An Inquiry for Future Direction of Education in South Korea Through Critical Pedagogy and Bricolage

Hur, C. (2019). An Inquiry for Future Direction of Education in South Korea through Critical Pedagogy and Bricolage. Ammattikasvatuksen aikakauskirja, 21(3), 46–55.

An Inquiry for Future Direction of Education in South Korea through Critical Pedagogy and Bricolage

Changsoo Hur Professor Chungnam National University [email protected]

Abstract sons. Education is also moving along with these social and political changes. Indeed, Korean society is currently under the 2017 education has already been rooted in alter- system. It pursues a society that values de- native education for a decade, and it is try- mocracy, human rights and peace. To that ing to change the major paradigm. On the end, the goal is ‘JeokPaeCheongSan’ (root- other hand, the discussion of the theoret- ing out bad practices of the past or liquidat- ical discourse that can support this para- ing great accumulation of corruption) that digm shift is very passive. However, discus- Korean society has due to historical rea- sions of this discourse can play an impor-

46 tant role in eliminating the confusion that and provide a more practical direction. In may arise due to change, as they can prove the article, I discuss the suitability of this in- the validity of the change and its sustaina- quiry not only to ‘JeokPaeCheongSan’ but bility. In this article, I suggest critical ped- also to the development of diverse capabil- agogy as a theoretical discourse for South ities, including but not limited to creativity Korea’s educational paradigm shift. Critical and cooperation, which can also support fu- pedagogy, which seeks a conscious eman- ture changes in society. cipation, offers educational directions for the elimination of corruption. In addition, Keywords: the 2017 regime, ‘Jeokpae- I am offering the notion of bricolage as a cheongsan’, critical pedagogy, bricolage praxis to overcome theoretical limitations

Time for Transition in South Korea tuations, the present reality of South Ko- rean society is often referred to as ‘OiJul orean society is at a TaGi’ (= walking on a tightrope). great turning point (Tikhonov, 2018). It is On 10th May 2017, a new government struggling to become a was launched. This government, also society that pursues de- called the ‘Candlelight Government’, is mocracy as well as pro- known as the 2017 regime (Sonn, 2017) motes human rights in social and political context. Whether it and peace by remov- can be called the civil revolution govern- ing the contradictions between hierarchi- ment remains to be seen. What the gov- Kcal class structure, militarism, neoliberal- ernment seeks is democracy, human rights ism and capitalism. Although fragmented and peace. However, it is for the Korean changes in the social system have been at- citizens to judge the competence or in- tempted before, it is the ‘candlelight rev- competence of the so-called ‘Lee-Myung- olution’ which started on October 26, Bak-Geun-Hye3’ government. 20161 that served as the driving force for the full-scale change movement. Although Going backwards, the current situation the process is still ongoing, it needs be ac- is strongly linked to Korean modern his- complished for ‘JeokPaeCheongSan2’ tory. After liberation, which began in year (rooting out bad practices of the past or 1948, the Ryee Syngman regime was an liquidating great accumulation of corrup- anti-communist system in the extreme tion) to be completed. Due to these fluc- right, the Park Jung Hee regime was a de-

1This revolution is sometimes referred to as the ‘candlelight revolution in November’ and as the ‘revolution that started in October’. 2Korea has a unique Hangle character. The origin of Hangle was created to solve the communication difficulties caused by the difference between spoken and written words. Previously, the written characters used were Chinese, and the spoken language Korean, which had no characters. The way of pronouncing a Chinese character in Korean, is called Hanja. In spite of the existence of Hangle, which is a character that can still be used as it is, there is a common use of Korean characters mixed in Chinese characters. Although the word “JeokPaeCheongSan” comes from Hanja, it is expressed using Korean pronunciation. 積弊淸算[ jībìqīngsuàn ]. 3A slang word used by citizens when referring to the Lee Myung Bak government and Park Geun-Hye government together. 47 velopment dictatorship since year 1961 tion, transparency, decentralization and and, after year 1972, there was a ‘YuShin’ interoperability (Son et al., 2009). The regime4. The first appearance of democra- revolution won’t be limited to econom- cy was the 1987 regime, a so-called imper- ic growth. Although difficult to predict, fect democracy. It was a part of the class it will also attract a myriad of changes in struggle centering on the labor movement various contexts, and a great shift in so- and managed to achieve the democrati- ciety, politics, economy and culture is to zation of the constitutional system. The be anticipated as well. In particular, the 1997 regime, which started with the eco- meaning of transparency and decentrali- nomic crisis, once again changed the Ko- zation is related to the important charac- rean society, which was at the time cen- teristics of democracy, human rights and tered on the ruling class, neoliberalism peace. However, a voice of concern over and capitalism. Since then, militarism emphasizing the technological character- has risen and the turmoil of the financial istics has been vocalized among scholars economy – especially global financial cri- (Son et al., 2009). sis in 2008 – as well as U.S. unilateral- ism have greatly affected Korean regimes. So, what orientation should education However, these social, political, econom- take in this ‘zeitgeist’? The academic dis- ic and cultural shifts were moving against course proposed in this article is one pos- democracy, human rights and peace. For sible answer to this question. I will begin example, on 16th April 2014, various fac- with a description of the current situation tors led to the sinking of MV Sewol near ‘a paradigm shift’ in order to show that Jindo area costing 304 lives. The tragedy Korea has been relying too heavily on the raised questions about where Korean soci- fourth industrial revolution in the eco- ety was going and partly led to the candle- nomic context as a sole response to soci- light citizen movement on October 2016, ety’s need for a change (Son et al., 2009). which in turn forced the regime to make Then, I will discuss critical pedagogy to systematic changes. emphasize the changes needed in the educational system (Yu, 2016; Yu, 2017; There is another big transformation go- Kim, 2018). In other words, the purpose ing on in Korean society. This is the age of of this discussion is to examine surface the fourth industrial revolution which in- level changes from a critical point of view, cludes internet of things, cloud solutions, ask questions in the terms of ontology and big data, artificial intelligence as well as epistemology, and discuss the theoretical virtual and augmented reality. In fact, discourse forming the foundation for the the 4th industrial revolution is the leading current educational paradigm. However, change trend in Korean society (Schwab, the disadvantage of a theoretical discourse 2016; Yu, 2017). The fourth industri- is its lack of practicality. Therefore, I take al revolution, as proposed by K. Schwab the concept of ‘bricolage’ to explore how at the World Economic Forum (WEF), theory can be applied into practice. has characteristics such as interconnec-

4Korean word ‘YuShin’ means to redefine the old system. It is an alias of the Fourth Republic. On October 17, 1972, President Park Chung Hee made a constitutional emergency action which declared and established emergency martial law throughout the nation. This is called the October Restoration. Park Chung Hee, who had difficulties in maintaining the regime at that time, suspended the normal functions of the state in order to maintain his power and formulated a new constitution called the “National Reunification Body”. 48 A paradigm shift in education istrative convenience, school education was distorted into a strange form with an he 2017 regime pursues an ed- emphasis on ‘predatory scholastic abili- ucation of democracy, human ty’5. These ideologies have moved educa- rights and peace. Current soci- tion away from the meaning of democra- Tetal changes also form a rich background cy, human rights and peace. Therefore, in for the acceleration of these education- the education, the liquidation of the great al reform attempts. This is mainly due accumulation of corruption should be go- to a new government-sponsored educa- ing towards education for democracy, hu- tion policy since 2017. In 2018, progres- man rights and peace, which all weaken sive-oriented superintendents were elected the existing ideology. in 14 out of 17 districts, along with pro- gressive-oriented politicians and gover- A shift in Korean education became vi- nors in local elections. So, progression of sible before social and political change. changes can be predicted, and thus the so- Its origins can be traced back to the al- cio-political ‘JeokPaeCheongSan’ put into ternative education movement. Alternati- action. It can be observed that South Ko- ve education was a civic movement that rean education is currently going through began in the mid-1980s in order to shift a paradigm shift, which is to be under- the nature of education to human-cente- stood as the flow of modern education di- red. In fact, although alternative educati- rected by the former accumulation of cor- on has been present even before modern ruption. The contradictions of social, po- education in different forms (Jung, 2017), litical, economic and cultural ideologies the beginning of the change centered on before and after the appearance of modern education innovation has been seen as education in Korea did not differ greatly. the mid-1980s, which is universally cal- Educational system that played the role of led the alternative education movement hegemony to uphold the ruling class of (Song et al, 2017). Alternative education the ChoSun dynasty (1392–1910), while has spread since the 1997 economic crisis, accepting modern education, was soon advocating education for all regardless of restructured in inequality (Choi, 2013; school age. Alternative education with a Yoon, 2006). Militarism became a ma- historical flow is beginning to be applied jor ideology in the aftermath of the Jap- in public education now, and it is beco- anese colonial period (1910–1945). After ming visible and accelerating in earnest. liberation, the United States attempted a Two exemplary educational policies to change with a form of public education understand this phenomenon are the in- based on an American model. However, novation school policy introduced in the without the elimination of militarism left Gyeonggi province and ‘Jayuhakgije’, the by Japanese colonialism, authoritarianism free semester school system6, introduced left by the hierarchical structure of feudal by the ‘Lee-Myung-Bak-Geun-Hye’ ad- society and bureaucracy based on admin- ministration. Innovation school policies

5This means that the system evaluates the relative abilities rather than evaluating the abilities themselves by over-emphasizing the evaluation scores. 6During this semester, the school has separate curriculum for career exploration. Also, most classes focus on expe- rience rather than academics. Teachers use alternative teaching methods e.g. discussion, cooperative learning and project work including various field trips. There are no exams. It started for all middle schoolers in 2016 and will expand to two semesters in 2020. 49 that started in Gyeonggi province in 2009 In order to understand are currently expanding to 17 cities and provinces nationwide, and by 2017, there critical pedagogy, meaning will be more than 10% of designated innovation-type schools (Park, 2018). It is of the word should be hard to deny that Korean education is at the moment in a paradigm shift. examined. Theoretical Discourse, Critical Pedagogy tle and reconfigure existing knowledge, ritical pedagogy should be dis- and to birth new awareness by a commu- cussed first to validate the rea- nicative, collaborative and creative way. sons why it should be the theoret- For these two reasons, critical pedagogy Cical background. This can be explained in is suitable as a theoretical background for two ways. First, as mentioned, the 2017 future education in South Korea. regime seeks to liquidate the great accumulation of corruption in society, politics, In order to understand critical pedago- economy and culture – including educa- gy, meaning of the word should be exam- tion. It is a diverse ideology in education. ined. Critical pedagogy is a combination As exemplified, former ideologies have of two words: ‘critical’ and ‘pedagogy’. resulted in scholasticism, capitalism and The ‘critical’ in this sense must be con- neoliberalism, militarism and colonialism, ceptualized with respect to the way Ger- authoritarianism and bureaucracy. In or- man philosophers used it. It originates der to eliminate them, education should from the term used by scholars in a so- pursue conscious emancipation and pro- cial research institute founded in Frank- duce a counter-subject to current hegem- furt in 1923 who tried to understand the ony. Critical pedagogy is an educational human existence and awareness through philosophy that responds to changes in reason and rationalization. In critical the- society, emphasizes democracy, human ory, the meaning of ‘critical’ is a dialectic rights and peace, and centers on citizens. which is often understood as a continuous Second, it is in the search of the most tal- and endless movement of opposites. Espe- ented person in the era of the 4th industri- cially, in connection with the hermeneu- al revolution that has attracted the most tical viewpoint, the hermeneutic dialectic attention and resources in education in re- is the critical. In other words, movement cent years. Thus, competency-centered ed- through hermeneutical dialectic, a meth- ucation is emphasized (Yu, 2016, 2017). od of thinking and logic, is the role of hu- Critical thinking, creativity, cooperation/ man reason, and through it, human be- collaboration and communication skills ing’s existence and perception can be un- are the priority among these competen- derstood (Hur, 2017a). cies (Yu, 2016, 2017; Kim, 2018). These competencies or abilities are directed at The second is the meaning of ‘pedago- critical pedagogy. In other words, the pro- gy’. P. Freire defines the concept of ed- cess of achieving conscious emancipation ucation, which is commonly used, as a through critical thinking is to disman- knowledge transfer from the oppressor

50 who operates curriculum like a banking struction of subjectivity, 6) the construc- system to a structure of oppresses, and tion of democratic community-building thus oppression is produced. The con- relationships between individuals, 7) the cept of education has been reconceptual- reconceptualization of reason-understand- ized through pedagogy (Freire, 1970). If ing the relational existence of which ap- educational pedagogy emphasizes eman- plies not only to human beings but con- cipation, its methods result in conscious cepts as well, and 8) the production of so- awareness, awakening and reflection in cial skills necessary to active participation praxis or practice. in the transformed, inclusive democratic community. The essence of Freire’s emphasis on education is in praxis (theory + action) McLaren (2009) explains the concept of (Freire, 1970). The ultimate goal of edu- critical pedagogy being used in 12 features cation lies in conscious emancipation. The in four areas. First, knowledge is a social state of consciousness that is empowering construct, and it is not free from form, activeness, autonomy, self-reliance and class, culture (domination / subordination self-determination is the emancipation. / subculture), hegemony, ideology or prej- Praxis can be defined as this conscious udice. Second, the formation and practice awakening, in other words, practice as a of power relations should be understood process of escaping from a passive subject, as a discourse. Third, a curriculum is a that is, from a passive being that depends form of cultural politics. Fourth, schools on the oppressors. The curriculum should should be understood by the basis of the include this. The application for this is, social and cultural reproduction and re- of course, language. The main means of sistance theory. transferring human consciousness to be- havior, action and practice is language, In order to understand these concepts, and the practicality of the process having we need to critically examine the ideol- its own language together with social and ogy of ‘claiming the great accumulation political participation is another extended of corruption’ in Korean education. Ko- meaning of praxis. It emphasizes that ed- rean education contains ideologies such ucation should be a place for contribution as academic achievement, authority and and cultural politics. competition. This has been socially influ- enced by the flow of political, econom- J. Kincheloe (2012, pp. 176–181) sug- ic, social and cultural contexts since the gests 8 features for critical pedagogy in modern era. These ideologies have played the twenty-first century: 1) the develop- a major role in forming and maintaining ment of a socio-individual imagination, 2) the current structure which is based on the reconstitution of the individual out- power relations through applied knowl- side the boundaries of abstract individu- edge and culture in education. The school alism, 3) the understanding of power and curriculum has been organized and oper- the ability to interpret its effects on the so- ated for cultural politics, and therefore, cial and the individual, 4) the provision of the educational system has failed to fulfill alternatives to the alienation of the indi- the role of producing social justice, equity vidual, 5) the cultivation of a critical con- and equality. Finally, school education has sciousness that is aware of the social con- even contributed to the conservation of

51 the current status of Korean society. Criti- gogy, is also acknowledged in the academ- cal pedagogy emphasizes the need for con- ic qualitative research area. Therefore, scious emancipation through the criticism similarities can be seen in both bricolage of the current ideologies in Korean educa- and critical pedagogy (Hur, 2017b). In or- tion. Colonialism in particular has played der to understand the collectivity of criti- an important role in shaping the social cal reflection and dismantlement, it seems structure. Citizens must also understand necessary to expand the viewpoint to the these various ideologies through conscious ontological and epistemological aspect. reflection, deconstruct and reconstruct Critical pedagogy has taken a crucial role them in order to move towards a society in this (Kincheloe, 2005, 2011). that successfully pursues the 2017 regime and the fourth industrial revolution. Bricolage is quilt-making. The subject that does this is called a bricoleur. For ex- Praxis and Practical Discourse, ample, scholars and artists themselves, in ‘Bricolage’ various fields, can become bricoleurs. Bri- colage is the process of producing some- take the concept of bricolage and dis- thing new by using existing tools. Howev- cuss its relevance to the meaning of er, for such an action, a discourse is need- praxis in critical pedagogy. Initially ed. This is a reconstruction through under- I‘bricolage’ was related to traditional arts standing and deconstructing through the and referred to producing images through reflection of qualitative research method- the process of dismantling various materi- ology. The process must include empow- als. Later on, the term was also applied to erment, such as the existence of active- meanings. In accordance with this orien- ness, autonomy, self-reliance and self-de- tation, C. Lévi-Strauss (2011) used ‘bri- termination. Therefore, it is not bricolage colage’ as a concept to explain the forma- to understand and reproduce something tion process of knowledge. Since then it that is already existing. Thus, as in the case has been used in the field of social science of critical pedagogy, the practice of critical as a methodology. Especially in the educa- reflection using the hermeneutic dialectic tional field, this concept became a quali- is very similar to bricolage (Kincheloe, tative research method and an alternative 2001, 2005; Kincheloe et al., 2011). Bri- methodology against quantitative research colage is summarized in academic terms (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). If the char- as follows: 1) expression and embedding acteristics of bricolage are expressed in of reality, 2) questions about universality, Korean, it can be understood as a ‘JJaGib- 3) perception of diversity, 4) understand- Gi’ (Quilt-making of critical reflection) ing of life process as cultural politics, 5) (Hur, 2017b). Critical reflection can be existence being connection to each other, an option in viewing the methodology, 6) contextual interchangeability, 7) mul- but critical educators have conceptual- tidimensional and multilogical epistemol- ized it as a ‘hermeneutical dialectic patch- ogy, 8) intertextuality, 9) contextual or- work’, emphasizing it as a necessary fac- ganization of discourse, 10) interpreting tor (Kincheloe, 2001, 2005; Kincheloe, characteristics of knowledge, 11) creativ- McLaren, & Steinberg, 2011). The con- ity of production, 12) knowledge as cul- cept of bricolage, including the inevitabil- tural production, 13) understanding and ity of critical reflection as in critical peda- practicing between knowledge and pow-

52 The ultimate goal ing characters from a drama or a mov- ie to produce a new creative output, just of critical pedagogy is like collective intelligence formed by various participants. In this case, cocreation conscious emancipation is producing bricolage, a creative competence, and a communication channel of cooperation (Kincheloe et al., 2001). Quilt-making is not a pursuit of fulfill- ment through competition, but a com- er relations (Hur, 2017b; Kincheloe el al., bination of existing tools to create new 2011). The methodological process of bri- things. Such has been shown by Ghana- colage and the character of the bricoleur ian sculptor El Anatsui who creates his art can be seen in the attitudes of the educa- from abandoned product packaging mate- tor as well as in putting a curriculum, pro- rials (Hur, 2017b). duced by critical pedagogy, into practice (Kincheloe et al., 2011). Bricolage con- The ultimate goal of critical pedagogy tains the meanings of various praxis that is conscious emancipation, and its pro- are produced by versatile and multifaceted cess should be reflection through the her- understanding as well as practical aspects meneutic dialectical thinking. What it as- of situations and phenomena through the- pires to produce is an active, autonomous, oretical reflection. self-reliant and self-determined individuals with a capability for critical thinking. Educators in critical pedagogy can be It is pointless to discuss creativity and co- described as bricoleurs, whereas praxis and operation without these attributes. Co- practice produced by educators is part of operation, for example, should be joined bricolage. It is a process that takes place in together in a structure of equal power, the relationship between teachers and stu- which requires the dissolution of the hi- dents as well as other subjects participat- erarchical power structures. This is only ing in the curriculum (parents, employ- possible if the member is an emancipatory ees, environment etc.). Bricolage is con- being with a critical consciousness. scious reflection; a deconstructive, recon- structive, and emancipative process. From Conclusion: Critical Pedagogy student’s viewpoint, this is something that for ‘Zeitgeist’ they have received from the teacher, but which they utilize in the course of their t the moment, Korean education lives. The new knowledge, culture and ex- is in a paradigm shift. The histo- istence they themselves produce is a kind ry of the change movement is old, butA it has been on the surface for approx- of bricolage that educators want in critical pedagogy. Desired outcomes are em- imately ten years and has progressed very powerment, such as activeness, autono- slowly due to differences in political views my, self-reliance and self-determination; of mainstream groups. However, with the an education resulting in various possibil- candlelight revolution of the citizens, the ities and linked to creativity. For example, start of the 2017 regime and the change of novels composed with many participants, political mainstream groups, the change such as fan fiction, are written by borrow- in education is accelerating. What is being

53 pursued is ‘the liquidation of the great ac- tor in South Korean education, and at the cumulation of corruption’ referring to the same time proposes critical pedagogy is its various ideologies formed in and because theoretical, ontological and epistemologi- of the past. In addition, the Korean socie- cal discourse and bricolage its praxis. ty is currently in the age of the 4th indus- try revolution. References

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