influential pioneers of

Natural Horsemanship are Tom’s older brother Bill Dorrance and Ray Hunt, one of Tom’s earlier students. Bill Dorrance was, like his brother, a curious and gentle man with a great passion for horses. Bill relocated to California before Tom and also found inspiration in the vaquero and Californio horsemen living and working there. Bill learned by observing the different styles of each of the horsemen he met, and adopted and adapted the methods he liked into his own style of horsemanship. Although he did not realize his dream of starting a school of horsemanship of his own, he had many students, including Natural Horsemanship’s most recently recognized horse-training guru Buck Brannaman.65 Dorrance’s best and most ambitious student, Leslie Desmond, helped preserve his knowledge and pioneering style of horsemanship by encouraging him to write, True Horsemanship Through Feel which was published in 1999 shortly before he died.66

Tom and Bill Dorrance were early practitioners of Natural Horsemanship, but Ray Hunt was the cowboy who was the original leading agent and first facilitator in the unfolding of the

Natural Horsemanship revolution, having “personally started [trained] more than 10,000 colts and, directly or indirectly, … influenced the horsemanship of millions of people around the

64 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 26-30; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom- dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/; Judith Newman, “Horse Sense: Breaking Tradition, Not Horses, Tom Dorrance Champions A Kinder, Gentler Training Technique,” People, 1993, accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20106907,00.html; Belva Ticknor, “Dorrance, Tom – Obituary,” The Record Courier, Baker County Oregon Obituaries, 2003, accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.accessgenealogy.com/california/dorrance-tom-obituary.htm. 65 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 24-36, 41, 60-63; Brannaman with Reynolds, The Faraway Horses, 83-96; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, v-vii, viii-xiii, xiv-xvi. 66 Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, viii-xiii; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 33-36, 60-62.

78 world.”67 Hunt was born in 1929 in Idaho, and became Tom Dorrance’s student in 1961. He quickly became Dorrance’s protégé, and absorbed Dorrance’s methods and insights, developing them further and in a direction that Dorrance admired. At some point, the boundary between Dorrance’s horsemanship and Hunt’s blurred, and the two are often now referred to together or interchangeably.68

In the mid-1970’s, Hunt consolidated the revolution in Natural Horsemanship by offering public demonstrations and training clinics for this new style of horsemanship, defying the skeptics. As he said at the beginning of each clinic or demonstration he offered, “I’m here for the horse – to help him get a better deal.”69 Hunt firmly believed that the horse is never wrong; whenever mistakes are made, the fault and responsibility belong to the horseman involved. In 1978 Hunt published Think Harmony with Horses: An In-depth Study of Horse/Man

Relationship which explained and promoted the style of horsemanship he and Tom Dorrance developed, but without labelling it as Natural Horsemanship. Hunt died in 2009.70

Unlike many other professional horsemen, even in the Natural Horsemanship industry, neither the Dorrance brothers nor Ray Hunt ever offered step-by-step instructions or ‘how-to’ guides for their students. These founding fathers of Natural Horsemanship believed every interaction with horses is different, so the why, when, and how anyone should do anything with any horse depended on each individual, situation, assessed on a moment-by-moment

67 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 31. In an effort to change the relationship dynamic and eliminate forceful tactics from the practice, the Natural Horsemanship industry sought to popularize the terms “to start” “started” and “starting” to replace the more common terms “to break” “broke” and “breaking” to describe the process of training an unhandled horse. 68 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 28-36, 55-60, 108, 146; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, xi; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 3-4; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 77. 69Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 32. 70 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 32, 108; Hunt, Think Harmony Wwth Horses.

79 basis. According to these pioneering horsemen, smart and safe horsemen had to learn to adjust themselves and their responses to fit each situation and each horse, in the moment.71

Each of these three Master horsemen articulated the art of horsemanship as based primarily on the intangible sense of feel.72 Feel is difficult to describe in words and is an intuitive skill honed through practice. Miller and Lamb attempt to explain the concept using comparisons to the skills needed by artists and master crafts workers:

Ask a jazz musician how he knows which note to play in an improvised solo. Ask a carpenter how he knows how many strokes of sandpaper are needed on the finish of a cabinet. Or ask Ray Hunt how he knows that a horse is thinking about making a try [to understand and cooperate]. The expert draws upon a wealth of experience and intimate knowledge of his subject that become very difficult to verbalize. It becomes part of him; it operates from his intuitive self. It becomes feel.73 In the 1980s the term “Natural Horsemanship” was coined by another of Dorrance’s students, Pat Parelli. An adept businessman and self-proclaimed entertainer, Parelli attracted widespread public and popular appeal as a leader of the industry he named. Parelli, who grew up in California, competed in many equestrian sports. His success at national Western-style competitions in the early 1980s brought attention to him and to Natural Horsemanship; Parelli began his career as an instructor and clinician of natural horsemanship methods in 1982. He packaged a system of seven “games” for people to play with their horses as a progressive systematic program for groundwork training. These, and the later development of his level system of horsemanship training, contributed to his growing global empire of Parelli Natural

Horse-Man-Ship students and followers. Parelli’s wife, Linda, a dressage rider from Australia, helped expand the Parelli brand in the mid-1990s. Today, the Parelli system, Parelli licensed

71 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 32-34; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through , Feel, 1-222; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 13, 20, 22, 2, 36; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 53-54, 58-59, 70. 72 Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 6-7, 15, 19, 29, 46-47, 58, 71-72, 92, 95, 98, 107, 118-119, 146, 155, 161, 184, 193, 217, 297; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 9-16; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 10, 23, 39-40, 48, 49-50, 51, 53, 54-55, 56, 58, 59-60, 61-63. 73 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 32, Emphasis in original.

80 instructors, and Parelli-branded clothing, equipment, and accessories are found around the world, and the Parelli name is nearly synonymous with the phrase “natural horsemanship.”74

The only name in Natural Horsemanship possibly more famous than Pat Parelli is

Monty Roberts, commonly known as “the horse whisperer.” Another California cowboy,

Roberts was born and raised on a ranch, riding before he could walk and winning competitions by the age of four. He was a rodeo cowboy, a stunt-rider for films, and a star athlete all before his high school graduation, but his childhood was not an easy one. Extreme work and show schedules determined by a volatile and abusive father inspired young Roberts to take shelter hiding among his beloved horses, and riding into the Sierra Nevadas to watch the wild roaming mustangs whenever he could. He says the horses were his friends, and they were also his teachers. As a young man he continued with his competitive riding and worked as a trainer. He gained a significant reputation training racehorses and western riding horses in particular, and studied with the Dorrance brothers.75

While Parelli focused on marketing Natural Horsemanship to horse-enthusiasts and equine-professionals, Roberts was able to introduce the idea of a gentle and effective style of horsemanship to the general public when his work was endorsed by an avid royal horsewoman, Queen Elizabeth II. In the late 1980s, Queen Elizabeth invited Roberts to England to conduct a demonstration of his horsemanship methods, for which he uses the brand name

Join Up. Join Up uses a round pen and gentle communication with a single horse modelled on

74 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 7, 12-13, 36-40; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217-239; Parelli, Natural Horse-Man-Ship, 5-11, 17-18, 23-26, 78; “Parelli Natural Horsemanship - Horse Training,” Parelli Natural Horsemanship - Horse Training, last modified 2015, accessed May 19, 2015, http://www.parelli.com/. 75 Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, 3-9, 39-55, 80-91, 129, 144-178; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 13, 40-42; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54, 72, 77-79, 88, 103, 128, 144, 179; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217-239; Monty Roberts, Horse Sense for People, (Toronto: Anchor, 2001); Monty Roberts and Christopher Dydyk, Shy Boy, (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1999); “Monty Roberts University | Join Up Online,” Montyroberts.com, accessed May 18, 2015, http://www.montyroberts.com/.

Roberts’ understandings of the behaviours and body language of wild mustang herd dynamics.

Practitioners believe this establishes a respectful relationship between human and horse and helps form a bond of trust between the two. Typically the industrial process of ‘breaking’ a new horse takes hours, days, even weeks with various styles and methods of traditional horsemanship; Roberts’ Join Up process takes approximately twenty minutes, start to finish, and is entirely free of physical pain or coercion. Impressed with what she witnessed, Her

Majesty requested Roberts deliver his Join Up demonstrations throughout England. At the

Queen’s suggestion, Roberts also wrote and published his first book in England; it was subsequently released in fifteen other countries.76

Roberts’ autobiography, The Man Who Listens to Horses, illustrates the appeal of the revolution in horsemanship for the general public. Published in 1996, Roberts’ book quickly became an international bestseller, staying on the New York Times bestseller list for 58 weeks.

Today, Roberts delivers Join Up demonstrations and training clinics in North and South

America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Like Parelli, Roberts has an international following and line of merchandise, as well as certified instructors of his Join Up methods.77

Each of these pioneering cowboys of Natural Horsemanship identified the vaquero style of horsemanship practised in the American southwest since the sixteenth century as influential in their work. The vaquero emphasis on working with the horse as a partner rather than breaking the horse fit well with Natural Horsemanship’s emphasis on working with rather than against the horse’s instincts. Above all, however, each of the pioneers of Natural

76 Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, xxi-xxx, 32-34, 189-208, 231-238; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 72-74. 77 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 13; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217-239; Roberts, The Man Who Listens to Horses, 129, 144-178; Monty Roberts, Horse Sense for People, (Toronto: Anchor, 2001); Monty Roberts and Christopher Dydyk, Shy Boy, (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1999); “Monty Roberts University | Join Up Online,” Montyroberts.com, accessed May 18, 2015, http://www.montyroberts.com/.

Horsemanship, when asked to identify their teachers, pointed to their horses. None of their human mentors of horsemanship were as significant to their learning as horses themselves. By working under the tutelage of teachers so knowledgeable on the subject of inquiry, Natural

Horsemanship pioneers found great success first as working riders, then as competitive riders, and later made careers as professional horse trainers for other people’s horses.78

Understanding herd animal instinct and social behaviour so as to use cooperative persuasion rather than relying on brute force coercion was particularly advantageous for frontier cattle ranchers who made their living moving and tending herds of cows and horses in the hundreds, or at times thousands, on open range, and the work was easier for those who cultivated acuity to the instincts and subtle nuances of the large herbivores they had to manage and protect. For example, horses not broken to quiet submission offer strategic early warning systems of anything out of place. Savvy riders make use of their horse’s prey-animal instincts to monitor visible surroundings with heightened awareness. Sensitive horsemen who preserved their horses’ instincts and cultivated a relationship of trust and communication with their mounts would note the direction of their horses’ ears pointing to an advancing predator or a cow wandering away from the herd, and appreciate nervous or agitated behaviour in their mount as insight to potential threats they had not yet noticed themselves.79

78 Clayton, Inderwood, and Hoy, Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos, xvi, 2 – 66; Clutton-Brock, Horse Power, 151-152; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 6-15, 23-34, 59; Deb. Bennett, Conquerors: The Roots of New World Horsemanship, (California: Amigo Publications, 1998), 109-111, 313-318, 362-365, 381-382; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 4, 24, 167, 198, 209, 247; Monty Roberts, The Horses In My Life (North Pomfret, Vermont: Trafalgar Square Pub., 2005); Hunt, Think Harmony With Horses, 1-2, 43; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 1-7, 35-36; Rashid, Considering the Horse, 186-199; Brannaman with Reynolds, The Faraway Horses, 229-252. 79 Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/; Judith Newman, “Horse Sense: Breaking Tradition, Not Horses, Tom Dorrance Champions a Kinder, Gentler Training Technique,” People, 1993, accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20106907,00.html; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 10-11, 22, 59, 77, 84, 95, 113, 132, 195, 348-349; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 45-46; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 1-2, 43.

This inter-species partnership requires the horseman to learn to understand the instinctive nature and language of the horse, and then to achieve absolute control of himself in order to engage with the animal(s) in a manner which is natural for them. Thus, Natural

Horsemanship not only changed the way people understood and engaged with horses for training purposes, it also introduced the revolutionary idea that holistic personal development of the horseman was both important to and aided by gentle partnership with horses. According to its pioneers and leading trainers, Natural Horsemanship requires awareness, understanding and careful management of emotion, as well as balance and clarity of mind, body, and spirit.

Riders must have a gentle but firm touch and quiet confidence. Natural Horsemanship requires people, “to be better people.”80 Increasingly, Natural Horsemanship clinicians teach that the more we come to know and control ourselves, the more our horses will respond positively. At its heart, Natural Horsemanship teaches that master horsemanship is about self-mastery, and that the practice of horsemanship is really about perpetual self-development of the horseman.81

As the Natural Horsemanship revolution shifted popular perception of the horse from exploitable beast of burden to thinking, feeling, intelligent, being, Natural Horsemanship training methods came to emphasize understanding of equine psychology, so that horsemen could engage with horses as conscious beings. Human trainers employing Natural

Horsemanship methods learned to understand and work with the unique world view inherent to the equine species. The Natural Horsemanship movement renewed pre-Industrial

Revolution attitudes to horses, valuing them for their beauty, and the prestige of their power

80 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 15, 314-315. 81 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 28, 314; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 1-14, 20-24, 28-30, 35, 48, 59, 67, 79, 81, 104, 112, 117, 121, 126, 129, 318- 321, 339; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 9-11; Brannaman with Reynolds, The Faraway Horses, 252; Mark Rashid, Whole Heart, Whole Horse: Building Trust between Horse And Rider (New York: Skyhorse Pub., 2009), 123-124, 136-138, 165-176, 204-205.

84 and partnership. But more than that, Natural Horsemanship taught people to strive to consider and engage with the horse from the horse’s perspective, not just as a practical strategy to ensure longevity for return on investment, but on a moral principle which values the life and experience of the horse as well as that of humans.82

Along with elevating the status of horses, the revolution to Natural Horsemanship changed the strategy for training horses. Instead of repetitive coercion to get the horse to submit to its trainer, horsemen made a conscious effort to train themselves to learn the instinctive behavioural psychology of horses in order to work with them. Central to the principles of Natural Horsemanship are strength of character of the horseman and his opposition to reliance on coercive methods of control over others. Bits, whips, and spurs, the tools used in ‘traditional horsemanship’ to intimidate and force horses into submissive obedience, were replaced with gentleness, understanding, and respect as the new tools of

Natural Horsemanship. Riding equipment and tack like saddles and bridles are still used by proponents of Natural Horsemanship, but many pursue bitless and/or bareback riding as a testament to their strength of communication and willing partnership with their horse(s).

Competing at top level competition, whether rodeo or reining, jumping or dressage, while riding bareback and without any equipment or harness on the horse’s head is now so common among top Natural Horsemanship trainers it is almost a mandatory accomplishment to gain standing or market attention in the rapidly expanding industry.83

82 Lynda Birke, “Talking About Horses: Control and Freedom in the World Of ‘Natural Horsemanship’,” Society & Animals 16, no. 2 (2008): 107-126; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 26, 36, 136, 160, 256, 290; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 1-3, 13, 54-57, 89, 104, 131, 137, 158, 181, 247-249. 83 Lynda Birke, “Talking About Horses: Control and Freedom in the World Of ‘Natural Horsemanship’,” Society & Animals 16, no. 2 (2008): 107-126; Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 2-4, 41- 44, 48, 65-67, 75-77, 101, 111-113, 117, 151-165, 170, 193-195, 267; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic- horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/; Judith Newman, “Horse Sense: Breaking Tradition, Not Horses, Tom Dorrance Champions a Kinder, Gentler Training Technique,” People, 1993,

The revolution in Natural Horsemanship sought to infuse popular horsemanship with a sophisticated understanding of equine instinct, social behaviour, and psychology, and intentionally train people to speak a language the horse innately understands. Earlier schools of horsemanship consciously encouraged kind treatment of horses so as to preserve their health, value, and cooperation under saddle or in harness, but no evidence exists of widespread efforts to decipher and learn to speak the silent language of the equine species.

Particularly innovative and perceptive individuals may have experimented with strategies like

Natural Horsemanship throughout the long history of human-horse relations, but not until the late twentieth century did popular horsemanship trends begin to widely adopt and encourage strategies of intentional inter-species communication and advanced understanding of equine behavioural psychological. The revolution in Natural Horsemanship witnessed the emergence of a cultural majority seeking the cooperative partnership of the horse through cultivation of compassion, gentleness, and trust instead of dominance and coercion.

The Ripple Effects Natural Horsemanship built upon Classical understandings and practices and introduced the concept that working with horses in a compassionate manner is not only good for the horse but also for people. Such a perspective opened a whole new dimension or paradigm of potential to consider for human-horse relations. Pioneers of the Natural

Horsemanship industry contributed to a popular perception that horses held potential to influence human growth and development, teach people something about themselves, and provide insights into various aspects of human life. In addition to advocating humane accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20106907,00.html; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 9-16; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 1-8, 42-43; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 1-3, 8, 11, 16, 22-28, 30, 38-40, 48, 54, 57-60, 67, 71, 79-83, 89, 97, 104-106, 112, 117, 131-134, 145, 153, 170, 181-183, 197-202, 280-285, 329-330; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 78, 147, 166; “Westfall Horsemanship,” Westfallhorsemanship.com, accessed May 1, 2015, http://www.westfallhorsemanship.com/; Pat Parelli, Natural Horse-Man-Ship (New York: Lyons, 2003), cover photo.

86 treatment and consideration of the horse’s experience, the Natural Horsemanship industry showed that conscious change in our method of interaction, leadership, and ultimate relationship with horses had the potential to foster unique personal development for the humans engaged in the process. The humane treatment ideologies central to and popularized by the Natural Horsemanship industry influenced the core ideologies of the EBHD industry, but more significant to the latter was the idea that good horsemanship required control of oneself.84

Successful engagement in Natural Horsemanship requires actors to first learn the art of self-mastery, yet the teachings and practice of Natural Horsemanship provide little guidance on how to do so, as according to the philosophies of Natural Horsemanship, the pursuit of self- development, or self-mastery of the horseman/woman, necessarily precedes the pursuit of master horsemanship. Principles of self-mastery are also the foundation of the EBHD industry, which maintains that mutually respectful engagement with horses provides an unparalleled pathway for self-development and self-mastery. The methods of these two industries are practically identical, but the outcome of one serves as the means of the other, and vice versa.

Although one developed ahead of the other, both industries are now widely understood as complementary. Similarly, both industries conjure feelings of irony in consideration of the

“inner peace” they market for sale.85

84 Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 21-24, 46, 164; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 5-7, 9-12, 30-33, 36; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 1-8, 42-43; Buck, film (New York, New York: Directed by Cindy Meehl, Cedar Creek Productions, 2011); Chris Irwin and Bob Weber, Dancing with Your Dark Horse: How Horse Sense Helps Us Find Balance, Strength, and Wisdom, (New York: Marlowe & Co., 2005), 12-25, 171-192; Mark Rashid, Life Lessons from a Ranch Horse, (Boulder: Johnson Books, 2003), xi, 1-5; Roberts, Horse Sense for People, xxv-xxvi, 11-13, 34, 95-102, 183, 195-196, 199- 200. 85 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 15, 32-33, 78, 172, 198, 314; Paul Belasik, Riding Towards the Light: An Apprenticeship in the Art of Dressage Riding, (London: J.A. Allen, 1992), 7-15, 36- 45; Hunt, Think Harmony With Horses, 1-3; Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 21-24, 46, 164.

Cowboys of the Natural Horsemanship Revolution, at the most radical edges of the industry, not only taught avid equestrians but also inspired general public and non-horse professionals such as teachers and psychologists with their innovative gentle leadership techniques. Their work inspired and influenced much public interest in horses as partners in personal and professional development, as the Natural Horsemanship pioneers emphasized that any success they enjoyed with horses required them to consistently master themselves in mind, body, and spirit. Many Natural Horsemanship clinicians were invited into corporate boardrooms to teach Horse Sense as a new kind of inter-personal relationship and leadership method to improve internal company governance structures, leadership style, and team dynamics, directly connecting the Natural Horsemanship industry with the EBHD industry.86

Ray Hunt’s most famous and resonating message, for both the Natural Horsemanship and the EBHD industries is that, when engaging with horses “you’re not working on your horse, you’re working on yourself.”87 This single sentence sums up the unifying principle linking the

Natural Horsemanship industry with the EBHD industry. Not all of the Natural Horsemanship trainers who came after Hunt and the Dorrance brothers preserved this principle centrally, or at all, in their theory and methods, but EBHD pioneers and contemporary practitioners built their passion and profession on this foundation.88 According to Robert M. Miller D.V.M. and

Rick Lamb, lifelong horsemen and experienced proponents of Natural Horsemanship, “…the revolution in horsemanship … is allowing us to develop better, safer, happier horses, but we

86 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 14-15, 33, 315; Birke, “‘Learning to Speak Horse’,” 217-239; Roberts, Horse Sense for People, xxv-xxvi, 11-13, 34, 95-102, 183, 195-196, 199-200. 87 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 33; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 2. 88 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 1-3, 33, 25-50; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 79, 166; Roberts, Horse Sense for People, xxv-xxvi, 11-13, 34, 95-102, 183, 195-196, 199-200.

88 are becoming better, safer, and happier people in the process. This is a revolution in horsemanship, but it is also a revolution in realizing human potential.”89

While the revolution in Natural Horsemanship only tacitly promotes development in human potential, the EBHD industry explicitly partners people with horses for this very purpose: the central goal and desired result of EBHD is advancement of the person through engagement with horses in activities similar to those that Natural Horsemanship advocates. In order to understand this new way of working with horses, the Natural Horsemanship leaders instruct people not only to investigate and understand the evolution and behaviour of the equine species, but also to deepen their understanding of themselves -- as a species and as individuals. Herein lies the natural transition from horsemanship to the world of EBHD; the art of horsemanship is ultimately the art of self-mastery.

In essence, EBHD began on the fringes of the Natural Horsemanship revolution, and the senior industry served as a critical precursor to the EBHD industry’s more radical position in the human-horse relationship history. Ideas about developing the self through the way of the horse were only expressed by a few Natural Horsemanship pioneers and in limited marketing pursuits at the outer edges of the Natural Horsemanship industry, but collectively they inspired the central message of the EBHD industry. The younger industry began just inside the margins of where the older industry’s scope of practice ended. After the birth of the EBHD industry, the two intertwined and overlapped through their concurrent development and came to differ more through marketing than practice. The language and marketing of each industry vary in accordance with respective focus – either horsemanship or purely personal development – but both promote direct learning or training of the people involved as much as or more than that of the horses. Both industries place great emphasis on the person’s development of self-

89 Miller and Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship, 33.

89 awareness, self-control, compassion, charisma, and ability to communicate non-verbally.90 The growing success and popular interest of the Natural Horsemanship industry intrinsically supports the development and market awareness of the emerging EBHD industry.

The timing and philosophies of the emergence of the Natural Horsemanship industry and its popular appeal beyond equestrian communities preceded, then paralleled and overlapped with the emergence of the EBHD industry. More importantly, the contemporary leaders of the Natural Horsemanship revolution provided tangible inspiration and sometimes served as personal teachers or mentors to the younger generation of pioneers in the EBHD industry. Popular interest in Natural Horsemanship methods in the 1970s and 1980s was an important predecessor of EBHD, and contributed to creating conditions favourable to the growth of the innovative new industry.

90 Dorrance and Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, 24, 29, 46, 56-59, 82-83, 97, 110, 122, 144- 145, 164-167, 278-279; Dorrance and Hunt Porter, True Unity, 9-12, 32, 36, 44-46; Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses, 1-3, 10, 42-43; Irwin and Weber, Dancing with Your Dark Horse, 24-32, 46-49; Irwin and Weber, Horses Don't Lie, 2-5, 48-53; Rashid, Life Lessons from a Ranch Horse, (Boulder: Johnson Books, 2003), 1-3, 46-49, 53-58, 72-75.

Chapter Three: From Physiotherapist to Psychotherapist: The Horse in Human Health

Introduction

The industry of Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) in general, and therapeutic horseback riding in particular, was as important to the emergence of the EBHD industry as the Natural

Horsemanship Revolution. The broad history of non-human animals engaged in human health and wellness beliefs or practices does not reveal how, when, and by whom, animals, and specifically horses, were first integrated into human health and wellness services, but an overview of even a small sample of studies surrounding this human-animal relationship provides valuable context for the contemporary history of animal assisted therapies, the emergence of the EBHD industry, and the related shift in human animal relationship paradigm in general. These contemporary developments in human-animal relations are not altogether new or novel, but instead reflect subtle patterns and traditions of long held human beliefs and perception about our species’ relationship with non-human animals. Although animal-assisted therapy techniques were practised much earlier, the AAT industry would come to be recognized as a distinct industry only during the second half of the twentieth century.

The benefits of AAT result from human engagement in real and significant relationships with non-human animals and with a mental health professional working in conjunction with the therapy animal.1 Specifically, those relationships may positively correlate with an increased

1 Froma Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds I: The Relational Significance of Companion Animals,” Family Process 48, no. 4 (2009): 462-480; Sandra B. Barker et al., “Benefits of Interacting with Companion Animals: A Bibliography of Articles Published in Refereed Journals During the Past 5 Years,” American Behavioral Scientist 47, no. 1 (2003): 94-99; Friedmann and Tsai, “The Animal-Human Bond: Health and Wellness,” in Animal Assisted Therapy ed. A. Fine, (San Diago, California: Academic Press, 2006), 95-117; Linda M. Hines, “Historical Perspectives on the Human-Animal Bond,” American Behavioral Scientist 47, no. 1 (2003): 7-15; L. A. Kurdek, “Pet Dogs as Attachment Figures,” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 25, no. 2 (2008): 247-266; S. Brown, “Companion Animals as Self-objects,” Anthrozoos, 20

91 sense of social support among AAT patients and participants, improving a person’s mental, social, emotional, and physical health. Social support refers to feelings of self-esteem, being loved, cared for, and also needed by a loved one. The foundation of the AAT industry rests on the theory that particularly gentle and affectionate individuals of various domesticated non- human animal species can provide adequate satisfaction in fulfilling the human need for social support.2 The concept of this inter-species relationship is discussed extensively in AAT-related research publications as the central element responsible for the psychological benefits of this therapy model, and AAT advocates argue that its efficacy depends on triggering and developing the human-animal bond, generally understood as the emotional relationship or attachment a person develops for an animal.3 From the perspective of human health, adopting a dog, or visiting the same animal regularly is very different, for example, than a single horse-back trail ride experience or observing a circus, horse race, or dog show. Leading human-animal bond research confirms that people who connect with animals are typically very capable of feeling love, empathy, and compassion for other people as well; marginalized populations who experience social discrimination or rejection may find it easier or less stressful to engage in

(4) 2007: 329-343; Clinton R. Sanders, “Actions Speak Louder than Words: Close Relationships between Humans and Nonhuman Animals,” Symbolic Interaction 26, no. 3 (2003): 405-426; Froma Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds II: The Role of Pets in Family Systems and Family Therapy,” Family Process 48, no. 4 (2009): 481-499. 2 Froma Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds I: The Relational Significance of Companion Animals,” Family Process, 48 (2009): 462-480; Froma Walsh, “Human-Animal bonds II: The Role of Pets in Family Systems and Family Therapy,” Family Process 48 no. 4 (2009): 481-499; Baker et al, “Benefits of Interacting with Companion Animals: A Bibliography of Articles Published in Refereed Journals During the Past Five Years,” Psychiatric Services, 29 (2003): 797-801; E. Friedmann and C.C Tsai, “The Animal-Human Bond: Health and Wellness,” in Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Practice Guidelines Ed. A. Fine, (San Diago: Academic Press, 2006), 95-117; D.L. Wells, “The Effects of Animals on Human Health and Well-Being,” Journal of Social Issues, 65 no. 3 (2009): 523-543; L. Hines, “Historical Perspectives on the Human-Animal Bond,” American Behavioral Scientist, 47 no. 1 (2003): 7-15. 3 Baker et al. “Benefits of Interacting with Companion Animals,” 797-801; Friedmann and Tsai, “The Animal-Human Bond,” in Animal-Assisted Therapy, 95-117; Wells, “The Effects of Animals on Human Health and Well-Being,” 523-543; Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds I,” 462-480; Walsh, “Human-Animal bonds II,” 481-499; L. Hines, “Historical Perspectives on the Human-Animal Bond,” 7-15; C. C. Charles, “Building Better Bonds: Facilitating Interdisciplinary Knowledge Exchange within the Study of the Human-Animal Bond,” Animal Frontiers 4, no. 3 (2014): 37-42.

92 non-judgmental interaction with non-human animals than with other people. Thus, it is the conscious cultivation of a human-animal bond that differentiates AAT from simply observing or enjoying animals in recreation or passive entertainment.4

Today the AAT industry boasts persistently growing volumes of research supporting its development. Popular awareness of AAT modalities is widely supported by positive news stories and fundraising initiatives. AAT offers value to a wide client demographic with a broad spectrum of mental, emotional, and/or social challenges. Most commonly, AAT is employed to help reduce pain, anxiety, depression, and fatigue caused by a wide variety of health conditions or environmental and social circumstances. For example, some dental offices now employ AAT activities to help reduce patient stress before, during, and/or after dental procedures. Nursing home, long term care, and chronic care facilities are other common proponents of AAT efforts to provide emotional comfort to patients. Increasingly, PTSD sufferers represent a large patient population often supported by AAT.5 Nonetheless, many mental health professionals criticize

4 Baker et al, “Benefits of Interacting with Companion Animals,” 797-801; Friedmann & Tsai, “The Animal-Human Bond,” 95-117; L. Hines, “Historical Perspectives on the Human-Animal Bond,” 7-15; Walsh, “Human-Animal Bonds I,” 462-480; L. Kurdek, “Pet Dogs as Attachment Figures,” Journal of Personal and Social Relationships, 25 no. 2 (2008): 247-266; S.E. Brown, “Companion Animals as Self- objects,” Anthrozoos, 20 no. 4 (2007): 329-343; C. Saunders, “Actions Speak Louder than Words: Close Relationships Between Humans and Nonhuman Animals,” Symbolic Interaction, 26 no. 3 (2003): 405- 425; J. Gammonley and J. Yates, “Pet Projects: Animal Assisted Therapy in Nursing Homes,” Journal of Gerontology Nursing 17 no. 1 (1991): 12-5. 5 New Government funding programs in Canada and the USA launched between 2013 and 2015 for the purpose of funding animal assisted therapy programs for RCMP and/or military vets suffering from PTSD: Richard Madan, “Federal Government To Fund Horse Therapy For Injured Veterans,” CTV News, 2015, accessed May 19, 2015, Tim Hayes, “Horses Helped This Vet With PTSD After No One Else Could,” Huffington Post, 2015, accessed May 30, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tim-hayes/horses-for- heroes-healing_1_b_7425962.html; Jill Croteau and Lisa Geddes, “Equine Therapy Program Treats RCMP Officers With PTSD,” Global News, 2014, accessed May 12, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1651196/equine-therapy-program-treats-rcmp-officers-with-ptsd/; Heather Loney, “Equine Therapy Program Launched For RCMP Members With PTSD,” Global News, 2014, accessed May 5, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1565784/equine-therapy-program-launched-for- rcmp-members-with-ptsd/;Tom Cramer, “Reining In PTSD With Equestrian Therapy,” US Department Of Vetersns Affairs | Veterans Health Administration, 2014, accessed June 1, 2015, http://www.va.gov/health/newsfeatures/2014/September/Reining-In-PTSD-With-Equestrian- Therapy.asp; Ines Pandzic, Animal-Assisted Therapy And PTSD (Naval Center for Combat & Operational Stress Control, 2015), accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.med.navy.mil/.../white-paper-animal-assisted-

93 the lack of substantial scientific evidence for the claimed benefits of AAT. Despite such skepticism, scholars of AAT and Human-Animals Relations in general, like James A. Serpell, maintain hope that with continued research and publication, “we can return to a more holistic and open-minded view of the potential contribution of animals to human well-being.”6 As a relatively new industry, AAT will remain in a state of stunted development until it builds this research base.7 AAT history has roots in various early cultures and in the Humane Movement, beginning in connection with a Quaker mental hospital in England in the late eighteenth century. Partnership with horses in therapeutic activities for people with physical difficulties during and after the First and Second World Wars led practitioners and observers to turn their attention to the mental, emotional, and social benefits of therapeutic work with horses throughout the 1980s, in parallel with the growth in popularity of companion animal AAT.

The formalization of both the therapeutic riding and AAT industries historically coincides with many of the social movements of the Cold War era and the corresponding shifts in human perspective about, and interest in, compassionate treatment of animals. The two industries developed independently from unique fields of interest; however, they shared a similar historical trajectory and affected the larger history of human-animal relations in a similar fashion. Since the middle of the twentieth century, both therapeutic riding and AAT have gained steady popular support and scholarly interest. They began to overlap in the 1980s and

1990s, and by the late twentieth century, were commonly perceived as a single industry. By therapy-and-ptsd.doc; Altschuler EL. “Pet-facilitated therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder,” Annals of Clinical Psychiatry. 1999 11(1):29-30; Beck CE, Gonzales F, Sells CH, Jones C, Reer T, Wasilewski S, et al. The effects of animal-assisted therapy on wounded warriors in an Occupational Therapy Life Skills program. The United States Army Medical Department Journal, April-June 2012, 38-45; Tim Hayes, “Horses Helped this Vet with PTSD After No One Else Could,” Huffington Post, 2015, accessed May 30, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tim-hayes/horses-for-heroes-healing_1_b_7425962.html. 6 J. Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 17. 7 Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, 39-48, 355-389, 391-412, 487-523; Chandler, Animal- assisted therapy in counseling and school settings, 12, 24-27, 126-128; Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 94-107, 123-125; Alison Reynolds, “Pets As Therapy: Where Is The Evidence?,” Nurs Residential Care 14, no. 9 (2012): 478-481.

94 the second decade of the twenty-first century, equine-specific activities were among the most common AAT services.

Much like the Natural Horsemanship industry, AAT and therapeutic riding both illuminate the diverse positive potential of engaging in compassionate or companionship model relationships with non-human animals. The AAT industry presented the mental, emotional, and social benefits to be found in cultivating bonding relationships between humans and animals, while therapeutic riding explicitly demonstrated, as had the Natural Horsemanship industry indirectly, that horses could actively benefit human health and wellness, particularly in physical therapy. The combination eventually resulted in the EBHD industry, a new, hybrid industry of ground-work (non-mounted) activity with horses to aid human mental health, wellness, education and learning. The growth and development of AAT and therapeutic riding, like the successful advocacy of Natural Horsemanship, created the context for a positive market and practitioner response to the more specialized practice of EBHD.

The Growth of Animal Assisted Therapies Many species of non-human animals have a lengthy history as human companions and many cultures long believed that interaction with animals could influence human health and wellness. Animism, a belief system which considered the relationships people cultivate with non-human animals to directly influence human health and sickness, was common among hunter-gatherer societies and earth-based spiritualities but it influenced the beliefs of some nomadic pastoralist and even sedentary agricultural societies as well.8 Variations of the animism worldview persisted through history to the modern day, especially in indigenous and

8 James A. Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” in Handbook on Animal- Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, ed. Aubrey H. Fine, 2nd ed., (California: Academic Press, 2006), 3-11.

First Nations cultural beliefs.9 Ancient Egyptian culture is also well known for its many animal- headed gods and goddesses, and associated reverence for the healing power of some species, particularly dogs, snakes, and cats.10 Classical Greek culture did not worship animal-gods specifically, but several Greek Gods had the shamanic ability to shape-shift into animal forms, or kept powerful animals companions themselves.11 Traces of animism and ancient shamanic belief systems remained in practice across Europe in the early centuries of Christianity.12

Regardless of continent or culture, the shared belief among all of these peoples was that the quality of human relationship with non-human animals could directly influence human health or well-being.13

9 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; G. Wenzel, Animal Rights, Human Rights: Ecology, Economy and Ideology in the Canadian Arctic, (London: Belhaven Press, 1991), 134-136; R. F. Benedict, “The Concept of the Guardian Spirit in North America,” Mem. Am. Anthropol. Assoc. 29 (1929): 3-93; R. Landes, Ojibwe Region and the Midewiwin, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), 34-41, 78-83; Michael Angel, Preserving The Sacred (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2002), 5-9, 18-24, 47-70; G. H. Gossen, “Animal Souls, Co-essences, and Human Destiny in Mesoamerica,” in Monsters, Tricksters, and Sacred Cows: Animal Tales and American Identities, Ed. A.J. Arnold, (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 80-107; Michael Pomedli, Living With Animals: Visions And Sounds In Ojibwe Worlds (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014); John A. Grim, The Shaman: Patterns Of Religious Healing Amoung The Ojibwa Indians (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983); John A. Grim, The Shaman: Patterns Of Siberian And Ojibwa Healing (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1983). 10 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; C. W. Swabe, “Animals in the Ancient World,” in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, eds. A. Manning and J.A. Serpell, (London: Routledge, 1994), 36-58. 11 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Jan N. Bremmer and Andrew Erskine, The Gods Of Ancient Greece (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), 84-109. 12 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 9; Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Edward A. Armstrong, Saint Francis: Nature Mystic, (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1973), 5-17, 18-40; Roger D Sorrell, St. Francis Of Assisi And Nature: Tradition And Innovation In Western Christian Attitudes Toward The Environment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 3-7, 9-15, 35-37, 40-43, 55-67, 69-95; J.A. Serpell, “From Paragon to Pariah: Some Reflections on Human Attitudes to Dogs,” in The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People, ed. J.A. Serpell, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 245-256. 13 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Benedict, “The Concept of the Guardian Spirit in North America,” 3-93; Michael Angel, Preserving The Sacred (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2002), 63-65, 74-76, 132-135;G. H. Gossen, “Animal Souls, Co-essences, and Human Destiny in Mesoamerica,” in Monsters, Tricksters, and Sacred Cows: Animal Tales and American Identities, 80-107; C. W. Swabe, “Animals in the Ancient World,” in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, eds. A. Manning and J.A. Serpell, (London: Routledge, 1994), 36-58.

Over time, the Protestant Reformation sought to supress animism and relegate it to predominantly superstitious folklore. Roman Catholic inquisitions to quell perceived heresy and prevent any spread of religious dissent, persecuted people associated with pre-Christian, pagan belief systems and practices, such as those of animism and shamanism.14 Witch hunts of the early modern period perpetuated attacks on individuals suspected of shamanistic beliefs and practices, as these people were perceived to conspire with the devil through their communion with non-human animals. Among the limited “evidence” used to prosecute individuals on witch charges was their possession of supernatural animal companions or

“familiars,” including species which in contemporary society are common household pets such as dogs, cats, caged birds, mice, rats, or ferrets. The companionship and communion with nature and animals which in an earlier paradigm was evidence of spiritual leadership and healing power became grounds for execution on charges of heresy and diabolism, as the leadership of organized Christianity attempted to enforce a new paradigm based on a linear, hierarchical structure in which humans claimed absolute supremacy and dominion over non- human animals.15

During the modern period, Western peoples began to re-establish sympathetic attitudes and affection for non-human animals and nature, particularly among the aristocracy and the

14 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Brigitte Resl, ed. A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, (Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers, 2007), 30-33, 39-41, 48-57; J.A. Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 2nd Ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 150-158. 15 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 11; J.C. Schmitt, The Holy Grehound: Guinegort, Healer of Children since the 13th Century, trans. M. Thom, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 3-8; R. Briggs, Witches and Neighbours: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft, (London: Vicking, 1996), 23-24, 45, 72-76, 91-92, 97, 102-105, 143, 204, 215, 243, 331; J.A. Serpell, “Guardian Spirits or Demonic Pets: The Concept of the Witch’s Familiar in Early Modern England, 1530-1712,” in The Animal/Human Boundary, eds. A.N.H. Creager and W.C. Jordan, (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2002), 157-190; J. Salisbury, The Beast Within: Animals in the Middle Ages, (London: Routledge, 1994), 113-115; J.A. Serpell, “Animals and Religion: Towards a Unifying Theory,” in The Human-Animal Relationship, Eds. F. de Jonge and R. van den Bos, (Netherlands: Royal Van Gorcum, 2005), 9-22; Brigitte Resl, ed. A Cultural History of Animals in the Medieval Age, (Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers, 2007), 45-48.

97 newly emerging urban middle class. Increasing migration to urban centers disengaged significant portions of the population from rural labour and its daily consumptive exploitation of animals, along with the associated value systems previously required to legitimize such exploitation. Prominent Enlightenment thinkers and reformers such as John Locke, John Calvin, and Thomas Hobbes initiated ideas which advocated the use of friendly relationships with animals to teach and develop desirable social skills in children, such as compassion, a sense of concern and responsibility for the welfare of others, and self-control.16 In some institutions, companion animals were intentionally incorporated in human healthcare, as, for example, in treatment of the mentally ill at the York Retreat, founded in York, England in 1796 by William

Tuke, a Quaker. Established as a compassionate alternative to the traditional mental asylums which the Quaker community opposed, the York Retreat’s innovative treatment programs were based on Quaker principles, and focused on kind, personalized attention and activities to enhance patient self-esteem and self-control, including social interaction, occupational therapy, reading, and creative activities such as craft-making. The courtyards, gardens, and ponds at the Retreat were filled with small animals and birds and patients were encouraged to spend leisure time communing with nature in this tranquil setting. Tuke and his staff found

16 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; A. H. Maehle, “Cruelty and Kindness to the ‘Brute Creation’: Stability and Change in the Ethics of the Man-Animal Relationship, 1600-1850,” in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, eds. A. Manning and J.A. Serpell, (London: Routledge, 1994), 81-105; K. Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England, 1500-1800, (London: Allen Lane, 1983), 9-12, 135-147, 152-167; Salisbury, The Beast Within, 1- 5, 143-157; J.A. Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 2nd Ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 30-68, 160-170, 195-198; J.A. Serpell and E.S. Paul, “Pets and the Development of Positive Attitudes to Animals,” in Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, eds. A. Manning and J.A. Serpell, (London: Routledge, 1994), 127-144; J. Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, (London: Black Swan, 1693), 35-37, 49-55, 71-73, 128-133; K.C. Grier, “Childhood Socialization and Companion Animals: United States, 1820-1870,” Social Animal 7 (1999): 95-120; H. Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 121- 166; J. Turner, Reckoning with the Beast: Animals, Pain, and Humanity in the Victorian Mind, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 2-13, 16-17, 21-22, 27-29, 34-37, 51-58, 75-83, 122-127, 132-140.

98 that engagement with the domestic animals lifted the spirits of inpatients and triggered or inspired better socialization, gentleness, and compassionate feelings among the mentally ill.17

Animals became more commonly incorporated in the treatment methods used in mental hospitals in the nineteenth century following the pioneer work at the York Retreat.

With the recognition that animal companionship could positively affect a wide variety of human health conditions, other mental hospitals placed domestic animals in their treatment centres to aid in patient socialization as well as to reduce the prison-like atmosphere of the hospital environment. In the United States in 1919, on the advice of Franklin K. Lane, dogs were incorporated into treatment methods for psychiatric patients at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in

Washington D.C..18 The U.S. military employed pet therapy in a program for recovering WWII veterans in 1942 at the Pawling Army Air Force Convalescent Hospital in New York.19

Psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung also incorporated animals into their theories about human psychology. Both considered non-human animals to be particularly important as dream-symbols, believed to represent insights from patients’ suppressed or collective unconscious minds. Freud is reported to have incorporated dogs into his pioneering work of psychoanalysis in the early twentieth century, particularly with young or adolescent clients.20

17 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Samuel Tuke, Description of the Retreat: An Institution near York, for Insane Persons of the Society of Friends, (London, 1813), 22-41, 45-92, 93-107, 131-138, 139-162; Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Tuke, Description of the Retreat, v-xiii, 22-41, 45-92, 93-107, 131-138, 139-162; B.P. Velde, J. Cipriani, and G. Fisher, “Resident and Therapist Views of Animal-Assisted Therapy: Implications for Occupational Therapy Practice.” Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 52 no. 1(2005): 43-50; The York Retreat, “History,” last modified 2015, accessed May 3, 2015, http://www.theretreatyork.org.uk/about-the- retreat/our-history.html. 18 Cynthia K. Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, (Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services, 2001), 19-20. 19 Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 21-23. 20 Stanley Coren "Foreword," in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, ed. Aubrey H. Fine, (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), xi-xiii; Susie Green, “Freud's Dream Companions,” The Guardian, 2002, accessed July 26, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2002/mar/23/weekend7.weekend3; Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; D.A.G. Cook, “Jung, Carl Gustav (1875-

As the scientific method came to dominate the field of medicine in the early decades of the twentieth century, institutional health care changed and animals were removed from hospital settings. Professional trust in scientific method and clinical research had increasingly obliged all health-related activities or therapies to gain professional recognition and approval via expert tested proof of specific, quantifiable results. Without scientific evaluation metrics or evidence supporting the many claims and theories about health benefits derived from companion animal interaction, use of animals in human therapy was largely eliminated from popular practice.21 Nonetheless, there were exceptions.

In the 1940s, Green Chimneys Children’s Services, a non-profit organization, established a residential treatment centre in New York for children with developmental, social, emotional and behavioural difficulties. Like the York Retreat, this organization incorporated domestic animals into its therapeutic methods, based on the philosophy that learning to respect, care for, and interact with nature and animals provided children with valuable healing and restorative therapy. Green Chimneys remains a world leader in AAT in the first decades of the twenty-first century.22

These historical examples demonstrate that the cultural values and treatment practices that characterize AAT have long been part of the repertoire of human and non-human animal relations, but they represent ideas or experiments which occurred mostly on the margins of society. The concept of engaging non-human animals in human health and wellness was not new when it emerged in popular culture and professional research in the twentieth century,

1961),” in The Oxford Companion to the Mind, ed. R. Gregory, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987) 403-405. 21 S. Freud, “The Interpretation of Dreams,” 21-30, 160-163, 150-177, 244-245, 285-287; Coren, "Foreword,” xi-xiii; Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Cook, “Jung, Carl Gustav (1875-1961),” 403-405. 22 “History,” Greenchimneys.org | Helping Kids with Emotional, Behavioral & Social Challenges | Brewster, NY | Green Chimneys, last modified 2015, accessed May 3, 2015, http://www.greenchimneys.org.

100 but only with Green Chimneys is there evidence of direct lines of influence on the contemporary AAT industry.

AAT dates its formal origins as a distinct practice and industry to 1962, when American child psychologist Dr. Boris Levinson stimulated public and professional interest in the idea and method of incorporating animals into human health treatments with an academic article documenting his discovery that a canine companion could serve as a helpful aid in therapy sessions. Levinson observed noticeable improvements in his clients’ progress when he happened to have his dog, Jingles, accompany him to therapy sessions.23 Levinson then deliberately included his canine companion in therapy sessions, and found that with particularly shy or troubled children, the presence of the dog was measurably helpful in developing therapist-client relationships and thus reducing overall treatment time, as the dog helped the client to begin to relax, trust, and engage with the human therapist. Levinson’s

1962 article, entitled “The Dog as ‘Co-Therapist’,” effectively introduced the practice of AAT into professional psychological scholarship, inquiry, and discussion. Thus, Levinson is credited as the founder of our contemporary understanding of “Pet Therapy” and the AAT industry.24

Levinson argued that human struggles in life are the result of alienation from nature and that the solution to such alienation, and all its associated mental, social, emotional, and physical struggles, is simply to engage in positive relationships with non-human animals.

Building on insights, developed earlier by Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, that animals provide

23 Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 23-31; Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 89-125; Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, 14-17, 21-23, 40-43, 150-151, 161, 173, 212, 273. 24 Boris Levinson, “The Dog as a ‘Co-Therapist’,” Mental Hygiene 46 (1962): 59-65.; Boris M Levinson, Pet-Oriented Child Psychotherapy (Springfield, Illinois.: Thomas, 1969); B. Levinson, Pets and Human Development, (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1972); Boris Levinson, “Pets: A Special Technique In Child Psychology,” Mental Health 48 (1964): 243-248; Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 23-31; Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 89-125; Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, 14-17, 21-23, 40-43, 150-151, 161, 173, 212, 273; Boris Levinson, “Forward,” in Dynamic Relationships In Practice, ed. Phil Arkow, (Alameda, California: Latham Foundation, 1984), 1-20.

101 symbolic insight into the human psyche, Levinson proposed that relationships with non-human animals are actually essential to continued human evolution and psychological well-being.25

Levinson’s arguments align with the thinking of Natural Horsemanship and the claims of the EBHD industry, illuminating unifying themes of these contemporary developments in human-animal history. However, neither Levinson nor proponents of EBHD have yet produced metrics evaluating their claims that are capable of satisfying scientific skepticism; lack of clinical research and measurable evidence required by the scientific method was a major limiting factor in the professional legitimacy and subsequent widespread popular adoption of all AAT practices and its related industries.

Since Levinson’s initial publication in the 1960s, professional research on the mental and physical health benefits of AAT has increased in breadth, depth, and quantity. Research conducted by psychiatrists Sam and Elizabeth Corson at the Ohio State University Psychiatric

Hospital in the early 1970s was an early effort from within the emerging AAT industry to engage AAT ideas and dialogue with the scientific method. The Corsons began their pet therapy research and data collection by introducing animals to the hospital and later to nursing homes.26 Their results indicated significant physical, psychological, and social improvements in the nursing home patients.27

25 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20. 26 Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 24-27, 126-128; Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 94-107, 123-125; Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, 29-33, 170-172, 271; S. A. Corson et al., “Pet Dogs As Nonverbal Communication Links In Hospital Psychiatry,” Comprehensive Psychiatry 18, no. 1 (1977): 61-72. 27 S. A. Corson and E. O. Corson, “Pets As Mediators Of Therapy,” Current Psychiatric Therapy 18 (1978): 195-205; S. A. Corson et al., “Pet-Facilitated Psychotherapy In A Hospital Setting,” Current Psychiatric Therapy 15 (1975): 277-286.; Samuel A. Corson et al., “Pet Dogs As Nonverbal Communication Links In Hospital Psychiatry,” Comprehensive Psychiatry 18, no. 1 (1977): 61-72; S. A. Corson and E. O. O'Leary Corson, “Pet Animals As Nonverbal Communication Mediators In Psychotherapy In Institutional Settings,” in Ethology and Noverbal Communication in Mental Health, eds. S. A. Corson and E. O. O'Leary Corson, 1st ed. (Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press, 1980), 83-110.

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The Delta Society, one of the largest AAT organizations in the United States of America was established in the late 1970s by a small group of veterinarians, doctors, and a psychiatrist, to investigate and promote the value of animals in human healing. Each of the founders had witnessed the benefits of doing so through their own practices. The Delta Society operates today under the name Pet Partners, offering certification for AAT facilitators and therapy animals, actively supporting professional AAT research, providing standardized training for volunteers, and offering extensive information and resources for AAT professionals, clients, patients, and interested individuals.28 As with the multiplicity of terms used to describe the techniques of the EBHD industry, use of animals in human therapy was variously identified by researchers, practitioners, participants and the media. To help professionalize and standardize the industry, the Delta Society established the formal acronym titles of Animal Assisted

Therapy, Animal Assisted Activities, and Animal Assisted Interventions, as well as the definitions for each. The Delta Society defined AAT as:

a goal-directed intervention in which an animal that meets specific criteria is an integral part of the treatment process. AAT is directed and/or delivered by a health/human service professional with specialized expertise, and within the scope of practice of his/her profession. AAT is designed to promote improvement in human physical, social, emotional, and/or cognitive functioning. AAT is provided in a variety of settings and may be group or individual in nature. This process is documented and evaluated.29

The terms AAT and Animal Assisted Activities (AAA) are often used interchangeably, although the former is understood professionally to refer to more individually customized programs of therapeutic support, delivered by experts. In contrast, AAA typically describes

28 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Kruger and Serpell, “Animal- Assisted Interventions in Mental Health,” 21-38; Alys Watson, “Riding for Disabled People,” in Learning Disability: Physical Therapy Treatment and Management, 232-245; “History-The Early Years - Pet Partners,” Petpartners.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 1, 2015, http://www.petpartners.org/history/. 29 Kruger and Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health,” 21-38; “Animal-Assisted Therapy Overview - Pet Partners,” Petpartners.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.petpartners.org/page.aspx?pid=320.

103 generic and often casual activities involving animals which may or may not be intended for therapeutic benefit and which may be led by mental health professionals or non-licenced volunteers. Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI) is the more inclusive term increasingly used by scholars of the AAT industry to describe all activities of the AAT industry. Use of service animals is not regarded as AAT because these animals are trained primarily for practical functions to assist humans in tasks or to perform services for them, rather than as aids in treating a health condition.30

By the 1980s, a shift had occurred in the language and theoretical frameworks used to discuss AAT which, along with a growing volume of professional research, resulted in greater acceptance of the AAT industry in mainstream medicine. Partly to minimize the skepticism of the medical establishment, AAT advocates moved away from “relatively metaphysical ideas about animals as psycho-spiritual mediators toward more prosaic, scientifically ‘respectable’ explanations for the apparent therapeutic benefits of animal companionship.”31 AAT advocates theorized that animals provide comfort and companionship to patients and also trigger nurturing feelings and fulfill the human desire to feel needed. As more professionals incorporated AAT in their practices, their published research results offered measurable scientific evidence of its physiological benefits, including lowered blood pressure in children and greater survival rates of adults following heart attack or angina attacks with pet therapy.

Publications in nursing journals offered descriptions of how the presence of animals appeared to reduce stress in patients and thereby also reduced stress among nursing staff and visiting family members. Research in the last decades of the twentieth century found that AAT provided noticeable benefits in a variety of health care settings, including hospitals, nursing

30 Kruger and Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health,” 21-38; “Animal-Assisted Therapy Overview - Pet Partners,” Petpartners.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.petpartners.org/page.aspx?pid=320. 31 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 14-15.

104 homes, hospices, and psychiatric wards. Researchers reported that the presence of therapy animals distracted patients from painful procedures, improved the atmosphere of nursing visits, decreased anxiety and depression in patients with various mental health conditions, and helped Alzheimer’s patients by increasing socialization/social activity and minimizing agitation.

By the end of the twentieth century, the AAT industry actively sought and compiled research based on the scientific method in order to obtain greater professional and popular legitimacy for AAT as an interdisciplinary and applied science as well as a therapeutic practice.32

32 Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Historical Perspective,” 3-20; Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 12, 28-33, 35-42, 55-59, 113-116, 127-134, 202, 232-235; T.F. Garrity and L. Stallones, “Effects of Pet Contact on Human Well-Being: Review of Recent Research,” in Companion Animals in Human Health, eds. C.C. Wilson and D.C. Turner, (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage, 1998), 3- 22; Friedmann, et al., “Companion Animals and Human Health: Physical and Cardiovascular influences,” in Companion Animals and Us, eds. A.L. Podberscek, E.S. Paul, and J.A. Serpell, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 125-142; A. H. Katcher, E. Friedmann, A. M. Beck, J. J. Lynch, “Looking, Talking, and Blood Pressure: The Physiological Consequences of Interaction with the Living Environment,” in New Perspectives on Our Lives with Companion Animals, eds. A.H. Katcher and A.M. Beck, (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), 351-359; J. McNicholas and G. M. Collins, “The End of a Relationship: Coping with Pet Loss,” in The Waltham Book of Human-Animal Interaction: Benefits and Responsibilities of Pet Ownership, ed. I. Robinson, (Oxford: Pergamon, 1995), 127-143; Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 24, 36, 98-103, 120-123; J.A. Serpell, “Creatures of the Unconscious: Companion Animals as Mediators,” in Companion Animals and Us, Eds. A.L. Podberscek and J.A. Serpell, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 108-121; J.M. Siegel, “Stressful Life Events and the use of Physician Services Among the Elderly: The Moderating Role of Pet Ownership,” J. Personal Soc. Psychol. 58 (1990), 1081-1086; Erika Friedmann, “The Role of Pets in Enhancing Human Well-Being: Physiological Effects,” in The Waltham Book of Human-Animal Interaction: Benefits and Responsibilities of Pet Ownership, ed. I. Robinson, (Oxford: Pergamon, 1995), 33-53; Gammonley and Yates, “Pet Projects: Animal Assisted Therapy in Nursing Homes,” Journal of Gerentology Nursing, 1991 Jan 17(1): 12-5; Susan L. Filan and Robert H. Llewellyn-Jones, “Animal-Assisted Therapy for Dementia: a Review of the Literature,” International Psychogeriatrics, Dec. 2006 18(4): 597-611, doi:10.1017/S1041610206003322; Sandra B. Barker and Kathryn S. Dawson, “The Effects of Animal-Assisted Therapy on Anxiety Ratings of Hospitalized Psychiatric Patients,” PS 49, no. 6 (1998): 797-801; Norine Bardill and Sally Hutchinson, “Animal-Assisted Therapy with Hospitalized Adolescents,” Journal of Child Adolescent Psychological Nursing 10, no. 1 (1997): 17-24; Friedmann, E., Katcher, A.H., Lynch, J.J., Thomas, S.A., “Animal companions and one-year survival of patients after discharge from a coronary care unit,” Public Health Rep, 1980 (95), 307-312; Erika Friedmann et al., “Social Interaction and Blood Pressure: Influence of Animal Companions,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 171, no. 8 (1983): 461-465; Anthony L. Podberscek, Elizabeth S Paul and James Serpell, Companion Animals and Us (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 108-114; Judith M. Siegel, “Stressful Life Events and Use of Physician Services Among the Elderly: The Moderating Role of Pet Ownership,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58, no. 6 (1990): 1081-1086; S. Cobb, “Social Support as a Moderator of Life Stress,” Psychosomatic Medicine. 38, (1976): 300-314; W. Eriksen, “The Role of Social Support in the Pathogenesis of Coronary Heart Disease: A Literature Review,” Family Practice 11 (1994): 201-209; Esterling, et. al. “Chronic Stress, Social Support, and Persistent Alterations in the Natural Killer Cell Response to Cytokines in Older

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As the AAT industry became more self-consciously scientific and professional, practitioners worked to counter the common perception that AAT simply involves spending time in the presence of one or more domestic animals. AAT practitioners asserted that structure and expert facilitation were required to ensure a genuine AAT experience. Unless licenced mental health professionals were present to actively guide the process, an animal-assisted activity was not accepted by the AAT industry as genuine therapy, thus denying the label of “therapy” to many activities commonly labelled or marketed under the banner of AAT. However, the industry has not been entirely successful in ensuring that everyone offering themselves and their companion animals under the banner of AAT understands or acknowledges that professional training or designations are required to differentiate recreation and relaxation with animals from genuine therapy assisted by animals.33

AAT sessions typically involve a variety of activities facilitated by therapists to achieve one or more outcomes appropriate for the individual or group of clients in a session.

O’Collaghan and Chandler (2011) mapped correlations between intended use and outcomes of

18 unique AAT techniques used by mental health professionals and 10 different therapeutic intentions for AAT activities. For activities, a counsellor or mental health professional may engage with a therapy animal by instructing the animal to perform tricks, or may encourage the client to interact with the therapy animal directly. Alternatively, the AAT facilitator might

Adults,” Health Psychology, 13 (1994): 291-328; House, et al., “Social Relationships and Health,” Science, 241 (1988): 540-545; C.D. Sherbourne et al., “Social Support and Stressful Life Events: Age Differences in their Effects on Health-Related Quality of Life among the Chronically Ill,” Quality of Life Research, 1 (1992): 235-246; R. Vilhjalmsson, “Life Stress, Social Support and Clinical Depressions: A Reanalysis of the Literature,” Social Science Medicine, 37 (1993): 331-342; Ader et al., “Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions Between the Nervous System and the Immune System,” Lancet 345 (1995): 99-103. 33 Katherine A. Kruger and James A. Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health: Definitions and Theoretical Foundations,” in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, ed. Aubrey H. Fine, 2nd ed. (California: Academic Press, 2006), 21-38; Aaron H. Katcher and Alan M. Beck, “New and Old Perspectives on the Therapeutic Effects of Animals and Nature,” in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, ed. Aubrey H. Fine, 2nd ed. (California: Academic Press, 2006), 39-48.

106 allow spontaneous and entirely undirected interaction between client and therapy animal.

Intended outcomes of AAT activities may be to help build relationships and/or enhance trust in the client-therapist relationship or environment, to provide the therapist with insight and information about a client, or to actively and quantifiably enhance the client’s social skills or emotional well-being.34

Historically, several species of animals are recognized as common in AAT and AAA practices. Dogs, cats, rabbits, birds, guinea pigs, rats, miniature pigs, llamas, alpacas, horses, donkeys and miniature horses or donkeys are all potential AAT animal therapists. Dogs and cats are the most widely used, but horses and donkeys are also used in the AAT industry as animal- agents for therapeutic riding and hippotherapy practices. These are typically described as related but separate methods of therapy under the AAT industry umbrella. Certification of horses and equine-based AAT practices, however, are largely relegated by the main AAT industry organizations, such as The Delta Society, to equine-specific organizations such as the

North American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA) or the Canadian Therapeutic

Riding Association (CanTRA), which are described in Section II. Given the relatively broad definition of animal-assisted therapy, with no limits on which animals may be considered as active participants, the more specific practice of therapeutic horseback riding was justifiably understood as an associated sub-sector within AAT. Thus, the new EBHD industry is not only recognized by the industry leading organization of AAT, but equine-based therapies currently are a unique and significant part of the parent industry.35

34 Dana M. O’Callaghan and Cynthia K. Chandler, “An Exploratory Study of Animal-Assisted Interventions Utilized by Mental Health Professionals,” Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 6 (2011): 90-104; G. P. Mallon, “Animal-Assisted Therapy Interventions with Children,” in Innovative Psychotherapy Techniques in Child and Adolescent Therapy, ed. C. Schaefer, 2nd ed. (New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 415-434. 35 Kruger and Serpell, “Animal-Assisted Interventions in Mental Health,” 21-38.

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Within AAT: Hippotherapy and Therapeutic Riding Therapeutic horseback riding originated in the 1950s as a form of physical therapy for persons with various health conditions. After decades of development and success with people facing physical challenges, the therapeutic riding industry expanded its scope of practice to include mental, emotional, and social challenges. Eventually, this expanded practice was formalized as the first EBHD industry association established within the therapeutic riding industry’s largest incorporated association in North America.

The therapeutic riding industry’s client demographic is quite broad, with a long and growing list of health conditions and special needs served by this therapy as the industry expands in popularity and professional legitimacy. Paralysis, amputation, and cerebral palsy are among the most common health conditions addressed by therapeutic riding and hippotherapy practices;36 others include developmental delays, Down syndrome, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, reactive attachment disorder, spina bifida, spinal cord injuries, strokes, traumatic brain injuries, visual and auditory impairment.37 The practice of riding horses helps

36 Victoria Haehl, Carol Giuliani and Cynthia Lewis, “Influence of Hippotherapy on the Kinematics and Functional Performance of Two Children with Cerebral Palsy,” Pediatric Physical Therapy 11, no. 2 (1999): 89-101; Darrell Hamill, Kathleen Washington and Owen White, “The Effect of Hippotherapy on Postural Control in Sitting for Children with Cerebral Palsy,” Physical & Occupational Therapy In Pediatrics 27, no. 4 (2007): 23-42; Hyungkyu Kang, Jinhwa Jung and Jaeho Yu, “Effects of Hippotherapy on the Sitting Balance of Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Randomized Control Trial,” Journal of Physical Therapy Science 24, no. 9 (2012): 833-836; Ok Deuk Kang, “The Effects of Horse Riding Program for Developmental Delay Improvement in Children with Cerebral Palsy,” Journal of Special Education & Rehabilitation Science 53, no. 2 (2014); Chae-Woo Lee, Seong Gil Kim and Sang Su Na, “The Effects of Hippotherapy and a Horse Riding Simulator on the Balance of Children with Cerebral Palsy,” Journal of Physical Therapy Science 26, no. 3 (2014): 423-425; Cara N. Whalen and Jane Case-Smith, “Therapeutic Effects of Horseback Riding Therapy on Gross Motor Function in Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Systematic Review,” Physical & Occupational Therapy In Pediatrics 32, no. 3 (2012): 229-242. 37 Fine, Animal-Assisted Therapy, 121-123; M. Bracher, “Therapeutic Riding: What has this to do with Occupational Therapists,” British Journal of Occupational Therapy 63, no. 6 (2000): 277-282; Marcie S. M. Funk and Betsy A. Smith, “Occupational Therapists and Therapeutic Riding,” Anthrozoos 13, no. 3 (2000): 174-181; Lana Kaiser, Katharine Ann Smith, Camie R. Heleski, and Linda J. Spence, “Effects of a Therapeutic Riding Program on At-Risk and Special Education Children,” Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 228, no. 1 (2006): 46-52; In Sil Lee, “The Effects on Social Adaptability of Therapeutic Riding in Children With Intellectual Disabilities,” Journal of Special Education & Rehabilitation Science 53, no. 1 (2014); Danielle Lemke, Erin Rothwell, Tara M. Newcomb, and Kathryn J.

108 people with many different physical health conditions because it stimulates movement in the rider’s body which mimics walking, providing opportunity for those with limited mobility opportunity to exercise the related muscle groups with the help of the horse, while regulating speed and direction with additional body cues. The activity is excellent for developing balance, posture, and muscle strength and control, and can provide full body exercise. The physical effort of preparing a horse to ride, such as grooming and tacking up, as well as riding itself, promotes increased range of motion in joints and endurance and low-level cardiovascular conditioning. Riding also aids in stretching tight muscles and decreasing spasticity, and managing the movement of the horse with body and vocal cues stimulates sensory integration and improves gross and fine motor skills as well as visual-spatial relations.38

The industry of therapeutic riding maintains two schools of practice. One, hippotherapy, sustained the original focus of physical therapy for neuromuscular problems, while the other, therapeutic horseback riding, more directly contributed to the development of the contemporary EBHD industry. Both use horseback riding, along with specially trained horses, instructors, and horse handlers, to create and maintain safe and effective therapeutic treatment for human clients of all ages, yet they remain distinct in their founding philosophies,

Swoboda, “Perceptions of Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies by Parents and Children with Spinal Muscular Atrophy,” Pediatric Physical Therapy 26, no. 2 (2014): 237-244; Esterina Fazio, Pietro Medica, Cristina Cravana, and Adriana Ferlazzo, “Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Responses of Horses to Therapeutic Riding Program: Effects of Different Riders,” Physiology & Behavior 118 (2013): 138-143. 38 G. Land, E. Errington-Povalac, and S. Paul, “The Effects of Therapeutic Riding on Sitting Posture in Individuals with Disabilities,” Occupational Therapy in Health Care 14 no. 1 (2001): 1-12; W. Benda, M. Fredrickson, S. Flanagan, J. Zembreski-Ruple, and N. H. McGibbon, “Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Highly Versatile Modality.” Complementary Medicine for the Physician 5 no. 6 (2000): 41-48; S. Farias- Tomaszewski, S. R. Jenkins, and J. Keller, “An Evaluation of Therapeutic Riding Programs for Adults with Physical Impairments,” Therapeutic Recreation Journal 35 no. 3 (2001): 250-257; A.L. Bizub, A. Joy, and L. Davidson, “‘It’s Like Being in Another World’: Demonstrating the Benefits of Therapeutic Horseback Riding for Individuals with Psychiatric Disability,” Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 26 no. 4 (2003): 377- 384.

109 most notably relating to the role of the horse within each practice.39 In addition to the physical health benefits of hippotheraphy, therapeutic riding improves self-confidence and self-esteem and develops patience and self-control or self-discipline in riders. According to recent research, such skills may lead to strengthened social or interpersonal skills, reduced stress, and improved perception of quality of life.40

Hippotherapy was originally developed in Europe by clinical physiotherapists, and is used primarily by physical therapists, occupational therapists, and speech-language pathologists to help patients with impairments, functional limitations and neuromusculoskeletal dysfunction.

Hippotherapy uses the movement of the horse to stimulate very specific neuromuscular responses in humans.41 The American Hippotherapy Association (AHA) defines the practice of hippotherapy as follows:

Hippotherapy is a physical, occupational, and speech-language therapy treatment strategy that utilizes equine movement as part of an integrated intervention program to achieve functional outcomes. Equine movement provides multidimensional movement, which is variable, rhythmic and repetitive. The horse provides a dynamic base of support, making it an excellent tool for increasing trunk strength and control, balance, building overall postural strength and endurance, addressing weight bearing, and motor planning. Equine movement offers well-modulated sensory input to

39 “American Hippotherapy Association, Inc.,” American Hippotherapy Association, Inc., last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://www.americanhippotherapyassociation.org/; “PATH Intl.,” Pathintl.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 17, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/; Marsha K. Anderson, Ted H. Friend, J Warren Evans, Diana M. Bushong, “Behavioural Assessment of horses in therapeutic riding programs,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 63 (1999): 11-24; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013. 40 S. Farias-Tomaszewski, S. R. Jenkins, and J. Keller, “An Evaluation of Therapeutic Riding Programs for Adults with Physical Impairments,” Therapeutic Recreation Journal 35 no. 3 (2001): 250-257; A.L. Bizub, A. Joy, and L. Davidson, “‘It’s Like Being in Another World’: Demonstrating the Benefits of Therapeutic Horseback Riding for Individuals with Psychiatric Disability,” Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 26 no. 4 (2003): 377- 384; W. Benda, M. Fredrickson, S. Flanagan, J. Zembreski-Ruple, and N.H. McGibbon, “Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Highly Versatile Modality,” Complementary Medicine for the Physician 5 no. 6 (2000): 41-48. 41 Joyce R. MacKinnon, “Therapeutic Horseback Riding: A Review of the Literature,” Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 15 no. 1 (1995): 1-15; “American Hippotherapy Association, Inc.,” “Introduction to Hippotherapy,” “Hippotherapy as a treatment strategy,” American Hippotherapy Association, Inc., last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://www.americanhippotherapyassociation.org/.

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vestibular, proprioceptive, tactile and visual channels. During gait transitions, the patient must perform subtle adjustments in the trunk to maintain a stable position. When a patient is sitting forward astride the horse, the horse’s walking gait imparts movement responses remarkably similar to normal human gait. The effects of equine movement on postural control, sensory systems, and motor planning can be used to facilitate coordination and timing, grading of responses, respiratory control, sensory integration skills and attentional skills. Equine movement can be used to facilitate the neurophysiologic systems that support all of our functional daily living skills.42 Hippotherapy research and professional organizations maintain a strict clinical medical focus on physiological benefits for specific human ailments through the experience of movements and motions through horseback riding; hippotherapy effectively employs horses as practical tools or equipment for human physical therapy treatments. The intended relationship between horses and humans in the practice of hippotherapy is no different than the relationship between physiotherapy patients and inanimate objects used in other treatments prescribed by the field. Highly trained, physically sound horses with consistently calm and obedient dispositions are the preferred mounts used by hippotherapists. While horse and rider/patient might develop a positive emotional connection, that outcome is not intentionally fostered or encouraged by professionals in the field.43 The practice of hippotherapy does little to change the historical horse-human relationship. Industry standards do little to protect horses employed in hippotherapy treatments from overwork or other ‘occupational’ abuses.

Nor are horses recognized as equal partners in the process, or even as sentient beings knowingly participating in the therapeutic treatment, in contrast to the approach that is

42 “Hippotherapy as a treatment strategy,” American Hippotherapy Association, Inc., last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://www.americanhippotherapyassociation.org/. 43 C. Kluwer, “The Specific Contribution of the Horse in Different Branches of Therapeutic Riding for the Disabled,” in Proceedings of the 6th International Therapeutic Riding Congress, August 23-27, 1988; Toronto, Canada: 268-294; Maureen Frederickson-MacNamara and Kris Butler, “The Art of Animal Selection for Animal-Assisted Activity and Therapy Programs,” in Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice, ed. Aubrey H. Fine, 2nd ed., (California: Academic Press, 2006), 121-148.

111 commonly advocated by the EBHD industry.44 Hippotherapy is concerned primarily with human health and safety, as well as practitioner certification.45 Thus, while the twenty-first century has experienced an expansion of popular awareness and practice of this beneficial human- health activity with horses, the cultural attitudes and practical relationship with horses found in hippotherapy practice exhibit continuities with this kind of human-horse relationship and activity from as long ago as the fifth century BCE.46 In contrast, the development and continued expansion of the field of therapeutic horseback riding contributed to a subtle shift in the horse- human relationship which preceded and led to the more significant historical shift promoted by the EBHD industry. Like hippotherapy, the therapeutic riding industry in its early years focused on the physical health benefits for the humans engaging in the experience. However, the widespread adoption, adaption, and expansion of the field quickly stretched its scope of practice to include mental health and wellness, as well as concern for the welfare of the horses involved. Eventually, this field of practice led directly to the development of the EBHD industry.47

44 Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), xvii 47, 71, 462, 523-524; Linda Kohanov, A Woman's Journey Of Healing & Transformation Through the Way of the Horse (Novato, California: New World Library, 2001), 37; Linda Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds (Novato, California: New World Library, 2003), x-xxxii, 19, 120, 139-140, 198; Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013), 56, 108, 128, 222, 403; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006). 45 Only very recent research projects consider benefits related to Hippotherapy for patients with intellectual disabilities. Still, the focus of this field of research remains primarily on physical health benefits such as balance. Aubrey H Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), 121-123; Paraskevi Giagazoglou et al., “Effect of a Hippotherapy Intervention Program on Static Balance and Strength in Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities,” Research in Developmental Disabilities 33, no. 6 (2012): 2265-2270. 46 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Joyce R. MacKinnon et al., “Therapeutic Horseback Riding: A Review of the Literature,” Physical & Occupupational Therapy in Pediatrics 15, no. 1 (1995): 1-15; J. K. Anderson, and Xenophon, Ancient Greek Horsemanship (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961). 47 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Joyce R. MacKinnon et al., “Therapeutic Horseback Riding: A Review of the Literature,” Physical & Occupational Therapy in

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Many hippotherapy and therapeutic riding clubs identify their practices with historically notable physicians who wrote about the potential benefits of horseback riding for human health, including the father of Western medicine, Hippocrates himself. Claiming such links to the past serves as a marketing strategy to strengthen these clubs’ claims to legitimacy by creating an impression of historical longevity, but there is little evidence that ancient texts and theories of early European/Mediterranean physicians actually influenced the development of contemporary hippotherapy or the therapeutic riding.48 Review of the literature confirms that some physicians and health professionals of the Old World since Hippocrates’ time recommended use of horses in physical therapy, but only as horseback riding for specific physical ailments, and then in moderation.49 Indeed, Hippocrates’ writings quite emphatically warned against the frequent riding of horses. Although Hippocrates encouraged physical exercise as generally beneficial for health, he identified horseback riding as the cause of many painful ailments, and ultimately as the source of the primary weakness and downfall of the

Scythian culture.50

Pediatrics 15, no. 1 (1995): 1-15; R.P. Mayberry, “The Mystique of the Horse is Strong Medicine: Riding as Therapeutic Recreation,” Rehabilitation Lit. 38 (1978):192-196. 48 Kathy Keating, “What Is PATH Intl.?” Pathintl.Org, last modified 2015, Accessed August 23, 2014. http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl/what-is-path-intl; “History | CARD,” Card.ca, last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://card.ca/about/history/; “Home,” Fredericton Therapeutic Riding Association, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.ftra.ca/; “Jewish National Fund,” Jnf.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.jnf.org/work-we- do/blueprint-negev/therapeutic-riding-centers.html; “XIV Congress Of Therapeutic Horse Riding | Athens, Greece / 24-27 April 2012,” Frdi-athens2012.gr last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.frdi-athens2012.gr/; Alan J. Thurston, "Art of Preserving Health: Studies on the Medical Supervision of Physical Exercise," ANZ Journal of Surgery 79 no. 12 (2009): 941-945. 49 The Medical Works of Hippocrates, trans. John Chadwick, ed. W.N. Mann, (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1950), 106-108; Edwin Levine, Hippocrates, (New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1971), 145- 148; Girolamo Mercuriale, De Arte Gymnastica (Northridge: Santa Susana Press, California State University, Northridge Libraries, 1978), 389; Joseph Clément Tissot, Elizabeth Licht and Sidney Licht, A Translation of Joseph-Clément Tissot's Gymnastique Médicinal Et Chirurgicale (New Haven, Connecticut: E. Licht, 1964), 25. 50 The Medical Works of Hippocrates, trans. John Chadwick, ed. W.N. Mann, (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1950), 106-108; Edwin Burton Levine, Hippocrates, (New York, University of Illinois: 1971), 145-148; Hippocratic Writings, trans. J. Chadwick and W.N. Mann, ed. G.E.R. Lloyd (Harmondsworth:

113

Girolamo Mercuriale (1530-1606), and Joseph Clément Tissot (1747-1826) are two other physicians who are frequently identified by therapeutic riding clubs as historical proponents of the practice. Both physicians briefly mentioned horseback riding in their medical publications as an exercise for general health maintenance, but neither Mercuriale’s nor Tissot’s publications offer much support for therapeutic riding as an industry.51

Two women health professionals of the early twentieth century used horseback riding as physical therapy for their patients, but they appear to be isolated experimenters rather than influential pioneers. Dame Agnes Hunt included horses and riding in the patient care offered in the orthopedic hospital she founded in Oswestry, England in 1901.52 Olive Sands, a physiotherapist, also offered riding programs for disabled soldiers at an English hospital during

World War I, where she used her own horses to help with rehabilitating the wounded.53

Although innovative in their practices, neither Hunt nor Sands were pioneers of the contemporary industry of therapeutic riding. Thus, although the idea of using horses to assist

Penguin Classics, 1983), 16-18; Aubrey H. Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), 115. 51 Horseback riding is only one of several exercises Mercuriale discussed as a potentially positive aid to human health. He wrote, "we may conclude that riding was always very highly regarded as a most useful exercise by doctors, although it mattered greatly whether one rode a mule or a horse, at a walk, a trot, a canter, or a gallop..." in Girolamo Mercuriale, De Arte Gymnastica (Northridge: Santa Susana Press, California State University, Northridge Libraries, 1978), 389. Tissot’s Medicinal and Surgical Gymnastics also discussed therapeutic exercises for various ailments and afflictions and indicated horseback riding as one of several therapeutic exercises, both benefits and contraindications for human health. Joseph Clément Tissot, Elizabeth Licht and Sidney Licht, A Translation of Joseph-Clément Tissot's Gymnastique Médicinal Et Chirurgicale (New Haven, Connecticut: E. Licht, 1964), 25. 52 "Famous Nurses: Dame Agnes Hunt," Nursing Mirror (England) 148 no. 13 (1979): 37; D. F. Glupker, "The Yesteryear of Orthopaedic Nursing (Agnes Hunt)," Orthopaedic Nursing / National Association of Orthopaedic Nurses (United States) 3 no. 6 (1984): 48; Harold Ellis, "Dame Agnes Hunt: Pioneer of Orthopaedic Nursing," Journal of Perioperative Practice 18 no. 11 (2008): 510; Marie Carter, “The Early Days Of Orthopaedic Nursing In The United Kingdom: Agnes Hunt And Baschurch,” Orthopaedic Nursing 19, no. 5 (2000): 15-18. 53 Alys Watson, “Riding for Disabled People,” in Learning Disability: Physical Therapy Treatment and Management, Ed. Jeanette Rennie, (West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2007), 232; “The Olive Sands Memorial Lecture” is given annually in memory of Olive Sands who was not only a Founder Member and Founder Secretary of the OCPPP but was a tireless worker on behalf of the profession as a whole.” The Olive Sands Memorial Lecture, pdf document, 1993, accessed June 5, 2015, https://giffordsachesandpains.files.wordpress.com/2013/07/ocppp-olive-sands.pdf.

114 with physical therapy was not novel, the therapeutic riding industry that emerged in the mid- twentieth century did not build on earlier precedents, and its appeal to a broad market was entirely new.

The therapeutic riding industry really began in the 1950s, inspired by the success at the

1952 Helsinki Olympics of equestrian Lis Hartel, who had been left paralyzed below her knees after recovering from polio in her childhood. Hartel, competing for Denmark, won the silver medal for Dressage, the first woman to win an Olympic equestrian medal. Hartel’s victory and declaration that riding horses had helped her recover from polio generated international awareness and interest in the idea of horseback riding as a method of physical therapy.54

Intrigued and inspired by Hartel’s success both medically and as an athlete, health professionals and equine enthusiasts in Europe began establishing experimental therapeutic riding and hippotherapy programs. Physiotherapists Elsebet Bodthker of Norway and Ulla

Harpoth of Denmark began to incorporate basic horseback riding into their prescribed treatments for clients of all ages. Through the 1950s, therapeutic riding was adopted for use among polio patients, and patients with amputated limbs or other physical disabilities. The equine assisted physical therapy produced observable improvements in patients’ physical health after only a few months.55 In 1960 the first Paralympic games were held in Rome, involving 400 athletes from 23 countries, adding momentum to the growing interest in and

54 Aubrey H Fine, Handbook On Animal-Assisted Therapy (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), 115; Alys Watson, “Riding for Disabled People,” in Learning Disability: Physical Therapy Treatment and Management, A Collaborative Approach, Ed. Jeanette Rennie, (West Sussex: John Wiley & Son, 2007), 232-233; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013. 55 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Card.ca, “History | CARD,” last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://card.ca/about/history/; Prda.ca, “Pacific Riding For Developing Abilities,” last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.prda.ca/about-prda; Aubrey H. Fine, Handbook On Animal-Assisted Therapy (San Diego: Academic Press, 2000), 115; Equestriantherapy.com, “Equestrian Therapy - Horse Therapy For Special Needs,” last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.equestriantherapy.com/.

115 support for therapeutic riding. By 1964 the first advisory council for riding for people with disabilities was formed in the UK.56

By the late 1960s, therapeutic riding had made its way across the Atlantic Ocean, gaining widespread popularity in North America. Dr. Reginald Renaud and Joseph Bauer are recognized as the individuals responsible for bringing the practice across the Atlantic. In 1969, they established the Community Association of Riding for the Disabled (CARD) in Toronto, Ontario, the first such centre in North America.57 The North American Riding for the Handicapped

Association (NARHA) was founded later that year in the USA, with the purpose of promoting

“safe and effective therapeutic horseback riding throughout the United States and Canada.”58

By the last two decades of the twentieth century the practice of therapeutic riding was fairly common and national and international governing associations worked to establish standards of practice and training requirements to give the practice legitimacy as a medical therapy.

NARHA played a leading role in standardizing the therapeutic riding industry. CARD demonstrated the industry trend and concern for professional legitimacy in the 1990s by restricting its organization in accordance with new medical model standards declared by

NARHA as the requirement for becoming a “Premier” accredited center.59 Other governing organizations and industry leaders of therapeutic riding and hippotherapy established in the last four decades include the American Hippotherapy Association (AHA), Riding for the

Disabled Association (RDA), the Federation of Horses in Education and Therapy International

56 Watson, “Riding for Disabled People,” 232-239; David Howe, The Cultural Politics of the Paralympic Movement: Through and Anthropological Lens, (London: Routledge, 2008), 15-20; Steve Bailey, Athlete First: A History of the Paralympic Movement, (England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2008), 115-116; Ian Britain, The Paralympic Games Explained, (New York: Routledge, 2010), 144-154. 57 “History | CARD,” Card.ca, last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://card.ca/about/history/; Fine, Animal-Assisted Therapy, 115. 58 “About PATH Intl.,” Pathintl.org, accessed September 2, 2014, http://www.pathintl.org/about-pathintl/about-path-intl; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013. 59 “About PATH Intl.,” “History” Pathintl.org, accessed July 2, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/about-pathintl/about-path-intl; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; “History | CARD,” Card.ca, last modified 2015, accessed May 5, 2015, http://card.ca/about/history/.

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(formerly, the Federation of Riding for the Disabled International), and the Canadian

Therapeutic Riding Association (CANTRA). Each continues to operate, maintaining a working relationship, or membership accreditation, with NARHA. These organizations are primarily responsible for establishing and maintaining the industry governance and standards of practice. Additionally, these organizations are responsible for the internal regulation and certification of practitioners within the field.60 No individuals are singularly recognized as critical players in professionalizing the therapeutic riding industry, likely because most of the industry was developed by groups of people working collectively first to incorporate and then work within national and international organizations.61

The greatest and most persistent challenge facing the industry of therapeutic riding, as for most AAT-related activities, is obtaining recognition or acceptance as a legitimate therapeutic modality for the human health conditions it claims to treat. Such recognition would relocate the therapeutic riding industry from the fringes of alternative health therapies to mainstream options, allowing therapeutic riding to be prescribed by doctors with the cost covered by standard health care insurance. Without recognition as a mainstream medical therapy, funding or coverage for riders is almost non-existent, and therapeutic riding is often cost-prohibitive for many who wish to offer or access the service. Many therapeutic riding clubs or organizations conduct ongoing fundraising initiatives to help offset costs for clients, yet the economics of the

60 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; “About HETI,” Frdi.net, last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/about.html; “Riding for the Disabled Association (RDA) — A UK Charity Dedicated to Improving the Lives of Thousands of People Through Education, Therapy and Fun,” Rda.org.uk, last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.rda.org.uk/; “About PATH Intl,” Pathintl.org, accessed July 2, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl; “Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association,” Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association | Cantra.ca, accessed October 19, 2013, http://www.cantra.ca. 61 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson interview by Christy Clarke, in person, 2013.

117 industry generally result in long client waitlists for limited riding sessions accessed only a season at a time.62

In spite of the high costs and limited accessibility of therapeutic riding programs, client interest and demand for the therapy continues to rise, with instructors completing training and certification programs established by the industry’s national or international membership organizations. As of 2015, there are more than 1,000 hippotherapy and therapeutic riding centers registered around the world, collectively serving more than 75,000 people annually.63

Interest in the therapeutic possibilities of riding among the professional medical community has lagged behind popular acceptance of the industry’s claims largely because of the lack of scientific research on the effects of the equine assisted therapy. The medical model system of evaluating and validating new health therapies requires expensive and time consuming clinical trials to establish evidence of measurable health outcomes with repeatable results from trial to trial. While the physical benefits of therapeutic riding are amenable to such testing, the psychological ones are much more difficult to measure. Thus, despite a growing volume of clinical studies and published papers on the benefits of therapeutic riding, the gruelling and costly process of obtaining scientific proof of mainstream medical legitimacy remains a significant obstacle to the industry’s further development.64

62 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013. 63 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson interview by Christy Clarke, in person, 2013; “HETI Membership,” Frdi.net, last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/membership_list.html; “About Riding for the Disabled Association (RDA) — A UK Charity Dedicated to Improving the Lives of Thousands of People Through Education, Therapy and Fun,” Rda.org.uk, last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.rda.org.uk/about-rda/; “Certifications PATH Intl,” Pathintl.org, accessed July 2, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/resources- education/certifications. 64 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 33, 46-47, 82, 134-136, 223-224; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson interview by Christy Clarke, in person, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; C.K. Chandler, Animal Assisted

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Emergence of the EBHD Industry In the late 1980s and early 1990s a new branch of the equine therapy industry emerged within the therapeutic riding industry, dedicated specifically to exploring, developing, and promoting the psychological AAT-style benefits derived from interaction with horses; so began the formalized field of EBHD. Practitioners within the therapeutic riding industry responded to the growing popularity and research in Animal Assisted Therapy by exploring the mental, emotional, and social benefits of engaging with horses. Upon observation of emotional and social shifts in their clients, leaders in the field of therapeutic riding began investigating and expanding the non-physical benefits of engaging with horses, taking cues and insights from the simultaneously developing industries of AAT and Natural Horsemanship. In the early 1990s, therapeutic riding and AAT together formed the first EBHD industry association within the

North American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA).65 Without the practical skills, social innovation, and growing popular appeal of both therapeutic riding and Natural

Horsemanship, EBHD may not have emerged as an industry or developed its new paradigm of the human-horse relationship.66

Recognition of both the psychological and physical human health benefits to be gained by riding or engaging with horses therapeutically moved the therapeutic riding industry into new terrain. Not all practitioners of therapeutic riding expanded their own programs to serve clients with psychological conditions, but the industry’s governing associations did. The expansion proved a wise business decision as the new service made money, attracted

Therapy in Counselling (New York: Routledge, 2005), 12, 24-27, 126-128; Serpell, In the Company of Animals, 15-18, 94-107, 123-125; Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, 39-48, 487-523. 65 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 27-70. 66 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013.

119 attention, and expanded both the client base and number of interested trainers. By 2015 clients with psychological conditions accounted for the largest and fastest growing component of clients served by therapeutic riding associations.67

Expansion of therapeutic riding to include mental health, wellness, education, and learning led directly to the emergence of the EBHD industry. What began as an internal committee of NARHA dedicated to exploring and refining the mental health therapy potential of human interaction with horses became so popular and grew so substantially that its mandate and members were absorbed into the central mission and mandate of the larger organization. In February, 1996, NARHA established an internal committee to explore and refine the mental health therapy potential of human interaction with horses. By November,

2010, interest in this new area for therapeutic riding was so great that NARHA changed its name to the Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International (PATH Intl.) to indicate the expansion in the scope of the industry’s therapeutic potential. In effect, the focus and mandate of the committee had become the central mission and mandate of the parent organization. The pioneering NARHA committee attempted to lead the new equine therapy modality by unifying all interested people in a single initiative under the NARHA umbrella, but

NARHA could not encompass the diversity of professional interest in the concept of integrating horses in human development, and some members withdrew to pursue their own visions and practices. Within a decade of the creation of NARHA’s Equine Facilitated Mental Health

Association committee, several separate EBHD organizations and associations incorporated

67 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 27-70; Cher Smith, “PATH Intl. Name Change,” Pathintl.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 6, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/132-general/company/598-name-change.

120 across North America; thus, some of the industry’s pioneering leaders were associated with

NARHA but many others were not.68

In conjunction with the development of EBHD, major organizations69 in the therapeutic riding industry all expanded their scope of practice to include service for clients with mental and emotional challenges. Common mental health issues addressed by therapeutic riding associations include attention deficit disorder (ADD) or hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), at-risk youth, autism spectrum disorder (Autism), emotional and behavioural difficulties, family counselling, grief counselling, learning disabilities, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance addiction and abuse, terminal illness, and weight control disorders.70

Today, therapeutic riding is defined more holistically than it was when the industry focused on physical health issues. PATH Intl. now defines therapeutic riding or therapeutic horsemanship as: “equine activities organized and taught by instructors specifically trained to work with people with disabilities or diverse needs. The intent is for students to progress in equestrian skills while improving their cognitive, emotional, social, and/or behavioral skills.”71

This form of therapy focuses not only on physiological effects of horseback riding, but also

68 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 27-70, 241-254; “EAGALA Equine Assisted Psychotherapy Information - Equine Therapy | EAGALA Primary Site,” Eagala.org, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.eagala.org/info; Kathy Keating, “FAQ,” Pathintl.Org, last modified 2015, accessed July 26, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/faq#efp. 69 The major therapeutic riding associations include PATH Intl., HETI, RHA, and CANTRA. 70 Fine, Handbook On Animal-Assisted Therapy, 115-133; Kathy Keating, “What Is PATH Intl.?,” Pathintl.Org, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl/what-is- path-intl. 71 The term Therapeutic Horsemanship as defined in the Standards of Certification of PATH Intl.; “Standards Manual,” PATHintl.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 16, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/path-intl-membership/my-path-intl-membership/standards-manual; Professional Association Of Therapeutic Horsemanship International Standards For Certification & Accreditation, pdf file. (Denver, Colorado: PATH Intl., 2014), accessed May 19, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/images/pdf/standards-manual/2014/2014-COMPLETE-PATH-Intl-Standards- Manual.pdf.

121 incorporates the value of the whole relationship that riders develop with therapy horses.72 As

PATH Intl. explains, “Therapeutic riding uses equine-assisted activities for the purpose of contributing positively to cognitive, physical, emotional and social well-being of people with disabilities. Therapeutic riding provides benefits in the areas of health, education, sport and recreation & leisure.”73

Presently, the two largest populations with conditions served by the therapeutic riding industry are people with Autism Spectrum Disorder and PTSD. The increasing prevalence of equine therapy programs designed to aid in treatment of these conditions demonstrates both the rapid growth and popularity of the emerging EBHD industry, as well as the new industry’s direct history within the larger therapeutic riding and AAT industries. Many practitioners of

EBHD work with clients with Autism, and market demand for therapeutic programs and services for Autism is so great that responding to this single disorder has nearly become its own sub-field within the therapeutic riding industry, with related programs offered by individuals and organizations not affiliated with or recognized by the therapeutic riding industry at all.

Autism Spectrum Disorder manifests differently in affected individuals, with different levels of functional impairment, but all individuals diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder have some level of social and communication difficulties. The mental, emotional, and social benefits gained from therapeutic riding as well as simple ground-work (non-mounted) interaction with horses appear to be quite valuable for Autistic clients, and range from increased self-confidence to improved communication and interpersonal skills. Autism is not the only disorder or condition ameliorated through therapeutic interaction with horses but it

72 A.C. All, G.L. Loving, and L.L. Crane, “Animals, Horseback Riding, and Implications for Rehabilitation Therapy,” Journal of Rehabilitation, July/August/ September (1999): 49-57. 73 Cher Smith, “Learn about Therapeutic Riding,” Pathintl.Org, last modified 2015, accessed May 10, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/resources-education/resources/eaat/198-learn-about-therapeutic-riding.

122 represents a huge client population which values these benefits more than any physical ones.

The large number of professionals among therapeutic riding practices who specialize in Autism services makes it unique among all other conditions, disorders, or afflictions served by either equine therapy industry. Much of the research conducted on the benefits of therapeutic riding focuses on the impacts on Autism specifically.74

Specialization in Autism programs and services within the therapeutic riding industry was not the specific impetus for the emergence of the EBHD industry, but is an integral link.

The theories explaining the emotional, social, and communication benefits of horses for Autism are based on the horses’ gentle social nature, non-verbal communication, and immediate response time to subtle shifts in human behaviour. These same philosophies and understanding of equine instincts are the basis of the Natural Horsemanship and EBHD industries. Although the methods and intended outcomes of therapeutic work with horses for people with Autism differ somewhat from those of the EBHD industry, the two practices share a general understanding of, and relationship with, the equine species critical to each field, as practitioners in both consciously rely on the active agency of their equine partners to catalyze effective results for human participants.75

74 Philip J. Brekke, "A Comparison of the Frequency of Occurrence of Stereotypic Behaviors Demonstrated by a Youth with Autism during Two Recreation Activities: Horseback Riding and Board Game Play," (Master’s thesis, Clemson University, 2008), 2-7, 17-19, 22-27, 51-64; M. Bass, C. Duchowny, and M. Llabre, “The Effect of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on Social Functioning in Children with Autism,” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 39, no. 9 (2009): 1261-1267; Temple Grandin and Catherine Johnson, Animals in Translation: Using the Mysteries of Autism to Decode Animal Behavior, (New York, Harvest Books: 2006), 3-7, 215-222, 231-235, 309-325; Sarah R. Jenkins and Florence D. DiGennaro Reed, “An Experimental Analysis of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on the Behavior of Children with Autism,” Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7 (2013): 721-740; Robin L. Gabriels, et al., “Pilot Study Measuring the Effects of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on School-Age Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7 (2012): 578-588. 75 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 100-104, 171-175, 291; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013.

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Therapeutic riding programs designed specifically for Autism represent a middle ground between the older physical equine therapy industry and the newly emerging EBHD industry which is dedicated to emotional, social, psychological and educational benefits of interaction with horses. Rather than training horses to behave in very specific and structured ways, both EBHD and therapeutic riding for Autism utilize activities with horses which intentionally engage the instinctive behaviours and responses of the equine species. Both rely on very basic training and handling of horses to ensure their safe and gentle demeanour, but some activities in both fields require no additional training for the horses involved. Ultimately, more activities related to therapeutic riding for Autism require additional training and athleticism of the horses involved than do the activities of the EBHD industry, but these two fields have more in common than EBHD has with more traditional therapeutic riding practices.76 Equine therapy for Autism exists as part of both therapeutic riding and the EBHD industry which developed separately, and it maintains its own additional network of specialized research and practitioners.

Second only to Autism, the issue of PTSD and the emotional struggles of those afflicted with the disorder represents the largest, and growing, client demographic served by equine based therapy programs. The Horses and Humans Research Foundation issued a call for proposals for research projects dedicated to the subject of equine-assisted therapies specifically for PTSD in 2013. Many therapeutic riding centers offer PTSD programs but this condition is equally or even more commonly served by practitioners of EBHD. Typically, only

76 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 100-104, 171-175, 291-294; “Extending the Benefits of Therapeutic Horseback Riding: Resources and Internship Guidelines for Young Adults with ASD | Autism Speaks,” Autismspeaks.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 7, 2015, http://www.autismspeaks.org/family-services/grants/extending-benefits-therapeutic-horseback-riding- resources-and-internship-guid; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013.

124 facilitators with mental health certifications are qualified, ethically, to lead therapy sessions intended to treat PTSD conditions. The bulk of equine-assisted PTSD research as well as current programs in practice around North America, Europe, and Australia are explicitly dedicated to military veterans suffering from PTSD, but private practices also exist which serve civilian men, women, and children suffering from PTSD as a result of childhood or adult trauma, such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse.77

77 Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 173-175, 290-292; “Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Grant Awards Summary,” Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 6, 2015, http://horsesandhumans.org; Cher Smith, “Wounded Warrior Project (WWP),” Pathintl.Org, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/28-centers/general/504-wwp-path-intl; “PATH Intl. Horses For Heroes,” About.com Parenting, last modified 2015, accessed May 6, 2015, http://militaryfamily.about.com/od/HorsesForHeroes/; J. M. Kouba et al., “Equine-Assisted Therapy and Recovery from Combat Trauma,” in American Society of Animal Science Annual Symposium, Horse Species Symposium (90:3: Journal of Animal Science, 2012), 653, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.jtmtg.org/JAM/2012/abstracts/661.pdf; Marionette Kubicz, “Trusting Bonds: Rescue Horses Bring Healing To Veterans,” Grand Traverse Insider, 2013, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.morningstarpublishing.com/articles/2013/08/26/grand_traverse_insider/life/doc521b9dfeb 0d63046411227.txt; Drew Brooks, “Equine-Assisted Therapy Helps Soldiers Deal With PTSD,” Fay Observer, 2014, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.fayobserver.com/news/local/article_ab1e9595- 542d-5cc7-9e32-858fc8de427f.html?TNNoMobile; S. Brooks, “Animal-Assisted Psychotherapy and Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy,” in Working With Traumatized Youth In Child Welfare, ed. N. Webb, (New York: The Guilford Press, 2005), 196-218; Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, BROWNLEY ANNOUNCES VA PARTNERSHIP WITH REINS OF HOPE FOR VETERANS’ MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES, 2014, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/sites/default/files/attachments/Reins%20of%20HOPE-1.pdf; Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, New Data On Lone Survivor Foundation’s Retreat Program Show Significantly Reduced PTSD Effects For Post 9/11 Service Members, Veterans And Their Families: Unique Healing Retreats Bring Together Proven Psycho Education Work, EAGALA Equine- Assisted Sessions With Accelerated Resolution Therapy To Produce Strong Clinical Results, 2014, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.prweb.com/pdfdownload/12018780.pdf; Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, EAGALA Military Services Launches Helping Veterans, Active Military, Their Families, and Families of the Fallen Combat PTSD, Trauma, and Behavioral Challenges Through Equine Assisted Therapy, 2011, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/9-7-11; Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, Specialized Distinction Instituted To Become Designated EAGALA Military Services Provider: Vigorous Training Mandated For EAGALA Military Services Providers Offering Equine Assisted Psychotherapy To Veterans, Active Duty, And Their Families Struggling With PTSD, Suicide, Addiction, Depression, Resiliency, Grief And Combat Stress, 2013, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/specialized-distinction-instituted-to-become- designated-eagala-military-services-provider-212752701.html; Leslie M. McCullough, “Effect of Equine- Facilitated Psychotherapy on Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Youth with History of Maltreatment and Abuse,” (PhD diss., Northcentral University, 2011), 2-7, 153-168.

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Figure 3.1 offers a visual representation of the different equine therapies that comprise the whole industry of human-equine therapy, and how they overlap.

Figure 3.1 78

The move within the therapeutic riding industry to address mental and emotional health, with horses actively employed for the purpose of developing people’s emotional and social skills, introduced a new element in human-horse relationship history. The Natural

Horsemanship revolution shifted people’s understanding and treatment of horses for the purpose of helping people enjoy peaceful horse-human partnerships and engage in compassionate equestrian pursuits; when the therapeutic riding industry began to include psychological work in its focus, it elevated the horse to an agent capable of assisting humans in

78 The practice of Hippotherapy remains strictly a physical therapy process. About half of the practitioners and organizations in the EBHD industry operate strictly for human education, development, and wellness. Others in the EBHD industry extend their practice to professional mental health and psychotherapy processes. The Therapeutic riding industry now generally makes up the middle ground and overlaps with both the physical therapy of Hippotherapy and the mental health and psychotherapy of EBHD. What the EBHD does which the Therapeutic Riding industry does not, is the practice of non- therapeutic equine-based human development, such as strictly personal or professional development through experiential learning with horses.

126 improving not only their physical health, but their mental, emotional, and social well-being.

After millennia in which horses were regarded at best as noble steeds and at worst as mere beasts of burden, the therapeutic riding industry demonstrated that horses had the potential to develop and even heal the human psyche.79

The therapeutic riding industry owed this important development, in large part, to the larger AAT industry. The therapeutic riding industry’s interest in mental health and wellness did not occur until the AAT industry achieved considerable popular interest and professional attention, with several university departments and research institutes dedicated to the study of the subject. A therapeutic riding organization formally gave rise to the first EBHD association, but only as the new practice developed in the parallel AAT industry which was pushing understanding of human-animal relations potential in a revolutionary direction.80

Insights from AAT shifted the therapeutic riding industry from focusing exclusively on physical therapy to developing the potential of the mental health, wellness, education, and learning benefits to be gained from human-animal interaction and bonding. AAT also prepared the market for such human-horse relationship dynamics by first demonstrating and establishing the practice with smaller companion animals.

As the AAT industry grew, leaders in the therapeutic riding industry began to observe the kind of psychological and social benefits associated with AAT in rider-clients. Although

79 Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 183-213, 217-240 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Siv Grethe Johansen et al., “Equine-Facilitated Body and Emotion-Oriented Psychotherapy Designed for Adolescents and Adults Not Responding to Mainstream Treatment: A Structured Program,” Journal of Psychotherapy Integration 24, no. 4 (2014): 323-335; S.G. Johansen and U.F. Malt, “Development of a New Therapeutic Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy Program for Patients with Mood and Other Psychiatric Disorders,” Journal of Affective Disorders 122 (2010): S44-S45; Robin E. Johnsons, “Horses in Therapy: An Exploration of the Treatment of Trauma Using Equine Assisted Therapies” (Master’s Thesis, Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2013); J. A. Lentini and Michele Knox, “A Qualitative and Quantitative Review of Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP) with Children and Adolescents,” TOALTMEDJ 1, no. 1 (2009): 51-57. 80 Fine, Handbook On Animal-Assisted Therapy, 21-33, 91-100, 115-133, 211-222, 225-235; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 27-65; Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 64-113, 205-220.

127 there is no direct evidence of one industry informing or influencing the other, the two developed contemporaneously in related markets and industry sectors. Publications, news stories, professional opinions, and client interests of one industry overlapped with the other so closely that ideas and insights that emerged in one industry were readily available to people involved in the other. Prior to the emergence of AAT, therapeutic riding was only a physical therapy. Gradually, practitioners interested mostly in the mental health components of therapeutic engagement with horses experimented with the ideas and activities which came to be identified as EBHD. Some pursued their work in association with the therapeutic riding industry, some led or collaborated with an organization dedicated entirely to EBHD, and others worked in their own independent private practices.81 Together, AAT and therapeutic riding contributed to the rise of the EBHD industry.

Many therapeutic riding instructors obtain certification as facilitators of EBHD practices as well, but a significant body of EBHD practitioners exist outside the therapeutic riding industry and are adamant about their distinction from the older industry. Most of those EBHD practitioners who distance themselves from association with the therapeutic riding industry recognize Barbara Rector, founder of Sierra Tucson Hospital’s premier equine facilitated therapy program in 1989, as the earliest pioneer of the industry. Rector’s work inspired many in the horse world and was their first introduction to the idea of integrating horses in human development and emotional health. Rector was also integral to NARHA and the first EBHD association formed within that organization. Rector was a teacher or mentor to many of the

EBHD industry leaders and remains highly respected by her students. However many of

81 Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 27-70; Fine, Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy, 21- 33, 91-100, 115-133, 211-222, 225-235; Chandler, Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling, 64-113, 205- 220; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013.

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Rector’s students or mentees did not wish to associate themselves with the therapeutic riding industry nor adhere to its obligatory parameters or regulations.82

Those EBHD practitioners who distance themselves from association with the therapeutic riding industry often are concerned that the treatment and demands of the horses involved in therapeutic work should be among practitioners’ highest priorities. They actively integrate Natural Horsemanship ideals into their practices, and criticize the desensitization of therapeutic riding horses. Essentially, there exists a certain amount of inter-industry conflict about what is good, right, or ethical to ask of horses in the practice of aiding human health. To ensure safety of riders, horses considered appropriate for therapeutic riding activities generally are highly trained, quiet natured, and absolutely obedient to their human handlers. To keep their riders safe, therapeutic riding horses have to be willing to endure occasional behaviour outbursts and muscle spasms of their riders which are assumed to be unnerving or physically uncomfortable for the mount. Particularly patient, nurturing, and generous natured horses are ideal candidates as therapeutic riding mounts. Such demands on the horses involved are often criticized by EBHD industry professionals, despite the therapeutic riding industry’s assurances that the welfare of horses used is one of its priorities as well. Some individuals and EBHD associations are quite extreme in their ideals and believe the ‘bomb-proof’ desensitization and absolute obedience required of therapeutic riding horses for the safety of disabled/handicapped riders to be unkind to the horse.83

82 Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 44-47, 217-260; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013. 83 Kathy Keating, “Equine Welfare,” Pathintl.Org, last modified 2015, accessed June 5, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/resources-education/resources/equine-welfare; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013.

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Nevertheless, even EBHD practitioners who intentionally distance themselves from the more established equine-therapy industry still recognize that their industry has undeniable and important roots inside the therapeutic riding industry.84 The EBHD industry began inside the therapeutic riding industry, with important influences from AAT and the Natural Horsemanship

Revolution. Very quickly, however, it evolved into a distinct entity. The new industry remains related to the others, but only partially embedded within each of them, blazing a trail toward a paradigm of human-horse relationship more radical than either of its parent industries suggested individually.

EBHD, therapeutic riding, and AAT practices generally serve similar client populations, each utilizing unique activities or methods of practice, but with some important overlap among the three. Today there is an extensive spectrum of equine-based practices, as illustrated in

Figure 3.1, which collectively comprise the traditional therapeutic riding industry, its more recent mental health service developments, and both the therapeutic and educational scope of the new EBHD industry. These practices are mostly therapeutic in nature and all designed for human growth and development. All are linked in the history of human-horse and human- animal relations.85

Conclusion While the revolution in Natural Horsemanship contributed many of the foundational philosophies and methods of interaction with horses to the development of the EBHD industry, the formalization of the first nationally recognized committee associated with the concept of

84 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingra, interview by Christy Clarke, in person, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 85 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 1-4, 27-70, 255-267, 269-274, 435-441; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingra, interview by Christy Clarke, in person, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013.

130 equine-assisted therapy for mental health came directly and entirely from the therapeutic riding industry. People began to consider partnership with horses in a slightly new light after

Hartel won the silver medal in Dressage at the 1952 Olympic Games. In the decades that followed, therapeutic horseback riding spread and grew in popularity among equestrians and special needs populations in Europe and North America. Initially, the new practitioners focused on the physical benefits provided by the therapeutic interaction with horses, but as the revolutionary industry of AAT attracted popular and professional interest, therapeutic riding instructors, clients, and their families also began to recognize that horses were helping riders mentally, emotionally, and socially as well. By the 1980s curious and compassionate individuals began experimenting to see how far they could stretch the educational and therapeutic reach of their own horses.

As therapeutic riding grew, more and more interest and resources were gradually drawn to popular health concerns like Autism Spectrum Disorder and PTSD, and eventually the industry of equine assisted physical therapy began to blend into a newly emerging practice of equine assisted psychotherapy. For some practitioners the line dividing the therapeutic riding industry from the newer EBHD industry is permanently blurred; for others these two practices remain distinctly categorized. Nevertheless, it was the work of a few pioneering individuals from within the therapeutic riding industry, and PATH Intl. specifically, along with an increasingly popular appeal of AAT and Natural Horsemanship, which were collectively responsible for initiating a new chapter in the horse-human relationship history with the advent of the EBHD industry.

Ultimately, EBHD emerged as its own hybrid-industry where the AAT industry’s mental health interests permeated the therapeutic riding industry and together intersected and overlapped with influences of the Natural Horsemanship Revolution. Just as the revolution in

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Natural Horsemanship helped to attract popular attention to a new perspective and potential for the human-horse relationship, the growing awareness of and experimentation with mental health and emotional, social, and psychological benefits of the therapeutic riding industry contributed to the birth of the EBHD industry and the significant shift it represents within human-horse history. Not all pioneers of the EBHD had roots in the AAT and therapeutic riding industries, but many did, and many current EBHD practitioners maintain formal ties or association with therapeutic riding as well. This intricately woven history represents a unique, ongoing development in the long history of the human-horse relationship. As the AAT industry grows and continues to gain both popular interest and professional legitimacy, the EBHD industry borrows from the more established reputation of the larger industries to extrapolate and reinforce its own validation.

All of these therapeutic modalities need more professional research to help advance and legitimize their respective practices as valuable health services. The demand for scientific inquiry and ‘proof’ to legitimize new health therapies or education systems is proving to be an obstacle for the innovative industries, and a limiting factor for prospective clients. As education and health professionals and the general public began to consider the idea that horses could help develop human potential through EBHD activities and methods, they wanted answers to the question, “how does it work?” The young industry does not yet have the kind or quantity of research necessary to answer this question or fully legitimize its field in accordance with the scientific method. It is a significant struggle for the EBHD industry, and one its proponents are actively working to overcome. In the meantime, the EBHD industry points to the older, more established, and better researched industries of therapeutic riding and AAT to explain basic concepts and general theories common to all these animal-centered therapeutic industries.

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Section II: The Beginning of an Industry and a New Age in the Horse-Human Relationship

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Chapter Four: The Emergence of EBHD in the 1980s and 1990s

Introduction When hippotherapy and therapeutic riding first began, skeptics questioned whether horses could provide physical healing for people; the idea that horses could act as psychotherapists was even more difficult to accept, but that is what the EBHD industry has advocated since it emerged in the early 1990s. The practices of Equine-Facilitated Mental

Health, Wellness and Education (EBHD) began in the barnyards and pastures of horsemen and women who independently sought a deep and meaningful relationship with their horses.

When some of these innovative individuals dared to incorporate new practices in their professional work in education and therapeutic institutions, they sowed the seeds of a new industry. The EBHD industry, which is still in its early years, developed incrementally, following a similar trajectory to Natural Horsemanship and the Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) industries, with which it shares some of its principles and philosophies. Professional demonstrations of equine-facilitated human development activities by a bold few triggered interest among early audiences. Eventually, like-minded individuals collaborated to organize conferences around their practices. Some of the earliest pioneers published popular books about their experiments and experience with EBHD in private practice, generating significant public attention and interest. Increased popular interest eventually led to the formation of committees intended to establish industry norms, rules, and ethics. Subsequent efforts to create recognized governing organizations that would regulate credentialing of those offering EBHD services and professionalize the field created controversy and division among practitioners.

A small number of creatively-thinking, liberal-minded and generous-hearted men and women of the baby boom generation and generation X were the key players in the

134 formalization of EBHD. Each began with a love for, or fascination with, horses; their deep dissatisfaction with aggressive, dominance-based horsemanship led them to seek a new way of being in partnership with the animals. Inspired by their own experiences and interactions with horses, these individuals shared their passion with the world at a time when many people advocated radical concern for human and animal welfare. In less than a quarter-century, the emergence and development of the EBHD industry began to revolutionize the way people thought about, and interacted with, horses. The culture of social advocacy in the second half of the twentieth century and the pioneering spirit of a few individuals are ultimately responsible for the birth of the new human-animal, and human-horse, relationship paradigm.

Two similar but separate schools of practice combined to form the EBHD industry. One school of practice is Equine-Facilitated Mental Health and Wellness (EFMHW), and the other is

Equine-Facilitated Education and Learning (EFEL). Each began in the late 1980s in the

Southwestern USA. At various points in the EBHD industry history, these two schools of practice intersect or overlap, and they are regularly confused with one another. As yet, the industry has not created a legal authority or governing body to regulate the language and marketing that might clearly differentiate between these two. Thus, telling the somewhat tangled story of the birth of the EBHD industry requires tracking the origins and development of both schools of practice, and the pioneering individuals and organizations associated with each.

1980s – Experimenting with Concepts The 1980s were an important decade in the development of addictions treatment, recovery, and rehabilitation residential hospitals in North America; the professionalization of

EBHD began in this decade, and in these treatment areas. It all began in the Southwestern USA, in the lap of luxury. High end treatment centres and recovery boarding schools were in vogue

135 in the 1980s and early 1990s, and some of the most acclaimed companies and facilities in the industry incorporated nature and adventure programs at their resort-style treatment facilities.

Sierra Tucson Hospital in Arizona and Aspen Education Group in Utah were widely recognized as the leading organizations in the industry in the 1980s and 1990s.1 Both played a pivotal role in the conception of the EBHD industry as they advanced the ideas of the industry from private experiments to create professional-scale equine therapy programs for inclusion among their innovative treatment options. These early equine therapy programs showed the potential of a new paradigm in the horse-human relationship and the possibilities of what would become the

EBHD industry.

Addictions treatment became a money-maker in the 1980s in large part because of a growing public awareness and concern for drug abuse. Following the high social tolerance for drug and alcohol use in the 1960s and 1970s, public concern about drugs, especially cocaine, skyrocketed in the mid to late 1980s. Although President Nixon had initiated an American War on Drugs in the early 1970s, Gallup polls indicated that public concern for drug use or abuse was greatest in the mid-1980s. Similar polls conducted by New York Times and CBS News found that by the late 1980s drug abuse was considered the most serious social problem in America.2

1 “In Another Mega Deal, CRC Acquires Aspen Education,” Treatment Magazine, 2006, accessed August 5, 2014, http://www.treatmentmagazine.com/feature/133-in-another-mega-deal-crc-acquires-aspen- education.html; “Premier Psychiatric Hospital - Sierra Tucson,” Sierratucson.crchealth.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 3, 2015, http://sierratucson.crchealth.com/about/articles/premier-psychiatric- hospital/. 2 Erich Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance, (Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, 1994), 205-222; Jennifer Robison, “Decades of Drug Use: The '80s and '90s,” Gallup, July 9, 2002: 205-222; L. D. Johnston, P.M. O'Malley, R.A. Miech, J.G. Bachman, and J.E. Schulenberg, “Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use: 1975-2013: Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use,” Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 2014: 5-8, 9-45, 49-50; L. D. Johnston, P.M. O'Malley, and J.G. Bachman, “Drug use, drinking, and smoking: National survey results from high school, college, and young adult populations, 1975-1988” (DHHS Publication No. [ADM] 89-1638). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1989, 5-16, 29-50, 171-201, 263-271 J G Bachman, L D Johnston and P M O'Malley, “Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use Among American High School Students: Correlates And Trends, 1975-1979,” American Journal of Public Health 71, no. 1 (1981): 59-69; P. M. O'Malley, L. D. Johnston and J. G. Bachman, “Drug Use Among

136

Public concern about drug abuse in the 1980s was fuelled by media attention, as articles on the topic of drugs published in North American newspapers and magazines rose exponentially during the 1980s to several hundred a year. New stories about illegal drug use, addiction, and its associated social perils created a palpable public panic, shared and fomented by the political leadership in the United States of America. 3 President George H.W. Bush delivered a speech on September 5, 1989, calling for new vigour in the War on Drugs.4 Major government funding was directed to drug treatment programs, practically requiring businesses and schools to participate in the campaign against illegal drug use.5

In the mid-1980s, live television talk-shows aired interviews with individuals recovering from addiction, including William (Bill) O’Donnell Jr., founder of Sierra Tucson Hospital.

O’Donnell was one of the first people to speak publicly about his struggle with cocaine addiction and his experience with addictions treatment. Despite being highly successful in the corporate world, O’Donnell fell victim to substance abuse in his adult life. Recognizing the problem, O’Donnell’s employer helped check him into a residential treatment facility in the early 1980s. It was this personal experience and road to recovery from addiction which inspired O’Donnell to build his own addiction treatment centre. Upon his recovery, O’Donnell purchased the Brave Bull Guest Ranch in Catalina, Arizona and transformed it into Sierra

Tucson Hospital which opened in 1983. This is where the EBHD industry began.6

American Youth: 1975-1979,” Economic Outlook USA 7, no. 2 (1980): 39-42; J. G. Bachman, P. M. O'Malley and L. D. Johnston, Change and Consistency in the Correlates of Drug Use Among High School Seniors: 1975-1986, Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper No. 21 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1986). 3 Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 205-222. 4 C-Span, Presidential Address on National Drug Policy, September 5, 1989, video, accessed June 9, 2015, http://www.c-span.org/video/?8921-1/presidential-address-national-drug-policy. 5 Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 205-222. 6 “Sierra Tucson's Bill O'donnell: The Birth Of The High End,” Treatment Magazine, 2008, accessed August 5, 2014, http://www.treatmentmagazine.com/special-reports/103-sierra-tucsons-bill-odonnell- sells-addiction-treatment-center-drug-rehab-to-crc-health-corp.html; Steve Flax and Sarah Smith, “Cover

137

O’Donnell’s interview on The Phil Donahue Show in 1985 turned out to be a brilliant business move for Sierra Tucson Hospital. Business began to climb at the high end residential treatment centre shortly after O’Donnell’s appearance on the show. The savvy businessman was later featured as the cover story of Fortune Magazine, further contributing to the positive publicity of addiction treatment and Sierra Tucson Hospital. Client intake continued to climb.

As owner and leader of the Sierra Tucson Company, O’Donnell became a recognized expert on both the clinical matters of addictions treatment as well as financial strategy within the industry. Many other residential treatment centres attempted to replicate Sierra Tucson’s strategy, but none matched its reputation or financial success.7

By the late 1980s the addictions treatment business was booming and O’Donnell capitalized on the opportunity to sell stock in Sierra Tucson Hospital, gaining a significant influx of cash to the corporation which financed a massive expansion to the operation, including construction of state of the art equine facilities and the first professional scale equine therapy program in the EBHD industry’s history. In the beginning, O’Donnell had established Sierra

Tucson Hospital as a privately held company. With the widespread public concern for drug abuse in the mid-late 80s, Wall Street was hungry for stock options in treatment centres.

O’Donnell told reporters it was not his idea to take the company public; rather he was approached by investment bank Oppenheimer to sell stock options in Sierra Tucson Hospital as a result of public demand. O’Donnell agreed, netting nearly 11 million dollars from selling shares in Sierra Tucson Hospital, while retaining 30 percent ownership of the company. The

Story: The Executive Addict,” Fortune, 1985, accessed August 5, 2014, http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1985/06/24/66043/index.htm. 7 “Sierra Tucson's Bill O'donnell: The Birth of the High End,” Treatment Magazine, 2008, accessed August 5, 2014, http://www.treatmentmagazine.com/special-reports/103-sierra-tucsons-bill-odonnell-sells- addiction-treatment-center-drug-rehab-to-crc-health-corp.html; Steve Flax and Sarah Smith, “Cover Story: The Executive Addict,” Fortune, 1985, accessed August 5, 2014, http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1985/06/24/66043/index.htm.

138 decision to take Sierra Tucson Hospital public created the funding to invest in innovative in- house treatment options; the equine therapy program was one of them.8

The equine program at Sierra Tucson Hospital was part of the larger expansion to construct an adolescent treatment centre. Reed Smith was responsible for the adolescent program and was determined to incorporate horses because of his own childhood experiences with them. Smith grew up working on dude ranches, starting young horses, and later counselling younger children who visited the ranch for camp experiences. He loved horses and believed strongly in their ability to help people heal from emotional strife; horses had helped him overcome sadness and loneliness in his youth. When Smith needed a manager for the equine program for adolescents at Sierra Tucson Hospital, he looked for someone who shared his perspective on the healing potential of a mutual relationship with horses. He had heard of a woman named Barbara Rector who was doing therapeutic work with horses in the region and thought she would understand what he was looking for; she did, and in 1989, she accepted

Smith’s invitation to create and direct the pioneering equine therapy program at Sierra Tucson

Hospital.9

Rector loved horses and had worked with them for decades. After a serious riding accident which severely crippled her for months, horses helped Rector heal, providing both motivation and physical therapy throughout her recovery period. Inspired by the personal

8 Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 205-222; “Sierra Tucson's Bill O'donnell: The Birth of the High End,” Treatment Magazine, 2008, accessed August 5, 2014, http://www.treatmentmagazine.com/special-reports/103-sierra-tucsons-bill-odonnell-sells-addiction- treatment-center-drug-rehab-to-crc-health-corp.html; “Nexthealth Inc. Annual Report,” Digital Report, April 16, 1996, File No. 000-17969, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, accessed August 5, 2014, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/855272/0000950153-96-000214.txt. 9 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse: Exploring the Power of the Horse-Human Relationship, (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 44-49; Linda Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds: Expanding Our Potential Through the Way of the Horse, (Novato, California: New World Library, 2003), 60-65; Kathleen Ingram, “Unexpected Grace: How Horses Changed My Life,” Blog, Sacred Place of Possibility, 2013, accessed September 17, 2014, http://sacredplaceofpossibility.com/2008/12/unexpected-grace-how-horses-changed-my-life/.

139 healing she experienced with horses, in 1974 Rector and her friend and physical therapist,

Nancy McGibbon, co-founded Therapeutic Riding of Tucson, Inc. (TROT), one of the early therapeutic riding programs in the USA which continues to operate today. For years Rector worked in various roles within the organization, including instructing riders and volunteers, developing resources, and serving as executive director. Through her extensive work in therapeutic riding, personally and professionally, Rector developed an acute awareness of the healing power of horses and a passion for telling others what she had learned. Smith recognized Rector’s passion immediately. He most appreciated her concern for safety and her natural way of interacting with horses, which he observed was grounded more in building a relationship of mutual respect than on any formal technique. It was that observation which inspired Smith to invite Rector to help create Sierra Tucson Hospital’s original equine therapy program in 1989.10

When Rector received the invitation to join Sierra Tucson Hospital to create the equine program, she was just finishing her Master’s degree in Spiritual Psychology from the College of the Holy Names in Oakland, California. In addition to her schooling, Rector trained under

Stanislav Grof in the practice of Holotropic Breathwork, a method of meditation to relax and alter consciousness using specific breathing techniques. When Grof invited Rector to assist him in facilitating Holotropic Breathwork training for Sierra Tucson Hospital staff, Rector met Bill

O’Donnell and Reed Smith, and was offered the position with the equine program. Working together, Smith and Rector were responsible for creating the first EBHD program for addictions treatment, designed to aid in treatment of adolescent patients, during family-group therapy

10 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 44-49.

140 sessions for residential treatment patients, for patients with eating disorders, and for trauma unit patients.11

As a result of O’Donnell’s decision to take the Sierra Tucson Hospital Company public earlier that year, Rector had a “practically unlimited budget” to build her dream equine facility and program for the treatment centre.12 Conceptualizing the whole plan, preparing the program, and constructing the facilities took about a year. The program opened officially in

1991 with a purpose-built 200-by-200 foot outdoor riding arena as well as a smaller 60-by-60 foot training ring, each with the high quality footing that was Rector’s personal priority for the facilities. Rector selected 12 horses of various breeds, ages, and sizes which she pastured together in order to create a relatively natural herd dynamic. No stallions were part of the herd, but both mares and geldings (female and castrated male horses) were included in Sierra

Tucson Hospital’s pioneering healing herd. Rector and Smith named the program STIRRP, an acronym for Sierra Tucson Integrated Riding Resource Program.13

Around the same time that Rector began making waves in the world of horses and healing with TROT and Sierra Tucson Hospital, Greg Kersten was also setting up educational and personal development programs with horses across the USA. Kersten began combining his personal love of horses with his professional work with at-risk youth and prison populations in the late 1980s. According to Kersten, his innovations with equine therapy began “by accident”

11 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 44-49; Barbara Rector, “Adventures in Awareness: About – Biography,” Adventuresinawareness.Net, accessed September 13, 2013, http://www.adventuresinawareness.net/about.htm. 12 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006). 13 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 44-49; Barbara Rector, “Adventures in Awareness: About – Biography,” Adventuresinawareness.Net, accessed September 13, 2013, http://www.adventuresinawareness.net/about.htm.

141 as a result of his efforts to cobble together living wages in Washington D.C. working at multiple jobs.14

Kersten says he has always felt most at home in the company of horses and described his early years growing up on a ranch in the 1960s and 70s in Nebraska as a dream childhood.

The youngest child in the family, Kersten travelled regularly to compete in rodeos with his parents and siblings. Then, when he was ten, tragedy struck and his father died unexpectedly.

His father had been the primary provider for the family, so financial difficulties added to the devastation. Life changed dramatically for Kersten; his family still lived on a ranch with horses but they moved closer to a city and Kersten and his siblings were bussed to an inner-city school each day. Kersten began running home from school to hide with the horses for the school day, and stealing the school notifications about his absences from the mailbox before his mother found them. Kersten managed to skip school for some 63 days with this strategy, all the while gaining a wealth of knowledge about herd dynamics and communication through his silent observations while hiding among the horses. Kersten says he felt safe in a herd-style social environment, and that is why the military was quite attractive to him as a young adult. He says basic training is like “herd development 101 – teaching you to care for other members of the herd as much as yourself.” In the early 1980s, Kersten joined the military police canine unit and spent several years working with patrol and narcotics dogs in Central America.15

After the military, Kersten began work first at the Kansas State Penitentiary, and later took a job working with incarcerated inner-city youth in Washington D.C. He says he loved working with youth but the pay was terrible, so he took a second job as a cowboy and ranch hand training horses. It made for long hours and a very busy schedule, and Kersten would sometimes show up to work at the prison still wearing his cowboy boots and hat. The cowboy

14 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013. 15 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013.

142 outfit caught the attention of the youth; it intrigued them and helped Kersten earn their respect. When the youth wanted to learn more about Kersten’s work with horses, he arranged to help them work off some of their community service probation hours at the ranch. The ranch work was approved by the judge because there were not many options for youth probation services at the time.16

What the youth learned from the horses astounded Kersten, and gained the attention of the prison executive staff. Kersten remembers, “In their therapeutic group talks at night they

[the youth] would always bring up the horses; ‘If you were more like a horse, you wouldn’t be here right now’ was a statement the kids came up with.” That profound insight inspired

Kersten to dedicate his life to doing more educational and therapeutic work with horses, starting him on his pioneering work and career in the EBHD industry.17

In 1988, the executives of the youth prison organization invited Kersten to transfer to their headquarters location in Florida to implement a similar equine program. Excited by the prospect of pursuing this new passion, Kersten travelled to Florida and spent the next three years working to develop an equine program for incarcerated youth. “It was kind of a fiasco,”

Kersten said. “The kids in Florida were too hard. The D.C. kids were smart and organized. But in

Florida, [the youth] education was so poor no one understood any kind of organization or community structure.” Ultimately, Kersten felt the culture and education of that region simply did not support the development of an equine program designed to teach incarcerated youth community-based life skills. He did not give up hope but moved to a different state to pursue his lifework.18

16 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013. 17 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013. 18 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013.

143

Among the many trail blazers in the EBHD industry, some self-proclaimed, others widely recognized, Barbara Rector and Greg Kersten stand out as the earliest historical pioneers in the field, publicizing their innovative therapeutic and educational human- development work with horses. Both continue to work professionally in the field today, expanding their individual focuses and scopes of practice in slightly different directions. Rector is primarily associated with the EFMHW school of practice, while Kersten is better known among the EFEL school of practice. However, the scope of practice of each of these industry pioneers included both schools of EBHD practice, and each significantly influenced and trained practitioners in both streams within the EBHD industry. As initially there were few differentiators between the two schools of practice, and these were not always recognized by practitioners, Rector and Kersten are widely viewed as the founding mother and father of the

EBHD industry as a whole, regardless of technical subdivisions in scope of practice which developed as the industry grew and matured.

Ariana Strozzi was another early pioneer in the EBHD industry involved primarily in the education and learning side of the field. Strozzi developed her own method of personal development and leadership training in partnership with horses after years of competitive riding and training in multiple equestrian disciplines. In 1989, she blended her personal expertise and professional training in biology, animal behaviour, and somatic coaching with her love for horses to create a program titled Leadership & Horses on her California property, Sky

Horse Ranch. Strozzi’s most significant contribution to the EBHD industry was her use of activities and relationships with horses to teach people about interpersonal leadership. While

Rector was beginning to work with horses through a deeply therapeutic approach and Kersten

144 was experimenting with horses in youth behaviour correction, Strozzi prioritized the concept of learning from or with horses.19

Across the Atlantic, Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling and the McCormick family were also exploring new ways of understanding and interacting with horses in the 1980s, and incorporating horse training in their work with the conscious intention of expanding human potential. Their stories are published in a small stack of popular books.20 Each of these practitioners developed their distinctive approach with their own equine therapy or learning company but remain somewhat on the periphery of the EBHD industry.

The McCormick family are all doctors, of medicine, psychology, and psychiatry, who spent many years teaching psychology and psychiatry courses at universities in Spain. Their work with horses began in Europe. The family, Adele, Thomas, and Marlena Deborah, gained their first insights about horses and human healing during their travels in Scotland in the 1970s, where they were exploring the McCormick family history as well as the history and philosophy of Celtic spirituality. Throughout the 1980s, the family conducted personal research into the equestrian culture of the Iberian Peninsula. The McCormick family was intrigued by the intimate relationship that Spanish and Portuguese horsemen, and women, shared with their horses, and sought to learn more about the history and philosophy of the equestrian culture.

Eventually, they fell in love with the Spanish horse breeds and began formally incorporating their horses, and various spiritual insights they learned from the different horse cultures, into

19 Ariana Strozzi, Horse Sense for the Leader Within, (California: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011), 4-18, 68-72; “Ariana Strozzi – Master Somatic Coach,” SkyHorse Ranch.com, last modified 2015, accessed August 12, 2014, http://www.skyhorseranch.com/ about-2/skyhorse-ranch- staff/. 20 Adele von Rüst McCormick and Marlena Deborah McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart (Deerfield Beach, Florida: Health Communications, 1997); Adele von Rüst McCormick, Marlena Deborah McCormick and Thomas E McCormick, Horses and the Mystical Path (Novato, California: New World Library, 2004); Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, Dancing with Horses (North Pomfret, Vermont: Trafalgar Square, 2001); Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling and Kristina McCormack, What Horses Reveal (Norht Pomfret, Vermont: Trafalgar Square, 2004); Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, It is Not I Who Seek the Horse, the Horse Seeks Me (London: Cadmos, 2010).

145 their psychological healing work with emotionally disturbed teenagers and adults.21 The

McCormicks blended academic theory with practical, classical horsemanship techniques and cross-cultural spirituality in order to enhance human psychological health and well-being. Their work was revolutionary, but it was conducted in the privacy of their own professional practices and was largely unknown until the mid-1990s when they published their first popular book,

Horse Sense and the Human Heart: What Horses Can Teach Us about Trust, Bonding, Creativity and Spirituality.22

Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, from Westphalia, also began his career with horses in the

1980s in Iberia among the ancient culture of horse-masters of Spain. A telecommunications engineer, and later a successful artist and teacher, Hempfling began working with horses much later in life than most of the EBHD industry’s pioneers. He was 29 when he gave up a successful career and travelled to the Spanish Pyrenees where wild horses still roamed. Hempfling began his lifelong devotion to, and career with, horses by studying those wild herds. Hempfling rejected traditional horsemanship because he considered the practice to be too harsh, and sought a different relationship with the animals that had fascinated him all his life.23

Hempfling studied wild Spanish horses along with the theoretical and practical methods of the older, classical style of horsemanship dating back to the Spanish Caballeros of the thirteenth century. He was inspired by the ancient method of partnership with the horse

21 Adele von Rust McCormick and Marlena Deborah McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart; What Horses Can Teach Us About Trust, Bonding, Creativity and Spirituality, (Florida: Health Communications Inc., 1997), 14-20, 110-123; Adele von Rust McCormick, Marlena Deborah McCormick, and Thomas McCormick, Horses and the Mystical Path: The Celtic Way of Expanding the Human Soul, (Novato, California: New World Library, 2004), 17-34, 38-47, 53-68. 22 McCormick and McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart; von Rust McCormick, McCormick, and McCormick, Horses and the Mystical Path; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55. 23 Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, Dancing with Horses: The Art of Body Language, (Vermont: Trafalgar Square Publishing, 2001), 12-19; Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling and Kristina McCormack, What Horses Reveal: From First Meeting to Friend for Life, (Vermont: Trafalgar Square Publishing, 2004), 12, 20-30; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Akedah International | Hempfling.com, accessed October 11, 2014, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand- hempfling/.

146 which he believes to be the reason behind the Spanish success in many wars and Crusades.24

While many advanced horsemen and women, as well as historians of horsemanship, commonly reference the Spanish or European ‘high school’ as the most elite equestrian tradition,

Hempfling claims to have pursued a lesser known but more revered tradition around France and Spain called the ‘monastic school.’ According to Hempfling, the ‘monastic school’ of horsemanship was a practice of lifelong devotion to understanding and empowering one’s equine partner; it was not a method of training but a very specific way of life. Hempfling’s

‘monastic school’ of horsemanship is quite intimately related to the classical styles of horsemanship and also to the Moorish horsemanship that led to the vaquero tradition and later the Natural Horsemanship Revolution, and builds on the principle of continually cultivating deep partnership between horse and rider using methods which empower and liberate the horse, while requiring intense self-awareness and perfected self-mastery on the part of the rider.25 Like the McCormicks, Hempfling was developing his understanding and methods of human-development with horses in the 1980s but was essentially unknown until he published his first book in the early 1990s.

The explorations in partnership with horses which Hempfling and the McCormicks conducted in Europe in the 1980s changed their lives and directly influenced the course of their professional careers. On the Iberian Peninsula, a region rich with historical horse-cultures, these four individuals were quietly discovering a new way of interacting with, and learning from, horses akin to their peers in North America. However, it was not until the last decade of

24 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 30. 25 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 11-42; Hempfling and McCormack, What Horses Reveal, 22-26, 30- 31, 40-44, 48-49, 54-55, 58-65; Hempfling, It is Not I Who Seek the Horse, the Horse Seeks Me, 27-41, 44- 53, 110-127; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Akedah International | Hempfling.com, accessed October 11, 2014, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand- hempfling/.

147 the twentieth century that either Hempfling or the McCormicks began to shape a global awareness of the potential paradigm shift for human relationship with horses.

The 1980s were a critical decade in the history of the EBHD industry, when a handful of creative individuals dreamed of and experimented with the concept of a shifting paradigm in the history of horse-human relations. The first professional level programs that intentionally partnered people with horses for the purpose of emotional and mental health benefits were designed and piloted in the late 1980s. That several individuals across the USA and Eastern

Europe were separately and simultaneously exploring new relationship paradigms with horses and the idea that humans may be able to learn from and heal with the aid of equine partners hints at shifting trends in Western culture. At the same time, there was growing public, professional, and even scholarly interest in human-animal relationships, interactions, and emotional bonds, with an emerging curiosity about animal intelligence and therapeutic potential. Pet ownership in North America was increasing, and pioneering research identified the health benefits of engagement with companion animals.26 With parents and politicians expressing public concern about addictions and troubled teens, innovative therapeutic solutions to these social concerns received increasingly positive public reception.27 Not

26 Alan M. Beck and Aaron Honori Katcher, Between Pets and People: The Importance of Animal Companionship, (New York: Putnam, 1983), 1-8, 9-33; Anthony L. Podberscek, Elizabeth S. Paul, and James Serpell, Companion Animals and Us: Exploring the Relationships between People and Pets, (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1-5, 108-120, 125-140, 168-184; Randy Malamud, (ed.), A Cultural History of Animals in the Modern Age, (Oxford, UK: Berg Publishers, 2007), 35-37, 67-70, 80-94; Aubrey Manning and James Serpell, Animals and Human Society: Changing Perspectives, (London/New York: Routledge, 1994), 13, 99-100, 127-143, 177-188. 27 Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 205-222; Jennifer Robison, “Decades of Drug Use: The '80s and '90s,” Gallup, July 9, 2002: 205-222; J. G. Bachman, L. D. Johnston and P. M. O'Malley, “Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use Among American High School Students: Correlates and Trends, 1975-1979,” American Journal of Public Health 71, no. 1 (1981): 59-69; P. M. O'Malley, L. D. Johnston and J. G. Bachman, “Drug Use Among American Youth: 1975-1979,” Economic Outlook USA 7, no. 2 (1980): 39-42; J. G. Bachman, P. M. O'Malley and L. D. Johnston, Change And Consistency In The Correlates Of Drug Use Among High School Seniors: 1975-1986, Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper No. 21 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Institute for Social Research, 1986), 1-20; L. D. Johnston, P.M. O'Malley, R.A. Miech, J.G. Bachman, and J.E. Schulenberg, “Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use: 1975-2013:

148 surprisingly, then, creative individuals and innovative industry leaders in behaviour and addiction treatment turned to experimental therapies involving nature and/or non-human animals.28 Thus, the 1980s brought together various elements that facilitated the development of innovative interactions with horses which later became the EBHD industry. Each of the earliest pioneers in the EBHD industry was deeply embedded in their own experiences and experiments in a shifting paradigm of relationship with horses in the 1980s; in the following decade their work showed its potential to become an international industry.

1990s – The EBHD Industry Emerges The 1980s marked a decade of creative discovery and development among the pioneers of EBHD, but the industry itself was born in the final decade of the twentieth century.

The 1990s saw the official introduction of Barbara Rector’s adolescent youth program, STIRRP, at Sierra Tucson Hospital, as well as several equine therapy programs for at-risk youth developed by Greg Kersten. Media coverage, popular awareness, and professional healthcare and horse enthusiasts’ interest in these innovative programs quickly grew to a critical mass and a new industry emerged. The North American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA, now Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International (PATH Intl.)) organized a committee of interested and experienced parties to form the Equine Facilitated

Mental Health Association (EFMHA), the first professional body comprised to formally explore, develop, and legitimize the concept of EBHD as a field of practice. At the same time, separately, Greg Kersten co-founded the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association

(EAGALA) organization. The addiction treatment industry, along with the economy in general,

Overview, key findings on adolescent drug use,” Ann Arbor: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 2014: 5-8, 9-45, 49-50; L. D. Johnston, P.M. O'Malley, and J.G. Bachman, “Drug use, drinking, and smoking: National survey results from high school, college, and young adult populations, 1975- 1988.” (DHHS Publication No. [ADM] 89-1638). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1989, 5- 16, 29-50, 171-201, 263-271. 28 The phrase “mental health” was not popularized in the 1980s, but in this case I use it to refer more generally to addiction and ‘troubled teen’ behavioural concerns.

149 plummeted in the early1990s, adversely affecting the fledgling EBHD industry. Nonetheless, a handful of popular books were published by early pioneers in the field and several independent EBHD businesses were incorporated. The scope of practice expanded from strictly institutional therapeutic treatment to corporate training and luxury personal development retreats. Practitioner numbers grew, official conferences were conducted on the topic, and a formal training organization was incorporated. The 1990s was an exciting decade for those involved in the emerging EBHD industry; however, the growth process was quite messy in those early years.

In 1991, when Sierra Tucson Hospital’s STIRRP equine program launched under Barbara

Rector’s leadership, Rector hired Ann Alden to work with her, and Alden subsequently became another key player in the EBHD industry history. Alden had met and worked with Rector as a volunteer for a long time at TROT before STIRRP began. When she came to work at Sierra

Tucson Hospital, Alden brought her gelding, Crackers, who became a particularly important member of the equine program’s healing herd.29 The concept of using horses for healing troubled teens was quite novel, but quickly accepted by Sierra Tucson Hospital’s staff and board members upon observing the impacts that working with horses had on residents of the new adolescent care unit. The value of the STIRRP program was confirmed when the youth themselves identified its benefits.30

29 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 44-49; Linda Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds, (Novato, California: New World Library, 2003), 60-65; “About Us « Ann Alden Biography,” Borderlands Center for Equine Assisted Services, accessed August 14, 2014, http://borderlandscenter.com/about-us/. 30 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wyatt Webb and Cindy Pearlman, It's Not About the Horse: It's About Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt, (Carlsbad, California: Hay House, 2002), 81-87; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, “Unexpected Grace: How Horses Changed My Life,” Blog, Sacred Place Of Possibility, 2013, accessed September 17, 2014, http://sacredplaceofpossibility.com/2008/12/unexpected-grace- how-horses-changed-my-life/.

150

The story of one teenage resident and his experiences with Crackers the horse was considered so profound that Sierra Tucson Hospital executives published it in their annual report. The story was also celebrated years later in psychotherapist Wyatt Webb’s autobiography, It’s Not about the Horse: It’s About Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt, and also in a documentary-style interview of Barbara Rector. Crackers became a hero when he saved the life of David, a teenage boy who was at Sierra Tuscon for addiction treatment. In response to an argument in his dormitory, David attempted to run away from the staff psych-tech aid and the director of the adolescent care unit, Wyatt Webb. David’s flight path led him directly into the facility’s large horse arena, during the morning exercise turn-out of the horses. The teenager’s rage quickly turned to terror when he realized he was surrounded by a herd of horses galloping wildly in circles around him. The staff who were chasing after him, along with on-site horse-staff Rector and Alden, were equally panic-stricken at the incredible danger the boy had placed himself in, and uncertain about how to get him out of the stampede without being trampled themselves. Then Alden noticed Crackers doing something unusual. The horse began to circle David, at top speed, but in such a way that the boy was protected from the rest of the herd. Slowly, Crackers edged his galloping circles around the boy closer and closer to the edge of the arena where the Sierra Tucson Hospital staff were standing, thereby nudging David out of the stampeding herd to where Wyatt Webb could reach in and pull David to safety.31

Once the boy had been safely removed from the arena, Crackers stopped running and stood quietly at the fence, poking his nose through the rails to gently smell and touch David.

Genuinely moved by the protection and affection Crackers offered him, David said to the horse, “you saved my life!” The staff questioned whether they had the proper resources to

31 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Webb and Pearlman, It's Not About the Horse, 83-87.

151 keep David in care or whether he should go to another facility, but he asked to stay so that he could learn to work with Crackers. David had made an emotional connection with the horse and requested the opportunity to spend more time with him. Ultimately, the staff agreed and

Rector and Alden began to work with David to help him achieve his dream of learning to ride

Crackers without the use of traditional tack equipment; David was adamant he wanted to ride without a saddle or bridle and “just be” with the horse.32

David spent three months in care at Sierra Tucson Hospital, and on the day of his graduation, with the guidance and oversight of Rector and Alden, David achieved his dream. He took Crackers into the training ring, climbed up onto the fence and invited Crackers to come over and allow him to climb onto the horse’s back. Riding bareback, and without any bridle or halter on the horse’s face, David and Crackers practiced moving together at a walk, a trot, and finally at a canter. Then David asked Rector and Alden if they would open the gate so he could ride Crackers in the big arena and the women agreed. Rector recalls that David ducked under and out of the gate from the small ring and then he and Crackers, “galloped and galloped and galloped!” Residents and staff at Sierra Tucson Hospital all came to watch in awe and celebration of David’s ride in partnership with Crackers. Rector and Alden were moved to tears by the relationship the boy had cultivated with the horse.33

The horse’s impact on David lasted well beyond his time in residential care, as was made evident by a letter the young man wrote to Rector and to Crackers after he had left

Sierra Tucson Hospital. Rector and her staff at the equine program made a promise to every resident who participated in the equine program to help them stay connected to the horses even after their residential treatment ended. Many of the youth were sad to leave the horses,

32 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006), DVD. 33 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006).

152 so Rector invited them to write letters to their favourite horses whenever they wanted to talk to them. She promised the youth that she or one of the staff would read any letter they received to the horse it was written for, and she noted they received many letters for the horses over the years.34 This is what David wrote:

Dear Crackers, How are you? I'm doing pretty well. I haven't gotten to go riding at all since I left Sierra Tucson. I hope your [SIC] getting along O.K. I miss you a lot & I love you. I really wish we could be together & go running around in the forests up in the mountains. Or just hanging out riding around playing together in the field of dreams. But I suppose we aren't supposed to be together right now.... I need this time to work through & figure out my life. I want to thank you though. I feel that you helped me out a great deal with my early recovery. You showed me a great reason to want to be sober. If I was still using today I would probably be shot dead. I met you & you were so good to me. You taught me that there are so many things that I really love to do that I can't do when I'm using. I think that one of the reasons that we were so comfortable together is that we are part of the same universal mind. We often think & especially feel alike. You have such a peaceful and pure spirit. I used to be very much like that just a few years ago. I just didn't realize that the hard times were learning experiences of life. I love you for showing me how to set my true spirit free. Until we meet again. I love you, D.C.35 Rector says that Crackers and David taught her and Alden an incredible amount about the potential of this therapeutic work with horses. The equine program Rector and her supporters created at Sierra Tucson Hospital was very successful and quickly gained the attention and interest of the other staff members as well as other healthcare workers and horse enthusiasts across the country. In response to the growing interest, Rector offered some educational workshops for professionals about her equine treatment methods at Sierra Tucson

Hospital. Many of the early EBHD practitioners and industry leaders attended at least one of these workshops. So began a major expansion of interest in the potential of therapeutic work with horses.36

34 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Webb and Pearlman; It's Not about the Horse, 83-89. 35 Letter to Crackers the Horse at Sierra Tucson Hospital as shown in Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006). 36 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 45-47; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20

153

Not long after the adolescent treatment centre at Sierra Tucson Hospital opened, and just as Rector and her program were beginning to gain public awareness with their innovative equine program, Sierra Tucson Hospital was restructured. Creative expansions and major operations cuts were employed to save the company. The youth program in particular suffered. Just two years after it opened, the equine program at Sierra Tucson Hospital closed.

Many staff at Sierra Tucson Hospital lost their jobs, including Rector and Alden. However, both women continued to work with horses in passionate pursuit of a greater understanding of the healing potential of horses.37

The budget cuts at Sierra Tucson resulted from two events of the early 1990s which all but crushed the addiction treatment industry: a recession, and the initiation of “Managed

Care”. The Gulf War, the “credit crunch”, and corporate “restructuring” combined to cause a brief global recession in the early 1990s, and many families had less disposable income to spend on lengthy and expensive residential treatment facilities.38 What complicated the matter further, and more directly, was the implementation of managed care health insurance plans.

The term managed care refers to the shift in American health care from a not-for-profit business model to a for-profit model governed primarily by the insurance industry. Managed care was intended to combat the cost inflation of medical treatments, forcing the healthcare service providers to become more efficient and economically competitive. However, managed

Production Company, 2006); Webb and Pearlman, It’s Not About the Horse, 62-65; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 37 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Webb and Pearlman, It's Not about the Horse, 53-69; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 38 1990-92 Early 90’S Recession, Slaying the Dragon of Debt (The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley: Regional Oral History Office, n.d.), accessed January 19, 2015, http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/projects/debt/1990srecession.html; Peter Temin, “The Causes of American Business Cycles: An Essay in Economic Historiography,” in Beyond Shocks: What Causes Business Cycles?, eds. Jeffery C. Fuhrer and Scott Schuhed, (Boston: Federal Reserve Bank, 1998), 37-59; Carl Walsh, 'What Caused The 1990-1991 Recession?” Economic Review 2 (1993): 34-48, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/files/93-2_34-48.pdf.

154 care policies are commonly criticized by the general public for causing an overall reduction in the quality and quantity of healthcare service and treatment options.39

In the case of the addictions treatment industry, managed care insurance plans no longer provided coverage for treatments such as those at Sierra Tucson Hospital’s which were fully customized for each client, and where an individual’s progress and needs determined treatment duration. Instead, managed care plans typically provided coverage for standardized programs of limited residency, such as condensed 28-day recovery programs.40 The insurance companies supported economically priced abstinence-based addictions treatment programs built primarily on traditional talk therapy models rather than more costly treatment centres with engaging therapeutic programs such as art, nature, adventure, or equine therapies. The common perception was that enforcing managed care policies prioritized profit over provision of quality healthcare.41 Without the aid of their health insurance companies, and especially during and following a serious economic recession, few people could afford residential treatment programs like those offered at Sierra Tucson Hospital.

When funding was cut for the equine program at Sierra Tucson Hospital, Rector decided to work with horses through her own company, Adventures in Awareness, which she

39 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Arnold Birenbaum, Wounded Profession: American Medicine Enters the Age of Managed Care, (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2002), 1-15, eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed August 16, 2014); Mary R. Anderlik, The Ethics of Managed Care: A Pragmatic Approach, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001), 2-4; Arnold Birenbaum, Disability and Managed Care: Problems and Opportunities at the End of the Century, (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1999), v-xix, 18-20, 22-49, eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed August 16, 2014). 40 The 28 day treatment model became so much the standard of treatment a Hollywood film titled “28 Days” was produced in 2000 based on the typical court-ordered rehab process, starring Sandra Bullock. The film does include an equine therapy program in its storyline in which Bullock’s character experiences some of her greatest challenges and celebratory break-throughs. 28 Days, film (Columbia Pictures, Hollywood: Betty Thomas, 2000). 41 Birenbaum, Wounded Profession, 1-15; Anderlik, The Ethics of Managed Care a Pragmatic Approach, 2-4; Birenbaum, Disability and Managed Care, v-xix, 18-20, 22-49.

155 based in Tucson. Rector continued to work with many of her friends and colleagues from Sierra

Tucson Hospital, offering public workshops to introduce more people to a new way of being with horses. Rector identified these four-legged therapists as sentient beings and capable teachers and healers for the human heart and soul. Additionally, Rector began to work more closely with the NARHA organization, with the intention of advancing the idea that horses can provide therapeutic benefits for human mental health as well as the physical health benefits already recognized by NARHA. Rector also discovered that her long-time dressage coach had been acutely aware of the personal development potential of an emotional and spiritual partnership with horses, bringing to light a connection between EBHD ideas and classical dressage philosophies.42

By the early 1990s the therapeutic riding industry in the USA had already noticed the work Rector had initiated at Sierra Tucson Hospital and many interested individuals engaged in extensive discussion about its potential for therapeutic uses of horses in mental health therapy. Rector was a critical agent in this process, as she already had a long history with

NARHA as a member, practitioner, member of the board of directors, and through her instrumental work with TROT.43 When funding was cut for Sierra Tucson Hospital’s equine program, Rector continued her pioneering work in the field by directly participating in the creation of the first national committee and organization dedicated to the development of an

EBHD industry. In the early 1990s, NARHA’s medical committee began investigating the concept of equine-assisted mental health, in large part because of Rector’s passionate encouragement of the organization to do so. For several years, interested members of the

42 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006). 43 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55.

156 association continued to discuss and explore the potential of incorporating horses into therapeutic work for human mental health. By 1996, Rector and her colleagues had gathered enough momentum to establish the industry-launching EFMHA committee.44

Meanwhile, in the face of a severely declining market for residential addictions treatment, especially in the adolescent sector, Bill O’Donnell and the executive staff of Sierra

Tucson Companies Inc. decided to diversify and expand into the health and leisure industry in order to sustain the company. In 1995 the company name was changed from Sierra Tucson

Companies Inc. to NextHealth Inc., which remained the official parent company of Sierra

Tucson Hospital. That year, NextHealth Inc. built Miraval, a luxury health vacation resort offering personal development and stress management experiences. Miraval was constructed at essentially the same location as the Sierra Tucson Hospital in Arizona, but it was kept distinct from the treatment centre. The original ranch acreage O’Donnell had purchased for Sierra

Tucson Hospital was divided and used for both of the NextHealth operations. Miraval offered very similar programming as Sierra Tucson Hospital’s treatment therapies, but with a different marketing spin to attract a different client demographic.

NextHealth Inc.’s business strategy was that the Miraval resort would not be reliant on insurance plans or government funding and it would not provide specific health care services.

Rather, Miraval would rely on the disposable income and vacation spending of affluent, health- conscious individuals seeking unique, holistic, and sustainable-style leisure experiences. From the beginning, Miraval was successfully designed to attract wealthy individuals and corporate groups to restore balance to their lifestyle by participating in various Miraval “signature

44 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013.

157 experiences” such as scenic nature hikes, adventure ropes courses, meditation and yoga classes, luxury spa treatments, and EBHD.45

While Miraval was under construction, Wyatt Webb was invited to create its ‘signature equine experience’. The creators of Miraval knew Webb from his work at Sierra Tucson

Hospital, where he had been hired to help set up the adolescent care program. Quickly he advanced to a management position as program director of the adolescent facility, then executive director of the adult facility, and eventually executive director of the Sierra Tucson

Adolescent Care Facility during the time that Rector led the equine program there. That was how Webb discovered the therapeutic potential of horses. When Webb encountered equine therapy programs, he had formal training in altered states of consciousness, psychodrama, family systems therapies, cross-cultural communications, Gestalt therapy, Holotropic

Breathwork, and holographic memory resolution, and more than a decade of experience professionally assisting addicts from various backgrounds. He was intrigued by the shifts that he observed in youth such as David who worked with Rector and the horses, and so impressed that he began working with horses himself.46 In 1993, Webb, too, lost his job in the budget cuts and re-orientation at Sierra Tucson Hospital. In the months of unemployment which followed,

Webb contacted every therapy professional in the region to tell them about the new ‘horse therapy’ program he was intent on developing. He bought a horse and rented a little stable and within a few months he was in business helping people with his own horses. He worked with individuals and as a consultant for corporations doing team-building and process improvement

45 “Nexthealth Inc. Annual Report,” Digital Report, April 16, 1996, File No. 000-17969, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, accessed August 5, 2014, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/855272/0000950153-96-000214.txt; “Sierra Tucson's Bill O'Donnell: The Birth of the High End,” Treatment Magazine, 2008, accessed August 5, 2014, http://www.treatmentmagazine.com/special-reports/103-sierra-tucsons-bill-odonnell-sells-addiction- treatment-center-drug-rehab-to-crc-health-corp.html; “About Miraval Resort,” Mirival Spa, Miraval Resort & Health Spa, last modified 2015, accessed June 7, 2015, http://www.miravalresorts.com/. 46 Webb and Pearlman, It's Not About The Horse, 73-76; Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds, 60-61; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013.

158 work. Quickly, he identified a pattern in the problems of his clients; regardless of their background or what they were dealing with, all appeared to be struggling with communication difficulties rooted in fear and self-doubt. This became the focus of his work with horses, and the title of his first book.47

Not long after Webb had started his own EBHD practice, he accepted the offer to work full-time with the equine program at the Miraval luxury resort. As had Rector at Sierra Tucson

Hospital, Webb had the freedom and the budget to build his dream equine facility for the resort program. Webb began facilitating Miraval’s Signature Equine Experience in 1996 when the resort opened.48 Webb’s work at Miraval was particularly influential for the EBHD industry because he delivered the equine experience program to rich and influential clients. Each client exposed to Webb’s “Equine Experience” at Miraval strengthened the market value and public interest in the emerging industry. Equine-facilitated therapy and equine-facilitated learning gained a greater level of awareness and legitimacy among Fortune 500 companies whose owners and executive and management staff visited Miraval and participated in the Equine

Experience for personal or professional development retreats. Oprah Winfrey was particularly helpful in raising awareness of, and interest in, the emerging EBHD industry when she shared her personal experience of Webb’s program and a rave review on her television talk show.49

NextHealth’s corporate expansion into health & leisure attracted new practitioners as well as new clients for the young EBHD industry. As popular interest in the healing potential of

47 Webb and Pearlman, It's Not About The Horse, 93-99. 48 Webb and Pearlman, It's Not About The Horse, 99-100. 49 “Nexthealth Inc. Annual Report,” Digital Report, April 16, 1996, File No. 000-17969, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, accessed August 5, 2014, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/855272/0000950153-96-000214.txt; The Oprah Show, Girl's Getaway, video, n.d., accessed October 17, 2014, http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Horse-Sense-Girls- Getaway-Video; The Oprah Show, Warrior Women, video, n.d., accessed October 17, 2014, http://www.oprah.com/health/Warrior-Women/2; Kitty Bean Yancey, “At Miraval Resort, Guests Tackle Fears with Cowboy Therapy,” USA Today, 2013, accessed June 20, 2014, http://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/destinations/2013/02/21/stars-gravitate-to-miraval-spa-near- tucson/1937991/.

159 horses grew in the 1990s, so did entrepreneurial horse enthusiasts’ curiosity about the possible scope of practice and career potential. Not everyone who was interested in partnering with horses to advance human development was a licenced or certified mental health professional, nor were they all interested in working in an addictions treatment context. The launch and success of the Miraval Hotel & Spa Signature Equine Experience demonstrated an alternative business model and market sector for prospective EBHD entrepreneurs: equine-facilitated learning for leisure, general wellness, professional coaching, and corporate training. When

Miraval opened and offered its signature Equine Experience, the EBHD industry expanded from

Rector and Kersten’s style of practice specifically as treatment-based therapy for addictions and mental health conditions or behaviour problems to include the broader market of general health and wellness, personal growth, and professional development, which Strozzi had pioneered on a smaller scale in the 1980s at her Sky Horse Ranch in California. So began the more formal programming on the EFEL side of the industry. With the decline of the addictions treatment industry and limited funding for health-care treatment under managed care insurance policies, this industry expansion was critical for the emerging EBHD industry.50

While Webb and the NextHealth managers expanded the scope of practice and benefits from the EBHD way of working with horses to include personal and professional development, Rector and her therapeutic riding associates continued to expand awareness and professional discussion of the potential for equine therapy in general. In 1991 NARHA member

Isabelle (Boo) McDaniel hosted the first conference on equine therapy associated with mental health. McDaniel, a lifelong horsewoman, began using horses in camp and therapy programs at her farm in Temple, New Hampshire in 1975. After a decade of private work McDaniel expanded her therapeutic riding program by developing her own equine work and professional

50 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013.

160 training. By 1988 she piloted special equine-therapy programs with the Brookside Psychiatric

Hospital, Lucas Community and Crotched Mountain Rehabilitation Center.51 McDaniel’s equine- based therapy conference, Horses and Healing, is now held annually. Both McDaniel and

Rector were central to the professional discussions to formalize an equine-assisted mental health association in the early 1990s. It was at the 1995 Horses and Healing conference that the first formal meeting was held to discuss the idea of organizing an official committee dedicated to equine therapy for mental health. In November 1996, Rector hosted one of her signature equine programs in conjunction with NARHA’s annual conference. The program was very well received and many in attendance were mental health workers, medical professionals, and therapeutic riding professionals.52 After this conference, NARHA officially launched the

Equine Facilitated Mental Health Association (EFMHA) to oversee and guide the development of the emerging field of therapeutic work. Rector and McDaniel were chosen to be the first co- presidents of the EFMHA, to serve for two years.53

The inauguration of the EFMHA represents the official birth of the EBHD industry. In

2006, at the ten year anniversary of the EFMHA, both Rector and McDaniel were recognized with the first Founders Awards to be given in the industry. Together, they had identified the start-up tasks of the association, including establishing standards of practice for the field, a code of ethics, and a formal definition of practice for Equine-Facilitated Mental Health, as well

51 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 47-48; “History — Touchstone Farm,” Touchstone-farm.org, last modified 2015, accessed July 3, 2015, http://www.touchstone-farm.org/horse-power-therapeutic- horsemanship/history; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013. 52 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 46-58; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006). 53 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 46-47; Those present at the meeting which gave birth to the EFMHA were Barbara Rector, Boo McDaniel, Beverly Boehm, Annie Shields, Maureen Abbate, Barbara Abrams, Charlie Koch, Maureen Frederickson, Jessie Frazier, Beverly Halpin, Ruth Rahimi, Marge Kittredge, Tate Pearson, Larna Whitson, Michael Kauffman, Betz Haartz, Rebecca Basile, Regine Jackson, Donna Grossman, Heath Nelkin, and Norma Lorimer.

161 as enumerating routine precautions and potential contraindications for practitioners to observe, such as emotional triggers or dissociation.54

These early industry details were developed by the collective efforts of the EFMHA’s volunteer board of directors with the support of the organization’s member base. Within the first six months, the EFMHA had more than 225 members.55 EFMHA brought together a large number of the early EBHD industry pioneers with the collective intention of growing and professionalizing their innovative therapeutic work with horses. However, not everyone who was influential or even seriously interested in the field of EBHD was involved with, or supported, the EFMHA. Many preferred to remain independent of the NARHA organization and free to set their own standards of practice, codes of ethics, definitions, and safety regulations, and many of them fared very well as entrepreneurs and became quite influential as the EBHD industry continued to develop and expand.56

Greg Kersten was one of those who mostly worked outside of NARHA, but his contribution to the emerging EBHD industry in the 1990s was as significant as Rector’s. After his serendipitous discovery of the therapeutic and educational value of horses for youth in prison in Washington D.C., and then his failure to duplicate those results in Florida, Kersten travelled west to start something new. His specialty at the time was working with at-risk, challenging, and violent youth. He was determined to follow his passion and continue to

54 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 46-47. 55 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 46-47. 56 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 27-70; Interviews – Wendy Golding, telephone interview, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, telephone interview, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Barry Ingram, telephone interview, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, telephone interview, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, telephone interview, November 30, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013.

162 develop the therapeutic potential of working with horses. Over the course of a decade, Kersten generated transformational progress in the industry and sizeably expanded his personal range of expertise and demographic focus for this new dynamic of work with horses.57

In 1991 Kersten created a pioneering therapeutic equine program at Aspen Ranch, a boarding school for at-risk youth in Loa, Utah, where he was hired as an addictions counsellor.

Aspen Ranch was a subsidiary of Aspen Education Group which was, at that time, recognized as the industry leader in behaviour remediation and addiction treatment boarding schools for troubled teens. The residential treatment centre at Aspen Ranch was similar to Sierra Tucson

Hospital in using several different activities as central elements in its treatment model, many of which were outdoor and/or adventure-style therapies. Kersten was responsible for developing and implementing the equine therapy program for the youth attending Aspen Ranch for residential treatment and schooling.58

Most of the youth at Aspen Ranch were children of very wealthy families, and many had parents with celebrity status or who owned Fortune 500 companies. As the parents witnessed the impact of Kersten’s equine program at Aspen Ranch on their children, they began asking for further details and requesting opportunities to experience the equine program themselves. Kersten said he received multiple requests to start businesses with some of these celebrity parents, but he did not like the requests because of the “crazy” environment

57 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 49-51. 58 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 48; “In Another Mega Deal, CRC Acquires Aspen Education,” Treatment Magazine, 2006, accessed August 5, 2014, http://www.treatmentmagazine.com/feature/133-in-another-mega- deal-crc-acquires-aspen-education.html; Jack Kelly, 'Ranch Provides Saddle Therapy', Toledo Blade, 1999, accessed June 25, 2014, http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19990901&id=F2BIAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9QMEAAAAIBA J&pg=2172,4211; Jack Kelly, “Troubled Teens Work, Study, Ride Hard to Become Complete Wranglers,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 1999, accessed June 25, 2014, http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19990908&id=A9xaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GXADAAAAIBA J&pg=6706,5194754.

163 and crowd associated with that celebrity status. Kersten was intrigued, however, by their interest and by the idea of expanding the equine program to suit adult and corporate client needs and interests, but he was not comfortable making the switch, as he focused in the early

1990s on the youth programs.59

After a few years at Aspen Ranch, Kersten moved to Colorado where he continued to work in the youth ranch industry for troubled teens. There he further developed his skills and his understanding of how to facilitate the most effective, educational, and therapeutic activities with horses. In the mid-1990s Kersten’s work with horses in youth treatment and corrections caught the attention of prominent members of NARHA who were seriously discussing the potential benefits of horses for mental health therapy.60 Kersten recalled being part of the early organization of some of the Equine-Facilitated Mental Health work, but he did not agree with many of the NARHA members’ perspectives on safety parameters, methods, or philosophies, and ultimately parted ways with the NARHA in the early years of the EBHD industry development.61

According to Kersten, NARHA wanted to incorporate many of their therapeutic riding philosophies into the new practices, but he did not agree that these were appropriate or would work for mental health treatment. Most specifically, Kersten did not agree with the term

“equine-facilitated” that Rector and NARHA chose to describe the experience. Rather, Kersten preferred the phrase “equine-assisted psychotherapy” (EAP), a term which he claimed to have coined and which he believed to be a more accurate title and description of what occurs in using horses in mental health treatments. Kersten argued that in this innovative industry, humans are still the primary facilitators and horses are assistants in the process. Rector and her

59 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013. 60 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 48. 61 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013.

164 colleagues at NARHA strongly disagree. The larger EBHD industry today remains divided on the role or status of the horse in the industry practice.62

Rather than collaborating with the NARHA community in the mid-1990s, Kersten started his own company, Equine Services LLC, serving youth, adults, and corporate clients in the mid- and Southwestern USA. He was in a strong position to do so, having earned a good reputation through positive news stories about his work with horses, and through the client network he had established while creating equine programs for his corporate employers, serving wealthy and celebrity families. Kersten offered a few public demonstrations of his work in Utah, California, and Colorado and received more positive media coverage. Following market demand, much of Kersten’s work with horses increasingly focused on teaching teamwork and leadership skills to the executive staff of big companies. Additionally, Kersten offered roughly a dozen training seminars between 1996 and 1999 to teach other people how to facilitate EAP using his methods and practices.63

In 1999 Kersten partnered with Lynn Thomas to form a training organization with the intention of perfecting and licensing their EAP method on a global scale. Thomas was a licensed social work practitioner with diverse work experience in youth corrections, private practice, and mental health agencies, and had worked with Kersten during his time at Aspen Ranch, where she had been Executive Director; she was also involved in the wilderness therapy program at Aspen Achievement Academy, another subsidiary in the Aspen Education Group company.64 Building on the style and methods of the equine program started at Aspen Ranch in

62 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 45-58; Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds, 115-120, 165-168; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 63 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013. 64 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 49-50; 'Executive Officers', EAGALA Primary site | Eagala.org, last modified 2015, accessed August 7, 2014, http://www.eagala.org/ExecutiveOfficers.

165 the early 1990s, Kersten and Thomas incorporated and co-founded the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA) in 1999. EAGALA was dedicated to education, training, and support for the practice of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy, and Equine Assisted Education and

Learning.65

EAGALA became the second official organization in the EBHD industry, and the first to achieve great financial success and international recognition. Such success can bring its own challenges, though, and in the next decade, internal difficulties involved EAGALA in the first messy lawsuit in the industry. The incorporation of EAGALA as a separate organization from the

EFMHA created two different advocates for the new EBHD industry, and their differing language, philosophies, methods, and standards of practice continue to cause confusion among clients and practitioners. Both EAGALA and EFMHA are member-based organizations, although initially EAGALA was governed primarily by its two founders, not by a large democratic board of directors as was EFMHA.66 However, there were important philosophical differences as well. EAGALA practices are defined as equine ‘assisted,’ based on a philosophy of employing horses as limited tools rather than partners in education and therapy processes.

This perspective, which gained rapid and widespread popular acceptance, is less radical than the EFMHA language and philosophy of equine ‘facilitated’ activities. Those who supported

EFMHA perceived the horses involved as active agents in the process and as sentient beings.67

The decade of the 1990s thus witnessed the emergence of the EBHD industry, and the formalization of the EFMHA and the EAGALA associations provided the foundation for the new

65 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 49-50; “The Community Network for People Interested in Equine Assisted Psychotherapy and Learning,” EAGALA Primary site | Eagala.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015, http://www.eagala.org. 66 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 49-50. 67 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; “EAGALA Equine Assisted Psychotherapy Information - Equine Therapy | EAGALA Primary Site,” EAGALA Primary site | Eagala.org, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.eagala.org/info.

166 industry to grow. Both the EAGALA and the EFMHA contributed significantly to the changing paradigm in the horse-human relationship. These organizations provided the EBHD industry with the first legal entities established with the intent of raising awareness and public interest in a new kind of relationship with, and understanding of, horses. The existence of these organizations transformed the EBHD industry from the private interest of individuals involved in a handful of professional therapy programs in the addictions and troubled teen industries to national associations endeavouring to expand business and membership on a global scale.

The EBHD industry, it should be noted, emerged from the initiatives of pioneering individuals beyond Barbara Rector, Greg Kersten, and their associates. In the same period,

Ariana Strozzi was promoting the use of horses as educators. Strozzi’s expertise was with horses, not human psychology, and she helped open the industry to other equine enthusiasts without degrees or certificates in psychology or other mental health fields who were interested in the emerging EFMWHE industry and in a new horse-human relationship paradigm. Strozzi coined the phrase ‘equine-guided education’. Her work in the personal and professional development industry demonstrated that the EBHD industry had a larger possible scope of practice than terms like equine-facilitated mental health, therapy, or psychotherapy suggested, and throughout the 1990s, she led the EBHD industry in integrating experiential learning, education, and leadership training as well as mental health therapy.68

Strozzi’s method “blends equine psychology, biology, somatics, animal behavior and leadership savvy into an experiential format that trains emotional intelligence, self- responsibility, non-verbal communication, authenticity, and intuition.”69 In 1998 Strozzi officially began training other equine enthusiasts and leadership professionals in her methods

68 “Skyhorse Ranch, Ariana Strozzi – Master Somatic Coach,” SkyHorseRanch.com, last modified 2015, accessed August 12, 2014, http://www.skyhorseranch.com/ about-2/skyhorse-ranch-staff/. 69 “Skyhorse Ranch, Ariana Strozzi – Master Somatic Coach,” SkyHorseRanch.com, last modified 2015, accessed August 12, 2014, http://www.skyhorseranch.com/ about-2/skyhorse-ranch-staff/.

167 of incorporating horses into experiential learning for human growth and development. Strozzi initiated industry language which linked horses not only with therapy and treatment, but with more general human growth and development.70

In the late 1990s the McCormicks also moved to publicize what they had learned about equine-facilitated therapy from their years of research, travel, and professional experiments in

Europe. Self-made experts, the McCormick family opened their own farm and therapy practice called Three Eagles Equine Experience in Calistoga, California. The family compiled the stories of their most profound experiences and insights and Adele and her daughter Marlena Deborah co-authored Horse Sense and the Human Heart: What Horses Can Teach Us about Trust,

Bonding, Creativity and Spirituality. The book, published in 1997, argued that horses can teach people how to be better human beings. This was the perspective of EFMHA members as well, but the McCormicks were able to document how the process could work, from the perspective of mental health professionals, drawing on years of examples and evidence of the impact of horses in professional therapy sessions with troubled youth.71 Adele and Marlena Deborah had over thirty years of professional experience as psychotherapists and two doctorate degrees in psychology when they co-authored Horse Sense and the Human Heart. Their professional perspective and candid accounts of numerous therapy sessions facilitated in partnership with horses provided unique insight into EBHD.72

The McCormicks’ first book was also the premier North American publication for the

EBHD industry, offering an engagingly-written account of the therapeutic potential of horses

70 “Skyhorse Ranch, Ariana Strozzi – Master Somatic Coach,” SkyHorseRanch.com, last modified 2015, accessed August 12, 2014, http://www.skyhorseranch.com/ about-2/skyhorse-ranch-staff/. 71 McCormick and McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart, xiii-xxiii, xxv-xxxiii; McCormick, McCormick, and McCormick, Horses and the Mystical Path, 1-16, 145-152, 189; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55. 72 McCormick and McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart, 34-45, 49-72, 74-78, 82-93, 121-140, 165-180; McCormick, McCormick, and McCormick, Horses and the Mystical Path, 35-50, 65-73, 110-121, 155-159; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55.

168 that generated popular interest and increased the professional credibility of those engaged in the industry. Horse Sense and the Human Heart did not win any book awards or make it to the

New York Times Bestsellers list, but it inspired a great number of individuals who were working or experimenting with similar approaches and practices by providing them with a stronger sense of legitimacy.73 Finally, individual practitioners in the growing EBHD industry could direct prospective clients to a published text by authors with impressive academic credentials and experience, for detailed description of the method and benefits of their innovative therapeutic practice. The book provided accounts of intense moments in therapy sessions that served to counter skeptics’ doubts about the therapeutic value of what seemed to be a New-Age concept of interacting with horses, offering the first evidence of professionally observed results recorded from multiple psychiatric case studies. Because the McCormicks developed their methods and published their book entirely independently from either the EFMHA or the

EAGALA, the publication of their book demonstrated that the EBHD industry was growing faster than any one group of people could control or lead.74

By the early 1990s, Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling had also become a self-made expert on the subject of the horse and its potential for human development. Upon completing his training experiences in the Spanish Pyrenees with wild horses, Hempfling began his professional career as a trainer in the early 1990s in Denmark, where he earned a reputation for his impressive work in training and healing emotionally abused horses. The gentleness and willing partnership that is observable in the photos and videos Hempfling distributed of his work with horses earned him rapid and intense popularity among horse enthusiasts across

Europe, North America, and Australia, and he also began teaching other people his methods of

73 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55. 74 McCormick and McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart, xiii-xxiii, xxv-xxxiii, 34-45, 49-72, 74-78, 82-93, 121-140, 165-180.

169 horsemanship and horse training, a shift that linked Hempfling more directly with the EBHD industry.75

In 1993, Hempling publicized his work in Dancing with Horses: Communication and

Body Language, a book about his philosophies and experiences with horses, rich with colour photographs. Largely autobiographical, describing Hempfling’s personal path to horses, his style of horsemanship, and the profound personal growth and development he experienced from his relationship with horses, Dancing with Horses quickly became an international bestseller. Published before either of the original two EBHD industry organizations were incorporated or the McCormicks published their first book, Hempfling’s work demonstrated the potential for human development that can arise from interaction with horses, even without the guidance of a trained mental health professional. In Dancing with Horses,

Hempfling showed that a horse expert could help to expand human potential without formal training in psychology or human health.76 Publication of his first book made Hempfling an important EBHD industry pioneer, expanding the reach of the evolving horse-human relationship paradigm beyond the borders of North America. 77

Hempfling’s perspective was not so much that horses teach personal development, but rather that horses require the constant personal development of anyone who wishes to engage meaningfully with them. His methods and philosophies of horsemanship reject the use of pain or forceful control and rely instead on charismatic leadership, precision of communication, and empowered partnership. Hempfling criticized centuries of common

75 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 11-18, 20-45; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Akedah International | Hempfling.com, accessed October 11, 2014, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand-hempfling/; Hallberg, Way of the Horse, 89-90. 76 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 20-45; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Akedah International | Hempfling.com, accessed October 11, 2014, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand-hempfling/. 77 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 11-18, 20-45; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Akedah International | Hempfling.com, accessed October 11, 2014, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand-hempfling/; Hallberg, Way of the Horse, 89-90.

170 horsemanship for trying to train horses into submission through methods of fear, pain, and brute force, while offering the practice of the Christian knight orders as a model. Hempfling said that the style of horsemanship which he mastered and translated for modern purposes came directly from the age of chivalry, and specifically from the caballeros or knights who were organized in Christian monastic orders, the Knights Templar. Hempfling claimed that these knights studied horses and trained themselves to engage with their mounts in a manner which matched that of the naturally chosen leaders in wild horse herds.78

Hempfling argued that, whereas common cavalrymen were beating and castrating their horses in an effort to increase their control over them, the Christian knight orders were able to enhance their horses’ bravery and dedicated loyalty on their behalf by learning to speak the equine language of leadership. When common cavalrymen rode into battle they had to fight their mounts’ natural instincts to flee, and risked being deserted and vulnerable on the battlefield if ever dismounted. Knights of the Christian orders, on the other hand, were able to ride into battle without reins, carrying a sword in one hand and shield in the other, trusting their horses to willingly cooperate with the signals given them through subtle body language.

This is the style of horsemanship that Hempling said that he modelled and wrote about in

Dancing with Horses.79

Hempfling’s horsemanship is firmly grounded in the philosophy that master horsemen dedicate their lives to their horses and recognize that the art of successful horsemanship depends on a life-long pursuit of intentional self-development. The techniques of the Christian knight orders, which Hempfling claimed to use and teach, required precision of

78 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 14, 30; Hempfling and McCormack, What Horses Reveal, 30-31; Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, It is Not I Who Seek the Horse, the Horse Seeks Me: My Path to an Understanding of Equine Body Language, (Richmond, UK: Cadmos Books, 2010), 31-33. 79 It is also the horsemanship of Moorsh influence from which Natural Horsemanship arose. Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 14-42; Hempfling and McCormack, What Horses Reveal, 30-31, 48-49; Hempfling, It is Not I Who Seek the Horse, the Horse Seeks Me, 31-33.

171 communication, confidence and clarity of intention, honesty and authenticity, acute body awareness, a peaceful nature, trust, and charismatic leadership.

The knights learned and adopted the behavior of the highest ranking animals and acquired such a high-ranking position that they could keep it without the use of any physical methods and, at the same time, could also win the complete trust of their horses. They were never rough with their horses in any way. On the contrary, all of their movements were slow, fine, always well meaning, almost dancelike. Their voices were quiet, soft and inspired only trust. Yet, they dominated their horses so completely that the horses responded obediently to the subtlest finest aids imaginable.80 Hempfling claimed that these techniques were long-guarded secrets, carefully preserved and shared only selectively and quietly through the oral tradition. Further, Hempfling attributed his skill with horses to his studying with the descendants of this lineage of master horsemanship who share their secrets only with those who learn from them in person.81 Hempfling’s claims certainly painted a romantic image of the elite training opportunities he hoped to market, but the philosophies and methods he advocated were similar to those used and taught by many of the pioneers and proponents of the Natural Horsemanship industry.82

In essence, Hempfling taught his students how to master themselves. For Hempfling, training horses and facilitating human development or therapy are inextricably linked processes. In order to engage a horse and convince it to partner with you, Hempfling said, a person must be a highly sensitive, self-aware, self-confident, compassionate leader, and charismatic communicator. In short, according to the Hempfling style of horsemanship, in

80 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 31. 81 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 30-35. 82 Tom Dorrance and Milly Hunt Porter, True Unity: Willing Communication between Horse and Human, (Tuscarora, Nevada: Give-It-A-Go Enterprises, 1987), 9-11; Bill Dorrance and Leslie Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel, (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press, 2001), 1-14, 20-24, 28-30, 35, 48, 59, 67, 79, 81, 104, 112, 117, 121, 126, 129, 318-321, 339; Ray Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses: An In- Depth Study of Horse/Man Relationship, (Fresno, California: Pioneer Publishing Co., 1978), 1-2, 43; Buck Brannaman and William Reynolds, The Faraway Horses (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press, 2003), 252; Mark Rashid, Whole Heart, Whole Horse: Building Trust between Horse and Rider (New York: Skyhorse Pub., 2009), 123-124, 136-138, 165-176, 204-205; Robert M. Miller and Richard A. Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship: And What it Means to Mankind, (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyon's Press, 2005), 28, 36, 78- 80, 97, 98-102, 314.

172 order to work with horses, people must first complete some fundamental psychological work and development on themselves. Hempfling viewed horses as confident, intelligent observers, and powerfully sensitive creatures, who would give their respect and confidence to humans as partners or leaders only if the human developed the necessary skills and sensitivity to match the horse. According to Hempfling, the horse will either reject or mirror the trainer. If the horse feels confused, misunderstood, or disrespected, he will refuse to cooperate, but if the horse feels comfortable, understood, and respected, he will mirror the confidence and cooperation of the trainer. To empower the full potential of the horse, human trainers or riders must first become empowered themselves. Thus, in order to become a master of horsemanship, one must first perfect the art of self-mastery.83

Hempfling’s independent success demonstrated the growing international interest in a new relationship paradigm with horses beyond strictly addictions treatment and mental health initiatives. Even after the incorporation of the EFMHA and the EAGALA, Hempfling did not affiliate his practice or methods with any governing association in the industry but continued to develop and market his own methods through his personal business, Akedah International.

Hempfling’s innovative work with horses expanded market interest in discovering what horses could teach people about life, about relationships with others, and about themselves.

Conclusion In the 1990s, a handful of other pioneers in the EBHD industry were also experimenting with a new way of relating to horses which benefitted their personal and professional lives.

Ann Alden and Kathleen Ingram worked with Rector in the equine program at Sierra Tucson

Hospital and continued in the EBHD industry after the budget cuts. Franklin Levinson and

Carolyn Resnick were conducting innovative workshops in horse training and personal

83 Hempfling, Dancing with Horses, 20-45; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Akedah International | Hempfling.com, accessed October 11, 2014, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand-hempfling/.

173 development in the 1990s. Linda Kohanov was discovering various insights about emotional intelligence and compassionate leadership from her horses and beginning to collaborate with

Rector and Ingram and other pioneering horsemen and women in Arizona. Each of their contributions, which became much more significant in the following decade, are analyzed in the following chapter.

By the end of the twentieth century, the EBHD industry had emerged as distinct from both Natural Horsemanship and Animal Assisted Therapy, and more particularly therapeutic riding. The new industry had established its first formal national and international governing associations, and the books published by the McCormicks and Hempfling had brought it popular attention and some professional legitimacy. The concept of a new paradigm for human-horse relations had developed from a backyard hobby of a few liberal-minded individuals into a field of specialized practice serving multiple market sectors on an international scale. When leading organizations in the addictions treatment and troubled teen industries added equine-facilitated therapy programs to their rehabilitation centres, they publicized and validated the concept that working with horses could provide mental health benefits to humans. Further, entrepreneurial ventures such as Kersten’s corporate seminars,

Strozzi’s professional coaching, and Miraval Resort’s signature “Equine Experience” program all demonstrated the life skills and leadership lessons that people could gain from engaging with horses. Although EBHD was not fully organized or well established, it had formalized into a fledgling industry which faced the challenge of gaining further legitimacy as a professional industry and sorting out the finer details of industry operation and governance.

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Chapter Five: The Popularization of an Industry

Introduction In the new millennium, the Equine-Based Human Development (EBHD) industry and its pioneers achieved popular awareness and acceptance and, to a lesser extent, professional legitimacy, but the innovative field remained on the margins of mainstream practice after more than a quarter century of development due largely to the relative paucity of scientific research on the subject. The EBHD industry’s struggle to gain mainstream acceptance illustrates the magnitude of the horse-human relationship paradigm shift embedded in EBHD practices. Industry marketing and communications strategies along with organizational governance were the source of some of the successes of the industry as well as some of the struggles to establish the scientific basis of EBHD and the professionalism of its practitioners.

However, more important than the actions of the individuals or organizations involved were the underlying philosophies and social paradigms they represented. Central to EBHD practice is the idea that humans could participate in mutually respectful relationships with non-human animals, or at least horses, and that doing so could expand human potential for the better.

Until that idea becomes more socially accepted as reasonable opinion and absorbed into what people regard as common sense, the EBHD industry will remain on the fringes of health and wellness practice. Such a change requires more people to accept the idea that non-human animals have more consciousness and intelligence than we often ascribe to them. For people grounded in the common sense of Western society, these are not small or simple ideas to accept, nor are they concepts that contemporary Western science can readily validate.

Herein lies the complexity and the significance of the emergence of the EBHD industry – its early success, its continued growth, and its very existence demonstrate a significant paradigm

175 shift unfolding in popular social perception of human-horse relations without substantial scientific proof of the merit of the new paradigm. Organic social acceptance of the new industry and the human-animal relationship paradigm it posits has outpaced scientific inquiry into the methods and tangible results of EBHD. Professional scepticism about the unproven new industry may be delaying professional legitimization and subsequent medical recommendations, prescriptions, and insurance benefit coverage, yet positive media coverage, popular interest, and public demand for EBHD services are sustaining its growth and expanding the industry on an international scale. Demand for scientific legitimization of EBHD is the result of both external push and internal pull factors. Skeptics, scientific method traditionalists, and frugal health insurance companies outside the EBHD industry predictably seek scientific validation to compare and regulate the new industry as with existing professional health practices. Many mental health professionals and facilitators within the EBHD industry also recognize the urgent need for more clinical studies and published results of industry practices because they too support the scientific method, and understand that such results would expedite mainstream acceptance and funding opportunities. People who are intuitively interested in a paradigm shift toward equality in human-animal relationships also appear to accept that different paradigms warrant different standards and metrics of assessment.

Although the EBHD industry was unable to deliver quantifiable, replicable demonstrations of its efficacy, and so did not achieve complete mainstream social integration, the steady development of the radical equine industry in the twenty-first century indicated a cultural trend toward a significant paradigm shift regarding human-animal relations in general.

The 2000s The first decade of the new millennium saw increasing momentum for the EBHD industry. Barbara Rector and her associates with the Equine Facilitated Mental Health

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Association (EFMHA) and the North American Riding for the Handicapped Association (NARHA) parent organization, more deeply integrated their model of EBHD with therapeutic riding and hippotherapy practices. The Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association (EAGALA), founded by Greg Kerston and Lynn Thomas, grew rapidly to a multi-million dollar, international organization but conflict between the founders led Kersten to launch a new private company,

O.K. Corral Series. Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling and the McCormicks continued to work independently and to release more popular publications. Ariana Strozzi’s model of EBHD and leadership was recreated by a handful of other horsemen and women. The Horses and Humans

Research Foundation was established to foster more scientific inquiry into the therapeutic benefits of various activities with horses. The most significant force supporting expansion of

EBHD in the early 2000s , however, was the new generation of leaders and practitioners who entered the field, publishing a small stack of popular books, incorporating dozens of businesses, founding a handful of national and international governing organizations, and collectively challenging mainstream social constructs of human-horse and human-animal relationship paradigms.

Spreading the Word, Expanding the Client Base: People & Publications The Pioneers The economic downturn of the early 1990s which had reduced access to public funding for innovative horse therapy programs forced some of the leaders of the emerging EBHD industry to find alternative ways to support themselves. Difficult as this was for many of them personally, the search for new contexts in which to practice and promote EBHD ultimately benefitted the industry as whole, bringing it to the attention of a broader public and attracting new practitioners. When Barbara Rector was forced to leave Sierra Tucson Hospital in 1993, she continued her therapeutic work with horses through her own company, Adventures in

Awareness. Based primarily in Tucson, Arizona, Rector conducted EBHD work by facilitating

177 public workshops and private therapy sessions for interested individuals, curious health and education professionals, and horse enthusiasts across the United States. By the middle of the first decade of the new millennium, the growing interest in the EBHD industry generated opportunities for her to promote EBHD internationally as well, primarily through the early industry organizations, EFMHA and NARHA.1

Both the EFMHA and NARHA organizations experienced substantial growth during the first decade of the 2000s. Hippotherapy and therapeutic riding programs remained NARHA’s primary focus, but it recognized the growing trend and popular interest in the EFMHA’s niche activities. By the middle of the decade, with a growing international membership, the EFMHA held its annual conference in Germany. Rector was among the senior speakers at this conference, and she inspired one audience member so greatly that he filmed and produced a short interview-documentary. It shares both Rector’s experiences and perspectives about the early years of the EBHD industry as well as her hopes for the future.2 In 2005 Rector self- published her first book, Adventures In Awareness: Learning with the Help of Horses. In 136 pages, Rector described each member of her teaching and therapy team, both human and horse, and set out some founding principles and step-by-step guides to many of her personal

EBHD methods and workshops. The book offered readers insight into the perspective and philosophies of the “grandmother” of the EBHD industry -- Rector herself and her students prefer the term “grandmother” of EBHD to describe her rather than “founding mother” -- and was intended to be read and used as a handbook by facilitators in the industry.3

1 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006). 2 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke, by telephone, November 19, 2013. 3 Barbara Rector, Adventures in Awareness: Learning with the Help of Horses, (California: Authorhouse, 2005), 7-15, 25-29, 34-37, 48-62.

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Greg Kerston, too, created a new base for his work using horses for leadership training when he was forced out of EAGALA, which he had founded with Lynn Thomas in 1999. A non- profit, membership-based organization, EAGALA provided training and certification programs for both Equine Assisted Psychotherapy (EAP) and Equine Assisted Learning (EAL). It also served as an industry information and resource hub.4 Within three years, EAGALA grew into a million-dollar company. Its business strategy of serving individuals seeking to make a career in the EBHD industry proved to be well timed for the growing market interest. EAGALA offered standardized training courses in a two-part series of three-day sessions that led to formal

“certification” as a facilitator, and charged licensing fees for use of its name brand. After six days of training, conveniently designed to fit into two long weekends, individuals could use the

EAGALA brand and market themselves as facilitators of EAP.5

The brevity of EAGALA’s training process contributed to EAGALA’s business success, but is criticized as inadequate and irresponsible by other EBHD industry pioneers and practitioners who believe the industry theory and methods require much more training time and supervised practice to prepare a facilitator for certification.6 The concerns are twofold: first that EAGALA’s training programs do not properly prepare new industry facilitators for safe practice, diluting the industry quality and reputation, and second, that such condensed and limited training programs undermine efforts of the entire industry to establish its legitimacy as a professional practice for improved human health, wellness, and education. Many non-EAGALA practitioners

4 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; “EAGALA Equine Assisted Psychotherapy Information - Equine Therapy | EAGALA Primary Site,” Eagala.org, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.eagala.org/info. 5 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; “EAGALA Equine Assisted Psychotherapy Information - Equine Therapy | EAGALA Primary Site,” Eagala.org, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.eagala.org/info. 6 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013.

179 of EBHD contend that extensive facilitator training and regulated certification akin to college and trade school programs are necessary in order for their work to be regarded as a viable therapy by licensed health professionals.7

Nonetheless, the founders of EAGALA and their thousands of licenced facilitators accepted six days of training as sufficient, and the global market appears to support their decision.

EAGALA’s rapid growth at the turn of the century, facilitated by its easily accessible training program, spoke to the growing momentum of popular awareness, interest, and entrepreneurial spirit surrounding the larger EBHD industry, as well as a growing divide in perspective among industry practitioners. The number of EAGALA-certified practitioners continues to increase each season, and with it, so do the number of EBHD businesses. In 2015 there were more than 4,500 recognized EAGALA-members, operating more than 600 programs in 50 countries.8

While EAGALA’s business was booming, ownership and professional disputes between

Kersten and Thomas escalated into a multi-year lawsuit initiated by Kersten. In November

2005, the EAGALA board of directors terminated Kersten’s position with the organization of which he had been a co-founder. Kersten contested the board’s decision at the Utah

Department of Workforce Services, which ruled in January 2006 that the termination of his position was without just cause. This decision was confirmed on appeal in March 2006 and on a further appeal to the Utah Court of Appeals in February 2007. Unwilling to let his original ideas,

7 Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013. 8 Kersten filed his lawsuit in the Fourth Judicial District Court of Utah, case no. 070401941. Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; “EAGALA Certification | EAGALA Primary Site,” Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, last modified 2015, accessed June 21, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/Certification_Program; “Colleges & Universities,” Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, last modified 2015, accessed June 9, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/uni; “Home,” Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, last modified 2015, accessed June 9, 2015, http://www.eagala.org.

180 therapeutic activities, and curriculum designs be used for profit by an organization that had fired him, Kersten filed a lawsuit in June 2007 against EAGALA, Thomas, and eight other individuals associated with the EAGALA Board of Directors. Kersten fought to be recognized as the original creator and owner of the intellectual property of the EAP training techniques, exercises and curriculum that were used to build the EAGALA program and brand, and that

EAGALA continued to use without his authorization. In the lawsuit, Kersten sought relief for his wrongful termination, as well as damages for defamation, breach of intellectual property license, conversion of intellectual property, and conversion of personal property.9

After years of litigation, the Kersten et al v. EAGALA et al lawsuit obtained a court date in April, 2013. A four-day trial was scheduled to assess claims of wrongful termination and conversion of personal property at the Utah County Fourth District Court in Provo, Utah.

Kersten's intellectual property claims were removed to federal court. Kersten’s new company,

O.K. Corral Series issued public notices and invitations for anyone to attend the court hearing.10

However, no formal statements by either Kersten or EAGALA appeared during or following the trial date. Moreover, no news stories nor trace of any digital public posts by interested parties within the larger industry who previously expressed support for either side appear in digital archives. Even the publicly searchable Utah Court records hold no information about the trial.11

Kersten himself did not discuss the trial when interviewed about the industry history. Thus, it

9 “Kersten Files Suit against EAGALA,” Strugglingteens.com, last modified 2015, accessed January 19, 2015, http://www.strugglingteens.com/artman/publish/Kersten_EAGALA- PR_071022.shtml#sthash.JlglJAXs.dpuf; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 49-52. 10 Greg Kersten, “Trial Date Set for Greg Kersten Et Al V. EAGALA Et Al!” Blog, O.K. Corral Series Blog, 2013, accessed July 4, 2015, http://okcorralseries.com/blog; Greg Kersten, “Trial Date Set for Greg Kersten V. EAGALA,” Blog, O.K. Corral Series Facebook Page, 2013, accessed July 4, 2015, https://www.facebook.com/okcorralseries/posts/4892858912896. 11 “Search Results: Kersten,” Googlemini.utcourts.gov, last modified 2015, accessed July 14, 2015, http://googlemini.utcourts.gov/search?q=Kersten&site=Opinions-All_Collection&client=Opinions- All&proxystylesheet=Opinions-All&output=xml_no_dtd&filter=0&btnG=Search+for+Opinions.

181 remains unclear whether the lawsuit was settled with a nondisclosure clause, or if it is still ongoing.

The lawsuit was costly for all parties and created unpleasant relations for the early leaders of EAGALA, but otherwise left Kersten, Thomas and EAGALA relatively unharmed.

According to Thomas and the other EAGALA Board of Directors, she was responsible for developing the equine program at Aspen Ranch, where she had first worked with Kersten, as a result of her own understanding of the benefits of experiential learning and human-horse relationships. Kersten identifies Thomas as one of his first students, but she claimed to have developed EAGALA’s certification program and training manuals on her own. None of the work outlined in Thomas’s public biography credits or even mentions Kersten’s involvement in the development of Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy or EAGALA, excepting Thomas’s title as co- founder rather than founder.12 Throughout the lawsuit, EAGALA, with Thomas as Executive

Director, continued to grow and develop globally.13 In 2011 EAGALA sued its insurance company for refusing to cover costs associated with the Kersten lawsuit.14

The EBHD industry in general appears not to have been harmed by the internal

EAGALA dispute, except perhaps, that it contributed to a noticeable level of concern about control and competition among many of industry practitioners. However, that concern might

12 Kersten did not wish to discuss the details and Thomas did not respond to author request for interview. There is no mention of Kersten as the other co-founder of EAGALA anywhere on the official EAGALA website. “Executive Officers,” EAGALA Primary site | Eagala.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 7, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/ExecutiveOfficers. 13 “Executive Officers,” EAGALA Primary site | Eagala.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 7, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/ExecutiveOfficers; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 49-52. 14 Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association, Plaintiff and Appellee, V. Carolina Casualty Insurance Company, Defendant and Appellant, 20090676 http://caselaw.findlaw.com/ut-supreme- court/1578162.html#sthash.Fy5QIe7h.dpuf (Supreme Court of Utah 2011).

182 exist anyway in an industry which attracts entrepreneurs who are passionate about the work they do, but do not have much formal training in business.15

In 2003 Ariana Strozzi at Sky Horse Ranch in California created an alternative to

EAGALA certification for facilitators of EBHD when she founded the Equine Guided Education

Association (EGEA) to advocate the principle of respect for the horse’s leadership or ‘guide’ role in EBHD processes. Created after extensive research and critical discussions in the 1990s about the potential for using horses in education and the possibilities for professional recognition of the industry, the EGEA mandate and mission were similar to EAGALA’s. EGEA was intended to provide a resource and network hub for professionals within the EBHD industry, including hosting an annual conference.16 Strozzi’s organization, however, did not achieve the success of its slightly older industry competitor, EAGALA. Publicly available records indicate a total of nine EGEA certified members, including Strozzi. Strozzi herself is the principal trainer for the EGEA certification program. All of the listed EGEA members are women, located across the USA and Australia. Despite Strozzi’s larger ambitions, the EGEA was little more than an additional name and website for Strozzi’s own private EBHD business, Sky Horse Ranch, which she also publicized with two popular books on topics from and for the EBHD industry self-published in 2004 and 2009. Strozzi’s first book, Horse Sense for the Leader Within: Are You

Leading Your Life or is it Leading You?, detailed Strozzi’s perspective and theories about communion with nature, principles of leadership, and mammals’ nonverbal communication.

15 Interviews with leaders in the EBHD field indicated that most EBHD industry participants arrive at the industry as a result of a personal passion and heartfelt curiosity. Most attend a brief “certification” training program and then attempt to set up shop on their own with little to no former experience owning or managing a business. There is a pattern of language about collaboration and cooperation within the EBHD industry community, but in practice there exists fear, uncertainly, and suspicion of peers. Cobbling together a living as a member of a fringe industry is difficult, lack of business skills or entrepreneurial experience add to that challenging and the result appears to be frequent covert criticism among peers based on competition for limited market resources. 16 “New Home Page for Equineguidededucation.Com,” Equine Guided Education, last modified 2013, accessed June 23, 2013, http://www.egea.us.

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Strozzi also published a second, expanded, edition of this work in 2011. Strozzi’s second book,

Planning Your Business in the 'Horse as Healer/Teacher' Professions, was a resource guide for entrepreneurs in the growing EBHD industry.17

Strozzi’s work in the first decade of the new millennium illustrates a larger pattern unfolding in the EBHD industry, in which industry leaders developed businesses that provided training, certification and other services to aspiring entrepreneurs of EBHD. This is what

EAGALA did from the beginning, and it is a major part of what Greg Kersten does with his O.K.

Corral Series company, as well as what Barbara Rector does through her Adventures in

Awareness, and indeed what the EFMHA and NARHA or PATH Intl. set out to do as well.18

Strozzi had the business sense to identify a growing popular interest in EBHD and to recognize that the most eager investors in the concept of “Horse Wisdom” were those who wanted to find a career or build their own business within the industry; so she created her own certification program and association to serve this market demand. Strozzi’s success paled in comparison to EAGALA’s, however, likely because her capacity to single-handedly create, govern, market, lead, and serve as primary facilitator of an international organization was less than that of EAGALA’s founding team, board of directors, and operational staff. Others, however, including several of Barbara Rector’s students and her students’ students, the

McCormick family, and Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling also followed this pattern or strategy in the

EBHD industry and found it to be quite profitable. It seems that until EBHD becomes a more

17 “New Home Page for Equineguidededucation.Com,” Equine Guided Education, last modified 2013, accessed June 23, 2013, http://www.egea.us; Ariana Strozzi, Horse Sense for the Leader Within: Are You Leading Your Life or is it Leading You? (Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse, 2004); Ariana Strozzi, Horse Sense for the Leader Within: An Equine Guided Approach to Self-Leadership (Valley Ford, California: SkyHorse Ranch, LLC, 2011); Ariana Strozzi, Planning your Business in the "Horse as Healer/Teacher" Professions, (Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge, 2009). 18 This pattern became apparent in many of the interviews conducted with EBHD industry pioneers and early leaders.

184 mainstream therapy or learning activity, the best way to make money in the industry is to train new trainers.19

Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling and the McCormick family also continued to expand their market reach and influence in the early 2000s through their respective private practices and by publishing more books. The McCormicks moved their ranch and private practice from

California to Texas where they bred Peruvian Paso Fino horses for use in their therapeutic work. In 2004 the three McCormicks co-authored Horses and the Mystical Path: The Celtic Way of Expanding the Human Soul. The book shares the psychotherapists’ stories of personal discovery with horses while travelling in Scotland, as well as insights into the results of their private practice’s integration of horses into therapy sessions in order to increase clients’ emotional resilience. It provides the industry, now earnestly seeking professional legitimacy, with one more piece of published evidence of EBHD’s value and efficacy in psychological practice by credentialed professionals.20 Hempfling also published his second book in 2004.

What Horses Reveal: From First Meeting to Friend for Life described Hempfling’s theories about equine personality types based on behaviour and body shape to help people understand individual horses more quickly and thoroughly, and build better bonds of friendship.21 In 2008

Hempfling also released two DVD teaching videos of his work training horses without using

19 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Barry Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; “Skyhorse Ranch - Equine Guided Education And Coaching,” Skyhorseranch.Com, last modified 2015, accessed August 12, 2014, http://www.skyhorseranch.com/. 20 Adele von Rüst McCormick, Marlena Deborah McCormick and Thomas E. McCormick, Horses and the Mystical Path (Novato, California: New World Library, 2004). 21 Hempfling and McCormack, What Horses Reveal, (North Pomfret, Vermont: Trafalgar Square, 2004).

185 traditional tack and riding equipment.22 Each of Hempfling’s publications contributed little to the legitimization of the field as a therapeutic practice but attracted more horse enthusiasts to the general concept and increased his own reputation. Before the end of the first decade of the new millennium, Hempfling’s business had expanded to international scale, offering training sessions for and with horses for personal development as well as for corporate groups.

His most elite training program lasts a full year and costs students more than 80,000 Euro – a fee comparable with the purchase price of modest houses in most countries. Even with such expensive fees, Hempfling’s popularity became so great, even as far away as Australia, that he eventually opened a second branch of his business there.23 That neither Hempfling nor the

McCormick family ever engaged themselves with any of the emerging governing organizations in the larger EBHD industry, but continued to successfully develop their private companies based on their own reputations and free of external operational obligations, is indicative of the industry’s youth and popular novelty.24

Adding to the growing stack of industry publications, in the form of another autobiography, Wyatt Webb also publicized the story of his life and his work with horses at

Miraval in his first book, It’s Not About the Horse: It’s About Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt.

Written with the help of Cindy Pearlman, and published in 2002, the book details Webb’s personal experience with addictions and treatment, and his discovery as a therapist of the potential benefits of working with horses. According to Webb, almost all human problems can be traced back to some underlying fear or self-doubt, and working with horses is his cure-all

22 Dancing With Horses: The Art of Body Language, DVD (Denmark: Directed by Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, 2008); Coming Together: Use Body Language To Establish Leadership, Friendship, And Trust, DVD (Denmark: Directed by Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, 2008). 23 “Home | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling Australia,” Hempfling.com.au, last modified 2015, accessed June 18, 2015, http://www.hempfling.com.au/; “About Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling | Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling,” Hempfling.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 11, 2015, http://www.hempfling.com/about-klaus-ferdinand-hempfling. 24 Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 54-55.

186 remedy.25 After the success of his first publication, in 2004 Webb published Five Steps for

Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt: Journey into Present-Moment Time, as a guide to the philosophies presented in his first book.26 His third book, What to Do When you Don’t Know

What to Do: Common Horse Sense, published two years later, explained Webb’s theories about how people can learn to expand their potential and improve the quality of their lives through simple lessons with horses.27 Each of Webb’s books are light and easy to read, and promote

Miraval’s “Signature Equine Experience,” proudly ranked as the greatest attraction at the

Miravel resort, which itself ranks among the top spas in the USA.28 Each of Webb’s publications offer the EBHD industry more evidence of efficacy from a mental health professional with an impressive resume, but they also nurtured the growing popular interest in and appeal toward the industry as simple but emotive descriptions about the positive potential of engaging with horses for therapeutic purposes. What’s more, Webb’s multiple publications hint at a strategic secondary profit stream for Webb and a clever marketing tactic for Miraval, by making such stories accessible to a wide audience interested in personal and professional development or self-help literature.

The Second Generation of Leaders Industry leaders continued to do well in the new millennium, but the exponential growth of the EBHD industry was the result of a new generation of creative and ambitious individuals launching their own and collaborative “Horse Wisdom” enterprises. Some were introduced to the industry’s concepts by the earliest pioneers – Rector, Kersten, Strozzi, Hempfling, or the

25 Wyatt Webb and Cindy Pearlman, It's Not About the Horse: It's About Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt (Carlsbad, California: Hay House, 2002). (Original title It’s Not About the Horse: It’s About Us) 26 Wyatt Webb, Five Steps for Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt: Journey Into Present-Moment Time (Carlsbad, California: Hay House, 2004). 27 Wyatt Webb, What to do When You Don't Know what to do: Common Horse Sense, (Carlsbad, California: Hay House, 2006). 28 “About Miraval Resort,” Miraval Resort & Health Spa, last modified 2015, accessed June 7, 2015, http://www.miravalresorts.com/.

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McCormicks. Others were inspired by earlier horse trainers from the Revolution in Natural

Horsemanship. Most, however, recall having found their way to the emerging industry directly by way of their relationship with horses. The second wave of EBHD leaders were most often avid equestrian women who experienced some deep relationship, life insight, or therapeutic healing from their horses, and desired an outlet to share their discoveries and equine insights with others. Many either already had training as mental health professionals or educators, or partnered with one early on in their EBHD practices.29 Like their predecessors in the industry, they struggled to establish the professional legitimacy of their work, and often wrote books to supplement their income and promote their practices. They also increased the reach of EBHD, both geographically and in terms of new client groups.

If Barbara Rector is recognized as the grandmother of the EBHD industry, Linda Kohanov may well be considered its mother. Kohanov has extensive experience working with horses as a trainer and riding instructor, and she is a widely known innovator in the EBHD industry.

Kohanov’s publications and her own private EBHD business have attracted many people to the industry, and led even more to ponder the larger issue of shifting relationship paradigms between horses and humans. Kohanov has been a frequent keynote speaker at conferences on

EBHD and interviewed in a variety of documentaries, news stories, and journal articles.30 Her

29 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Barry Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013. 30 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; “Staff - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 6, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/about/staff/.

188 four popular books describe her personal experiences and professional EBHD work engaging horses in “advanced human development.”31

Kohanov had been trained for years in the harsh traditional methods of horsemanship, and after one particularly traumatic experience with a broodmare, she rejected the traditional industry altogether and set out to find or create a new way of being in relationship with the animals she loved. Kohanov purchased a young filly whom she named Tabula Rasa (Rasa) to symbolize her clean slate and the new beginning she sought in partnership with horses. When an unexpected health condition limited Rasa’s athletic abilities, Kohanov began to create a different kind of work with which to engage the horse. She discovered that the shift in her way of being with Rasa gave her new insights about herself, and she began to share that illuminating process with others. According to Kohanov, Rasa taught her about the wisdom and healing potential of horses that is now considered to be the basis of EBHD.32

Kohanov’s relationship with her horse, Rasa, and the deep emotional healing they began together inspired Kohanov to develop an international career as a teacher, author, and founding public figure for the EBHD industry. Her first book, The Tao of Equus: A Woman’s

Journey of Healing and Transformation through the Way of the Horse, provided a window into

Kohanov’s transformational experiences with horses as well as an invitation to consider the idea that horses have valuable wisdom to offer humanity. Kohanov included descriptions of her own paranormal and spiritually intuitive experiences in this book, knowing she would encounter skepticism from readers but confident that her experience would inspire others to

31 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, The Tao of Equus: A Woman's Journey of Healing & Transformation through the Way of the Horse, (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2001); Linda Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds: Expanding Our Potential Through the Way of the Horse, (Novato, California: New World Library, 2003); Linda Kohanov and Kim McElroy, Way of the Horse: Equine Archetypes for Self-Discovery: A Book of Exploration and 40 Cards, (Novato, California: New World Library, 2007). Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation, (Novato, California: New World Library, 2013). 32 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kohanov, The Tao of Equus, 3-32.

189 expand their perception of the potential for horse-human relations. Much to her surprise,

Kohanov’s first book was a huge hit with audiences and helped to expand the business she had founded in 1997 in Tucson, Arizona, called Epona Equestrian Services.33 Through Epona

Equestrian Services (Eponaquest), Kohanov conducted educational and therapeutic work with

Rasa and other horses, often in partnership with other equine and mental health professionals.

Having begun with innovative horse training and breeding programs, Kohanov quickly expanded the services offered to include educational programs which employed horses in the role of teacher and/or healer for human clients, which Kohanov called ‘The Epona Approach.’34

In 2003 Kohanov released her second book, Riding Between the Worlds: Expanding Our

Potential through the Way of the Horse, which recognized Barbara Rector as the grandmother of the EBHD industry, and her program at Sierra Tucson Hospital and leadership of EFMHA as historical starting points for the industry. Riding Between the Worlds blends real-life narratives with Kohanov’s personal philosophies and theories about how and why horses can serve as teachers for human development. The book included stories of her experiences with clients and horses, and the lessons learned through her practice of EBHD, and became a kind of textbook for the EBHD industry, especially among proponents of The Epona Approach method.35 In 2007 Kohanov partnered with illustrator Kim McElroy to publish a third book for

33 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kohanov, The Tao of Equus, 18, 146, 200, 267-268, 274, 286-290, 305, 315-316, 337-345, 343-349; Linda Kohanov, Riding Between The Worlds: Expanding Our Potential through the way of the Horse, (Novato, Calif.: New World Library, 2003), ix-xxix, 49-51. 34 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kohanov, The Tao of Equus, xv-xvi, xiix, 36, 105, 133, 152, 182, 208, 239-245; Kohanov, Riding Between The Worlds, 66, 171. “About - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 6, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/about/. 35 Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013.

190 the EBHD industry. In nearly 300 pages, Way of the Horse: Equine Archetypes for Self-Discovery details 40 different equine archetypes based on the herd dynamics that Kohanov observed in her years of experience in the EBHD industry. Each of the archetypes, such as Chiron, “the wounded healer”, or Pegasus, “the divine messenger”, was illustrated by McElroy to create a deck of forty cards to accompany the book as an EBHD alternative to traditional tarot-type card sets. For several months, Kohanov offered individualized card readings with this deck through

Eponaquest. The publication and card readings appealed to the New Age market, which may have hurt the industry’s attempt to establish its reputation with medical professionals as a legitimate form of therapy.36

Kohanov’s books captivated readers across several continents. With all of her publications, speaking engagements, professional association leadership roles, distinctive EBHD programs and apprenticeship trainings, Kohanov quickly became one of the most prominent voices in the development of the EBHD industry and another generation in the EBHD industry began under her direct tutelage through The Epona Approach model. Promotional material on the Eponaquest website states that “‘[a]mateur and professional equestrians, families, counselors, artists, educators, and business leaders travel from around the world to attend workshops and private sessions with the Eponaquest herd’ and [s]ince 2002, Kohanov and her staff have also trained over one hundred and fifty Eponaquest Instructors who now offer

Eponaquest-based programs on five continents.”37 Kohanov continues to publish, speak, and

36 Linda Kohanov and Kim McElroy, Way of the Horse: Equine Archetypes for Self-Discovery: A Book of Exploration and 40 Cards (Novato, California: New World Library, 2007); Card readings are no longer listed on the Eponaquest website as an available service. 37 “About - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 6, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/about/.

191 deliver private and group equine experiential education or therapy workshops across North

America as Eponaquest’s lead facilitator.38

Two of Kohanov’s integral partners and senior facilitators or trainers at Epona

Equestrian Services, Kathleen Ingram and Shelley Rosenberg, had previously worked with and learned from Rector at Sierra Tucson Hospital. Rosenberg was the first barn manager at Sierra

Tucson Hospital during Rector’s STIRRP program. She was also Kohanov’s riding instructor and later joined the Epona Equestrian Services team as an ‘Advanced Instructor’ of Equine

Experiential Learning. In 2006 Rosenberg published My Horses, My Healers, an autobiographical book about her own healing experience with horses that helped her overcome the trauma of the sexual abuse that she suffered as a child.39 Ingram is a licensed psychotherapist; her professional background is in counselling and personal/professional growth, with expertise in addiction counselling, eating disorders, grief and loss recovery, conflict resolution, and family interventions for addictive behaviours. In the early 1990’s,

Ingram was the director of marketing and intake at Sierra Tucson’s centre for the treatment of addictions and co-dependency, when Rector invited her to work with the equine program.

Ingram met Kohanov through their mutual connection with Rector. Beginning in the late 1990s,

Ingram worked in partnership with Kohanov to create The Epona Approach brand and style of equine facilitated experiential learning and therapy.40

38 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 39 Shelley R. Rosenberg, My Horses, My Healers, (Bloomington, Indiana: Author House, 2006), 1-16; Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds, 60-61, 160-165. 40 Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Through the Perceptual Lens of Barbara Rector, DVD (Germany: A20 Production Company, 2006); Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse,.44-49; Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds, 60-65; Kathleen Barry Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, “Unexpected Grace: How Horses Changed My Life,” Blog, Sacred Place of Possibility, 2013, accessed September 17, 2014, http://sacredplaceofpossibility.com/2008/12/unexpected-grace-how-horses-changed-my-life/; “Staff - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 6, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/about/staff/.

192

Ingram also worked with Kohanov to create and deliver the first Epona Equestrian

Services apprenticeship program in The Epona Approach in 2003 which spread the women’s brand to as many continents as EAGALA, making it one of the largest organizations in the young industry. In 2007, after nine classes had graduated from the program, Ingram moved to her own company, Sacred Place of Possibility, working as a life coach, consultant, lecturer and educator, training others in equine-facilitated experiential learning. She continued her work in the EBHD industry through various partnerships with graduates of The Epona Approach

Apprenticeship program who established their own practices scattered across North America,

Europe, and Australia.41

From Ingram’s perspective, Kohanov has failed to give her appropriate credit for her contribution to the Epona Approach. According to Ingram, many of the client stories in

Kohanov’s first and second book were actually about Ingram’s clients, whom she had referred to Kohanov or who had worked with both women together.42 Kohanov did acknowledge

Ingram as a senior counsellor and frequent co-facilitator at Eponaquest, but did not mention

Ingram’s presence and participation in any of the experiences published in her books.43

Among the earliest Epona Approach graduates to open their own EBHD practices was

Leigh Shambo. Shambo, along with 15 others, graduated from Kohanov and Ingram’s first apprenticeship class in 2002. Shambo, who has a master’s degree in social work and is a licensed counsellor, integrated The Epona Approach into her private counselling practice in

41 Kathleen Barry Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, “Unexpected Grace: How Horses Changed My Life,” Blog, Sacred Place of Possibility, 2013, accessed September 17, 2014, http://sacredplaceofpossibility.com/2008/12/unexpected-grace-how- horses-changed-my-life/; “Kathleen Barry Ingram MA Co-Creator of the Epona Approach, Guest Tutor IFEAL Q – IFEAL Consultants & Faculty – About Us – IFEAL,” International Foundation of Equine Assisted Learning | Ifeal.me, last modified 2015, accessed June 11, 2015, http://www.ifeal.me/about/consultants-faculty/kathleen-barry-ingram/; “Home | Equine Faciliated Learning,” Sacredplaceofpossibility.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 11, 2015, http://sacredplaceofpossibility.com/. 42 Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 43 Kohanov, Riding Between the Worlds, 60-61.

193

Washington State, branded her work Human-Equine Alliances for Healing (HEAL), and subsequently partnered with Ingram to deliver her own EBHD apprenticeship program.

Shambo also contributed to the growing volume of industry-produced literature with the publication of her book, The Listening Heart, in 2013. This book describes Shambo’s brand of

EBHD, “the HEAL Model,” as a way for therapists to aid clients in building emotional and social skills by engaging the human-horse bond in treatment for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD) and other clinical disorders, while drawing from literature on the fields of neuroscience, attachment and trauma psychology, and animal science.44

Kathy Pike, another prominent student of The Epona Approach, graduated from

Kohanov and Ingram’s fourth apprenticeship class and subsequently launched a successful

EBHD Coaching company in Colorado, specializing in using horses in entrepreneurship and corporate coaching. Her clients include Mars, Tony Robbins Coaching Group, MicroSoft

Systems and other large companies from various industry sectors. Pike has published two books; Hope…From the Heart of Horses: How Horses Teach us about Presence, Strength, and

Awareness, which, like many of the other industry publications to date, is autobiographical and includes a variety of narratives about client experiences, and Horse as Teacher: The Path to

Authenticity, which Pike compiled with nine other industry professionals who each paid $5,000 for the opportunity to author a chapter in the book and gain the marketing advantages associated therein. Pike also conducts annual apprenticeship training and business development coaching for entrepreneurs in the EBHD industry. Like Hempfling, Pike does not hold any mental health credentials but remains among the most successful facilitators in the

44 “Apprenticeship Graduates - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 1, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/apprenticeship-graduates/; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, David Young, and Catherine Madera, The Listening Heart: The Limbic Path Beyond Office Therapy, (Chehalis, Washington: Human-Equine Alliances for Learning, 2013); Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013.

194

EBHD industry, demonstrating that while many in the industry are striving to achieve legitimacy as a mainstream therapeutic practice, the market for corporate coaching and professional development already accepts EBHD as valuable management training without clinical proof or scientific validation.45

Two of the EBHD industry’s most active facilitators in Canada are also Epona Approach apprenticeship graduates. Deborah Marshall graduated from the second Epona Approach apprenticeship class and launched her EBHD practice in partnership with her therapy practice at Generation Farm in Nanaimo, British Colombia. In response to client demand, Marshall and her team also began offering an EBHD apprenticeship training program of their own in 2006.46

Wendy Golding graduated from the sixth Epona Approach apprenticeship class and launched

Horse Spirit Connections Inc. with her husband, Andre Leclipteux, in Toronto, Ontario. Horse

Spirit Connections trademarked their own EBHD model as FEEL (Facilitated Equine Experiential

Learning) and also began their own apprenticeship program in partnership with Ingram in

2008. Golding was one of ten women to contribute a chapter to Pike’s Horse as Teacher: The

Path to Authenticity.47 Both Marshall and Golding were influential in larger EBHD initiatives to

45 “Apprenticeship Graduates - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 1, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/apprenticeship-graduates/; “About Kathy Pike - The Academy for Coaching with Horses,” Coachingwithhorses.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://coachingwithhorses.com/about-kathy-pike; Kathy Pike, Hope-- From the Heart of Horses: How Horses Teach Us about Presence, Strength, and Awareness, (New York: Skyhorse Pub., 2009); Kathy Pike, et al., Horse as Teacher: The Path to Authenticity, (Portland, Oregon: Clarity of Vision Pub., 2010). 46 “Apprenticeship Graduates - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 1, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/apprenticeship-graduates/; “Horse Wisdom for Humans & Riding Lessons - Generation Farms - Nanaimo, BC Canada,” Generationfarms.ca, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.generationfarms.ca/index.php?p=1_10_Staff-Bios. 47 “Apprenticeship Graduates - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 1, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/apprenticeship-graduates; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; “Horse Spirit Connections,” Horsespiritconnections.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://horsespiritconnections.com.

195 formalize and standardize the industry by jointly leading the creation of Canada’s first national

EBHD association, the National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness (NAEFW).48

Franklin Levinson, a lifelong horseman and trainer, also contributed significantly to the

EBHD industry by introducing the work to the United Kingdom. He was an early student of

Rector’s but not of Kohanov’s. Levinson, an American citizen, built his career to satisfy his passion for horses and travel by facilitating EBHD workshops, seminars, or full training programs in warm and beautiful regions of the world. He had started working with horses as a child at his father’s polo club and later became a trainer and riding instructor working mostly with children. In the 1990s he also worked as a music therapist with people struggling with emotional issues or disorders and recognized similar relaxing benefits when working with horses, so he sought to integrate horses into his therapeutic work. Levinson’s research led him to NARHA and the new work being promoted by EFMHA. He participated in some of the early training seminars and developed a great admiration for Rector as a friend and teacher; as did

Kohanov, he recognized her as the grandmother of the industry.49

Levinson shared Rector’s belief that the horse was an equal partner and active facilitator in EBHD work, and for him, and many like him in the young industry, that belief elevated the EFMHA school of EBHD above the EAGALA model. Levinson advocates respect for the intelligence, sensitivity, and well-being of the horse, and criticizes many practitioners in the

48 Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; “About Us,” National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness | Naefw.com, last modified 2015, accessed February 11, 2015, http://naefw.com/About-Us; Personal experience, the author received personal invitation to participate in the creation of Canada’s first national EBHD association, National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness, in November, 2010 and engaged in twelve months of email exchange and conference call discussion regarding the formation of NAEFW. On February 20, 2015 the National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness officially changed its name to Equine Facilitated Wellness – Canada (EFW-Can) National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness, “Winter Newsletter EFW/MFC-Can,” Public Newsletter, accessed June 17, 2015, http://efwmfccanwinter2015newsletter.weebly.com/. 49 Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; “Special Report: Horse Therapy – Changing Lives,” Your Horse Magazine, UK, 2004.

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EBHD industry, as well as the NARHA organization and therapeutic riding industry as a whole, for disregarding the horse’s experience. Levinson rejects any approach to working with horses that does not afford the horse full liberty to choose when and how to participate in the work.

In contrast to his contemporary Wyatt Webb, who titled his first book It’s Not About the Horse, for Levinson, EBHD is “all about the horse!”50

Levinson helped to spread EBHD ideas and practice around the globe through his personal travels. He first began his EBHD work in the late 1990s offering what he called The

Horse Whisperer Experience at his ranch in Maui, Hawaii, and began travelling and working as an EBHD facilitator and trainer in the mainland USA, the United Kingdom, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand by the middle of the next decade. He remains one of the few male leaders of the EBHD industry, and one of the most outspoken advocates for the treatment and welfare of the horse.51

Kohanov, Ingram, Rosenberg, Shambo, Pike, Marshall, Golding, and Levinson all share the new philosophy that Rector lobbied for within EFMHA; they argue that the horses they work with are sentient beings, and treat them accordingly, as partners, able teachers, and healers with the capacity to unlock people’s potential to lead more emotionally stable lives.

This growing global network of EBHD industry practitioners actively challenges social norms about the way people think about and engage with horses, and all non-human animals by extension. In their work with client and students, in the media coverage of this work, and in their own publications, they advocate radical shift in the human-horse relationship paradigm.

In little more than a decade, industry leaders have published enough books to fill a small bookshelf, but even those who do not write of their EBHD insight and experience have

50 Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013. 51 Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; “Special Report: Horse Therapy – Changing Lives,” Your Horse Magazine, UK, 2004.

197 contributed to the collective momentum seeking to shift popular understanding and opinion of human-animal relations. Each EBHD workshop, seminar, or private coaching or therapy session facilitated by this network invites the participants to actively engage with horses as equal partners and intelligent teachers. In this process, the facilitators and participants are experimenting, whether deliberately or not, with a profound paradigm shift in the common understanding of human-animal relations in general.

Seeking Legitimacy: Industry Research & Governance The growth of the EBHD industry in the early 2000s introduced an element of chaos, or at least confusion, with industry leaders contesting each other’s claims as to who had developed what practices, and with a plethora of practitioners using similar terms to market very different services, including somewhat dubious practices such as Kohanov’s card readings.

EAGALA and EFMHA had moved to establish formal organizations to promote EBHD and set some industry standards, but these organizations were unable to maintain control or leadership for long, given their own difficulties and the rapid increase in the number of independent practitioners. Various schools of thought or practice developed simultaneously and organically from popular interest, led by individuals not associated with any governing organization. The increasing chaos of the industry, coupled with a small and somewhat saturated market, fuelled a sense of urgency for practitioners to establish some order and formal leadership on national and international levels.

As well, to satisfy sceptics and position EBHD as a legitimate therapeutic service, many

EBHD practitioners endeavoured to foster professional research to increase the credibility and scientific validation of their field of work. Ambitious individuals collaborated to host annual conferences on the subject of horses and healing, coaching, and/or human development, and to formalize and standardize certification processes in order to protect specific standards of

198 practice, and to leverage revenue from fees associated with membership and recognition. So many competing organizations were established, however, that there was still no overarching industry organization at the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century. Professional collaboration did, however, create a critical mass for the young industry which generated an increase in popular and professional awareness and interest in EBHD, and resulted in the first scientific or academic research investigations in EBHD methods and client benefits.

Creation of the Horses and Humans Research Foundation (HHRF) in 2002 contributed significantly to the development of the EBHD industry as a legitimate field of practice. A group of ambitious horse enthusiasts led by Molly Sweeney in Arizona were responsible for planning and creating a public foundation dedicated to raising resources to support research in the field of equine assisted activities and therapies. Within two years the foundation received charitable status and established a headquarters in Cleveland, Ohio, with a mandate to sponsor professional research that would “serve as a catalyst to advance knowledge of horses and their potential to impact on the health and wellness of people.”52 By 2006 HHRF had put into effect a sustainable business plan, successfully raised initial funds, and awarded the first research grant to the University of St. Louis. HHRF‘s first three funded publications were dedicated to

Hippotherapy and core strength, Hippotherapy and Cerebral Palsy, and Equine Assisted Activity and Autism, but by the end of its first decade, the Foundation was increasingly focusing on research proposals for using horses to assist with mental health and wellness issues more generally.53 The Foundation’s mission statement identifies its goals as follows:

52 “Horses & Humans Research Foundation - Mission,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/About_Us.html#Mission. 53 “Horses & Humans Research Foundation - Mission,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/About_Us.html#History; Tim L. Shurtleff, John W. Standeven and Jack R. Engsberg, “Changes in Dynamic Trunk/Head Stability and Functional Reach After Hippotherapy,”

199

The primary goal [of Horses and Humans Research Foundation] is to support, promote and fund scientific research that explores the claimed, yet unsubstantiated benefits of equine-assisted activities and therapies, leading to the discovery of the most effective methods and techniques for conducting thousands of existing and future programs. The secondary goal is to educate the public (including parents, donors, insurance companies and physicians) on research findings so that equine-assisted activities become more accessible to those in need.54 Research and scientific inquiry into equine therapy has also been a primary focus of the

Federation of Horses in Education and Therapy International (HETI), which has been studying the emerging practice of using horses in psychological therapy and education processes since

1994. HETI was founded in 1980 in Belgium as the Federation of Riding for the Disabled

International; in 2010, the organization changed its name and focus to reflect its growing interest in EBHD, although many of its members are still primarily dedicated to the organization’s original focus of hippotherapy and therapeutic riding.55 The Canadian

Therapeutic Riding Association (CanTRA) and the Professional Association of Therapeutic

Horsemanship (PATH Intl., formerly NARHA) are currently among the 50 organizations in HETI’s

Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 90, no. 7 (2009): 1185-1195, research conducted in 2006, at Washington University of Medicine, Program in Occupational Therapy at St. Louis, Missouri; Margaret M. Bass, Catherine A. Duchowny and Maria M. Llabre, “The Effect of Therapeutic Horseback Riding on Social Functioning in Children with Autism,” Journal of Autism Developmental Disorder 39, no. 9 (2009): 1261-1267, research conducted at the Good Hope Equestrian Training Center, Miami, Florida; Dr. Helene Corriveau, Dr. Claude Dugas, Danielle Champagne, “Hippotherapy to Improve Postural Control in Children with Cerebral Palsy,” submitted for publication, journal unknown, research conducted at Faculté de médecine et Des Sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke Quebec, Canada and Université du Québec a Trois-Rivières, Département des sciences de l’activité physique Trois-Rivières, Canada in 2008; “Horses & Humans Research Foundation - Research - Purpose,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/Research_AwardedProjects.html. 54 “Horses & Humans Research Foundation - Mission,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/About_Us.html. 55 “HETI History,” Horses in Education and Therapy International, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/history.html.

200 international membership; membership at different levels is available to individuals and corporations as well as national organizations.56

CanTRA, which was founded in 1980 to foster “challenge, achievement and empowerment for children and adults with disabilities through the use of the horse,” had begun to explore the EBHD industry in the early 2000s. CanTRA’s expansion into the mental health field, however, was a slow process, delayed by spending years on research to establish its equine-facilitated mental health mandates and certification system for facilitators.57 Equine- facilitated mental health only recently became an add-on service for the association, and an accepted credentialing process remains unfinished. In 2005, CanTRA established a new branch within its organization, Equine Facilitated Mental Health – Canada (EFMH-Canada), in response to the rapid growth and popularity of equine therapy. However, the primary focus of CanTRA’s accredited member centers across Canada, of which there are more than 100, remains hippotherapy and therapeutic riding.58

In Europe, the main association for EBHD practitioners emerged from the work of Karin and Gerhard Krebs and their company, HorseDream. A middle-aged German couple who were relatively new to horses but who were passionate about them, the Krebs were inspired by the work of Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling. Initially, the Krebs marketed HorseDream primarily to corporate clients for stress reduction and leadership in management and personal development skills. The Krebs and five others transformed HorseDream into the European

Association of Horse Assisted Education (EAHAE) in 2004. EAHAE focused first on facilitating

56 “HETI Membership,” Horses in Education and Therapy International, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/membership.html; “HETI Member List,” Horses in Education and Therapy International, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/membership_list.html. 57 “Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association – About Us,” Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association | Cantra.ca, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://www.cantra.ca/about_us/; “Cantra Equine Facilitated Wellness,” Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://www.cantra.ca/EFW.shtml. 58 “Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association,” Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association | Cantra.ca, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://www.cantra.ca.

201 the collaboration of ideas among professionals. After a few years of annual conferences and building a membership base, the organization shifted its priority to developing quality training, information, and standards. All EAHAE members complete a facilitator training program certifying them to conduct standardized workshops under the EAHAE method brand.59

Demand from EBHD practitioners in the United States for professional recognition is met in part through membership in the Certification Board for Equine Interaction Professionals

(CBEIP), a non-profit EBHD organization founded in 2006. CBEIP offers a credentialing program for Mental Health specialists, education specialists, or both, and as of June 2014, listed close to

60 people who had earned CBEIP certification in the organization’s approved methods of

EBHD.60

Other smaller organizations have also emerged to contribute to, and capitalize on, the facilitator certification process and revenue stream within the growing international EBHD industry. For example, in 2007, a group including a school superintendent, a mental health professional, professional educators or trainers, entrepreneurs, corporate executives, and horse experts founded the Equine Experiential Education Association (E3A) as a non-profit

59 “EAHAE Founder Gerhard and Karin Krebs,” EAHAE Horse Assisted Education: G&K HorseDream | Eahae.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://www.eahae.org/EAHAE_GerhardKrebs_Germany.htm; “EAHAE Members Profiles. Seminar Providers, Trainers and Equine Coaches,” EAHAE Horse Assisted Education: G&K HorseDream | Eahae.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.eahae.org/EAHAE_seminar- providers.htm; “EAHAE International Conference. Presentations, Horse Work, Membership Qualification, Horsedream Certification,” EAHAE Horse Assisted Education: G&K HorseDream | Eahae.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.eahae.org/2014_eahae_conference.htm. 60 Digitally published letter to Ariana Strozzi from the Commission for Certifies Equine Facilitated Mental Health and Education Professionals, June 6, 2008, accessed June 9, 2015, http://www.skyhorseranch.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/letter-from-molly- depreckeljune20081.pdf; “CBEIP Home,” Certification Board for Equine Interaction Professionals | Equinefacilitatedprofessional.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 11, 2015, http://www.equinefacilitatedprofessional.org/Default.aspx; Stakeholder Perception Of State Of The Field And Direction Of Growth, Report on Interviews with Allied Organizations (New York: Certification Board for Equine Interaction Professionals, 2008), accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.equinefacilitatedprofessional.org/pdf/State%20of%20the%20Art%20Report- Equine%20Interactions.pdf; “Certified Professionals,” Certification Board for Equine Interaction Professionals | Equinefacilitatedprofessional.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.equinefacilitatedprofessional.org/certified_professionals.aspx.

202 organization to promote equine-facilitated education and learning globally as a legitimate personal development and wellness program, and to support and train aspiring EBHD professionals. The Association, based near Reno, Nevada, provides certification training for equine-facilitated education and learning facilitators, and business development training for the EBHD professional. E3A offers no mental health service training, support, or membership designation.61 Equine Assisted Qualifications (EAQ) is a similar organization founded in 2009 by

Tricia Day, who has a background in teaching child care workers and a passion for horses. EAQ offers to support and train accredited practitioners of equine-facilitated education and learning and therapy processes in the United Kingdom and Australia.62

By the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, the increasing number and variety of practitioners or entrepreneurs in the EBHD industry created some confusion about what this new way of being and working with horses encompassed. Practitioners and the public could consult the books by EBHD industry leaders offering their personal philosophies on a new paradigm of human-horse relations, but no unifying voice or definition existed for the industry as a whole. The efforts to formalize national and international governance and to create gatherings and conferences where like-minded participants could share their experience had increased awareness of the growth of the industry scale, but did little to create a unifying structure for the industry as a whole, or to address the need perceived by the leaders and most active agents within the EBHD industry for more professional research to convince a sceptical general public and conventional healthcare professionals of the merits of EBHD. Producing

61 “Experiential Learning with Horses,” Equine Experiential Education Association | E3assoc.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 16, 2015, http://www.e3assoc.org/; “Equine Experiential Education Association Certification Training Programs,” Equine Experiential Education Association | E3assoc.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 16, 2015, http://www.e3assoc.org/Equine-Assisted-Learning-Training- Programs. 62 No details on a Code of Ethics, Standards of Practice, or even Board of Directors are publicly available for EAQ organization. “EAQ (Equine Assisted Qualifications) Limited - Home,” Equineassistedqualifications.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://www.equineassistedqualifications.com.

203 such research, along with continued efforts to organize the industry in general, remain central challenges for the EBHD industry. That older health and helping practices such as Nursing and

Social Work have only recently, and after decades of intentional effort, obtained popular and credentialed recognition as legitimate “professions” indicates the EBHD industry is, nevertheless, progressing as a formal field of practice at a respectable pace.63

63 Pamela Abbott, and Liz Meerabeau, The Sociology of the Caring Professions 2nd Ed. (London: UCL Press, 1998), 1-16, 20-50, 54-69, 73-80, 178-195w, 255-262; Michael Burrage, and Rolf Torstendahl, The Formation of Professions: Knowledge, State and Strategy (London: Sage, 1990), 1-10, 11-23, 151-173; Bernard MC Yam, “From Vocation to Profession: The Quest for Professionalization of Nursing,” British Journal of Nursing 13, no. 16 (2004): 978-982; Moya Jolley, “The Professionalization of Nursing: The Uncertain Path,” in Current Issues in Nursing, eds. Moya Jolley and Peta Allan, (London: Chapman and Hall, 1989), 1-22; Johann Keogh, “Professionalization of Nursing: Development, Difficulties and Solutions,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 25, no. 2 (1997): 302-308; Katrin Schultheiss, Bodies and Souls: Politics and the Professionalization of Nursing in France 1880-1922 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), 3-19.

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Chapter Six: The 2010s: Promoting a New Paradigm

The rise of the EBHD industry is of particular significance to historical scholarship of the horse not only because it represents a new industry and ideology of interaction between our species, but because the young industry and its increasing number of proponents have begun to trigger a substantial shift in the historical human-horse relationship paradigm. The historically common human-horse relationship paradigm observed a hierarchical structure; it maintained a perception that horses were human property existing as a valuable yet exploitable commodity. By contrast, the new paradigm arising as a result of the EBHD industry activity and its growing popularity is holacratic in structure; it demands that horses be treated with compassion and mutual respect, where the horse is valued as a sentient being and capable ally in human development.1

Paradigm shifts occur when a critical volume of evidence conflicts with or contrasts the existing dominant social norms or worldview and a reconstruction of norms reflecting the new ideas or evidence gains popular consideration or acceptance.2 In the case of the historic human-horse relationship, the EBHD industry’s claims of positive potential for human development accessible through innovative interaction processes with horses challenged traditional social norms and, as it attracted steady growth in international popularity, triggered the beginning of what appears to be a shift in paradigm in the Western world. However, the horse-human relationship paradigm shift is not yet complete, as it has not gained full legitimacy as an effective therapy in mainstream practice in accordance with medical model and scientific scrutiny. After a quarter century of development, the EBHD industry

1 Whether or not such thinking actually benefits the welfare of horses is an issue currently being investigated by scholars of Equitation Science. 2 Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970); Waltraud Schelkle, Paradigms of Social Change (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2000), 7-9, 11-28.

205 demonstrates steady rise in both popularity and practitioners of the work but remains on the margins of mainstream as a professional practice due to a lack of quantifiable research or evidence proving its efficacy in accordance with standards of the medical model or scientific method. Gaining the necessary volume of professional research to achieve such verification is currently among the top priorities of most EBHD industry professionals and governing organizations.

EBHD has not yet achieved mainstream acceptance, but in the last half-decade the industry began to acquire the public attention and organizational structure that may make that transition possible. Increasingly, research, documentaries, and popular news stories explore and explain the topic of EBHD. Changes in existing industry governance provide strong evidence that EBHD practitioners anticipate continued growth of the field. The scope of industry practice and research has recently expanded to include EBHD programs designed for military and service officers, as well as for seniors living with Alzheimer’s disease or dementia.

Thousands of industry practitioners are now registered with one or more national or international EBHD organization. The EBHD industry and all of its revolutionary philosophies about human-horse relations is winning popular and professional acceptance as a legitimate field with growing momentum.

One indication of the increasing significance of the EBHD industry was the restructuring of the relationship between the North American Riding for the Handicapped

Association (NARHA) and the Equine Facilitated Mental Health Association (EFMHA), the subgroup established within NARHA in 1996 to focus specifically on the potential benefits of equine interaction for human psychological benefits. By 2010 NARHA had outgrown its national name as well as its focus on strictly physical therapy programs with horses. The combination of public and client interest in addition to member approval was so great that NARHA decided

206 that the field of EBHD should be recognized among the principal specialties of the organization, and that EFMHA should be fully integrated therein. The presidents of the NARHA Board of

Trustees and the EFMHA Board of Directors signed a proclamation to that effect in November

2010, and the EFMHA Board of Directors officially dissolved its association so that its mandates could be fully integrated into its parent organization’s central scope of practice.3 In June, 2011

NARHA officially changed its name to the Professional Association of Therapeutic

Horsemanship International (PATH Intl.). The organization calls the full suite of programs and activities it offers in relation to the EBHD industry “equine assisted activities and therapy”

(EAAT).4 Since the integration of EFMHA, PATH Intl. considers the EBHD portion of its activities to be the fastest growing sector within the whole organization. Specifically, their program called Equine Services for Heroes, which offers specially designed EAAT activities for war veterans and military personnel, is the largest and fastest growing sector of PATH Intl. programming, closely rivalled by EBHD programs designed to aid Autism.5

NARHA’s name change in 2011 followed the decision in 2010 of the Federation of

Riding for the Disabled International to change its name to Federation of Horses in Education and Therapy International (HETI). Both changes reflected the organizations’ expansion internationally, as well as their affiliation with the rapidly growing industry of practitioners who worked in partnership with horses for mental health, wellness, and education. By then, the

EBHD industry and the EFMHA network had already reached Europe, Australia, and parts of

3 Kathy Keating, “Future Trends,” Pathintl.Org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl/future-trends. 4 Kathy Keating, “What Is PATH Intl.?” Pathintl.Org, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/about-path-intl/about-path-intl/what-is-path-intl. 5 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013.

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Africa, all which already had well established hippotherapy and therapeutic riding programs as well.6

In Canada, a small group of EBHD practitioners, who self-identified as industry pioneers, began to create the first national EBHD governing organization in their country in

2011. Deborah Marshall and Wendy Golding, both graduates of the Epona Approach apprenticeship developed by Linda Kohanov and Kathleen Ingram in Arizona, together with a dozen of their associates and professional peers, recognized that the exponential growth of new EBHD facilities created problems of legitimacy for the new industry, which faced public scepticism about the efficacy of its practices and the professionalism of its practitioners.

Determined to establish national standards for EBHD services and accreditation for those offering them, they collaborated to form the National Association for Equine Facilitated

Wellness (NAEFW). Finalizing the new organization’s structure, mandates, operating principles, code of ethics, scope of practice, training curriculums, and business plan took more than a year, and many of the individuals who sat on the various organizing committees established to determine these things opted not to join the NAEFW membership once the organization came into existence. In February, 2015, NAEFW decided to change its name to Equine Facilitated

Wellness – Canada, primarily in effort to improve the brand with a more efficient title, but also to create room for international franchises or branches to develop as part of the organization in the future.7

6 “HETI History,” Horses in Education and Therapy International, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/history.html; Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013. 7 Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; “About Us,” National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness | Naefw.com, last modified 2015, accessed February 11, 2015, http://naefw.com/About-Us; Personal experience, the author received personal invitation to participate in the creation of Canada’s first national EBHD association, National Association for Equine Facilitated Wellness, in November, 2010 and engaged in twelve months of email exchange and conference call discussion regarding the formation of NAEFW; only a fraction of those participating in the formation

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The International Foundation for Equine Assisted Learning (IFEAL) and Standards for

Assisted and Facilitated Equine Professionals (SAFE Professionals), both based in the United

Kingdom, were also founded by self-identified EBHD industry pioneers in this period, in an effort to increase the professional legitimacy of EBHD. IFEAL was founded by five women with expertise in education and coaching, horses, and mental health, including Kathleen Ingram, to train facilitators in Equine Assisted Qualifications and promote an internationally recognized standard of EBHD facilitators. However, IFEAL is led primarily by one woman, Sun Tui, who was a student of the Epona Approach taught by Kohanov and Ingram.8

SAFE Professionals was established by the same people as IFEAL, to provide EBHD industry clients with a reference list of practitioners whom the organization recognizes as meeting SAFE Professionals’ standards of training and practice. Practitioners pay a fee to apply for the recognition; if granted, they can use the SAFE Professionals brand and logo in their marketing. SAFE Professionals is one response to the lack of an industry-wide registry or governance body that oversees standards of training and practice. As yet, however, neither

IFEAL nor SAFE Professionals have established a large presence in the industry, with only a handful of graduates and recognized practitioners respectively.9

Despite, or perhaps because of, public scepticism about EBHD, industry leaders continue to produce books about their philosophies and practices. In 2010, Klaus Ferdinand

process became official members, this author did not. 2015 Winter/Hivers Newsletter, e-mail newsletter, February 20, 2015, accessed August 12, 2015, http://efwmfccanwinter2015newsletter.weebly.com/. 8 “Apprenticeship Graduates - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed June 1, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/apprenticeship-graduates/; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; “Sun Tui – CEO, Faculty IFEAL Q – IFEAL Consultants & Faculty – About Us – IFEAL,” International Foundation of Equine Assisted Learning | Ifeal.me, last modified 2015, accessed June 21, 2015, http://www.ifeal.me/about/consultants-faculty/sun-tui/; “IFEAL Facilitators – About Us – IFEAL,” International Foundation of Equine Assisted Learning | Ifeal.me, last modified 2015, accessed June 21, 2015, http://www.ifeal.me/about/graduate-facilitators/. 9 “Standards for Assisted & Facilitated Equine Professionals - Welcome to SAFE Professionals,” Standards for Assisted & Facilitated Equine Professionals | Safeprofessionals.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 21, 2015, http://www.safeprofessionals.org/.

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Hempfling published It's Not I Who Seek the Horse, the Horse Seeks Me: My Path to an

Understanding of Equine Body Language.10 In 2011, Dr. Allan J. Hamilton, a tenured professor of neuroscience at the University of Arizona, published Zen Mind, Zen Horse: The Science and

Spirituality of Working with Horses.11 Kohanov published her fourth book, The Power of the

Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, and Innovation in 2013. Like each of Kohanov’s previous books, The Power of the Herd was immediately acclaimed as an industry textbook by many leaders of the field, including Barbara Rector.12 In 2013 as well,

Franklin Levinson published a two part e-book series titled Trust ‘N Horses detailing his ideas about respectful relationships with horses.13

Dr. Hamilton’s Zen Mind, Zen Horse was the first EBHD publication by a professional academic, and it changed the language of the industry, with its extensive insight into how interaction with horses actually and measurably affects humans on a biological and neurological level. Hamilton is not a widely known pioneer in the EBHD industry, but his professional qualifications gave his book the authority that many of the EBHD industry leaders were looking for to gain professional legitimacy and credibility in the health and wellness industry. Hamilton began his neurosurgical residency training at Massachusetts General

Hospital after he received his medical degree from Harvard Medical School in 1982. He has been teaching neurosurgery at the University of Arizona since 1990, and has won several awards for his innovations in the field. Hamilton was inspired by the early leaders of Natural

10 Klaus Ferdinand Hempfling, It is Not I Who Seek the Horse, the Horse Seeks Me (London: Cadmos, 2010). 11 Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse: The Science and Spirituality of Working with Horses, (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011). 12 Linda Kohanov, The Power of the Herd: A Nonpredatory Approach to Social Intelligence, Leadership, And Innovation (Novato, Calif: New World Library, 2013); Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013. 13 Franklin Levinson, Trust ‘N’ Horses, Vol. 1, ebook, (Franklin Levinson, e-book, 2013), accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.wayofthehorse.org/Store/e-books.php; Franklin Levinson, Trust ‘N’ Horses Vol. 2, ebook, (Franklin Levinson, E-book, 2013), accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.wayofthehorse.org/Store/e-books.php.

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Horsemanship and the pioneering EBHD practitioners in Arizona and identified Natural

Horsemanship pioneers and industry leaders Ray Hunt, Monty Roberts, Pat Parelli, and Clinton

Anderson as his teachers and mentors.14

Zen Mind, Zen Horse was published as a popular book, and won the Nautilus Gold

Award in 2012 for Animal/Nature “Books that are Changing the World.” Other winners of this award include spiritual gurus Deepak Chopra, Eckhart Tolle, and His Holiness the Dalai Lama.15

That recognition, and the credentials of the author, helped answer sceptics’ questions about this new entrant in the health and wellness industry. Leaders in the EBHD point to Hamilton’s book and his resume to support their claims about the positive potential of their work with horses.16 Kohanov wrote an advance review of Zen Mind, Zen Horse published on the back cover of the book, describing it as “both practical and profound, offering sound advice for tapping the wisdom of horses as natural mindfulness teachers.” Monty Roberts, “The Man

Who Listens to Horses,” wrote a forward for the book arguing that the value of Hamilton’s insights not only to help people better understand horses, but also to understand how horses

14 “Allan Hamilton - Biography,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/bio.html; “Equine Assisted Therapy,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; “Rancho Bosque Equine Facilitated Learning,” Rancho Bosque Equestrian Center | Ranchobosque.com, last modified 2015, last modified 2015, accessed June 22, 2015, http://www.ranchobosque.com/equine_assisted_learning.html. 15 Allan J. Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, Massachusetts: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011); “The Nautilus Gold Award recognizes distinguished literary contributions that promote spiritual growth, conscious living, high-level wellness, green values, responsible leadership and positive social change...while at the same time stimulating the ‘imagination’ and offering the reader ‘new possibilities’ for a better life and a better world,” from website: “Zen Mind Zen Horse,” Zenmindzenhorse.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 14, 2015, http://www.zenmindzenhorse.com/zenmind.html; Marilyn McGuire, “Award Winning Books that are Changing the World - Nautilus Book Awards,” Nautilus Book Awards, last modified 2015, accessed November 18, 2014, http://www.nautilusbookawards.com/Home.php. 16 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse, 1-28, 108-150, 286-287; “Allan Hamilton - Biography,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/bio.html.

211 are able to help human healing. EBHD pioneer Barbara Rector was also an advocate of the book. With the support of some of the most recognized leaders in both the EBHD and Natural

Horsemanship industries, Hamilton’s work was immediately well received by the revolutionary equine industries and praised for the expert level of support his work contributed to the field.17

Hamilton, working with his wife, Jane, a clinical psychologist with a doctorate in the field, created two innovative EBHD programs for youth in trouble and for cancer sufferers and their families. In their website biographies, the Hamiltons describe developing the largest national equine therapy program for youth rehabilitation in the juvenile justice system in the

USA, operating in six different states with over 200 trained staff and 300 horses.18 In partnership with Sunstone Healing Center, the Hamiltons also developed an EBHD retreat program designed to support and empower cancer patients and their families. The Hamiltons now offer seminars in the USA and internationally on integrating interactive work with horses to aid patients and families fighting cancer.19

17 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse, 1-28, 108-150, 286-287; “Allan Hamilton - Biography,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/bio.html. 18 “Allan Hamilton - Biography,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/bio.html; “Equine Assisted Therapy,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; “Rancho Bosque Equine Facilitated Learning,” Rancho Bosque Equestrian Center | Ranchobosque.com, last modified 2015, last modified 2015, accessed June 22, 2015, http://www.ranchobosque.com/equine_assisted_learning.html. 19 “Allan Hamilton – Biography,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/bio.html; “Equine Assisted Therapy,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; “Rancho Bosque Equine Facilitated Learning,” Rancho Bosque Equestrian Center | Ranchobosque.com, last modified 2015, last modified 2015, accessed June 22, 2015, http://www.ranchobosque.com/equine_assisted_learning.html; Jane Erikson, “Horses Help Heal Cancer Patients & Their Loved Ones,” Oncology Times 27, no. 16 (2005): 36-37, accessed June 18, 2015, http://journals.lww.com/oncology- times/Fulltext/2005/08250/Horses_Help_Heal_Cancer_Patients___Their_Loved.17.aspx, doi: 10.1097/01.COT.0000293139.19904.ee; “Rancho Bosque’s Unique Equine-Facilitated Programs,” Rancho Bosque Equestrian Center | Ranchobosque.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 18, 2015, http://ranchobosque.com/courses.html.

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The Hamiltons also developed educational and therapeutic programs using horses to help a wide variety of healthcare professionals, clients, and medical students. “From Barnyard to Bedside” has been offered by the Drs. Hamilton at the University of Arizona for medical students since 2001. That the Hamiltons offer such programs at an accredited university rather than as a supplement to their private medical careers indicated growing professional acceptance of EBHD. Inclusion of these programs specifically for healthcare professionals at a state university was substantial progress toward recognition of EBHD as a legitimate field of health therapy.20

Public recognition and legitimacy for the growing EBHD industry came as well from the production of three industry-specific documentary films. In 2011 producer Cindy Meehl released Buck, telling the story of natural horseman Buck Brannaman and the revolutionary relationship with horses his methods demonstrate and promote. Buck provides footage of the deep understanding Brannaman gains about horses’ owners by observing the way the animals interact with them. Through firm gentleness and respect, Brannaman helps a series of people to create a relationship with their horses built on genuine partnership, and simultaneously to discover profound and life-changing insights about themselves and the unhealthy patterns in their human-human relationships. Meehl’s documentary highlights the intricate links and overlaps between the EBHD industry and the revolution in Natural Horsemanship from which it

20 “Allan Hamilton - Biography,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/bio.html; “Equine Assisted Therapy,” Allanhamilton.com, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.allanhamilton.com/equine.html; “Rancho Bosque Equine Facilitated Learning,” Rancho Bosque Equestrian Center | Ranchobosque.com, last modified 2015, last modified 2015, accessed June 22, 2015, http://www.ranchobosque.com/equine_assisted_learning.html; Chelsea Rice, “Developing Bedside Manner at the Ranch,” HealthLeaders, 2014, accessed September 28, 2014, http://www.healthleadersmedia.com/content/MAG-300763/Developing-a-Bedside-Manner-at- the-Ranch.

213 drew inspiration. Buck won several documentary awards, including the 2011 Audience Award at the Sundance Film Festival.21

The next year horse-trainer and ex-competitive rider Stormy May released a full-length documentary, The Path of the Horse, online on YouTube, which she had released in 2009 on

DVD. May produced The Path of the Horse to illustrate the prevalence of cruelty and unnecessary force in traditional horsemanship, training, riding lessons, and competitions, and to invite audiences to consider a more respectful alternative. May travelled across the USA and

Europe to learn from many of the leaders of the EBHD industry about their innovative philosophies of human-horse relationship; interviews with Linda Kohanov, Klaus Ferdinand

Hempfling, as well as natural horsemanship trainers Mark Rashid, Carolyn Resnick, and

Alexander Nevzorov comprise most of the film.22 In 2013, Emmy- and Oscar-nominated film director Wayne Ewing created Playing with Magic, a documentary film about the healing effects of interaction with horses based on Dr. Hamilton’s Zen Mind, Zen Horse. The film features the stories of cancer patients, PTSD sufferers, children with autism, and “ordinary” individuals in their processes of healing and self-discovery through working with horses.23

Also of significance to the growing public awareness and interest in the EBHD industry were positive media stories and news articles on the subject of horses and healing. Since 2010 a wealth of EBHD news articles have dealt with the industry’s revolutionary philosophies and the untapped potential for human health, wellness, and development through a new style of interaction and relationship with horses. The industry-related news stories appeared in municipal newspapers, online blogs, national news network products, psychology magazines,

21 Buck, directed by Cindy Meehl (New York, New York: Cedar creek Productions, 2011) DVD. 22 Path of the Horse, directed by Stormy May (North San Juan, California: Stormy May Productions, 2009) DVD. 23 Playing With Magic, DVD (USA: Directed by Wayne Ewing, 2014).

214 horse-industry news networks and magazines, health and wellness industry and lifestyle networks and magazines, and even the business section of the New York Times Magazine.24

Most of these stories recognized that asking the audience to accept horses as therapists, teachers, or professional coaches required people to stretch their thinking. As such,

EBHD-related news stories usually describe first-hand experiences of participation by the reporters themselves, or recounted by interviewees which offer overall positive reviews framed to invite and assist readers to grasp the somewhat unorthodox concepts. Apart from generally positive language throughout industry-related news articles, the choice of words selected for their titles emphasize themes associated with healing, health and wellness, growth potential, success, and general happiness.25

24 Jane Smiley, “Everything I Need to Know I Learned from A Horse,” O: The Oprah Magazine, 2002, accessed August 15, 2014, http://www.oprah.com/spirit/Confronting-Fear-on-Horseback-Jane-Smiley- on-Horses; The Oprah Show, Girl's Getaway, video, n.d., accessed October 17, 2014, http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Horse-Sense-Girls-Getaway-Video; Mike Wise, “Partners, Horse and Man, in Prison Pasture,” The New York Times, 2003, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/10/sports/partners-horse-and-man-in-prison-pasture.html; Tara Bennett-Goleman, “The Horse Sense that Builds Trust,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/27/jobs/the-horse-sense-that-builds-trust.html?_r=0; Pam Frost Gorder, “Caring for Horses Eases Symptoms of Dementia: People with Alzheimer’s Become Calmer, Happier After Grooming Horses,” The Ohio State University News Room, 2014, accessed June 15, 2015, https://news.osu.edu/news/2014/05/05/caring-for-horses-eases-symptoms-of-dementia/; Fran Jurga, “Horsing Around in Childhood Really Can Change Your Life: First Evidence-Based Study to Measure Positive Levels of Stress Hormones in Children in Touch with Horses,” Equus Magazine, 2014, accessed January 18, 2015, http://equusmagazine.com/blog/horsing-childhood-wsu-evidence-cortisol-stress- hormone-16393; Heather Loney, “Equine Therapy Program Launched for RCMP Members with PTSD,” Global News, 2014, accessed May 5, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1565784/equine-therapy- program-launched-for-rcmp-members-with-ptsd/; Heather Loney, “Equine Therapy Program for Veterans with PTSD gets Historic Donation,” Global News, 2014, accessed January 16, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1140045/equine-therapy-program-for-veterans-with-ptsd-gets-historic- donation/. 25 Lauren McComb, “The Healing Power of Equine Therapy,” O, The Oprah Magazine, 2012, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.oprahmag.co.za/live-your-best-life/relationships/the-healing-power-of- equine-therapy; Taffy Brodesser-Akner, “The Merchant of Just Be Happy,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/29/business/the-merchant-of-just-be- happy.html?pagewanted=all; Mia Sheldon, “Equine Therapy a Growing Trend in Treating Mental Health Issues,” Global News, 2014, accessed January 18, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1102175/equine- therapy-a-growing-trend-in-treating-mental-health-issues/; Martha Terry, “New Research Shows that Horses Make Us Happy,” Horse & Hound, 2014, accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.horseandhound.co.uk/news/horses-make-us-happy-431143; Jessica Mador, “Victims of

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Many of the EBHD-specific news stories were inspired by an individual’s or family’s breakthrough, a particular organization’s program, or newly released research about the field.

Whether informing the local public or international audience, EBHD media coverage tended to be written as good-news stories. While some reporters admit personal scepticism about looking to horses for human development, they nevertheless incorporated comments or perspectives from individuals with first-hand experience participating in EBHD activities which are invariably positive.

Popular topics included at-risk and anti-bullying programs for youth, or feel-good success stories about individuals overcoming trauma or addictions, especially military veterans and their families receiving support for PTSD. Youth-specific EBHD programs range from single- session experiences to weekly after-school programs and immersive enrichment camps. These tend to prioritize developing interpersonal skills, self-confidence, and leadership experience for youth, and commonly incorporate promotional buzz-words like ‘anti-bullying’ when marketing

Sexual Trauma Harness the Calming Power of Horses,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 18, 2015, http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/22/victims-of-sexual-trauma-harness-the-calming- power-of-horses/; Psychiatric News, “Therapy with Horses Appears to Lessen Violent Incidents,” 2014, accessed January 18, 2015, http://alert.psychnews.org/2014/10/therapy-with-horses-appears-to- lessen.html; Care 2, “Horses Have a Miraculous Effect on People with Alzheimer’s,” 2014, accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.care2.com/greenliving/horses-have-a-miraculous-effect-on-people-with- alzheimers.html; Emma Innes, “Why Horsing Around is Good for You: Spending Time Around Stables Proven to Reduce Stress,” Daily Mail UK, 2014, accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2613211/Spending-time-horses-make-teenagers-stressed- study-reveals.html; The Mental Health Hub, “‘Horsing Around’ Reduces Stress Hormones in Youth,” 2014, accessed June 6, 2015, https://www.mhhub.com/archives/category/treatments/equine- facilitated-psychotherapy; Bill Finley, “Horse Therapy for the Troubled,” The New York Times, 2008, accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/09horsenj.html; Tara Parker-Pope, “Healing Autism with Horses,” The New York Times, 2009, accessed January 16, 2015, http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/04/14/healing-autism-with-horses/; The Top 2 Alternative Treatments, video (The Dr. Oz Show, 2010); Erika Allen, “Finding Inner Peace, Not Your Inner Cowgirl,” The New York Times, 2012, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/fashion/more-spas-offer-equine- therapy.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

216 the activities or describing their benefits to reporters.26 As well, special remedial-behaviour curricula and addictions-treatment initiatives which engage horses, offered as innovative programs in partnership with associated institutions, frequently generate hopeful news stories.

Similarly, news stories routinely celebrate EBHD programs providing specialized services for victims of trauma or PTSD, especially military veterans. Such stories often feature reporters emphasizing either new funding provided for such programs, or participants’ need for such funding for ongoing access to programs.27

Other profiles focused on experiential learning strategies of corporate executives applying “Horse Wisdom” to boardroom leadership. These news stories often describe the importance of leadership skills, non-verbal communication, teamwork, and other soft-skills to business success and highlight the apparent difficulties many corporations experience developing such skills among their employees and executives. EBHD programs designed for

26 Yahoo News, Finance, “Garfield Park Academy: Anti-Bullying Message Moves from the Schoolyard to the Barnyard, as Horses Help Disabled Students Learn Compassion and Problem-Solving,” 2012, accessed January 16, 2015, http://finance.yahoo.com/news/garfield-park-academy-anti-bullying-145336701.html; Marcya Roberts, “Equine Anti-Bullying Youth Program Takes Off in Central Jersey,” Examiner, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.examiner.com/article/equine-anti-bullying-youth-program- takes-off-central-jersey; Dayton Daily News, “Bullying Victims May Find Solace in Horse Therapy,” 2014, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.wsoctv.com/videos/news/bullying-victims-may-find-solace-in- horse-therapy/v7wdg/. 27 Joel Senick, “Horses Can Make Difference in Addictions Therapy,” Global News, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1044791/horses-can-make-difference-in-addictions- therapy/; How Horses Help an Army Veteran Heal from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, video (OWN, Super Soul Sunday: www.oprah.com/own-super-soul-sunday/How-Horses-Help-an-Army-Veteran-Heal- from-PTSD-Video, 2013); Drew Brooks, “Equine-Assisted Therapy Helps Soldiers Deal with PTSD,” Fay Observer, 2014, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.fayobserver.com/news/local/article_ab1e9595- 542d-5cc7-9e32-858fc8de427f.html?TNNoMobile; Lisa Black, “Miniature Horses, Major Hopes,” Chicago Tribune Business News, 2012, accessed January 16, 2015, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-12- 30/news/ct-met-miniature-horse-therapy-20121230_1_miniature-horses-pet-partners-mane; Heather Loney, “Equine Therapy Program for Veterans with PTSD gets Historic Donation,” Global News, 2014, accessed January 16, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1140045/equine-therapy-program-for-veterans- with-ptsd-gets-historic-donation/; Heather Loney, “Equine Therapy Program Launched for RCMP Members with PTSD,” Global News, 2014, accessed May 5, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1565784/equine-therapy-program-launched-for-rcmp-members-with-ptsd/; Kadi Hodges, “Horses Help Break Through,” Tribute Business News, 2006. Lisa Black, "Miniature Horses, Major Hopes," McClatchy - Tribune Business News, December 30, 2012; Kadi Hodges, "Horses Help Break through," McClatchy - Tribune Business News, July 16, 2006.

217 business are often featured in special-interest pieces depicting a novel approach to skill- training and depict a romanticized narrative of humble but heroic ‘cowboy culture.’28

As well, the growing body of professional research on the various measurable benefits of using horses in human therapy informed news stories about innovation in various sectors.

The overarching pattern of EBHD-specific news stories showed the growing but still limited amount of scientific research backing the young industry, perpetuating the larger social trend to remain cautiously optimistic until further scientific evidence provided proof or new philosophies or social paradigms.

While a significant body of research now exists about the broad field of Animal

Assisted Therapy (AAT), and especially about the therapeutic value of canine programs, scholarly literature specifically dedicated to EBHD is beginning to expand now as well. Some

EBHD related research focuses on the welfare or behaviour of the horses involved29, but much of the scholarly research to date dedicated to EBHD has been conducted by social scientists, particularly from the fields of psychology and sociology, and by people in the nursing

28 Tara Bennett-Goleman, “The Horse Sense that Builds Trust,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/27/jobs/the-horse-sense-that-builds- trust.html?_r=0; Taffy Brodesser-Akner, “The Merchant of Just Be Happy,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/29/business/the-merchant-of-just-be- happy.html?pagewanted=all. 29 K. Merkies, Sievers A., Zakrajsek E., MacGregor H., Bergeron B., and König von Borstel U, “Preliminary Results Suggest an Influence of Psychological and Physiological Arousal in Humans on Horse Heart Rate and Behaviour,” Journal of Veterinary Behaviour 9, (2014): 242-247; Linda Keeling, Liv Jonare, and Lovisa Lanneborn, “Investigating Horse–Human Interactions: The Effect of a Nervous Human,” The Veterinary Journal 181, (2009): 70–71; K. Merkies, H. MacGregor, M. Ouimette, E. Bogart, and K. Miraglia, “Does the Human Voice Have a Calming Effect on Horses?” Abstracts / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 33, (2013): 368; Fureix, Carole, Magali Pagès, Richard Bon, Jean-Michel Lassalle, Philippe Kuntz, Georges Gonzalez, “A Preliminary Study of the Effects of Handling Type on Horses’ Emotional Reactivity and the Human–Horse Relationship,” Behavioural Processes 82, (2009): 202–210; Marsha K. Anderson, Ted H. Friend, J. Warren Evans, and Diana M. Bushong, “Behavioral Assessment of Horses in Therapeutic Riding Programs,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 63, (1999): 11–24; Lynda Birke, Jo Hockenhull, Emma Creighton, Lisa Pinno, Jenny Mee, and Daniel Mills, “Horses’ Responses to Variation in Human Approach,” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 134, (2011): 56– 63; Esterina Fazio, Pietro Medica, Cristina Cravana, and Adriana Ferlazzo, “Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Responses of Horses to Therapeutic Riding Program: Effects of Different Riders,” Physiology & Behavior 118 (2013): 138-143.

218 profession.30 A growing volume of research articles, master’s theses, and doctoral dissertations in psychology and education are being written at universities around Canada and the USA especially.31

Research conducted about the EBHD industry to date examines its impact in various contexts. Consideration of programs designed to treat military veterans and service professionals suffering from PTSD represents one of the largest and fastest growing topics of study. Researchers are also examining the value of engaging horses in prison and probation systems in an effort to reduce incarceration recidivism – along the lines of earlier initiatives featuring canine training and horticulture programs. Ongoing exploration of EBHD programs continues in addictions and eating disorder treatment centers and youth-behavioural remediation institutions. Anti-bullying and violence-prevention programs incorporating EBHD

30 Maureen Vidrine, Patty Owen-Smith, and Priscilla Falkner, “Equine-Facilitated Group Psychotherapy: Applications for Therapeutic Vaulting,” Issues in Mental Health Nursing 23, no. 6 (2002): 587-603; G. Donaghy, “Equine Assisted Therapy,” Journal of Mental Health Nursing 26, no. 4 (2006): 5; A. Bates, “Of Patients & Horses. Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy,” Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services 40, no. 5 (2002): 16-19; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 65-67, 162-163. 31 Barbara Newell Abrams, “'Exploring Therapists' Conceptions Of Equine Facilitated/Assisted Psychotherapy For Combat Veterans Experiencing Posttraumatic Stress Disorder” (Ph.D, Northcentral University, 2013); Pamela A. Kachelmeier, “Starting an Equine-Assisted Program: An Investigative Study into the Creation of an Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy or Learning Business” (Master's Thesis, Prescott College, 2009); Robin E. Johnsons, “Horses in Therapy: An Exploration of the Treatment of Trauma Using Equine Assisted Therapies” (Master's Thesis, Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2013); Julia Devine, “The Effect of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy on Coping Resiliency” (Master's Thesis, Prescott College, 2009); Deborah L. Frame, “Practices of Therapists Using Equine Facilitated/Assisted Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Adolescents Diagnosed with Depression: A Qualitative Study” (Ph.D Dissetation, New York University, School of Social Work, 2006); A. Hayden, “An Exploration of the Experiences of Adolescents Who Participated in Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy: A Resiliency Perspective” (Doctoral Dissertation, Alliant International University, 2005); Maia Camilla Jordhøy, “Horse Assisted Therapy and Self-Esteem - The Impact of Horse Assisted Therapy on Self-Esteem: A Study Involving Youth in Treatment for Substance Use Disorder” (Master’s Thesis, University of Oslo, 2014); Bettina Noel Shultz, “The Effects of Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy on the Psychosocial Functioning of At-Risk Adolescents Ages 12-18” (Master's Thesis, Denver Seminary, 2005); S. M. Taylor, “Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy: An Emerging Field” (Master's Thesis, Saint Michael’s College, 2001); J. Tramutt, “Opening the Gate: Cultivating Self- Awareness and Self-Acceptance through Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy” (Master's Thesis, Naropa University, 2003); Kimberly Wallis, “The Effectiveness of an Equine Assisted Mental Health Practice for Military Veterans with Combat Experience” (Master's Thesis, Prescott College, 2009); Carolyn Willekes, “From the Steppe to the Stable: Horses and Horsemanship in the Ancient World” (PhD Dissertation, University of Calgary, 2013).

219 increasingly attract consideration from education and mental-health researchers. As well, researchers have begun to investigate EBHD’s potential to increase the confidence of women seeking employment, reduce stress and increase general mental health and wellness. Most recently, university research initiatives have begun collecting data on the potential of EBHD activities to treat seniors suffering from Alzheimer’s disease and dementia.32

The growth of EBHD industry research across several disciplines calls attention to the broad impact and potential of the field, as well as the scope of its social significance more generally. EBHD research articles range from broad theoretical overviews of the educational or therapeutic processes of the industry to carefully crafted experimental studies designed to identify or measure the benefits received by human participants in EBHD activities, such as improved confidence, self-esteem, emotional state or attitude, and overall quality of life. Other

32 Evelyne Chardonnens, "The Use of Animals as Co-Therapists on a Farm: The Child Horse Bond in Person-Centered Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy," Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies, 8, no. 4 (2009): 319-332; Judy L. Cushing, James D. Williams and Robert F. Kronick, “The Wild Mustang Program,” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 22, no. 3-4 (1995): 95-112; Colleen Anne Dell et al., “A Healing Space: The Experiences of First Nations and Inuit Youth with Equine-Assisted Learning (EAL),” Child Youth Care Forum 40, no. 4 (2011): 319-336; Carrie A. Ewing et al., “Equine-Facilitated Learning for Youths with Severe Emotional Disorders: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study,” Child Youth Care Forum 36, no. 1 (2007): 59-72; M. Bowers and P. MacDonald, “The Effectiveness of Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy with At-Risk Adolescents,” Journal of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, no. 15 (2001): 62-76; Hannah Louise Burgon, “‘Queen of the World’: Experiences Of ‘At-Risk’ Young People Participating in Equine-Assisted Learning/Therapy,” Journal of Social Work Practice 25, no. 02 (2011): 165-183; C. Dell et al., “Horse as Healer: An Examination of Equine Assisted Learning in the Healing of First Nations Youth from Solvent Abuse,” Pimatisiwin: A Journal of Aboriginal and Indigenous Community Health 6, no. 1 (2008): 81-106; Janet Froeschle, "Empowering Abused Women through Equine Assisted Career Therapy," Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 4, no. 2 (2009): 180-190; Anna Cantin and Sylvie Marshall-Lucette, “Examining the Literature on the Efficacy of Equine Assisted Therapy for People with Mental Health and Behavioural Disorders,” Mental Health and Learning Disabilities Research and Practice 8, no. 1 (2011): 51-61; A. Hayden, “An Exploration of the Experiences of Adolescents Who Participated in Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy: A Resiliency Perspective” (PhD Dissertation, Alliant International University, 2005); Maia Camilla Jordhøy, “Horse Assisted Therapy and Self-Esteem - The Impact of Horse Assisted Therapy on Self-Esteem: A Study Involving Youth in Treatment for Substance Use Disorder” (Master’s Thesis, University of Oslo, 2014); Bettina Noel Shultz, “The Effects of Equine- Assisted Psychotherapy on the Psychosocial Functioning of At-Risk Adolescents Ages 12-18” (Master's Thesis, Denver Seminary, 2005); J. Tramutt, “Opening The Gate: Cultivating Self-Awareness and Self- Acceptance through Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy” (Master's Thesis, Naropa University, 2003); Kimberly Wallis, “The Effectiveness of an Equine Assisted Mental Health Practice for Military Veterans with Combat Experience” (Master's Thesis, Prescott College, 2009).

220 studies consider effects on anxiety, respect, communication, social interaction, behavioural control, and even personal accountability. Many of these studies examine emotional-bonding between the horse(s) and human(s) participating in the interactive engagements. In general, such studies fit within the larger field of AAT research; while they focus specifically on the employment of horses in the various processes, they make little or no distinction between horses and other domesticated animals used for therapy.33

The methodologies employed in EBHD research studies vary. Some studies employ one-time interviews and self-reflections provided by EBHD client participants, often finding positive perceptions of people’s engagement in activities with horses.34 Others measure the effects of EBHD processes on clients over time during consistent interactions with horses.

Shultz, Remick-Barlow, and Robbins (2007), for example, determined that a series of Equine-

Assisted Psychotherapy sessions resulted in statistically significant improvements in Global

Assessment of Functioning scores among children, especially among younger children and those who had experienced abuse or neglect.35 Others still, focused on measuring the long-

33 Jan Yorke, Cindy Adams and Nick Coady, “Therapeutic Value of Equine–Human Bonding in Recovery from Trauma,” Anthrozoos 21, no. 1 (2008): 17-30; Julia Devine, “The Effect of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy on Coping Resiliency” (Master’s Thesis, Prescott College, 2009); Kimberly Wallis, “The Effectiveness of an Equine Assisted Mental Health Practice for Military Veterans with Combat Experience,” (Master's Thesis, Prescott College, 2009); Bettina Noel Shultz, “The Effects of Equine- Assisted Psychotherapy on the Psychosocial Functioning of At-Risk Adolescents Ages 12-18,” (Master’s thesis, Denver Seminary, 2005); Pamela N. Schultz, G. Ann Remick-Barlow, and Leslie Robbins., "Equine- Assisted Psychotherapy: A Mental Health Promotion/Intervention Modality for Children who have Experienced Intra-Family Violence," Health & Social Care in the Community, 15 no. 3 (2007): 265-271; T. Bexson, "Talking Horses: the Benefits of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy," Mental Health Today Brighton, February (2008): 16-17; M. Bowers and P. MacDonald, “The Effectiveness of Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy with At-Risk Adolescents,” Journal of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, 15 (2001): 62- 76. 34 Keren Bachi, “Application of Attachment Theory to Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy,” Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy 43, no. 3 (2013): 187-196. 35 Angela Masini, “Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy in Clinical Practice,” Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services 48, no. 10 (2010): 30-34; Kay Sudekum Trotter et al., “A Comparative Study of the Efficacy of Group Equine Assisted Counseling with At-Risk Children and Adolescents,” Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 3, no. 3 (2008): 254-284; S. Kelly, “Horses for Courses: Exploring the Limits of Leadership Development through Equine-Assisted Learning,” Journal of Management Education 38, no. 2 (2013): 216-233; Pamela N. Schultz, G. Ann Remick-Barlow, and Leslie Robbins., "Equine-Assisted

221 term and sustained effects of EBHD months after the equine therapy sessions had ended.

Studies such as those by Ewing et al (2007) and Kemp et al (2014) measured the impacts of multi-year EBHD programs and varied timeline assessments among children and youth and found notable and statistically significant benefits persisting well after final EBHD sessions occurred.36 Each such strategy provides unique insights and metrics of evaluation about the efficacy of the field. While some scholars report more confidence than others in the quality of their conclusions, almost all studies published to date include a statement suggesting that more research and repeated results are necessary before any benefits associated with EBHD can be definitively demonstrated.37 A meta-analysis of equine-specific programs and therapies

Psychotherapy: A Mental Health Promotion/Intervention Modality for Children who have Experienced Intra-Family Violence," Health & Social Care in the Community, 15 no. 3 (2007): 265-271; Julia Devine, “The Effect of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy on Coping Resiliency” (Master's Thesis, Prescott College, 2009). 36 Carrie A. Ewing et al., “Equine-Facilitated Learning for Youths with Severe Emotional Disorders: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study,” Child Youth Care Forum 36, no. 1 (2007): 59-72; Kathleen Kemp, Tania Signal, Helena Botros, Nik Taylor, and Kathy Prentice. "Equine Facilitated Therapy with children and adolescents who have been sexually abused: A program evaluation study." Journal of child and family studies 23, no. 3 (2014): 558-566; Robin E. Johnsons, “Horses in Therapy: An Exploration of the Treatment of Trauma Using Equine Assisted Therapies” (Master's Thesis, Pacifica Graduate Institute, 2013); K. Bachi, J. Terkel and M. Teichman, “Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy for At-Risk Adolescents: The Influence on Self-Image, Self-Control and Trust,” Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17, no. 2 (2011): 298-312. 37 Deborah L. Frame, “Practices of Therapists Using Equine Facilitated/Assisted Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Adolescents Diagnosed with Depression: A Qualitative Study” (Ph.D Dissetation, New York University, School of Social Work, 2006); T. Bexson, "Talking Horses: the Benefits of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy," Mental Health Today Brighton, February (2008): 16-17; M. Bowers and P. MacDonald, “The Effectiveness of Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy with At-Risk Adolescents,” Journal of Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, 15 (2001): 62-76; Michael D. Anestis et al., “Equine-Related Treatments for Mental Disorders Lack Empirical Support: A Systematic Review of Empirical Investigations,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 70, no. 12 (2014): 1115-1132; Keren Bachi, “Equine-Facilitated Psychotherapy: The Gap between Practice and Knowledge,” Society & Animals 20, no. 4 (2012): 364-380; E. L. Berg and A. Causey, “The Life-Changing Power of the Horse: Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies in the U.S.,” Animal Frontiers 4, no. 3 (2014): 72-75; Alex Bivens et al., “The Effectiveness of Equine-Assisted Experiential Therapy: Results of an Open Clinical Trial,” Society & Animals 15, no. 3 (2007): 257-267; K. Frewin and B. Gardiner, “New Age or Old Sage: A Review of Equine Assisted Psychotherapy,” The Australian Journal of Counselling Psychology, no. 6 (2005): 13-17; Siv Grethe Johansen et al., “Equine- Facilitated Body and Emotion-Oriented Psychotherapy Designed for Adolescents and Adults Not Responding to Mainstream Treatment: A Structured Program,” Journal of Psychotherapy Integration 24, no. 4 (2014): 323-335; J. A. Lentini and Michele Knox, “A Qualitative and Quantitative Review of Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP) with Children and Adolescents,” TOALTMEDJ 1, no. 1 (2009): 51-57; Pamela N. Schultz, G. Ann Remick-Barlow and Leslie Robbins, “Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy: A Mental

222 like Nimer and Lundahl’s, (2007) thorough assessment of animal-assisted therapies more generally, would be a valuable contribution to the literature. Nimer and Lundahl found that overall effectiveness trends reported by AAT studies demonstrates highest value for human participants in Autism Spectrum treatments, low to moderate value for improving general well- being, and consistently moderate value in behavioural and medical treatments. As well, the study’s data indicate that the type of animal engaged in AAT sessions may be irrelevant to the human-health outcomes, which might suggest the subfield of EBHD may remain separate from

AAT more generally as a matter of marketing novelty than unique value. Significantly, their findings indicate that studies could be grouped together for more robust results, and that studies without a control group were just as efficacious as those with a control group. So it may be viable to begin utilizing existing data and studies to make larger assumptions about the benefits of EBHD (and related fields). However, this meta-analysis determined itself to be best utilized as a tool to generate further queries into the efficacy of the large field of AAT more so than it can be reliably used to arrive at any definitive answers.38

While the quantity of research about the potential human benefits of EBHD remains scant, even fewer studies consider or assess its impacts on the industry’s equine participants.

Merkies et al (2014) observed the equine response to variations in human emotional and physical states in a round-pen environment. This study found that horses actually appear more relaxed in proximity to psychologically and physically stressed humans than calm ones, indicating inexperienced and nervous people are not likely to cause any increased risk in

Health Promotion/Intervention Modality for Children who have Experienced Intra-Family Violence,” Health & Social Care in the Community 15, no. 3 (2006): 265-271; Alison Selby and Alexa Smith-Osborne, “A Systematic Review of Effectiveness of Complementary and Adjunct Therapies and Interventions Involving Equines,” Health Psychology 32, no. 4 (2013): 418. 38 Janelle Nimer and Brad Lundahl, "Animal-Assisted Therapy: A Meta-Analysis," Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of the Interactions of People & Animals 20, no. 3 (2007): 225-238.

223 supervised interactions with horses.39 In February 2016, a study out of the University of Sussex found that horses responded differently to photos of humans expressing anger compared to those expressing happiness. This study was the first to consider such equine perception.40 As well, Heleski et al (2015) considered the impact of soothing voice sounds in efforts to train horses to complete frightening tasks. This study observed the responses of 100 horses and determined that the authors’ hypothesis, that soothing vocal cues would calm the horses and help them complete a frightening task more quickly, to be false within the parameters of their study.41 However, Merkies et al (2013) found that draft horses at liberty in a round-pen environment did respond more favorably to the sound of recorded pleasant human voices rather than stern ones.42 Clearly additional studies are required to increase our understanding of the effectiveness of human-horse relationship interactions but the nascent literature demonstrates the potential for scientific research to provide important insight into the perception and experience of horses engaged in EBHD (and other) activities.

While many proponents of EBHD believe, and make claims, that the industry’s activities are also beneficial, or at least enjoyable, for the horses involved, surprisingly little appears to be done to ensure that this is the case. Most EBHD practitioners and organizations claim equine safety and welfare are among their top priorities, yet few follow guidelines above and beyond individual opinion and discretion, much less observe any professionally conceived

39 Katrina Merkies et al., "Preliminary Results Suggest an Influence of Psychological and Physiological Stress in Humans on Horse Heart Rate and Behavior." Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 9, no. 5 (2014): 242-247. 40 Amy Victoria Smith et al., "Functionally Relevant Responses to Human Facial Expressions of Emotion in the Domestic Horse (Equus Caballus)," Biology Letters 12, no. 2 (2016): 20150907. 41 Camie Heleski et al., "Do Soothing Vocal Cues Enhance Horses' Ability to Learn a Frightening Task?", Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 10, no. 1 (2015): 41-47. 42 K. Merkies et al., "Does the Human Voice Have a Calming Effect on Horses?" Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 33, no. 5 (2013): 368; K. Merkies, et al., “Proceedings of the 9th International Equitation Science Conference,” Delaware, USA, (2013): 33.

224 or formal policy.43 This discrepancy is a weakness of the industry, and one that continued professionalization will hopefully remedy.

While research into how EBHD “works”, namely how it might benefit human participants, is increasingly in demand from both industry practitioners and outside observers, research considering the equine experience or welfare related to EBHD and similar practices could also provide valuable insight and understanding about the practices. Such research is currently even more limited than that dedicated to understanding the human psychology involved, but a few scholars have conducted preliminary inquiries in studies with a small sample size. Publications by Chamove, Crawley-Hartrick, and Stafford (2002), Fazio et al.

(2013), Hama, Yogo, and Matsuyama (1996), Gehrke, Baldwin, and Shultz (2011), and Hatch

(2007), for example, call attention to the importance of thorough investigation of the equine side of the equation, especially considering the potential welfare implications of these emerging practices.44

In their recent study, Chamove, Crawley-Hartrick, and Stafford (2002) observed the effects of different human attitudes and behaviours on a horse’s behavioural response. The study tasked some 40 veterinary students (individually) with leading the same horse through a single obstacle course. Variations in the students’ approach to the horse and the task, such as

43 Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013. 44 A.S. Chamove, O. J. E. Crawley-Hartrick and K. J. Stafford, "Horse Reactions to Human Attitudes and Behaviour," Anthrozoos 15 (2002): 323-331; Esterina Fazio et al., "Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Responses of Horses to Therapeutic Riding Program: Effects of Different Riders," Physiology & Behavior 118 (2013): 138-143; Ellen Kaye Gehrke, Ann Baldwin and Patric M. Schiltz, "Heart Rate Variability in Horses Engaged in Equine-Assisted Activities," Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31, no. 2 (2011): 78- 84; Haruyo Hama, Masao Yogo and Yoshinori Matsuyama, "Effects of Stroking Horses on Both Humans' and Horses' Heart Rate Responses," Japanese Psychological Research 38, no. 2 (1996): 66-73; Alison Hatch, "The View from All Fours: A Look at an Animal-Assisted Activity Program from the Animals' Perspective," Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of the Interactions of People & Animals 20, no. 1 (2007): 37-50.

225 their confidence in the interaction, generated observable differences in handling techniques and, subsequently, the horse’s behaviour during participation. More confident students demonstrated a tendency toward more relaxed handling techniques, such as application of less tension on the lead line attached to the horse. As a result, researchers observed more willing and relaxed behavioural responses from the participant horse correlating with its engagement with more confident handlers. The study invites further investigation into the effects of human attitudes on their own handling behaviours and the related behavioural responses of the horses with which they engage.45

Fazio et al (2013) conducted a small sample study investigating the responses of therapeutic riding horses to different types of riders, namely physically healthy riders and riders with psycho-motor disabilities. The study tested a variety of the horses’ biological indicators of stress level before and at 5 minute and 30 minute intervals after brief and non- physically strenuous riding sessions. Most of the tested indicators showed no significant differences, excepting the horses’ cortisol levels. In this study, horses’ cortisol levels measured lower after therapeutic riding sessions than they did after riding sessions with healthy riders.

The authors note that the small number of horses included in this study, and the lack of multiple specific indicators and variations prevent any conclusive assumptions from being made as a result. However, they note that further research into the equine endocrine system may be useful in understanding the effects different riders may, or may not, have on their mounts and related welfare considerations of therapeutic and recreational horsemanship practices.46

45 A.S. Chamove, O. J. E. Crawley-Hartrick and K. J. Stafford, "Horse Reactions to Human Attitudes and Behaviour," Anthrozoos 15 (2002): 323-331. 46 Esterina Fazio et al., "Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Responses of Horses to Therapeutic Riding Program: Effects of Different Riders," Physiology & Behavior 118 (2013): 138-143.

226

Hama, Yogo, and Matsuyama (1996) measured the heart rates of people before and during the activity of stroking horses, as well as measuring the heart rate of the horses being stroked. Human participants were grouped by their attitude about horses; either positive, extremely negative, or neutral. The sample sizes involved in this study were too small to generate statistically significant conclusions, but the researchers observed an interesting collection of patterns. Human participant heart-rates tended to increase for ten seconds after beginning to stroke horses, and then decrease to a level indicative of relaxation. The authors were especially interested in this observation among the participants with extremely negative attitudes toward the horses, as their heart-rates spiked higher than the other two groups during the first ten seconds of stroking, and then decreased to levels which matched the other groups. Furthermore, this study observed that the horses being stroked experienced increased heart-rate for the first twenty seconds of stroking, but only when stroked by participants from the extremely negative attitude group. Observations from this study indicate further exploration of touch-based interaction between people and companion animals may inform understanding of the affectional relationship between humans and companion animals, as well as the experience and welfare of animals involved.47

Gehrke, Baldwin, and Shiltz, (2011) studied heart-rate in horses engaged in equine- assisted therapy activities in consideration of stress indication and as a basis from which psychological and behavioural assessment metrics could be developed for determining short and long-term consequences of EBHD-type activities on horses, as well as suitability of individual horses for such work. The study only included nine horses and consequently provides no conclusive results, but its observations indicate heart-rate variability to be a dynamic method of monitoring physiological responses in horses in a manner which is easily

47 Haruyo Hama, Masao Yogo and Yoshinori Matsuyama, "Effects of Stroking Horses on Both Humans' and Horses' Heart Rate Responses," Japanese Psychological Research 38, no. 2 (1996): 66-73.

227 relatable to similar human indicators. As such, the authors propose further investigation of heart-rate variability among horses participating in EBHD-type work in effort to improve understanding about the human-horse interaction occurring at a physiological level in these activities. As well, such studies could provide important insight into the effects of EBHD-type activities on participant equines’ experiences and welfare, which may, in turn, contribute to the claims and popular appeal of the industry.48

Still, existing research dedicated to understanding the perspective or experience of the animal participants in EBHD and, more generally, Animal Assisted Therapy practices remains scant in contrast with the more prominent, human-centric, interest in understanding what such engagement with non-human animals can do for the humans involved. While these industries’ practitioners almost unanimously describe their practices as being enjoyable or beneficial for the animals engaged, some scholars caution this may not be the case. Allison

Hatch’s, The View from All Fours: A Look at an Animal-Assisted Activity Programs from the

Animals’ Perspective (2007), for example, raises welfare concerns for animals engaged in at least one animal-shelter based AAT program, and calls for further critical evaluation to be conducted on related practices more broadly. Clearly, the expanding practice of engaging non- human animals remains widely mysterious in terms of understanding its effects in spite of its ever-increasing popular appeal. Further research, in just about any, if not every direction, is necessary to better quantify and qualify the real scope and potential, both positive and negative, of these new developments.49

48 Ellen Kaye Gehrke, Ann Baldwin and Patric M. Schiltz, "Heart Rate Variability in Horses Engaged in Equine-Assisted Activities," Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 31, no. 2 (2011): 78-84. 49 Alison Hatch, "The View from All Fours: A Look at an Animal-Assisted Activity Program from the Animals' Perspective," Anthrozoos: A Multidisciplinary Journal of the Interactions of People & Animals 20, no. 1 (2007): 37-50.

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In order to establish quality equine safety and welfare protocols, and ensure good horsemanship skills of its practitioners, the EBHD industry would be well served by thorough exploration and integration of the important research produced by the emerging field of

Equitation Science. This area of study specializes in the consideration of equine behaviour, cognitive ability, and welfare. Its scholars diligently design experiments to observe and test the behaviors and cognition of horses, particularly in relation to how they learn, such that their studies may inform and improve equestrians’ understanding, treatment, and training of horses, with special attention to the risks associated with the common equestrian practice of anthropomorphism.50 For example, Lovrovich, Sighieri, and Baragli (2015) investigated equine ability to understand, remember, and utilize human cues or direction in delayed intervals, finding that horses are capable of remembering such cues but also that they exhibit strategic choice behaviour related to when they utilize those cues.51 DeAraugo et al (2014) produced an interesting preliminary study about the differences between choice of training methods used in

50 Jack Murphy and Sean Arkins, "Equine Learning Behaviour," Behavioural Processes 76, no. 1 (2007): 1- 13; C.J. Nicol, "Equine Learning: Progress and Suggestions for Future Research," Applied Animal Behaviour Science 78, no. 2-4 (2002): 193-208; Marc Pierard, et al., "Evolving Protocols for Research in Equitation Science," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 10, no. 3 (2015): 255-266; "Synthesizing What We Know of Equine Learning Behaviour," Behavioural Processes 76, no. 1 (2007): 57-60; Shigeru Watanabe, "How Animal Psychology Contributes to Animal Welfare," Applied Animal Behaviour Science 106, no. 4 (2007): 193-202; P. D. McGreevy, et al., "The Horse-Human Dyad: Can We Align Horse Training and Handling Activities with the Equid Social Ethogram?" The Veterinary Journal 181, no. 1 (2009): 12-18; Paul D. McGreevy and Andrew N. McLean, "Punishment in Horse- Training and the Concept of Ethical Equitation", Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 4, no. 5 (2009): 193-197; Paul D. McGreevy and Andrew N. McLean, "Roles of Learning Theory and Ethology in Equitation," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 2, no. 4 (2007): 108-118; Paul D. McGreevy, "The Advent of Equitation Science," The Veterinary Journal 174, no. 3 (2007): 492-500; Andrew N. McLean and Paul D. McGreevy, "Ethical Equitation: Capping the Price Horses Pay for Human Glory," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 5, no. 4 (2010): 203-209; Andrew N. McLean and Paul D. McGreevy, "Horse-Training Techniques that May Defy the Principles of Learning Theory and Compromise Welfare," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 5, no. 4 (2010): 187-195; Paul McGreevy and Andrew McLean, Equitation Science, (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell), 2010; Nicholas Epley, Adam Waytz, and John T. Cacioppo. "On Seeing Human: A Three-Factor Theory of Anthropomorphism". Psychological Review 114, no. 4 (2007): 864-886. 51 Paola Lovrovich, Claudio Sighieri, and Paolo Baragli, "Following Human-Given Cues or Not? Horses (Equus Caballus) get Smarter and Change Strategy in a Delayed Three Choice Task," Applied Animal Behaviour Science 166 (2015): 80-88.

229 relation to humans’ attachment to the horse(s) they work with, inviting further research into the horse-human relationship and attachment theory.52 Further, Williams et al (2004) explored the efficacy of “clicker training” to conditioning horses. In their study of 60 horses, no significant difference in learning was observable between those exposed to a primary and secondary reinforcer (clicker) and those with only the primary reinforcer.53 Most studies in the field utilize measures of data from observable equine behaviour such as body language

(posture, pace, directional focus, etc.), heart rate monitors, or swab analyses of salivary cortisol, or some combination of these, enabling their experiments to be repeatable and metrics of conclusion to remain objective.54 Incorporating such scientific insight and understanding into the treatment and engagement of horses in EBHD activities, and any performance expectations related thereto, would strengthen the field and significantly enhance the legitimacy of equine welfare assurances offered by industry practitioners.

Equitation Science is a fascinating and tremendously valuable research for the continued development of the EBHD industry, but it remains sadly overlooked by many EBHD practitioners. Given its relative newness as a field, such research has not significantly informed the EBHD industry’s development. A few related publications appeared in the 1990s, but the field of Equitation Science really only formalized around 2005 with its first annual international

52 Jodi DeAraugo, et al. "Training Methodologies Differ with the Attachment of Humans to Horses," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 9, no. 5 (2014): 235-241. 53 Williams, J.L., T.H. Friend, C.H. Nevill, and G. Archer. "The Efficacy of a Secondary Reinforcer (Clicker) During Acquisition and Extinction of an Operant Task in Horses". Applied Animal Behaviour Science 88, no. 3-4 (2004): 331-341. 54 Melissa Starling, Andrew McLean, and Paul McGreevy, "The Contribution of Equitation Science to Minimising Horse-Related Risks to Humans," Animals 6, no. 3 (2016): 15; Hayley Randle and Lisa Ashton, "Equitation Science in the Tertiary Education Sector," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 5, no. 4 (2010): 212; Hayley Randle, "Equitation Science: Principles and Practice of Science at Work". Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 8, no. 2 (2013): 59-61; Cynthia A. McCall, "Making Equine Learning Research Applicable to Training Procedures". Behavioural Processes 76, no. 1 (2007): 27-28.

230 conference.55 Its first seminal text, Equitation Science, by Paul McGreevy and Andrew McLean, was published in 2011.56 As such, research from the field was not an historical or social/cultural predecessor to the development of EBHD, but it may well contribute important information for

EBHD’s ongoing professionalization aspirations. Equitation Science is precisely the kind of research which the EBHD field ought to be pointing to and relying upon to strengthen its own effectiveness and legitimacy. Furthermore, this new science represents additional evidence of current developments adding to the expansion of the paradigm shift toward the idea that the horse's perspective matters (for a great many reasons).

Since 2010, the Horses and Humans Research Foundation (HHRF) has funded six unique research projects designed to investigate the use of horses in treating specific ailments by experts at three universities in the USA, one in Germany, and one in Canada, thereby drawing scholarly attention to the young industry’s paradigm shifting ideas and contributing meaningfully to the small volume of professional research about EBHD. The quality of research sought and encouraged by the HHRF is meant to purposefully aid the EBHD industry in gaining

55 Paul D. McGreevy, "The Advent of Equitation Science," The Veterinary Journal 174, no. 3 (2007): 492- 500; Melanie Boot, and Paul D. McGreevy. "The X Files: Xenophon Re-Examined Through the Lens of Equitation Science," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 8, no. 5 (2013): 367-375; Meredith K. Bonnell, and Sue M. McDonnell, "Evidence for Sire, Dam, and Family Influence on Operant Learning in Horses," Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 36 (2016): 69-76; Paolo Baragli, et al., "Does Attention Make the Difference? Horses’ Response to Human Stimulus After 2 Different Training Strategies," Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 6, no. 1 (2011): 31-38; K.L. Baer, G.D. Potter, T.H. Friend, and B.V. Beaver, "Observation Effects on Learning in Horses," Applied Animal Ethology 11, no. 2 (1983): 123-129; Lynda Birke, et al., "Horses’ Responses to Variation in Human Approach," Applied Animal Behaviour Science 134, no. 1-2 (2011): 56-63; Line Peerstrup Ahrendt, Janne Winther Christensen, and Jan Ladewig, "The Ability of Horses to Learn an Instrumental Task Through Social Observation," Applied Animal Behaviour Science 139, no. 1-2 (2012): 105-113; Ahrendt, et al., "Development of a Standard Test to Assess Negative Reinforcement Learning in Horses," Applied Animal Behaviour Science 169 (2015): 38-42; Keri Brandt, "A Language of Their Own: An Interactionist Approach to Human-Horse Communication". Society & Animals 12, no. 4 (2004): 299-316; Janne Winther Christensen, et al., "Does Learning Performance in Horses Relate to Fearfulness, Baseline Stress Hormone, and Social Rank?" Applied Animal Behaviour Science 140, no. 1-2 (2012): 44-52; Emma Creighton, "Equine Learning Behaviour: Limits of Ability and Ability Limits of Trainers," Behavioural Processes 76, no. 1 (2007): 43-44; Cooper, Jonathan J. "Equine Learning Behaviour: Common Knowledge and Systematic Research," Behavioural Processes 76, no. 1 (2007): 24-26. 56 Paul McGreevy and Andrew McLean, Equitation Science (Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010).

231 legitimacy as a credible therapeutic modality in accordance with medical model standards and scientific scrutiny. In 2010 HHRF funded two projects which produced articles for the journal

Physical Therapy. One, by a research team at the University of Rostock, Germany, dealt with

Equine Assisted Therapy (EAT) effects on children with emotional and social disorders. The other, by a team at Washington University of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, reported on the use of hippotherapy in treating children with cerebral palsy.57 In 2011, HHRF awarded funding to a researcher at Washington University of Medicine working on the use of hippotherapy with children with autism spectrum disorder; the results were published in the American Journal of

Occupational Therapy.58 In 2012, HHRF provided funding for an ongoing project at the Research

Center for Human-Animal Interaction, University of Missouri, College of Veterinary Medicine to investigate the effect of EBHD on military veterans with PTSD. In 2013, HHRF funded an ongoing study of EBHD and PTSD among children.59 That year, HHRF issued a call for research proposals specifically investigating the value and benefits of EBHD for military veterans’ rehabilitation from PTDS and/or traumatic brain injuries.60

In January, 2016, the HHRF awarded funding to Katrina Merkies at the University of

Guelph for an innovative new study explicitly integrating EBHD into Equitation Science research. Merkies’ study proposes inquiry into the behavioural responses of horses in equine- assisted activities, comparing horses’ behaviour and engagement in relation to both neurotypical humans and those with clinically-diagnosed psychological conditions. This study

57 D. J. Silkwood-Sherer et al., “Hippotherapy--An Intervention to Habilitate Balance Deficits in Children with Movement Disorders: A Clinical Trial,” Physical Therapy 92, no. 5 (2012): 707-717. 58 H. Ajzenman, J.W. Standeven, and T.L. Shurtleff, "Effect of Hippotherapy on Motor Control, Adaptive Behaviors, and Participation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Pilot Study," American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 67 no. 6 (2013): 653-663. 59 “Horses & Humans Research Foundation - Research - Purpose,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/Research_AwardedProjects.html. 60 “Horses & Humans Research Foundation – Research,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/Research.html.

232 will observe and analyse horse behaviours (gait, head height, body orientation, ear orientation, etc.), as well as horse heart rate and salivary cortisol during interaction with humans of each nuero-type. Merkies holds that, “Understanding the horse's role in the processes involved in equine-assisted therapy is essential for furthering research into animal-assisted therapies not only from the human perspective, but from the lens of horse welfare to minimize stressful experiences for the horse and ensure participant safety.”61 This study will be the first of its kind to contribute tangible, scientific evidence to the popular EBHD industry opinion that horses

“intuit” variations in human psychological/emotional states and related needs, and consciously decide to respond benevolently. Merkies’ study will not be completed until later this year.62

Many more studies like this need to be conducted in order to establish a thorough understanding of how EBHD actually works, and thus assist in establishing the field’s legitimacy.

Of all the EBHD industry organizations, HHRF may well be the most professionally organized and dedicated to the growth and development of equine therapy as a fully legitimized industry serving human health. Among the foundation’s board of directors is Ann

Alden, Barbara Rector’s former co-worker at Sierra Tucson Hospital and owner of the celebrated horse Crackers.63 All of the foundation’s board members have expertise with, and a passion for, horses, many hold psychology certifications or doctoral degrees, and several are

61 Katrina Merkies, University of Guelph, Horses & Humans Research Foundation Innovation Grant Application, 2015, 3, accessed February 19, 2016, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/HHF_Innovation_Grant_2015_Merkies.pdf. 62 University of Guelph, Horse Welfare Focus of Equine-Assisted Therapy Study, 2015, accessed January 19, 2016, http://news.uoguelph.ca/2015/12/horse-welfare-focus-equine-assisted-therapy-study/; Katrina Merkies, University of Guelph, Horses & Humans Research Foundation Innovation Grant Application, 2015, 3, accessed February 19, 2016, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/HHF_Innovation_Grant_2015_Merkies.pdf. 63 Others on the Board of Directors are Alison Zack Darrell, Paul Haefner, Joanne Hart (Secretary), Judith Lightfoot, Pam Milner, Cynthia Ruiz (Treasurer), Lynn Shaw (President), Molly Sweeney (Vice President), and Leslie Williams.

233 deeply connected with either the PATH Intl. or EAGALA industry organizations.64 HHRF strives to provide scientific research about precisely what the industry requires to gain mainstream public acceptance: proof that horses are agents of change as teachers and healers for human development.

Further contributing to the professional and scientific views of industry legitimacy some post-secondary institutions across Canada and the United States have very recently begun to offer single courses specifically dedicated to EBHD, or, less commonly, whole programs with ‘emphasis’ on equine assisted or equine facilitated mental health or education, including undergraduate majors and graduate programs. The subject of human-animal relations is also increasingly included in psychology courses or programs across North

America65 EAGALA and PATH Intl. are both playing a significant role in establishing working partnerships with post-secondary institutions to offer such programs. Abilene Christian

University, a graduate school in Abilene, Texas; Carrol College in Helena, Montana; and Virginia

Intermont College, in Bristol, Virginia all maintain working partnerships with EAGALA.66

Beginning in 2010, PATH Intl. added a Higher Education membership option for interested universities and colleges wishing to obtain PATH Intl. recognition for their training programs;

Lander University in South Carolina and Arkansas State University College of Nursing and

Health Professionals are PATH Intl. Higher Ed. Members.67 Most of the universities offering

64 “Horses & Humans Research Foundation - About Us - Board of Directors,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation | Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/About_Us_Board.html. 65 C. Burke, “Partnering Therapeutic Riding and Higher Education,” in American Society of Animal Science Annual Symposium, Horse Species Symposium (90:3: Journal of Animal Science, 2012), 652, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.jtmtg.org/JAM/2012/abstracts/661.pdf. 66 “Colleges & Universities,” Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, last modified 2015, accessed June 9, 2015, http://www.eagala.org/uni. 67 C. Burke, “Partnering Therapeutic Riding and Higher Education,” in American Society Of Animal Science Annual Symposium, Horse Species Symposium (90:3: Journal of Animal Science, 2012), 652, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.jtmtg.org/JAM/2012/abstracts/661.pdf; “Find A Center,” Pathintl.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/path-intl-centers/find-center; “Lander

234

EBHD courses or programs are in the American South or Southwest, where the industry began, but the University of Guelph in Ontario offers a five-day intensive program of leadership training entitled Leadership through Equine Assisted Discovery (LEAD) Program.68 Wilfrid

Laurier University in Ontario, Canada has partnered with Wendy Golding and Horse Spirit

Connections to offer EBHD programs, but not certification or training programs.69 Purdue

University in Indiana has a student club dedicated to equine assisted activities.70

In 2014, Colorado State University announced its plans to build a state-of-the-art equine center to house its new undergraduate and graduate level equine-assisted therapy program. This pioneering post-secondary initiative was named the Temple Grandin Equine

Center in honour of the Human-Animal Studies and livestock-handing expert, Temple Grandin, who cites horses as a fundamental element enabling her ability to cope and thrive as a person

University - Equestrian Center - Bearcat Therapeutic Riding,” Lander.edu, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2014, http://www.lander.edu/business-administration/Equestrian-Center/Bearcat-Therapeutic- Riding.aspx. 68 Prescott College, in Prescott, Arizona offers a two year limited residency Masters Degree in Counselling/Psychology with an Emphasis in Equine Assisted Mental Health Services. Judson College in Alabama offers a Bachelor's-Level Concentration in Equine-Assisted Mental Health in partnership with PATH Intl.. Asbury University near Lexington, Kentucky offers an undergraduate psychology program with and optional emphasis in Equine Facilitated Mental Health. Tarleton State University in Texas offers a program called T.R.E.A.T, training students in methods of mounted equine therapy. The University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences in Florida partners with Havel Horse Ranch to offer a CEU credit or graduate seminar in Equine-Assisted Therapy Instruction. Carroll College in Helena, Montana also offers an undergraduate minor or major program in Human/Animal Bonding with an optional ‘Emphasis in Equine Facilitated Mental Health/Educational Services’. M. Carey, 'Horses Leap Straight into the Heart of Prescott College', Transitions, 2005; “Equine Science | Judson College - Knowledge and Faith for a Purposeful Life,” Judson College, last modified 2013, accessed August 28, 2014, http://www.judson.edu/academics/academic-programs/sciences/equine-science/; “Asbury University | Equine Facilitated Wellness,” Asbury.edu, last modified 2015, accessed July 12, 2014, http://www.asbury.edu/academics/departments/behavioral-sciences/equine-facilitated-wellness; “TREAT Riding - Tarleton State University,” Tarleton.edu, last modified 2015, accessed October 8, 2014, http://www.tarleton.edu/treat/; “Equine Assisted Therapy Instructor Seminar,” University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences, accessed October 8, 2014, http://www.usa.edu/files/b5812c16-239f- 48a1-b724-30ef99c5fc70.pdf; Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse, 479-487; “LEAD (Leadership Through Equine Assisted Discovery) Program | Kemptville Campus,” Kemptvillec.uoguelph.ca, last modified 2015, accessed October 8, 2014, http://www.kemptvillec.uoguelph.ca/programs/extension/lead. 69 Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November, 2013. 70 “Purdue University - Purdue Equine Assisted Programs Club,” Purdue University | Web.ics.purdue.edu, last modified 2015, accessed October 8, 2014, http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~chapseap/about_peap.php.

235 with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Colorado State University claims, “The TGEC [Temple Grandin

Equine Center] is a benchmark facility – the first in the world of its kind – that will serve students, therapy clients, academic researchers, industry professionals and the community simultaneously.”71

Reaction is mixed in the EBHD industry to universities assuming a role in certification of industry professionals. Many EBHD practitioners who are concerned with large scale social recognition for their businesses and the industry as a whole believe that adding the name and reputation of an accredited post-secondary institution to an EBHD certification program can increase the professional legitimacy of the credentials, and offer the associated credibility to a marginalized area of practice. Others, however, contend that institutionalization of the industry risks reducing its authenticity, fearing that the standardization processes and regulatory requirements typical of research institutions may jeopardize the intuitive nature of

EBHD practice believed to be critical to its effectiveness, and make it more difficult to allow the equines involved to engage as active agents in the process. Given that both clients and practitioners benefit from increased credibility of EBHD as a professional industry so as to increase both its reach and appeal in a mainstream global market, industry leaders generally view partnership with professional research and education institutions as advantageous to the growth of the industry.72

71 Colorado State University, New Director For Temple Grandin Equine Center Program, September 10, 2014, accessed October 6, 2015, http://source.colostate.edu/new-director-temple-grandin-equine- center/; Colorado State University, Temple Grandin Equine Center at Colorado State University, video, 2015, accessed October 6, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIM6sHPjQpM; “Q&A with Adam Daurio: The Temple Grandin Equine Center at CSU,” Populous, 2015, accessed October 6, 2015, http://populous.com/posts/qa-with-adam-daurio-the-temple-grandin-equine-center-at-csu/; “Temple Grandin Equine Center,” Colorado State University - Temple Grandin Center, last modified 2015, accessed October 6, 2015, http://tgec.agsci.colostate.edu/; “Temple Grandin Equine Center,” Populous, 2015, accessed October 6, 2015, http://populous.com/project/temple-grandin-equine-center/. 72 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone,

236

Meanwhile, the opportunity for university-level EBHD studies or professional training remains limited, and interested individuals more often look elsewhere if they seek certification in the field. Many turn to attractively marketed certification or apprenticeship programs offered by private individuals or organizations rather than to the certification programs offered by broader industry organizations such as Linda Kohanov’s Epona Approach Apprenticeship or

Kathy Pike’s EBHD Mind Body MethodTM Coach Training.73 These are the most plentiful and easily accessible training programs available for interested individuals, but they range in duration and subsequent thoroughness from one day to one year commitments. Further, the backgrounds, experience and credentials of the instructors of these private programs vary from self-declared experts to university-trained professionals. As a result, there is little consistency in the industry as a whole with respect to what training, certification, and standards of practice are required for new and existing practitioners to obtain “professional legitimacy.” The industry governing organizations which promote their own certification programs, and many private professionals working within the EBHD industry, are highly sceptical of one another’s training programs and often reject them altogether.74

What remains consistent across all available education and training programs related to EBHD, whether from an industry governing association, a higher education institution, or a private practice/business, is the recognition that individuals wishing to use language of mental

November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013. 73 “Apprenticeship Program Overview - Eponaquest Worldwide,” Eponaquest Worldwide, last modified 2015, accessed August 15, 2015, http://eponaquest.com/overview/; “Why Coaching with Horses? - The Academy for Coaching with Horses,” The Academy for Coaching with Horses, last modified 2015, accessed August 15, 2015, http://coachingwithhorses.com/apprenticeship/. 74 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013.

237 health and therapy to describe the scope of practice they conduct with their equine partners must obtain professional credentials from a recognized professional association that regulates mental health practitioners. EBHD training programs are generally marketed as facilitator training in a specialized activity for experiential education which may be incorporated into the mental health therapeutic practices of appropriately trained/licensed professionals. Thus the distinction between horse expert or facilitator of equine-assisted or facilitated activities, education, or learning, and a person who is able to offer equine-facilitated mental health processes is determined by the credentialing process for mental health professionals.

Little more than a quarter century into the history of EBHD, the industry has thousands of practitioners, exponentially more clients, at least a dozen schools of practice, and growing popular awareness and interest on five continents. The European Association for Horse

Assisted Education (EAHAE) has members in 24 countries, with more than 200 members qualified to facilitate the EAHAE methods, and several dozen more members not yet qualified to teach but who pay membership fees to be professionally associated with EAHAE.75 CanTRA claims over 100 accredited member centres across Canada, and far more members than centres.76 HETI has over 250 members from 46 countries, including some who offer therapeutic riding or hippotherapy rather than EBHD.77 The Certification Board for Equine Interaction

75 “EAHAE Members Profiles. Seminar Providers, Trainers and Equine Coaches,” European Association for Horse Assisted Education | Eahae.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.eahae.org/EAHAE_seminar-providers.htm; “EAHAE Qualified Members,” European Association for Horse Assisted Education | Eahae.org, accessed October 8, 2014, http://www.eahae.org/EAHAE_Qualified-Members.htm. 76 “Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association,” Canadian Therapeutic Riding Association | Cantra.ca, last modified 2015, accessed June 19, 2015, http://www.cantra.ca. 77 “HETI Member List,” Horses in Education and Therapy International, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/membership_list.html; “HETI Membership,” Horses in Education and Therapy International, last modified 2015, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.frdi.net/membership.html.

238

Professionals (CBEIP), in May, 2015, listed 24 mental health professionals and 13 education professionals as certified as EBHD practitioners by its standards.78

PATH Intl. remains the largest equine therapy association to incorporate EBHD into its scope of practice, with more than 7,400 members including 4,200 certified instructors and equine specialists, 45,000 additional volunteers, and 850 member centres or riding clubs around the world. PATH Intl. claims that it helps “more than 56,000 children and adults with physical, mental and emotional challenges [to] find strength and independence through the power of the horse each year.”79 While the EAGALA organization has no legal governing position in the EBHD industry, its history, business strategy, and effective marketing efforts have made it perhaps the most well-known EBHD organization in the industry. EAGALA is the largest strictly EBHD association in the world, with more than 4,200 members from 49 countries and five continents.80

By the middle of the second decade of the twenty-first century, the EBHD industry was still not mainstream, but its practitioners and proponents were creating the organizational structures, certification requirements, and reputation in the academic and popular press that position it well for further growth in numbers and in public acceptance of its legitimacy. While the formalization of the EBHD industry is still in its early years, active pioneers have taken significant strides in establishing its professional credibility. Some of this success is due to work done by individuals and small business groups, but most results from larger collectives of long- time professionals forming boards of directors and various organizational committees with

78 “Certified Professionals,” Certification Board for Equine Interaction Professionals | Equinefacilitatedprofessional.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 8, 2015, http://www.equinefacilitatedprofessional.org/certified_professionals.aspx. 79 “PATH International,” Pathintl.org, last modified 2015, accessed May 17, 2015, http://www.pathintl.org/. 80 “The Community Network for People Interested in Equine Assisted Psychotherapy and Learning,” Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association | EAGALA, last modified 2015, accessed June 12, 2015, http://www.eagala.org.

239 representatives spread out across one or more countries. Still, independent individuals with entrepreneurial ambitions and a passion for partnership with horses continue to inspire a growing population of fans, clients, and aspiring apprentices through their private practices, publications, and media attention.

Conclusion Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, as the young EBHD industry spread quickly across North America, Europe, and Australia, some participants worked to standardize their practices, out of a concern for professional legitimacy. The dramatic and consistently positive results of EBHD processes across a wide client demographic led entrepreneurial and professionally minded practitioners in the field from various schools of practice to take action to professionalize the industry. Growing public interest in EBHD created a growing market for the delivery of the industry’s services on an increasingly global scale. At the same time, increasing popularity of the field among people interested in pursuing EBHD as a career path resulted in the development of a number of non-standardized training and certification programs, offered at stables and equestrian centres around the world by people with varying degrees of experience or legitimacy. Many serious practitioners in the young industry recognized the need to incorporate and standardize methodologies, scopes of practice, codes of ethics, and professional training and certification processes in order to obtain the professional designation and recognition essential to win acceptance into the mainstream education and wellness industries. Two decades into the process significant progress has been achieved by industry leaders, but much remains to be done in fully professionalizing this new industry on any national or international scale, and in normalizing the industry’s understanding of the possibilities of a new relationship between horses and humans.

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As leading members of the EBHD industry worked to expand awareness of the possibilities of partnering with horses to improve human health and personal development, to stimulate professional research on industry practices, and to establish national and international organizations to add professional legitimacy to the field, the prominent governing organizations of therapeutic riding also moved to include the kind of work conducted by EBHD programs within their discipline. This process complicated the accuracy of separate definitions as well as both public and professional understanding of the two industries, which are very different in practice and only partially combined under the sweeping term ‘equine therapy’.

Still, these complications are indicative of rapid expansion in the industry and an important new development in the larger history of human-horse relationships.

What remains problematic for the professionalization of EBHD is the lack of real governance power of any industry association over those practising in the field. The industry organizations are not yet well known among mainstream populations, and are thus unable to inform or persuade the vast majority of prospective EBHD client populations to consider whether an EBHD centre or professional has approval or accreditation by an industry standard, or the value that such professional affiliation adds to a practice. The plethora of training programs for EBHD practitioners, some recognized and certified by industry-wide organizations and some not, together with the lack of real authority of any industry organization and the relative youth of the industry as a whole, combine to create inconsistency in the standards of certification and practice within the field. This problem is likely to be resolved with time, and is a relatively normal and expected difficulty of an industry and profession in its early development.81 Desire for increased professional legitimacy of the EBHD industry exists both

81 Harold L. Wilensky, “The Professionalization of Everyone?,” American Journal of Sociology 70, no. 2 (1964): 137; Bernard MC Yam, “From Vocation to Profession: The Quest for Professionalization of Nursing,” British Journal of Nursing 13, no. 16 (2004): 978-982; Moya Jolley, “The Professionalization of

241 internally and externally, with ongoing efforts by many to see developmental benchmarks supported, developed, and achieved. The continued growth of the industry depends in large measure on how quickly it will overcome this developmental obstacle.82

Despite the growing pains of the emerging EBHD industry in its first quarter century, it persistently challenged Western culture’s social norms of human-animal relations, inviting each person it reached to reconsider standard paradigms of perception about non-human animals, horses in particular, and their ability to teach humans something valuable about ourselves. The inherent consequence of this new industry’s activities, and the direct intention of many of its most radical pioneers, endeavours to change the way people understand themselves and one another by revolutionizing the way people understand horses. Such social transformation has not been entirely successful to date. Popular interest in the industry’s new ideas appears to be equally matched with scepticism in the absence of definitive scientific research qualifying, quantifying, and rationalizing the new inter-species relationship paradigm. Nevertheless, popular and professional interest in the idea that people can learn valuable life lessons and therapeutic insights from horses is growing rapidly.

In the late twentieth and early twenty-first century a growing population of New Age or liberal minded horse-enthusiasts, educators, and mental health professionals began to raise

Nursing: The Uncertain Path,” in Current Issues in Nursing, eds. Moya Jolley and Peta Allan, (London: Chapman and Hall, 1989), 1-22; Johann Keogh, “Professionalization of Nursing: Development, Difficulties and Solutions,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 25, no. 2 (1997): 302-308; Katrin Schultheiss, Bodies and Souls: Politics and the Professionalization of Nursing in France 1880-1922 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001), 3-19; Mike Bresnen, “Advancing a ‘New Professionalism’: Professionalization, Practice and Institutionalization,” Building Research & Information 41, no. 6 (2013): 735-741; Gary R Lowe and P. Nelson Reid, The Professionalization of Poverty (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1999), 10-15, 89-90. 82 Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013.

242 public awareness of a new kind of human-horse relationship, which they promoted with the incorporation of industry organizations, by offering public workshops, seminars, and demonstrations, and through publication of popular books and films. Broad acceptance of the new human-horse relationship would constitute a profound shift in the existing paradigm of the relationship between humans and non-human animals. Some elements in Western society offered a warm reception to the ideas of EBHD practitioners and promoters, as the proposed shift in the human-animal relationship paradigm aligned favourably with increasingly popular ideals of the growing environmental movement. With growing public awareness of, and interest in, EBHD, people, began pulling the threads of those revolutionary ideas in from the margins toward the mainstream by requesting detailed explanations of how the new paradigm might work. The early success of the EBHD industry and the revolution it represents in the history of human-horse relations is the result of both push and pull factors at a particular time in world history.

243

Chapter 7: Conclusion

“When one tugs at a single thing in nature, he finds it attached to the rest of the world.” – John Muir

The emergence of the Equine-Based Human Development (EBHD) industry represents a significant change in the history of human-horse relationships. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first century, the horse, after thousands of years of domesticated service to human societies, increasingly enjoys elevated status as equal partner, sentient being, and intelligent teacher/healer for human development. The EBHD industry, together with the predecessor industries of Natural Horsemanship, Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT), and Therapeutic Riding, actively works to alter popular engagement with the equine species and popular perception and understanding of its potential to aid in or contribute to human social development. The paradigm shift from considering horses as exploitable human property and beasts of burden is not yet complete, but in the past three decades the growing popular interest in a new dynamic for the human-horse relationship is beginning to alter the existing equestrian industry and to inspire new mental health research. The EBHD industry and its predecessors collectively call into question the traditional status of the horse’s position and potential in human society, and generate support for considering the horse as a species from whom humans can acquire valuable educational or therapeutic insights.

The EBHD industry endeavours to demonstrate that mutually respectful, partnership- model relationships between humans and horses hold potential for unprecedented human development, actively aided by horses. EBHD employs a variety of interactive engagements between horses and humans which rely on the instinctive social behaviour of the equine species in relation to the person(s) engaged as the agent of experiential learning and/or

244 healing. In essence, human participants in EBHD learn directly with and from their equine partners. EBHD practitioners believe that such insights and human social development result from their active construction of perceptual understanding and relationship dynamics of equality in partnership between the horses and humans engaged in the activities. EBHD teaches the human participants to understand the perceived nature of the horse and its horse- ness before engaging with it directly, in order to dispel assumptions based on human-centric or anthropomorphic perceptions of equine interaction. What’s more, the human participants are taught that controlling and managing themselves is the most effective means to achieve any desired outcome or response from the horse(s) with whom they engage. In essence, the EBHD industry teaches people that we can learn about and improve ourselves by learning to understand and engage with the instinctive nature of horses.

Many EBHD industry practitioners and proponents, and media commentators as well, regard the EBHD approach and activities as innovative and revolutionary. However, EBHD developed from a long, but not mainstream, history of compassionate consideration for, and appreciation of, horses and other non-human animals. Specific elements of EBHD are novel, but its central ideas are not. The radical thinking of the EBHD industry existed historically as marginalized ideas and practices which acquired broader appeal in the past half century with their incorporation into three animal-based industries which preceded EBHD. Therapeutic horseback riding, Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT), and Natural Horsemanship were all paradigm-shifting initiatives that helped carve out space in which EBHD could emerge, and inspired and informed many of the nascent industry’s pioneers. The EBHD industry has not yet been fully successful in achieving mainstream therapeutic legitimacy and popularity, but it already provides the basis for a new chapter in human-horse relationship history.

245

Foundation for Change: The History and Context

The Natural Horsemanship industry served as a critical precursor and influence to the emerging EBHD industry by changing the relationship and training dynamic that people commonly employed with their horses. For the most part, the history of mainstream horsemanship records practices of human dominance of horses through use of crude tools and tactics which cause the horse pain and fear, so as to maintain a hierarchical relationship closely resembling an owner-slave dynamic. After the First and Second World Wars, horsemen who believed in gentler methods and valued compassionate relationships with their horses started making little ripples in the world of horsemanship. In effect, they triggered the beginning of a revolution in the horse-human relationship by valuing trust and partnership over aggressive coercion. From the 1950s to the 1970s, a handful of horseman introduced more gentle methods of training and working with horses to a skeptical, but curious public. By the 1980s and 1990s, the growing preference for gentle methods led to consideration within mainstream equestrian opinion of Natural Horsemanship as an innovative improvement over the harshness perceived in more common methods. Beginning in the late 1980s, Natural Horsemen also began attracting non-equestrian audiences, including teachers, psychologists, and corporate executives who were interested in Natural Horsemanship’s engaging and non-aggressive communication and leadership techniques. It was, in large part, out of this development on the periphery of the Natural Horsemanship industry from which the EBHD industry emerged.

The Natural Horsemanship industry is marketed as an historical revolution but its ideology actually draws from a very long and rich history of compassionate equestrian traditions. The new methods were genuinely transformational for popular horsemanship in the second half of the twentieth century, but the kind of gentleness, care, and respectful partnership promoted in the contemporary equestrian revolution was recorded and promoted

246 as early as the fourth century BCE by the elite Greek cavalryman Xenophon in his book, The Art of Horsemanship. A limited descriptive historical record exists about common horsemanship techniques of non-elite social classes, but there is evidence of compassionate schools of military and noble horsemanship in Old World and North African history. Thus, the historical influences of the EBHD industry which it acquired through the Natural Horsemanship industry are actually much older and more culturally diverse than the contemporary developments suggest at first glance. The modern, North American rhetoric of “revolutionary” horsemanship is related to its emergence in the counter-culture era and rejection of the mentality and practices of cruelty normalized during the Industrial Revolution. Proponents of Natural

Horsemanship, and later EBHD, romanticise gentle horsemanship techniques documented sparsely in Old World history, but acknowledge such attitudes may not have been entirely prominent even then. Thus, the “revolutionary” rhetoric arises because Natural Horsemanship it is not a holistic return to well-established historical horsemanship methods, rather, it is an intentional 180 degree shift from force-based modern practices to new compassion-based techniques inspired by a similar mentality from the distant past. Essentially, Natural

Horsemanship proponents view their methods and ideologies as revolutionary; even though this practice is not comprised of entirely original ideas, it seeks to upend the common modern horsemanship practices and replace them with fundamentally different methods and ideals.

The core concepts and language of Natural Horsemanship’s “horse whisperers,” which are partnership, trust, and unity with horses, have ancient roots, but have only recently influenced popular perception of the human-horse relationship paradigm. Most of the leaders in the EBHD field acknowledge such ancient schools of compassionate horsemanship as their predecessors rather than claiming to have discovered new human-horse relationship dynamics themselves.1

1 Robert M. Miller and Richard A. Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship: And what it Means to Mankind

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The EBHD industry essentially reverses the means and intended outcome of Natural

Horsemanship practices by shifting the focus from training horses to facilitating a process of human development in the company of horses. The core principles of self-awareness, emotional agility, authentic relationship, and conscious leadership remain the same in the two industries, but for different purposes. Natural Horsemanship teaches people to become better horsemen (or women) by consciously learning to be masters of themselves, in mind, body, and spirit. The goal is to achieve more skillful horsemanship through a perpetual process of self- development. EBHD, on the other hand, teaches people the art of self-mastery in mind, body, and spirit, by consciously learning to be good horsemen (or women). The goal is to achieve personal and professional development and critical social skills through compassionate and intentional engagement with horses.2

(Guilford, Connecticut: Lyon's Press, 2005); Robert M. Miller, Natural Horsemanship Explained (Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press, 2007); Xenophon and M. H. Morgan, The Art of Horsemanship (Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2006); Bill Dorrance and Leslie Desmond, True Horsemanship through Feel (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press, 2001); Tom Dorrance and Milly Hunt Porter, True Unity (Tuscarora, Nevada: Give-It-A-Go Enterprises, 1987); Ray Hunt, Think Harmony with Horses: An In-Depth Study of Horse/Man Relationship (Fresno, California: Pioneer Pub. Co., 1978); Judith Newman, “Horse Sense: Breaking Tradition, Not Horses, Tom Dorrance Champions a Kinder, Gentler Training Technique,” People, 1993, accessed May 15, 2015, http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20106907,00.html; Jim Overstreet, “Tom Dorrance: More than a Horseman,” Eclectic Horseman, 2003, accessed May 14, 2015, http://eclectic-horseman.com/tom-dorrance-more-than-a-horseman/; Monty Roberts, The Man who Listens to Horses (New York: Random House, 1997); Monty Roberts, Horse Sense for People (New York: Viking, 2001); Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013. 2 Robert M. Miller and Richard A. Lamb, The Revolution in Horsemanship: And what it Means to Mankind (Guilford, Connecticut: Lyon's Press, 2005); Robert M. Miller, Natural Horsemanship Explained (Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press, 2007); Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008); Kathy Pike, Hope-- from the Heart of Horses: How Horses Teach Us about Presence, Strength, and Awareness (New York: Skyhorse Pub., 2009); Adele von Rüst McCormick and Marlena Deborah McCormick, Horse Sense and the Human Heart (Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, 1997); Allan J Hamilton, Zen Mind, Zen Horse (North Adams, MA: Storey Pub., LLC, 2011); Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013.

248

The industries of Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) and therapeutic horseback riding also served as critical precursors and influences to the emerging EBHD industry after these practices attracted widespread popular interest and professional inquiry into the potential for domesticated nonhuman-animals to aid in human health and wellness therapies. Many of the

EBHD pioneers began working or volunteering in the larger field of animal assisted therapy

(AAT), especially therapeutic horseback riding or hippotherapy.3

The contemporary practice of Animal Assisted Therapy originated in the 1960s but drew on early AAT experimentation by Quakers and the Humane Movement in the eighteenth century and other historical use of animals and engagement with nature to restore human mental health and well-being.4 The timeline of AAT popularity in the Cold War era intersected and overlapped with that of therapeutic riding and the Natural Horsemanship industry to inform EBHD in the late twentieth century.

Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are the specialized sector of AAT from which the industry of EBHD directly developed, with the first EBHD association forming inside the leading international therapeutic riding association in the last decade of the twentieth century. While horseback riding was acknowledged by physicians as having some health benefits as early as Hippocrates circa 400 BC, it was not until after Liz Hartel won a silver medal

3 Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008); Kay Sudekum Trotter, Harnessing the Power of Equine Assisted Counseling (New York, New York: Routledge, 2012); Hannah Burgon, Equine Assisted Therapy and Learning with At-Risk Young People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013. 4 Samuel Tuke, Description of the Retreat (London: Process Press, 1996); “History - The Retreat York,” Theretreatyork.org.uk, last modified 2015, accessed July 25, 2015, http://www.theretreatyork.org.uk/history/; Beth P. Velde, Joseph Cipriani, and Grace Fisher, “Resident and Therapist Views of Animal-Assisted Therapy: Implications for Occupational Therapy Practice,” Australian Occupational Therapy Journal 52, no. 1 (2005): 43-50.

249 in Dressage at the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland that therapeutic riding gained international awareness and became an active industry in Europe and North America.

In the common realm between AAT, therapeutic riding, and EBHD is the practice of employing therapeutic riding to assist clients with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Post

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Following the widespread acceptance of the idea that horses could be used to benefit people with physical disabilities, practitioners of therapeutic riding began to notice social and emotional advantages of the equine interaction with their clients.

Therapeutic horseback riding appeared to have impacts similar to the practice of AAT. The expansion in impact of therapeutic riding from physical therapy to psychological therapy served as a critical middle ground and transitional step leading to the mental health, wellness, and education focus of the EBHD industry. While the therapeutic riding industry initially served only individuals with physical challenges, the EBHD industry expanded the reach of ‘horse therapy’ benefits to anyone interested in improving their personal well-being and social development, serving clients with mental health conditions and also many clients without any medically diagnosed conditions at all. The AAT and therapeutic riding industries are particularly important not only for their influential role leading to the development of EBHD, but also because of the more established body of research already dedicated to these fields. The younger EBHD industry will continue to rely on research generated about the AAT and therapeutic riding industries to support its own claims of efficacy until substantial research is compiled about EBHD itself.5

5 Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008); Kay Sudekum Trotter, Harnessing the Power of Equine Assisted Counseling (New York, New York: Routledge, 2012); Tara Parker-Pope, “Healing Autism with Horses,” The New York Times, 2009, accessed January 16, 2015,

250

The Centaur Industry

EBHD began to emerge as a professional practice and an industry in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The timing of the initial industry practices and events, along with the ages and cultures of its founders, suggest that the industry developed from the culture, philosophy, and atmosphere of popular Western social movements in the Cold War era. During the 1960s and

1970s especially, the popular attitude of environmental stewardship and fellowship extended beyond plants and insects to support more conscious and compassionate regard for non- human animals and human interaction with them. Environmental advocates frequently focused on moral and ethical concerns in human treatment of the environment. In many ways, the environmental movement overlapped with either or both the humane movement and the newly emerging animal rights movement. While the animal rights movement activists aligned more with extreme environmental activists in the second half of the twentieth century, the humane movement shared similar sentiments and more gentle ethical concerns with those expressed by nature lovers and conservationists in previous centuries. The thinking and energy of these social movements prepared the way for the contemporary EBHD industry to begin, particularly in the second half of the twentieth century, when the ideals of these historic social movements gained more popular support.6

http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/04/14/healing-autism-with-horses/; Tom Cramer, “Reining in PTSD with Equestrian Therapy,” US Department of Veterans Affairs | Veterans Health Administration, 2014, accessed June 1, 2015, http://www.va.gov/health/newsfeatures/2014/September/Reining-In-PTSD- With-Equestrian-Therapy.asp; Jill Croteau and Lisa Geddes, “Equine Therapy Program Treats RCMP Officers with PTSD,” Global News, 2014, accessed May 12, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1651196/equine-therapy-program-treats-rcmp-officers-with-ptsd/. 6 Charles D. Niven, History of the Humane Movement (New York: Transatlantic Arts, 1967); Kathryn Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2008); Linda Kalof, Looking At Animals In Human History (London: Reaktion Books, 2007); Terry H Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 3-40; Terry H Anderson, The United States, Great Britain, And The Cold War, 1944-1947 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1981); Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle, Imagine Nation: The American Counterculture of the 1960s and '70s (New York: Routledge, 2002); Keith Halfacree, "From Dropping out to Leading on? British Counter-Cultural back-to-the-land in a Changing Rurality," Progress in Human

251

Indeed, it was during this period of growing popular concern for humane consideration of animals that the EBHD industry pioneers were coming of age and beginning their professional careers. Central to each of their personal stories is a deep seated respect and appreciation for their equine partners, frequently acknowledging an abhorrence to cruelty of any kind. The core philosophies of the EBHD industry are grounded in a belief that the horse is a sensitive and intelligent species capable of teaching people a great many valuable life skills through mutually respectful interaction and partnership. The pioneers of the EBHD industry developed their revolutionary practices around intentionally humane and compassionate relationships with horses in an era that offered encouragement and support for this approach.

The emerging EBHD industry began demonstrating a new paradigm in human-animal relations and challenging perceptions of equine intelligence to extend further, while also considering new ideas about the potential for human-animal relations to aid human health and social development.7

As popular culture increasingly absorbed ideologies of the humane movement in the second half of the twentieth century, human perception of and relationships with animals, horses included, began to change. Traditional dominance-based horsemanship has been slow

Geography 30, no. 3 (2006): 309-336; Alfred H. Katz, "Self-help and mutual aid: An emerging social movement?" Annual review of Sociology (1981): 129-155; Bryan D. Palmer, Canada's 1960s The Ironies of Identity in a Rebellious Era (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2009); Mark H. Lytle, The Gentle Subversive: Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Rise of the Environmental Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Philip Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement (Washington: Island Press, 2003) http://site.ebrary.com/id/10064685; Benjamin Kline, First Along the River: A Brief History of the U.S. Environmental Movement (Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007). 7 Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008); Kay Green, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 19, 2013; Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Diane L. Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History and Legacy of Animal Rights Activism in the United States. Athens, Ohio: Swallow Press/Ohio University Press, 2006. http://site.ebrary.com/id/10156421; Kathryn Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2008); Alfred H. Katz, "Self-help and mutual aid: An emerging social movement?" Annual review of Sociology (1981): 129-155.

252 to change and persists widely even today, but throughout the twentieth century, the minority horsemen and women willing to break from tradition, and sometimes family and professional ties as a result, started to publicly reject common, status quo dominance-based horsemanship tactics and began to experiment with new, more gentle ones. From cowboys to competitive dressage riders, and backyard horse enthusiasts, the very first steps in EBHD history began when people quietly pursued a new kind of relationship with the horses they loved. As the practice and industry of therapeutic riding emerged and changed the world in its own way, the timing overlapped with popular appeal to revere nature and live harmoniously with all things in it. The result was greater willingness to consider that animals, in this case horses, could be more than beasts of burden and may actually have something to teach us about ourselves.

Today, Fortune 500 companies and top executives are investing in ‘Horse Therapy’ for the benefit of their bottom line and business development, but the idea of partnering with horses for the purpose of developing life skills (not equestrian skills) began to emerge in the 1980s and 1990s in addiction treatment centers and residential boarding schools in the Southwestern

United States. Private and public funding has recently been invested into research on measuring tangible benefits of various forms and applications of ‘horse therapy’ from addictions rehabilitation to PTSD treatment and even Alzheimer’s management.8 Elsewhere, the industry has evolved in the direction of education and adventure or wellness tourism,

8 “Horse as Healer: Treating Volatile Solvent Abuse Addiction Research Chair,” Addictionresearchchair.ca, last modified 2015, accessed August 25, 2015, http://www.addictionresearchchair.ca/creating- knowledge/provincial/horse-as-healer/; Mia Sheldon, “Equine Therapy a Growing Trend in Treating Mental Health Issues,” Global News, 2014, accessed July 25, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1102175/equine-therapy-a-growing-trend-in-treating-mental-health-issues/; Heather Loney, “Equine Therapy Program for Veterans with PTSD Gets Historic Donation,” Global News, 2014, accessed January 16, 2015, http://globalnews.ca/news/1140045/equine-therapy-program-for- veterans-with-ptsd-gets-historic-donation/; Richard Madan, “Federal Government to Fund Horse Therapy for Injured Veterans,” CTV News, 2015, accessed May 19, 2015; Holly Dabelko-Schoeny et al., “Equine-Assisted Intervention for People with Dementia,” Anthrozoos 27, no. 1 (2014): 141-155; “Horses & Humans Research Foundation – Research,” Horses & Humans Research Foundation Horsesandhumans.org, last modified 2015, accessed June 23, 2015, http://www.horsesandhumans.org/Research.html.

253 offered as high end ‘experiences’ listed among options like yoga classes, nature hikes, and wildlife safaris at five-star resorts like Miraval in Arizona, the Travaasa Spas in Texas,

Salamander in Virginia, and The Inn at Bay Harbour in Michigan.9 These are very similar to the corporate retreats, executive training, and elite life coaching versions of ‘horse therapy’ programs which have been publicized by respected business journals and celebrity television shows.10 The vast majority of the ‘horse therapy’ industry, however, takes place on a humble scale in the cozy stable-yards of individuals who operate as professional counsellors or privately trained facilitators of equine-assisted or –facilitated learning and wellness. The common client demographic for this new generation of horse therapists or educators are either youth or adult women, and sometimes family groups who attend the available programs together. The industry remains in its youth with practitioners effectively still testing the market potential in all directions, with a variety of promising options.11

9 “Wyatt Webb | Miraval Equine Experience | Miraval Resort,” Miraval Spa | Miravalresorts.Com, last modified 2015, accessed July 25, 2015, http://www.miravalresorts.com/plan_your_stay/specialists/wyatt_webb/; “Austin Adventures | Culinary, Culture, Fitness & Wellness Vacations | Travaasa Austin,” Travaasa Resorts | Travaasa.Com, last modified 2015, accessed July 25, 2015, http://www.travaasa.com/austin/austin-experiences/; “Equestrian Resort in Virginia | Salamander Resort & Spa - Equestrian | Virginia Horseback Riding Vacation,” Salamanderresort.com, last modified 2015, accessed July 25, 2015, http://www.salamanderresort.com/equestrian/; “Equine Journey,” Innatbayharbor.com, last modified 2015, accessed July 25, 2015, http://www.innatbayharbor.com/spa/equineJourney.html; Erika Allen, “Finding Inner Peace, Not Your Inner Cowgirl,” The New York Times, 2012, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/fashion/more-spas-offer-equine- therapy.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. 10 Taffy Brodesser-Akner, “The Merchant of Just Be Happy,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/29/business/the-merchant-of-just-be- happy.html?pagewanted=all; Tara Bennett-Goleman, “The Horse Sense that Builds Trust,” The New York Times, 2013, accessed January 16, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/27/jobs/the-horse-sense- that-builds-trust.html?_r=0; Horse Sense Girls Getaway, video (The Oprah Show, n.d.). 11 Greg Kersten, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Franklin Levinson, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 22, 2013; Barbara Rector, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 23, 2013; Wendy Golding, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Linda Kohanov, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Kathleen Ingram, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 20, 2013; Nancy Coyne, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 21, 2013; Andre Leclipteux, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 29, 2013; Leigh Shambo, interview by Christy Clarke by telephone, November 30, 2013; Leif Hallberg, Walking the Way of the Horse (New York: iUniverse, 2008), 27-70, 183-200.

254

Timing Matters

EBHD and its predecessor industries are based on the premise that humans can learn from animals and nature, and that working with other species and natural systems is more efficient, effective, valuable, and sustainable than attempting to exploit, dominate, and/or control them. Research into the potential benefits of the AAT and therapeutic riding industries, and their growing popularity among the public and interested clients, appeared when a critical mass of people sought greater understanding of the natural world and the human place inside it. It was the same time that the revolution in Natural Horsemanship unfolded. The cultural atmosphere in the second half of the twentieth century offered a hospitable environment for therapeutic horseback riding, AAT, and the Natural Horsemanship industries to generate, even from the margins of mainstream society, new interest in exploring the potential of the human- animal relationship dynamic.

Natural Horsemanship, therapeutic horseback riding, and Animal Assisted Therapy each represent innovative and revolutionary industries which informed and contributed to the emergence of the EBHD industry, but they were not the only initiatives disrupting historical social trends in human-animal relations at the time. The emergence of the EBHD industry contributes to and should be contextualized among the larger patterns of change in Western thinking about human relationships with nonhuman animals and the environment emerging in the second half of the twentieth century and the first decades of the twenty-first century. From organized social movements to shifting consumer market demands, since the Cold War era

Western society’s social norms increasingly demonstrate preference for social practices of cooperation and intentional community over authoritative control and coercive dominance.

EBHD is one of the many developments since the mid-twentieth century that disrupt human- centric worldviews and offer more holistic alternatives. Some of these developments helped

255 establish the fertile social environment and warm public reception that fostered the radical new industry’s growth.

The 1960s and 1970s counter-culture movement challenged traditional hierarchies of authority and served as a catalyst for changing social perceptions of human potential. The

1970s, 1980s, and 1990s witnessed a rise in Environmentalism and growing concern for human impact on and responsibility to non-human life which extended popular awareness and interest in human-animal interactions in general. The Environmental Movement and its associated popular concern for environmental stewardship provided fertile conditions for challenging the status quo and re-thinking the potential of, and human responsibility to, the natural world/environment. The Animal Rights Movement contributed energy to this social climate as well. Research into the potential benefits of the AAT and therapeutic riding industries, and their growing popularity among the public and interested clients, appeared when a critical mass of practitioners and potential clients sought greater understanding of the natural world and the human place inside it.

Scholars of the second half of the twentieth century were responsible for developing a multitude of theories, such as Deep Ecology and the Biophilia Hypothesis, which contributed to the contemporaneous trends within which EBHD arose. Human-Animal relations studies were also beginning to attract significant interest, so much so that whole academic departments and research foundations were formed in response. It was the period in which Environmental,

Other, Social, and Non-human Animal History all became new, somewhat controversial sub- fields in the established discipline of historical inquiry. Research into the potential human health benefits of interaction with non-human animals began when Western culture began a

256 period of inquiry into many previously marginalized subjects.12 Each of these historical processes combined to form the social conditions favourable for an EBHD industry to emerge.

It seems the industries of AAT, Natural Horsemanship, and subsequently EBHD emerged in response to the trends of the contemporary period and the developing popular interest in finding new ways and reasons to spend time in Nature and/or cultivate relationships with nonhuman animals. They may have helped inform the public and shape trends, but the market had to be open to such radical ideas for them to spread. There was a palpable cultural desire during and after the Cold War era to revive connections with the earth, with nonhuman animals, and with creative human spirit.13 EBHD and its predecessors sparked revolutionary

12 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring 40th Ann. ed. (Boston, Massachusetts: Mariner Books, 2002); Gene Wunderlich, "Evolution of the Stewardship Idea in American Country Life." Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 17, no. 1 (2004): 77-93; Bradley L. Ack, Carol Daly, Yvonne Everett, Juan Mendoza, Mary Mitsos, and Ron Ochs. "The Practice of Stewardship: Caring for and Healing Ecosystems and Communities." Journal of Sustainable Forestry 12, no. 3-4 (2001): 117-141; Adam Rome, “‘Give Earth a Chance’: The Environmental Movement and the Sixties.” The Journal of American History 90, no. 2 (2003): 525-554; Kent D. Van Liere, and Riley E. Dunlap. "The Social Bases of Environmental Concern: A Review of Hypotheses, Explanations and Empirical Evidence." Public opinion quarterly 44, no. 2 (1980): 181-197; Kathryn Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2008); Bill Devall, and George Sessions. "Deep Ecology." Technology and Values: Essential Readings (1985): 454-59; Arne Naess, "The Shallow and the Deep, Long‐Range Ecology Movement. A Summary∗." Inquiry 16, no. 1-4 (1973): 95-100; Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984); Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, The Biophilia Hypothesis (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993); Peter Burke, New Perspectives on Historical Writing, 2nd ed. (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), 1-23, 25-40, 43-70, 120-155, 261-280; Reinhart Koselleck and Todd Samuel Presner, The Practice of Conceptual History (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2002), 20-37, 115-130 ; Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), ix-xx, 75-90; Quentin Skinner, “Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas,” History and Theory 8, no. 1 (1969): 3-53. 13 Williams, J. Mark G., and Jon Kabat-Zinn. "Mindfulness: Diverse Perspectives on its Meaning, Origins, and Multiple Applications at the Intersection of Science and Dharma." Contemporary Buddhism 12, no. 01 (2011): 1-18; Thomas Lowe Fleischner, "The Mindfulness of Natural History." The way of natural history (2011): 3-15; Gene Wunderlich, "Evolution of the Stewardship Idea in American Country Life." Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 17, no. 1 (2004): 77-93; Bradley L. Ack, Carol Daly, Yvonne Everett, Juan Mendoza, Mary Mitsos, and Ron Ochs. "The Practice of Stewardship: Caring for and Healing Ecosystems and Communities." Journal of Sustainable Forestry 12, no. 3-4 (2001): 117-141; Adam Rome, “‘Give Earth a Chance’: The Environmental Movement and the Sixties.” The Journal of American History 90, no. 2 (2003): 525-554; Kent D. Van Liere, and Riley E. Dunlap. "The Social Bases of Environmental Concern: A Review of Hypotheses, Explanations and Empirical Evidence." Public opinion quarterly 44, no. 2 (1980): 181-197; Kathryn Shevelow, For the Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2008); Bill Devall, and George Sessions. "Deep

257 thinking in regard to horses and a handful of other domesticated pet-animal species during and after the Cold War era, but such shifts in thinking about our relationships with “others” were not limited to the human-horse relationship. From ecopsychology and the Biophilia Hypothesis to adventure-based/wilderness learning and experiential education, to the popularization of

Life Coaching, meditation, yoga, martial arts, Eastern spirituality, and mindfulness practices, and even a holistic farming revolution, a variety of similar new fields were emerging around the same time. EBHD did not appear or develop inside a vacuum, rather it emerged among or from a ‘perfect storm’ of related New-Age or nature-based initiatives gaining widespread popular and/or scholarly appeal in the second half of the twentieth century. Further research into the simultaneous development of so many common initiatives is clearly a necessity.

EBHD began as an idea and practice on the margins of Western culture’s social norms.

Over the past quarter century, EBHD has attracted a good deal of popular interest and become more mainstream, at a time when parallel paradigm shifting initiatives emerged in agriculture, particularly livestock production, and also in psychology and biology. Collectively, these developments indicate an emerging shift in Western society’s social norms regarding the human relationship to the environment and human-animal relations. Western society appears to have entered a period of re-evaluation of the human place in, responsibility to, and relationship with not only horses, but the natural world more generally. The history of the

EBHD industry provides one window into this larger historical trend.

EBHD emerged during a time in which Western society increasingly appeared to question the ethics and potential of human relations with the natural world. EBHD activities offer people opportunities to engage with authenticity and cultivate this quality in their

Ecology." Technology and Values: Essential Readings (1985): 454-59; Katz, Alfred H. "Self-help and mutual aid: An emerging social movement?" Annual review of sociology (1981): 129-155.

258 human-human relationships. Working with horses in this new way provides a process in which people can pursue self and social development with honest, non-judgemental partners. The

EBHD industry relies on the instincts and agency of horses to teach people how to differentiate their authentic emotions and desires from their inauthentic, Ego-based feelings and reactions borne of social conditioning. EBHD practices are designed to help us become honest with ourselves by working with the horse, with the horse assigned the role, among others, of holding a mirror to our soul.

If the insight and methods of the EBHD industry are applied more generally, perhaps we can revive our relationships with nonhuman animals in general and thereby revive our connection with life and self. EBHD resonates with contemporary trends and associated cultural desires to reconnect with the natural world and to consciously change the human relationship to it. The popular success and growing market appeal of EBHD and its predecessor industries indicates that cultivating relationships of respectful partnership or friendship with nonhuman animals may be therapeutic because doing so essentially deconstructs the artificial linear and isolating system of hierarchical social structures and revives or nourishes our connection with all life, and indeed our true/authentic selves. Both Natural Horsemanship and

AAT industries incorporate some of this kind of relationship reconstruction; EBHD takes this to the next level.

The EBHD industry is revolutionizing popular understanding of the horse and our relationship with horses in the context of the positive potential for human development. EBHD practices remain insufficiently validated by scientific research that would legitimize the field, but growing evidence indicates a wide variety of positive outcomes and valuable human health benefits to be gained from the EBHD industry’s innovative models of engagement and partnership interaction between horses and humans. After millennia of being treated as beasts

259 of burden, horses are now transitioning to the honoured status of partners, teachers, and healers in human culture. This transition and paradigm shift in the history of the human-horse relationship has far-reaching implications. If even a fraction of the results claimed by the EBHD industry are real, the possibilities include an unknown and untapped wealth of potential insight, discovery, and continued human development in the application of similar shifts in thinking and engaging in our relations with all non-human animals. At a time in history when people are routinely rethinking our collective relationship with the Earth and everything on it, the emergence of the EBHD industry represents a significant shift in the history of the human- horse relationship, and the potential beginning of a radical shift in human-animal relationships in general and social history as a whole.

EBHD emerged when it did because the social values and cultural norms of the time were ready to consider something very different from the historical human-horse relationship paradigm norm. As a society, people were questioning their place in the world, their former understanding (or lack thereof) of other forms of life, and their connection to/relationship with them. We were questioning our understanding, perhaps feeling isolated by the human-centric beliefs of our past, seeking renewed connection with the rest of life on Earth and a sense of community and communion. There was a growing interest in understanding life on the earth as a means of understanding ourselves, perhaps by seeing ourselves in the rest of creation, or by defining ourselves in opposition to what we see as ‘other.’ The young EBHD industry is actively working to prove that changing the way people understand and engage with horses holds potential for unprecedented human development. EBHD focuses only on the agency and potential of equines (horses, ponies, and donkeys) in the context of human development. If the paradigm shift that EBHD suggests for the human-horse relationship dynamic can genuinely

260 benefit human health, wellness, and social development, what might be possible if similar paradigm shifts and relationship dynamics were extended to all nonhuman animals?

261

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Christy Elizabeth Clarke

Education:

Master of Arts (History) University of New Brunswick, 2009

Report Title: “IFAW Begins: Brian Davies, the International Fund for Animal Welfare, and the

New Brunswick Humane Movement in the 1960s.”

Supervisor: Dr. R. Steven Turner

Bachelor of Arts (Interdisciplinary Honours & History Major)

St. Thomas University, 2008

Supervisor: Dr. Don Robinson

Conference Presentations:

“Jack and Jill Went up the Hill to Stop an International Slaughter: Two Seal Pups Awaken Global

Concern for Seals in the Canadian North Atlantic”

Paper presented at the 11th Annual University of Maine / University of New Brunswick

International History Graduate Student Conference, September 25-27th, 2009