ISSUE 3, 2015 CONTENTS EDITORIAL 2 by Vasu Gounden FEATURES 3 Appraising the Efficacy of SADC in Resolving the 2014 Lesotho Conflict: Progress and Prospects by Clayton Hazvinei Vhumbunu 12 United Nations Security Council Reform: An African Perspective by Marina Magalhães Barreto Leite da Silva 20 The Kenyan State’s Fear of Somali Identity by Dominic Burbidge 27 Integrating Peacebuilding within Policy Frameworks in Post-conflict Settings: A Reflection on Liberia’s Peacebuilding Process by Wilfred N. Gray-Johnson 34 Burkina Faso: An Unforeseen Crisis? by Naila Salihu 41 Demystifying Extremism in Nigeria: Understanding the Dynamics of Boko Haram by Alasia Ibifuro Joy 48 Moving toward Constitutional Reform in Liberia: How Legitimate is the Process? by Ibrahim Al-bakri Nyei REVIEW 54 Stronger than Justice: Armed Group Impunity for Sexual Violence by Irene Limo Cover Photo: UNMEER/Martine Perret. Tieni, Grand Cape Mount, Liberia (28 January 2015). conflict trends I 1 EDITORIAL BY VASU GOUNDEN September 2015 will be remembered as a period ‘We the People: The Role of the United Nations in the when the conscience and morality of our collective Twenty-first Century’. These events and consultations humanity was tested, and generations to come will judge were followed by a series of UN-led conferences in the us on the decisions we made in this month. 1990s, focused on issues such as children, nutrition, On 2 September 2015, the lifeless body of innocent human rights and women. The early 1990s – the period three-year-old Aylan Kurdi washed up on the shores of a immediately after the end of the cold war – was also the Turkish resort in Bodrum. This image, which went viral on beginning of a proliferation of internal conflicts with news and social media, highlighted the juxtaposition and poverty, inequality and unemployment as their root the stark contrast of our civilisation; an innocent child causes. and his family escaping starvation, poverty, inequality The establishment of the MDGs was therefore a and conflict washing up dead on the shores of a luxury response to these underlying causes of conflict, and they resort, where people with jobs and wealth come to eat were ambitious goals and targets for countries to achieve aplenty, play and relax. by 2015. The Declaration asserted that every individual On 11 September 2015, the world will mark the 14th has dignity – and hence, the right to freedom, equality anniversary of the deadly attacks on the twin towers of and a basic standard of living that includes freedom the World Trade Centre in New York City, just a short from hunger and violence and encourages tolerance and distance from the United Nations (UN) headquarters. The solidarity. The MDGs set concrete targets and indicators pictures of people jumping to their death from the twin for poverty reduction to achieve the rights set forth in the towers to avoid the fire that engulfed the buildings are Declaration. etched in our memories. That day represents the day the The death of Aylan Kurdi, the attack on the twin world was profoundly changed and the day the war on towers of the World Trade Centre and the MDGs are all terror started. linked. There cannot be any security for Aylan Kurdi On 15 September 2015, world leaders will gather and the victims of the September 11 attacks without in New York City for the 70th regular session of the UN us achieving the MDGs; in turn, the MDGs cannot be General Assembly (UNGA70), and between 25 and achieved without security. However, the MDGs cannot 27 September 2015, world leaders will adopt the Post merely represent a set of goals and targets – simply 2015 Development Agenda, following a review of the numbers that need to be achieved. They must represent Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The MDGs a living legacy of our collective decisions that will ensure are eight international development goals that were that more Aylan Kurdis do not wash up on shores or more established following the Millennium Summit of the desperate people do not resort to acts of terror to make UN in 2000, and the adoption of the UN Millennium their point. The MDGs represent our collective decisions Declaration. All 189 UN member states and some 23 that the 8.5 billion people living in 2030 will judge us on. international organisations committed to help achieve We must not fail them. the MDGs by 2015. The Millennium Summit in 2000 was preceded by a two-year consultation process that involved over 1 000 non-governmental organisation representatives from over 100 countries. The Millennium Summit was Vasu Gounden is the Founder and Executive Director launched with the report of the Secretary-General, entitled of ACCORD. 2 I conflict trends APPRAISING THE EFFICACY OF SADC IN RESOLVING THE 2014 LESOTHO CONFLICT: PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS BY CLAYTON HAZVINEI VHUMBUNU GALLO IMAGES/REUTERS/ SIPHIWE SIBEKO Introduction stability. However, it is disturbing that even after the Since the events of 30 August 2014 in Lesotho, when a February 2015 snap elections, there has not been a full coup d’état was reported to have been attempted against restoration of peace and normalcy in Lesotho. The reported the then-prime minister of the Kingdom of Lesotho, Thomas assassination of the former Lesotho Defence Forces (LDF) Motsoahae Thabane – which subsequently forced him to army chief, Brigadier Maaparankoe Mahao, on 25 June 2015 flee and seek refuge in South Africa – the Southern African just outside Maseru, is a cause of concern and frustrates Development Community (SADC), of which Lesotho is a the efforts invested thus far in the peace process. This founding member, has been occupied with efforts to manage article presents an assessment of the efficacy of SADC’s and resolve the ensuing conflict in the mountain kingdom. intervention to resolve the Lesotho crisis, progress made so Lesotho is a prominent conflict agenda item at SADC far and prospects for restoring peace and political stability. summits and extraordinary summits, having experienced political disturbances and internal conflicts before in 1974, 1986, 1991, 1994, 1998 and 2007. Throughout the country’s history of conflict, SADC has facilitated interventions in Above: The alleged attempted coup d’état against the collaboration with neighbouring states – specifically South then-prime minister of Lesotho, Thomas Thabane, in Africa and Botswana – in search of peace and political August 2014, forced him to flee to South Africa. conflict trends I 3 COMMONWEALTH Joint Appeal by the Commonwealth, SADC, AU and EISA on the eve of the 2012 Lesotho Parliamentary Elections 25 May 2012. SADC Conflict Resolution Instruments and Machinery through preventive diplomacy, negotiation, conciliation, At its formation in 1980 in Lusaka, Zambia, the Southern good offices, adjudication, mediation or arbitration. Other African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) than the latest efforts in Lesotho, SADC has historically aimed to advance the cause of liberating southern Africa been involved in interventions to resolve conflicts in the and reducing its dependence on the then-apartheid South Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Madagascar and Africa. The transformation of SADCC into SADC in 1992, Zimbabwe, with military interventions backed by member upon the signing of the SADC Treaty and Declaration at the state armies in the DRC (1997) and Lesotho (1998). The Windhoek Summit in Namibia, was later followed by the success of SADC interventions in resolving conflicts has landmark amendment of the SADC Treaty in March 2001. been varied, given the challenges presented by the conflicts, This amendment established institutional mechanisms that as they were different in terms of nature, causes, dynamics were key in the delivery of the organisation’s mandate. and level of complexity. Among these mechanisms were the SADC Organ on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation (OPDSC) and the related The Lesotho Conflict Troika.1 The Lesotho conflict can only be fully understood with The OPDSC, as provided for under Article 2 of the SADC a sufficient exposition of the country’s historical context. Protocol on Politics, Defence and Security Cooperation and The country has a long history of political instability and has signed by the SADC member states in Blantyre, Malawi in experienced “high levels of factionalism, political tension, August 2001, seeks to “promote peace and security in the and violent conflict especially during and after elections” Region”, and one of its specific objectives is to “prevent, since its independence in October 1966.4 contain and resolve inter and intra-state conflict by peaceful The outcome of the first Lesotho elections in 1966, means”.2 The OPDSC presents a framework upon which which were won by the Basotho National Party (BNP), was member states3 coordinate peace, defence and security largely disputed and was followed by post-election violence. issues, and comprises two committees that make key The next elections, in 1970, were declared null and void by decisions – the Inter-State Defence and Security Committee the ruling BNP, “fearing political defeat” by the opposition (ISDSC) and the Inter-State Politics and Diplomacy Basutoland Congress Party (BCP).5 This led to massive Committee (IPDC). protests and instability. SADC therefore always strives to resolve emerging In 1986, a coup ousted the BNP-led government and conflicts peacefully within and between member states established a seven-year military rule.6 After the disputed 4 I conflict trends elections in 1993, which were won by the BCP, an army- There were also post-electoral contestations, violence, backed ‘palace’ coup took place in August 1994. This was assassinations and attempted assassinations in the preceded by the assassination of the deputy prime minister, aftermath of the 2007 elections, which were won by the LCD. Selometsi Baholo, and a mutiny within the national army The opposition alleged electoral manipulation.