Running Head: ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL ENSEMBLE 1

ESTABLISHNG A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE,

A NINE WEEK CURRICULUM

ELIZABETH M. STEWART

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE

DR. TIMOTHY S. BROPHY, CHAIR

DR. RICHARD S. WEBB, COMMITTEE MEMBER

A PROJECT IN LIEU OF THESIS PRESENTED TO THE COLLEGE OF THE ARTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF 2016 ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 2

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this Capstone project was to design of a curricular unit for the first nine weeks of a high school vocal jazz ensemble. The curriculum content is presented through unit studies that provide fundamental knowledge and introduce basic skills for successful jazz performance. The curriculum includes sample lesson plans and activities designed to engage students in the idioms of vocal jazz through sequenced experiences. The curriculum aligns with the National Core Arts

Standards for Music as well as Florida’s Next Generation Sunshine State Standards. Student learning is measured by various assessment tools, including the NAfME Model Cornerstone

Assessments for creating, performing and responding to music.

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank for to my family for your continued support during the course of this project, especially my husband, Robert Stewart. Your uncompromising love and support goes above and beyond my expectations. Thank you for working overtime to make it possible for me to attend the

University of Florida and fulfill my goal of attaining a Master’s degree in Music Education.

Thank you Dr. Timothy S. Brophy for your patience and guidance throughout the process of this

Capstone project. I have gained a tremendous amount of knowledge and insight through your guidance which is extremely valuable to me as a music educator. Lastly, thank you to Dr.

Richard S. Webb for your guidance and direction as well. I am honored to have learned from both of you.

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract……………………………………………………………………...………..……2

Acknowledgements…………….……………………………………………….…………..3

Purpose…………………………………………………………………………….….……6

Review of Literature…………………………………….…………………….…….……...8

Bloom’s Taxonomy………….…………………………………………….………..9

Webb’s Depth of Knowledge………….……………………………………...……10

Common Core…………………………………………………………….....……..11

National Core Arts Standards …….………...…………………………………..….12

Next Generation Sunshine State Standards (Florida)…….……………………...…13

Hillsborough County High School Choral Directors Curriculum Map (Tampa)...... 14

Standards Crosswalks…………………………………………………………...….16

Creativity……………………………………………………………...…...……….18

Comparing the technical aspects of traditional and vocal jazz ensemble singing.... 22

Stylistic considerations of vocal jazz…………………………….……………...….24

Pedagogy…………………………………...………………………………..….….27

Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Content Knowledge…………..………...……………..….27

Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..……28 ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 5

Curriculum and Assessment……………….…...……………………………………….….30

Presentation of Curriculum…………………………….……………………………….….31

References……………………………………………………...…………………….…….34

Curriculum Outline…….…………………………………………………………….……..37

Instruction Guide………………………………………………………………………...…39

Unit Overviews………………………………………………………………………..……44

Vocal Improvisation Unit Design……………………………………………………..……46

Sample lesson plan: Introduction to Vocal improvisation………...………....….…48

Sample lesson plan: Melodic Embellishments………………………...……..….…49

Performance preparation for Vocal Jazz Solos Unit Design……………………….....…….50

Sample lesson plan: Text analysis………………………………...…………...……53

Sample lesson plan: Melodic Variations………………………………….……..….55

Appendices

National Music Standards (NAfME)…………………………………….………….57

Hillsborough County High School Choral Directors Curriculum Map……….…….61

Florida Vocal Association Music Performance Assessment Rubrics…………….…63

Music Depth of Knowledge Stem Questions……….………………………….……67

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 6

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE

Traditional high school band programs offer a variety of instrumental ensembles for band students including marching band, concert band and . Each embraces its own genre of music, diversifying the development of student performance skills (including improvisation) on their instruments. High school choral programs, however, are more limited because the focus is predominantly on more traditional choral ensembles, sometimes including a vocal jazz ensemble.

Although choral directors engage their students in singing jazz literature, the approach to jazz is traditional in nature and their experience with vocal improvisation are limited (Freer, 2010).

University and college graduates in vocal music education acquire extensive knowledge of the traditional elements of music such as choral conducting, music history, and music theory with virtually no knowledge or experience in vocal jazz (Lyons, 2009). Many choral educators feel unprepared to teach improvisatory skills due to their lack of pre-service training in the idioms of jazz and stylistic approaches that clearly differ from the more traditional approach to singing

(Ward-Steinman, 2008).

This research supports the need for vocal jazz curriculum, which I have addressed in this project by developing a research and standards based nine-week curriculum for choral directors.

The curriculum includes three components of study that address core concepts and skills relevant to vocal jazz performance. The units incorporate a brief overview of vocal jazz history and instruction to the basic rhythms, harmonies and scales often utilized in vocal improvisation.

Additionally, the curriculum addresses vocal technique, development of improvisatory skills, and the stylistic considerations of vocal jazz applicable to solo and ensemble performance.

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 7

PURPOSE

The purpose of this project was to develop a standards based curriculum for the first nine- weeks of a high school level vocal jazz ensemble. In 2014, the National Coalition for Core Arts

Standards revised the national arts standards and clarified expectations in arts education

(National Association for Music Education, 2016). The core music standards are designed to engage music students in the four processes of creating, performing, responding to music. The standards provide a conceptual framework within which teachers can design curriculum that integrates the core standards of music into their instruction. In this project, I examined the

National Core Arts Standards for traditional and emerging ensembles, Florida’s Next Generation

Sunshine State Standards (Florida State University, 2016) and the Hillsborough County curriculum map specific to high school level ensembles. The standards provide a framework for designing instructional outcomes in the nine- week vocal jazz curriculum.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

1. Which music standards are central to the design of a high school vocal jazz

curriculum?

2. What are the similarities and differences in traditional and vocal jazz singing with

regard to vocal technique?

3. What are effective methodologies of teaching vocal jazz style and engaging

students’ vocal improvisation?

4. How do these methods of vocal jazz instruction lead to student achievement of the

standards? ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 8

5. What are effective methods of assessment for students in a vocal jazz ensemble?

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Curriculum developers must work within the policies established in response to relevant education laws passed by Congress that stipulate federal oversight of basic programs operated by state and local education agencies. Fifty years ago President Lyndon B. Johnson signed into law the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1965) which established a commitment to equal educational opportunity for all students. The law was reauthorized by George W. Bush in

2002 in a bipartisan effort known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2002), which identified goals for reducing achievement gaps identified for minority or economically disadvantaged students in

Title I schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). No Child Left Behind was scheduled for revision in 2007, but the law was not revised at that time. In 2010, the Obama administration was encouraged by stakeholders to further education reform and identified that some provisions in NCLB were actually hindering student progress. Congress could not come to a resolution, so the President to establish of ESEA flexibility, which allowed states, schools and educators to develop and implement effective strategies for higher student achievement. States that received this flexibility were required to develop and implement accountability systems for improving educational outcomes for students who were not demonstrating growth in academic achievement

(the White House, n.d.). On December 10, 2015 President Barack Obama signed into law another bipartisan bill known as Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015). The President stated, "With this bill, we reaffirm that fundamentally American ideal—that every child, regardless of race, income, background, the zip code where they live, deserves the chance to make of their lives what they will." (U.S. Department of Education, 2016, p. 1). This law reaffirmed the importance of arts education in Sec. 5551 of NCLB (U.S. Department of Education, 2004) which outlined ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 9 stipulations for assistance for arts education. The new law (ESSA, 2015) describes music and the arts as part of a ‘well-rounded education’ (National Association for Music Education, 2016). It is therefore important to develop meaningful arts curriculum. This further supports the research findings that evidence the degree to which engagement in the arts fosters students’ creativity and development of critical thinking skills (Hickey & Webster, 2001). National, state and county standards provide a framework for the development of curriculum that promotes optimal student achievement.

Educational theorists posit frameworks of student learning that guide the development of curriculum and assessment. Bloom (1956), developed a model for categorizing educational objectives. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956/2001) consisted of six major components: (a) knowledge; (b) comprehension; (c) application; (d) analysis; (e) synthesis; and

(f) evaluation (Vanderbilt University, 2016). As education systems continued to evolve, new perspectives emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Educational theorist identified three domains of human learning as cognitive (Bloom), affective (Krathwohl) and psychomotor (Harrow and

Simpson). These domains were arranged into a hierarchy ranging from the simplest functions to the more complex, or higher order thinking (Thomas, 2005). In 2001, Krathwohl, and Anderson

(a student of Bloom’s) revised the original taxonomy created by Bloom using verbs or actions to determine levels of learning (see Figure 1).

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 10

Figure 1: A comparison of the two versions of Bloom’s Taxonomy (Wilson, 2016)

In the revision of Blooms’ taxonomy, Krathwohl and Anderson felt it important to include a matrix of cognitive processes ranging from concrete knowledge progressing to abstract knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002). Figure 2 represents the conceptual framework of higher order thinking wherein learners begin with the ability to recall information, and develop the ability to the transfer information known as active learning (Paige, Sizemore, & Neace, 2013).

Figure 2: Knowledge dimension of Bloom’s taxonomy (adapted from Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, p. 46)

Norman Webb (1997) conceptualized the cognitive learning process in his Depth of

Knowledge (DoK) model. While the Bloom/Anderson taxonomies present a hierarchical model of educational objective, Webb’s model presents a hierarchy of cognitive complexity. Cognitive ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 11 complexity is a means of classifying the cognitive demands presented by standards and curriculum (Florida Department of Education, 2012). Webb’s DoK classifies thinking at four levels of complexity: (a) recall; (b) basic application of skill or concept; (c) strategic thinking; and (d) extended thinking (Paige, Sizemore, & Neace, 2013). Many teachers and administrators have found that when observing instruction, Webb’s four indicators are easier to distinguish than the six indicators used by Bloom (Hess, 2013) (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (Heidi Butkus, 2013)

Webb’s Depth of Knowledge and Common Core

The Common Core State Standards Initiative (Common Core State Standards Initiative,

2016) details what students should know and be able to do in core academic subjects upon graduation from high school to prepare them for success in institutions of higher education as well as the workforce. Common Core was developed by the National Governors Association

(NGA) (National Governors Association, 2011) and the Council of Chief State School Officers

(CCSSO) (Council of Chief State School Officers , 2016) and is intended to establish consistency in state standards in English language arts (ELA) and mathematics. Common Core places emphasis on content rigor and application of knowledge through higher order thinking ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 12

(Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2016). Higher order thinking is at the center of the

Webb model and, as a result, the Depth of Knowledge model is a framework used by educators to estimate the cognitive demand or complexity required for students to demonstrate achievement of the standards (Hess, 2013). While the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015), includes the arts in the definition of a ‘well-rounded education', the law does not state that the arts are core academic subjects. However, in order to reach the highest level of expectation in the arts, it is important to frame the development of a vocal jazz curriculum to meet the expectations described in the core arts anchors standards.

National Core Arts Standards

In 2014 a group of distinguished arts educators from five arts disciplines established the

National Coalition of Core Arts Standards. A primary purpose of this collaborative effort was to provide clarification of common core standards achieved across all disciplines of arts education.

These standards were designed to achieve "attainment of artistic literacy, which is the knowledge and understanding required to participate authentically in the arts" (National Association for

Music Education, 2016, p. 3). Artistic literacy includes philosophical foundations and lifelong goals, artistic processes and creative practices, anchor and performance standards that are measured through the model cornerstone assessments (MCAs). A visual representation of this is illustrated in figure 4. (National Association for Music Education, 2016). The arts standards like the common core standards focus on outcomes (McTighe & Wiggins, 2006).

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 13

Figure 4: Conceptual Framework of National Core Arts Standards

The Core Arts Standards are content specific. Each discipline has published detailed criteria for their content in the context of Artistic Processes, Enduring Understandings, and

Essential Questions and Model Cornerstone Assessments. The National Association for Music

Education (NAfME) published the eleven music anchor standards defined in the documents detailing different categories or music education including K-8 standards, and high school standards for composition and theory, music technology, keyboard and guitar as well as ensembles (National Association for Music Education, 2016). The curriculum developed for the current project is framed within these standards. The descriptors for high school performance standards levels are: (a) proficient (one or more years of high school study); (b) accomplished

(proficiency exceeded average performance proficiency for high school study); and (c) advanced

(preparing for collegiate study in music) (National Core Arts Standards, 2014). (see Appendix 1:

2014 National Music Standards for Performing Ensembles)

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Florida’s Next Generation Sunshine State Standards

A diverse group of experts in the arts disciplines of dance, music, theatre and visual arts drafted and updated arts standards in Florida known as the Next Generation Sunshine State

Standards (NGSSS) (Florida State University, 2016). There are forty-nine standards for music grouped into five categories and broken down by grade level: (a) critical thinking and reflection;

(b) skills, techniques and processes; (c) organizational structure; (d) historical and global connections; and (e) innovation, technology and future. This project incorporates the relevant

Florida standards that provide the framework for the development of vocal jazz curriculum.

The national and state standards provide the framework of knowledge and skills that students should attain. Wiggins and McTighe (2006) recommend that standards serve as a blueprint for curricular design. They suggest that standards be ‘unpacked’ into four broad categories. The first is long term transfer goals; content understanding, skills and knowledge we want our students to acquire through the curriculum. The second and third are concerned with the essential understandings and essential questions. Understandings are knowledge students need to transfer learning to new situations and questions which engage students in a deeper understanding of acquired knowledge. The final category is the cornerstone task, which is a measurement of acquired knowledge (McTighe & Wiggins, 2006).

The process of aligning national and state standards is critical in defining content outcomes and therefore plays a key role in curriculum design. It is through the alignment of standards that core content emerged in this project. In this project, I employed a backward design model to connect relevant content standards to targeted outcomes. This provided a framework in which the vocal jazz curriculum units and subsequent lessons were structured to maximize student achievement (McTighe & Wiggins, 2006). Articulation of intended outcomes ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 15 are often detailed in a curricular maps, documents that identify skills and core content presented through scope and sequence of instruction (Abbott, 2014). The Hillsborough county standards for choral educators are presented in a curriculum map that emphasizes three core areas of choral performance (a) vocal technique; (b) music literacy; and (c) ensemble skills (see Appendix 2:

Hillsborough County Public School High School Choral Director Curriculum Map).

High School Choral Music Essential Criteria in Hillsborough County, Florida

A group of skilled secondary choral directors worked collaboratively to develop a curriculum map to help guide instruction of choral ensembles in Hillsborough County, Florida

(Tampa). The curriculum map document clearly articulates desired choral performance and music literacy outcomes of students enrolled in choral ensembles. The curricular outcomes of choral ensembles in this project were derived from the literacy and performance skills that are detailed in the Florida Vocal Association (FVA) Music Performance Assessment (MPA) sight singing and performance rubrics. (see Appendix 3: Florida Vocal Association adjudication rubrics) The essential areas of achievement range from simple skills at the freshman level, progressing to higher levels of complexity at the completion of the senior level. These ensemble guidelines serve as the Hillsborough County Public School standards for vocal ensembles and were implemented in the vocal jazz curriculum presented in this project.

The focus in this project is on the artistic processes associated with the standards that are defined “content specific” to vocal jazz ensembles. National content standards have been clearly defined by the National Coalition of Core Arts Standards. However, music education standards are not consistent from state to state. Each state has its own set of music education standards.

For this project, I categorized the processes of music into creating, performing and responding.

Then I examined Florida’s Sunshine State Standards as the High School Choral Music Essential ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 16

Criteria and correlated them according to these processes. From this process, I was able to identify specific content consistent in national, state and even county approved standards. I have created four crosswalk examples (Tables 1-4) that align national and state standards to define the standards that guide this curricular design. Table 1 represents the creating processes of music that are common in National and Florida standards. Table 2 signifies performance standards that involve the selection, analysis, interpretation, development and refinement of music that occur in the rehearsal process. Table 3 denotes a correlation of National and county performance skills essential to concert preparation. Table 4 represents the connection of these standards in relation to artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural, and historical contexts to deepen understanding.

Table 1. Crosswalk of National Core Arts Standards, National High School Core Music Standards for Improvisation Ensembles and the Florida Next Generation Sunshine State Standards National Core Arts National High School Core Next Generation Sunshine Standards Music Standards for State Standards NCCAS Improvisation Ensembles NGSSS (Proficient Level) 1. Generate and MU:Cr1.1.E.Ia Compose MU.912.O.2 The structural conceptualize artistic and Improvise ideas for rules and convention serve as ideas and work. melodies, rhythmic passages both the foundation and and arrangements for specific departure point for creativity. purposes that reflect characteristics of music from a variety of historical periods studies in rehearsal. 2. Organize and MU: Cr2.1.E.Ia Select and MU.912.S.1.4 Arrange develop artistic ideas develop draft melodies, musical work by and work rhythmic passages, and manipulating two or more arrangements for specific aspects of the composition or purposes that demonstrate improvisation. understanding of characteristics of music from a variety of historical periods studied in rehearsal. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 17

Table 2. Crosswalk of National Core Arts Standards, National High School Core Music Standards for Traditional and Emerging Ensembles and the Florida Next Generation Sunshine State Standards National Core Arts National High School Core Next Generation Sunshine Standards Music Standards for State Standards NCCAS Traditional & Emerging NGSSS Ensembles (Proficient Level) 4. Analyze, interpret and MU: Pr4.1.E.Ia Explain the MU.912.C.3.1 Make critical select work for presentation criteria used to select a varied evaluations, based on repertoire to study based on exemplary models of the an understanding of quality and effectiveness of theoretical and structural performances and apply the characteristics of music, the criteria to personal technical skill of the development of music. individual or ensemble, and the purpose of the context of the performance.

MU:Pr4.2.E.Ia Demonstrate, using music reading skills where appropriate, how compositional devices employed and theoretical and structural aspects of musical works impact and inform prepared of improvised performances. MU:Pr4.3.E.Ia Demonstrate MU.912.O.3.2 Interpret and an understanding of context perform expressive elements in a varied repertoire of music indicated by the musical through prepared and score and/or the conductor. improvised performances,

5. Develop and refine MU:Pr5.3.E.Ia Develop MU.912.C.2.1 Evaluate and artistic work for strategies to address make appropriate adjustments presentation. expressive challenges in a to personal performance in varied repertoire of music, solo and ensemble. and evaluate their success using feedback from ensemble peers and other sources to refine performances.

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 18

Table 3. Crosswalk of National Core Arts Standards, National High School Core Music Standards for Traditional and Emerging Ensembles and the Hillsborough County Public Schools High School Choral Music Essential Criteria National Core Arts National High School Core Hillsborough County Public Standards Music Standards for Schools High School NCCAS Traditional and Emerging Choral Music Essential Ensembles Criteria (Proficient Level) 6. Convey meaning through MU:Pr6.1.E.Ia Demonstrate The student demonstrates low the presentation of artistic attention to technical diaphragmatic breathing with work accuracy and expressive a lifted rib cage with qualities in prepared and prompting from director. improvised performances of a varied repertoire of music The student demonstrates representing diverse cultures, breath energy, support and styles, and genres. management in his/her vocal tone. MU:Pr6.1.E.Ib Demonstrate The student demonstrates an understanding of phonation without a glottal expressive intent by attack or release with connecting with an audience prompting from director. through prepared and improvised performances. The student demonstrates a healthy, vibrant, resonant and free tone that is consistently well supported with prompting from director.

Table 4. Crosswalk of National Core Arts Standards, National High School Core Music Standards for Traditional and Emerging Ensembles and the Florida Next Generation Sunshine State Standards National Core Arts National High School Core Next Generation Sunshine Standards Music Standards for State Standards NCCAS Traditional & Emerging NGSSS Ensembles (Proficient Level) 10. Relate artistic ideas and MU:Cr1.1.E.Ia MU.912.H.1.5 Analyze works with societal, MU:Pr6.E.Ib music within cultures to gain cultural, and historical understanding of authentic contexts to deepen performances. understanding.

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Creativity

The National Core Arts Standards are developed around the four artistic processes common in all arts education (National Association for Music Education, 2016). These processes include (a) creating; (b) performing; and (c) connecting as referenced in the standards crosswalks (Tables 1-4). All processes in music involve creativity (Kratus, 1990). Music educators must teach creative thinking in all the processes of music (Hickey & Webster, 2001).

Webster (2002) conducted extensive research on the topic of creative thinking and established a model of the creative thinking process in music. This model describes the creative thinking involved in the origination of a creative product in four stages. The first stage is preparation, where the creative thinkers’ focus is on the generation of ideas or gathering materials for the final product. The next stage, incubation, occurs when the creator contemplates a solution to the creative problem. The subsequent stage is illumination, a period where the organization of creative ideas take shape and concrete ideas emerge. The final stage of the creative process is verification, where the creator brings all the ideas together to yield the creative product (Hickey

& Webster, 2001). In the arts, a creative problem is an impetus that is motivated by the need to generate something original. This is manifested in music as (a) a composition; (b) performance or improvisation; or (c) listening and analysis. These creative ideas involve both divergent and convergent thinking. Creativity begins with divergent thinking, where many possibilities are explored. This thinking process is followed by convergent thinking, the critical thinking process where the possibilities are evaluated and refined (Sawyer, 2012). The exchange between convergent and divergent thinking in these processes is at the core of creative thinking (Webster,

2002). ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 20

When we explore the concept of creative thinking in the context of vocal jazz, we need to consider the artistic process of creating demonstrated through improvisation. Improvisation, composition and arranging are all creative processes in music. Where composition of new music and arrangement of existing literature involve improvement of the creative product, improvisation occurs during a performance and actively engages the performer(s) in spontaneous creative thinking (Sawyer, 2012). In the earliest recordings of instrumental jazz, improvisation was a key component of the style, affording each member of the band the opportunity to demonstrate virtuosity on their instrument (Starr & Waterman, 2014). As instrumental jazz began to evolve into the swing and years, improvisation remained the definitive feature of jazz.

Understanding the organizational structure of instrumental is crucial to the generation of musical ideas for the development of vocal improvisation skills. Musical ideas that are guided by structure and conventions of jazz would ultimately factor into musical creativity both in spontaneous improvisation and the interpretation of ballad-style performances.

Processing and sequencing of musical ideas is essential to improvisation, the most distinguishing characteristic of jazz (Madura, 1995). Imitation is another key element of improvisation.

Imitation is achieved when the performer selects specific melodic or rhythmic motives and expands on the musical materials for the creation of original music. This skill requires the performer to have well-developed aural skills through ear training. It is through the musician’s audiation that the materials of sound are re-organized into creative improvisations. (Woody,

2012). It is through improvisation that students demonstrate divergent and convergent thinking, as exhibited in Webster’s model of the creative thinking process in music (Hickey & Webster,

2001). Vocal improvisation originated when vocalists in a jazz orchestras would creatively ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 21 imitate the sounds and styles of instrumental solos. This was accomplished through the use of scat syllables, nonsense vocables intended to emulate the phrasing and articulation of a horn player (Lyons, 2009).

In secondary music education, a great deal of focus is placed on musical performance.

Before an ensemble can present a performance, there are a number of basic skills that must be taught in class and applied during the rehearsals. Choral fundamentals include a basic knowledge of music theory, aural skills, and sight reading skills as well as technical skills and elements of expression. It is through the acquisition of these essentials that ensembles can create a musical experience for the audience. Creating improvised music through performance is a process that combines the fundamentals of music knowledge such as form and phrasing and engages the performer in active creative thinking which demonstrates the highest level of cognitive complexity described in Webb’s DoK (Collins & Williams, 2009). (see Appendix 4:

DoK in Music)

In the context of vocal jazz, it is important for students to have acquired strong aural skills that are developed through learning activities. Listening to influential instrumental and vocal jazz recordings is crucial to acquiring an understanding of jazz style (Venesile, 2010).

According to Woody (2012), “in music, it is the ear that defines great musicianship” (pg. 82).

He further goes on to describe three cognitive skills that contribute to music performance. The first is goal imaging, where the performer creates an expectation of what the performance should sound like. The second is motor production, which comprises the technical considerations that contribute to creating sound. The third is self-monitoring, the performer’s ability to accurately hear his/her own performance in real time (Woody, 2012). The task of interpreting composed ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 22 music to create a meaningful performance is another example of the cognitive complexity as demonstrated in the Webb DoK model.

Music is a reflection of culture. The music of the United States is a “melting pot” of musical traditions that emigrated from countries around the globe. Jazz is an indigenous

American art form that emerged in the early 1900s through two main streams of musical influences; European and African. The union of these musical traditions are the roots of jazz.

(Starr & Waterman, 2014). Vocal jazz students should know about and appreciate the value of jazz and its influence in American culture (Lyons, 2009). Understanding vocal jazz in the context of history, culture and idiom enables singers to connect this knowledge and apply it in improvisation as well as ensemble performances. For this reason, the inclusion of vocal jazz in choral curriculum enriches students understanding of a distinctively American music genre.

Comparing the technical aspects of traditional and vocal jazz ensemble singing

Directors of traditional choral and vocal jazz ensembles need to have a firm understanding of the similarities and differences between vocal production and vocal technique as they apply these two different approaches to singing. While there are definite stylistic differences in jazz and traditional choral singing, the instructional technique is the same. They share the goal of establishing a healthy, vibrant, resonant sound that is blended with all the members of the ensemble.

The first component of vocal production to consider is vibrato. Vennard (1967), defined vocal vibrato as a “fluctuation in pitch, intensity and timbre with pitch variance at least a semi- tone” (pg. 10). This fluctuation is a pulsation of sound that is pleasing, flexible and establishes a resonant tonal quality to the voice. Natural vibrato is produced by a steady stream of breath ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 23 which allows the vocal folds to vibrate with ease and without tension. In the traditional Italian school of vocal technique, there exists the bel canto approach to vibrato. This approach to vibrato remains an acoustical phenomenon and is believed to improve intonation (Stark, 2003).

The bel canto approach to vibrato differs in vocal jazz as the use of vibrato is a stylistic consideration and is mainly used as a color enhancement to the sound (Lyons, 2009).

The next component of vocal production is the absence of vibrato, or straight tone. In traditional solo literature, vibrato is desirable; however, the vibrato of many singers in a group makes blending the sound as one voice difficult. As a result, many choral directors require their singers to use straight tone, especially when performing Renaissance literature (Olson, 2008).

Some consider the use of straight tone in choral singing a clear strident sound devoid of vibrancy

(Ferrell, 2015). Strident tone can fatigue the voice causing the laryngeal muscles to contract resulting in inaccurate intonation (Olson, 2008). In contrast, the use of vibrato is preferred in both solo and ensemble vocal jazz singing. The exception is when vocal jazz ensemble sings a dissonant chord, straight tone in this instance leads to better tuning (Lyons, 2009).

Resonance is the effect of two vibrating chambers on the same pitch, creating an occurrence known as sympathetic vibration (Vennard, 1967). These resonators in the vocal tract allow the sound to become amplified through acoustic energy that moves through the pharynx and nasal cavities (Ferrell, 2015). It is advantageous to establish resonance in order to create a vibrant tone. Vowel production is another technical component of both traditional and vocal jazz ensembles. In traditional choral ensemble singing, the approach to vowel production is the vertical shaping of vowels to modify the vowels and create a self-amplified tonal quality. To accomplish this, the larynx is lowered and the soft palate raised creating space in the mouth.

This lends it way to better blend among the vocalists in the choir and produce homogeneity of ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 24 tone (Ekholm, 2000). Vowels can also be manipulated to create a variety of tone colors in a solo song. Vowel modifications allow the improviser to emulate the sounds of instruments. This is a stylistic consideration in vocal jazz. These choices in how vowels are handled varies by the preferences of the ensemble director.

Consonants are the next component of choral singing to be considered. Traditional choral ensembles have the tendency to over enunciate consonants so that the text can be clearly articulated and understood by the audience. This is considered to be the method of establishing good diction. In vocal jazz, the consonants are more subdued yet just as deliberate through an energized approach to voiced and unvoiced consonants (Lyons, 2009).

A well-produced tone begins with the breath. In bel canto vocal pedagogy, the breath is the key factor in the establishment of clear, resonant tone. Breath control or breath management is a vital element of both classical and vocal jazz phonation. Breath connection establishes vocal line and contributes to vibrato, it considered the most important aspect of vocal production by most vocal pedagogues (Ferrell, 2015). There is virtually no difference to the technical approach of breath control in singing any style of music, in the solo or ensemble literature. Good breath control is highly affected by posture. Proper posture is achieved when the head, chest and pelvis are supported by the spine in a way that they remain in alignment with one another. The shoulders should be back and relaxed with the sternum high. This provides the body position for the diaphragm to expand in the inhalation and contract of the exhalation, the proper method of breathing when engaged in singing.

Most choral directors are proficient in these technical aspects of singing, as most of them had vocal technique training in studio lesson and choral ensembles during their undergraduate program. Choral directors who have not had the advantage of vocal jazz experience require ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 25 professional development in the stylistic attributes of jazz in order to teach them successfully

(Venesile, 2010). This is due to their lack of training in approaches to improvisation and limited personal experience (Watson, 2010). Choral directors who are establishing a vocal jazz should invest a substantial amount of time to listening to improvisations in both instrumental and vocal jazz recordings and performances. Additionally, they should attend professional development courses and workshops to learn vocal improvisation techniques and methods.

Stylistic considerations of vocal jazz

Brass band and traditions of the delta region, music of the Midwest and the birth of Tin Pan Alley in New York City all contribute to the development of jazz as we experience it today. In order to understand the idioms of jazz, there needs to be an understanding of the context in which it developed. Choral directors gain an understanding of rhythmic approaches and the harmonic language of jazz through listening to vocal jazz soloists and vocal jazz ensembles. The more they comprehend these stylistic elements, they begin to internalize them (Venesile, 2010). This experience dramatically impacts their stylistic approach in teaching vocal jazz curriculum.

The harmonic structures of jazz are complex. Traditionally trained choral directors are not exposed to the study of vocal jazz unless they had experiences performing in a jazz ensemble at a college and university that offer degree programs in jazz studies. Studio jazz studies programs include courses in jazz theory, jazz trends and traditions as well as performance skills, improvisation and arranging (University of Miami, 2016). Choral directors who experience singing in vocal jazz ensembles have the opportunity to practice singing these complex harmonies, giving them an advantage in the development of a vocal jazz ensemble. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 26

For the purpose of this project, two basic chord progressions provide a framework for vocal jazz students to learn how to scat. The twelve bar twelve bar blues is the most effective form to use when introducing jazz harmonies to a vocal jazz students (Ward-Steinman, 2008).

This chord progression centers around three chords in a given key; I, IV and V. Originated in the blues, this chord progression is fundamental in many familiar styles of music, including rock and roll, pop, country, and jazz (Starr & Waterman, 2014). Another frequently used chord progression in jazz is ii-V7-I, where the ii is substitution for the subdominant. (Stoloff, 1999).

Seventh chords are the basic harmonic device of , utilized more often than triads.

In the design of this vocal jazz curriculum, these two chord progressions will be the foundation in which the vocal jazz students can establish a basic understanding of jazz harmony. As the ensemble progresses through the school year, more chord progressions can be introduced.

There are two categories of jazz melodic features. The first is the straightforward performance of literature. Performance of jazz standard literature requires the performer(s) to communicate the text with proper inflection, color and phrasing (Weir, 2005).

These are all stylistic skills that are addressed in the curriculum. The other approach is the art of vocal improvisation or . Melodic considerations of scat singing include scale choices, particularly when improvising over a chord progression. The most frequently used scales in jazz include the blues scale, the whole tone scale, chromatic scales and pentatonic scales; each possessing its own unique quality and interval relationships (Ward Steinman, 2014).

Another source of melodic material is modal, each mode containing different altered notes of the scale making it characteristically different (Stoloff, 1999). Although modes are quite frequently the source of melodic ideas for experienced vocal improvisers, an introductory level of scat singing focus on the scales that are more familiar to the students. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 27

Jazz rhythms can range from simple to extremely complex. However, underlying even the most complex rhythms performed by each individual musician in a jazz group is the pulse or the beat; that which makes the listener able to tap his/her foot with the music. In scat singing, rhythm is articulated through the vocables, the syllables singers use to create the color and timbre of instrument imitation (Lyons, 2009). Syncopation is a dominant form of jazz articulation which is putting the accent on the offbeat. However, this can be accomplished by combining duple and triple meters and stressing the accent on an offbeat. For instance the second or third beat of a triplet as opposed to the first beat (Stoloff, 1999). In the early 1940s, swing became the craze in the US (Starr & Waterman, 2014). With it came a distinctive style of dance categorized by an emphasis on the backbeat (Lyons, 2009). Swing rhythm is characterized by an uneven feel in eighth notes. The feeling is more of a dotted eighth-sixteenth articulation. Most jazz songs, particularly in vocal jazz octavos, use this approach to rhythm. Once the swing rhythm is internalized, the next step to creating an authentic feeling of swing is the ‘lay back’ (Weir, 2005).

Laying back is a slight displacement of rhythm just behind the quarter note. This subtle rhythmic displacement is central to the swing feel. This approach to swing was cultivated by great jazz vocalists like Louis Armstrong and (Starr & Waterman, 2014).

Pedagogy

Pedagogy is the ability to create meaningful learning experiences that lead to the transfer of knowledge (Venesile, 2010). Choral directors who lead vocal jazz ensembles should have a firm understanding of vocal pedagogy, and the knowledge and skill to train the individual voice in technical aspects of singing such as posture, breathing, phonation and maintaining vocal health. Many choral students do not have the opportunity to study with a private voice teacher or vocal coach who may provide this fundamental knowledge of vocal production. Therefore it is ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 28 vital that choral directors include vocal technique as part of the curriculum in any ensemble

(Smith & Sataloff, 2013). Choral pedagogy is another important basis for the pedagogical philosophy behind this vocal jazz curriculum. The production of a free, resonant, in-tune sound that is well blended and balanced is the goal to which choral directors aspire. This is achieved through establishing ensemble rehearsals with clearly articulated outcomes (Smith & Sataloff,

2013). These instructional outcomes are expressed in or developed from the standards.

Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Instructional methods have evolved with the use of technology. Technology is a valuable tool in education, as it provides new ways for students to engage in learning activities. It is therefore important for music educators to be knowledgeable about resources that enhance learning in their particular teaching situations (Bauer, 2014). Content and pedagogy have already been addressed, so the question arises: How do all of these components factor into vocal jazz curriculum? They do so through the intersection of content, technological, and pedagogical knowledge to create engaging learning activities specific to the content (Bauer, 2014).

Although technology is a tool through which learning in music can be enhanced, many meaningful learning activities in the vocal jazz ensemble can successfully be carried out without the aid of technology. The way content and pedagogy intersect is the most crucial in the development of vocal jazz curriculum. Accomplished vocal jazz ensemble directors combine successfully their knowledge of choral singing and pedagogy, interpretation of jazz idioms, and the development of improvisatory skills which often are enhanced through technology (Venesile,

2010).

Methodology ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 29

I explored a variety of vocal jazz and vocal improvisation method books in search of appropriate resources for the curriculum. For the instruction of vocal improvisation, I use the

SCAT Singing method: Beginning Vocal Improvisation by Dr. Scott Fredrickson (Fredrickson,

2013). This methodology systematically introduces the basic techniques of vocal improvisation through manipulation of syllables, melody and rhythm. The method book includes both notated and aural samples that provide a context in which students can imitate vocal improvisation as well as practice and expand upon their own musical ideas. An original melody is presented in order to provide a consistent example to work with as they learn each individual improvisation skill. The methodology gradually builds on each skill and student confidence through many practice examples. The first skill developed in the sequence in the ability to use different syllables to accent different notes and create timbre through vocables. The next skill presents melodic embellishment through stylistic jazz techniques such as fall-offs, ascending smears, plops, doits, ghost notes, flips and shakes. Each of these embellishments are presented and demonstrated as a concept of melodic embellishment in scat singing. The last skill that is explored is alteration of rhythm from the original melody. Throughout the skill presentations learners are provided opportunities to further explore and develop their improvisation abilities.

Fredrickson (2013) gradually develops this scope and sequence through the integration of the preceding musical elements. This methodology is an effective way to gradually establish the student’s comfort level with vocal improvisation. Once the basic skills are acquired, the smartphone application, ScatAbility created by Michele Weir (Weir M. , 2016) is used to further develop vocal improvisation through suggested personal and classroom activities The application is available for a number of devices including individual smartphones and classroom iPads. As ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 30 student improvisatory skills develop so does an awareness of the organization of musical elements that contribute to more skillful vocal improvisations (Kratus, 1990).

The other method book utilized in the curriculum is the Jazz Singer's Handbook, the

Artistry and Mastery of Singing Jazz (Weir, 2005). This book guides students through the selection of solo material appropriate for their skill and range. This unit of solo study is aligned with core music performance standard 4: selecting, analyzing and interpreting in preparation for performance. Students will select, analyze, interpret, refine and present solo material in order to gain a fundamental understanding of expressive approaches to performance of standard jazz literature. The book offers a choice of seven short songs in different ranges that explore techniques to text interpretation and other stylistic features.

Interpretation of jazz literature and vocal improvisation are both contributing factors in the selection of ensemble literature. The development of the ensemble sound should occur simultaneously with developing individual improvisation skills. This provides an opportunity for members of the ensemble practice vocal improvisations in the context of a solo feature in the ensemble. Dr. Russell Robinson has composed vocal jazz pieces to develop and practice the combination of these skills including Jazz Talkin’ (Robinson, Jazz Talkin', 2012), Jazzin’ It Up!

(Jazzin’ It Down) (Robinson, Jazzin' It Up (Jazzin' it Down), 2002) and Let’s Sing Some Jazz

(Robinson, Let's Sing Some Jazz, 1999). Elements of these materials and resources are the basis

I used to develop a method for teaching vocal jazz and improvisation skills for the first nine weeks.

Curriculum and Assessment

All of the factors discussed thus far contributes to the design of a high school vocal jazz curriculum. The design in framed within the core music education standards that are presented ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 31 in the crosswalks in Tables 1-4. All music processes engage creative and/or critical thinking as described in Webb’s Depth of Knowledge model. Standards are content specific. The content of my vocal jazz curriculum includes elements of vocal technique, knowledge of jazz and how it connects to American culture and influences the style and idiom of vocal jazz, and the performance of vocal improvisations (Lyons, 2009). Content must be presented in a way that is skillful and stimulating for the students to maintain interest and motivation to learning.

Student learning and progress in vocal jazz is assessed in various ways. When assessing student creativity, student achievement of learning objectives is the focus, not the evaluation of the creative product (Kratus, 1990). The National Coalition for Core Arts Standards Model

Cornerstone Assessments are designed for music educators to measure student achievement of standards (National Core Arts Standards, 2014). The curriculum presented in this project includes model cornerstone assessments (MCA), writing assessments, self-reflection and peer evaluation. Additionally, performance assessments such as district and state solo and ensemble

Music Performance Assessments determine to what extent students are able to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to develop a superior ensemble. The nine-week vocal jazz curriculum concludes with a concert to showcase the solos and ensemble skills and knowledge gained through the curriculum. This performance is designed to serve as a summative assessment of solo performances of jazz standard literature, vocal improvisation and vocal jazz ensemble pieces.

Presentation of the Vocal Jazz Curriculum

The design to this vocal jazz curriculum utilizes tools from the Wiggins and McTighe

Understanding by Design (McTighe & Wiggins, 2006). The backwards design unit model starts with desired outcomes, rooted in the standards. Assessments are then developed to measure ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 32 student achievement of standards through varied tasks. Units are designed to present the curriculum through a series of lessons. These elements inform the scope and sequence of instruction through selected learning activities (McTighe & Wiggins, 2006).

The vocal jazz curriculum is designed for the first nine weeks for a high school vocal jazz ensemble. The rationale for the design is that students need to acquire specific vocal jazz knowledge and skills for successful vocal jazz solo and ensemble performances throughout the remainder of the school year and perhaps beyond. The curriculum comprises three major components: (a) vocal improvisation; (b) performance preparation of vocal jazz solos; and (c) vocal jazz ensemble skills. Specific elements of vocal jazz are integrated throughout the curriculum including (a) vocal technique; (b) analysis/critical thinking; and (c) historical and interdisciplinary contexts. Additionally, students maintain an online listening blog throughout the term. This blog consists of exemplary examples suggested by the teacher that correlate with concepts associated with each component of study.

There are a number of assessment embedded in the curriculum to measure student achievement of the music standard expectations at the national, state and county levels. For example, in the vocal solo project, the students maintain a solo project portfolio that is a collection of learning artifacts acquired in the jazz solo unit. These artifacts provide evidence that student tasks were accomplished. Additionally, Model Cornerstone Assessment are used to demonstrate achievement of national standards. Quizzes on concepts and terminology of the curriculum are part of each component. Reflection essays and short paragraphs are tools to measure synthesis of knowledge. Finally, performance assessments are graded with rubrics that detail the criteria used to measure the level of skills observed in each performance. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 33

The curriculum outline details its structure. Each component is covered within a three week time period. At the end of the sixth week, there is a concert featuring the individual work of the students completed the vocal jazz solo projects and vocal improvisation unit.

Additionally, there is a culminating concert that showcases the skills acquired in all three components, which is assessed using the Florida Vocal Association solo and ensemble Music

Performance Assessment rubrics.

The design of this nine-week vocal jazz curriculum is rooted in national core music standards, Florida’s NGSSS and the HCPS Curriculum map. The standards that are aligned with the divergent and convergent thinking processes are incorporated in the vocal improvisation unit.

Standards that are aligned with the sequence of performance preparation; selection, analysis, interpretation, refinement and performance are addresses in the vocal solo project and within the ensemble rehearsals. This curriculum is designed to fully engage the students in a variety of experiences in jazz. These learning experiences build confidence in the student’s abilities to perform vocal improvisation and stylistic conventions of jazz.

The concepts presented in this project are intended to serve as a blueprint that could be adapted and applied to individual teaching situations. I have included a curriculum outline that describes the components of the nine-week curriculum and an instructional guide that details what students should learn and be able to do. The curriculum has three components, and I have presented them in an instructional planning curriculum map. Additionally, I decided to include the rationale of the two unit design along with two lesson plan samples unique to this project.

Music educators approach instruction according to their educational philosophy and performance outcome priorities for their students. This project was intended to define core content for a vocal jazz ensemble specifically rooted in the standards of music education. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 34

REFERENCES

Abbott, S. (2014, August 26). Hidden Curriculum. Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/hidden- curriculum Bauer, W. I. (2014). Music learning today: Digital pedagogy for creating, performing and responding to music. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Collins, M., & Williams, S. (2009). Fine arts depth of knowledge. Retrieved from Richmond County School System: http://www.rcboe.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=16480&dataid= 7939&FileName=DOK%20Fine%20Arts%20packet.pdf Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2016). Abut the Standards. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/ Council of Chief State School Officers . (2016). Retrieved from Council of Chief State School Officers : http://www.ccsso.org/ Ekholm, E. (2000). The effect of singing mode and seating arrangement on choral blend and overall choral sound. Journal of Research in Music Education, 48(2), 125-135. Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Pub L. 89-10 79 § 27 Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, 114th United States Congress, Pub. L 114-95 Ferrell, M. A. (2015). Choral Conductors and Voice Teachers: Finding Common Ground . The Choral Scholar, 30-42. Florida Department of Education. (2012, July). Office of Assessment. Retrieved 4 16, 2016, from Florida Department of Education: http://fcat.fldoe.org/pdf/cog_complexity-fv31.pdf. Florida State University. (2016, January 18). Next Generation Sunshine State Standards. Retrieved from CPALMS Where Educators Go For Bright Ideas: http://www.cpalms.org/Public/search/Standard#0 Fredrickson, S. (2013). Scat singing method. Charleston, SC: Scott Music Publications. Freer, P. K. (2010). Choral improvisation: tension & resolution. Choral Journal, 51(5), 18-31. Hanna, W. (2007). The New Bloom’s Taxonomy:Implications for Music Education. Arts Education Policy, 108(4), 7-13. Hess, K. (2013). A guide for using Webbs depth of kowledge for common core standards. Retrieved from Ohio Department of Education: education.ohio.gov Hickey, M., & Webster, P. (2001). Creative thinking in music. Music Educators Journal, 85(4), 26-33. Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A Revision of Blooms Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory into Practice, 41(4), 212-218. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 35

Kratus, J. (1990). Structuring the music curriculum for creative earning. Music Educators Journal, 76(33), 33-37. Lyons, L. E. (2009). Strategies for developing a jazz and contemporary vocal ensemble sound for the traditional chamber choir. University of Miami. Madura, P. D. (1995). An exploratory investigation of the assessment of vocal jazz improvisation. The Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music Education, 23, 48-62. McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2006). Understanding by design (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. National Association for Music Education. (2016). 2014 Music Standards. Retrieved from http://www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/core-music-standards/ National Association for Music Education. (2016). Everything ESSA. Retrieved from NAfME: http://www.nafme.org/take-action/elementary-and-secondary-education-act-esea-updates/ National Association for Music Education. (2016). National Coalition for Core Arts Standards. Retrieved from http://www.nafme.org/my-classroom/standards/ National Core Arts Standards. (2014). Music Model Cornerstone Assessments. Retrieved from http://www.nationalartsstandards.org/mca/music National Governors Association. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.nga.org/cms/home.html No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, § 115 Stat. 1425 (2002). Olson, M. (2008). Vibrato vs. Nonvibrato: The Solo Singer in the Collegiate Choral Ensemble. Journal of Singing, 64(5), 561-564. Paige, D. D., Sizemore, J. M., & Neace, W. P. (2013). Working inside the box: exploring the relationship between student engagement and cognitive rigor. NASSP Bulletin, 97(2), 105-123. Sawyer, R. K. (2012). Explaining Creativity: The Science of Human Innovation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Smith, B. J., & Sataloff, R. T. (2013). Choral pedagogy (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc. Stark, J. (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy. Toronto: University of Toranto Press. Starr, L., & Waterman, C. (2014). American popular music from mistrelsy to mp.3 (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford Press. Stoloff, B. (1999). Scat! vocal improvisation techniques. New York, NY: Gerald and Sarzan Publishing Co. the White House. (n.d.). Education. Retrieved 4 16, 2016, from Reforming No Child Left Behind: https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/education/k-12/reforming-no-child-left- behind ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 36

Thomas, K. (2005). Learning Taxonomies. Retrieved 4 16, 2016, from Rocky Mountain Alchemy: www.rockymountainalchemy.com/ U.S. Department of Education. (2004, 9 15). Laws and Guidance. Retrieved 4 16, 2016, from Title 1: Improving the Academic Acheivement of the Disadvantaged: http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg1.html#sec101 U.S. Department of Education. (2016). Every Student Succeeds Act. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/essa University of Miami. (2016, February 21). Academic Bulletin: B.M. in Studio Music and Jazz Voice. Retrieved from http://bulletin.miami.edu/undergraduate-academic- programs/music/departments-degree-programs/studio-music-jazz/studio-music-jazz- voice-bm/ Vanderbilt University. (2016). Center for Teaching. Retrieved from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/ Venesile, C. J. (2010). The Acqusition of pedagogical content knowledge. Cleveland, OH: Case Western Reserve University. Vennard, W. (1967). Singing, the mechanism and the technic. Los Angeles, CA: Carl Fischer. Ward Steinman, P. (2014, October 2). Patrice Madura Ward Steinman: Unlocking the mystery of improvisation. Retrieved from YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQOrAyMkUHM Ward-Steinman, P. M. (2008). Vocal improvisation and creative thinking by Australian and American university singers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 56(1), 5-17. Watson, K. E. (2010). The effects of aural versus notated instructional materials on acheivement and self-effiacy in jazz improvisation. National Association for Music Education, Vol. 58, 58(3), 240-259. Webster, P. (2002). Creative Thinking in Music: Advancing a Model. Evanston, Illinois USA : School of Music, Northwestern University. Weir, M. (2005). Jazz singers handbook, the artistry and mastery of singing jazz. Alfred Music Publishing. Weir, M. (2016). home page. Retrieved from MIch Music: www.MichMusic.com Wilson, L. O. (2016). Anderson and Krathwohl – Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised. Retrieved from The Second Principle: http://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/beyond-bloom- cognitive-taxonomy-revised/ Woody, R. (2012). Playing by ear: Foundation of frill? Music Educators Journal, 99(2), 82-87.

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Curriculum Outline

I. Components of the nine-week vocal jazz curriculum

A. Vocal Improvisation Skills

B. Stylistic interpretation of jazz in solo literature

C. Ensemble skills: Technique, Style, and Performance

II. Instructional Guide-categorized listing of knowledge and skills

A. Performance Skills

1. Vocal Technique

2. Vocal Improvisation Skills

3. Ensemble Skills

B. Analysis and Critical Thinking Skills

1. Critical Listening

2. Vocal Solo Song Selection

3. Jazz Solo and Ensemble Analysis

4. Jazz Solo and Ensemble Interpretation

5. Ensemble Rehearsal, Evaluation and Refinement

C. Historical Context and Connection to other Genres of Music

1. Historical Overview

2. Jazz Connections

III. Component Overview

A. Introduction to Scat Singing: The Art of Vocal Improvisation

Text: SCAT Singing Method by Dr. Scott Fredrickson

B. Performance preparation of Vocal Jazz Solos ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 38

Text: Jazz Singers Handbook (the Artistry and Mastery of Jazz Singing by

Michele Weir

C. Collaborative Processes: Polish, Perfect and Perform

Text: Vocal Jazz Octavos

IV. Vocal Improvisation Unit Design

A. Lesson Plan: Introduction to Vocal Improvisation

B. Lesson Plan: Melodic Embellishments

V. Vocal Solo Unit Design

A. Lesson Plan: Text Analysis Strategies

B. Lesson Plan: Melodic Variations

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Instructional Guide: High School Vocal Jazz Ensemble

First Nine Weeks

I. Performance Skills

A. Vocal Technique

1. Describe and demonstrate correct singing posture and body alignment

2. Describe and demonstrate correct breathing technique.

3. Describe and demonstrate phonation without a glottal attack

4. Describe and demonstrate qualities of a healthy, vibrant and resonant tone.

5. Describe and demonstrate appropriate use of vibrato and straight tone in vocal jazz.

6. Describe and demonstrate jazz stylistic approach to vowel production.

B. Vocal Improvisation Skills

1. Describe and demonstrate syllabic variation in a scat solos. [E1]

2. Describe and demonstrate melodic embellishments in scat solos [E2]

a. Tenutos, vertical accents and staccato

b. Fall-offs and ascending smears

c. Ascending glissandos and plops

d. Doits and host notes

e. Shakes and flips

3. Describe and demonstrate the ability to alter and embellish rhythm in scat solos [E3]

4. Demonstrate the ability to combine two of the three described skills simultaneously in performing scat solos [E1], [E2], [E3]

5. Demonstrate ability to perform imitative vocal improvisations. ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 40

6. Describe and demonstrate aural imagery in vocal improvisations.

7. Demonstrate the ability to perform question and answer vocal improvisations.

C. Ensemble Skills

1. Describe and demonstrate pitch and rhythm accuracy.

2. Demonstrate proper phrasing through breath management.

3. Demonstrate good diction.

4. Demonstrate proper inflection.

5. Describe and demonstrate appropriate articulations and dynamics.

6. Demonstrate harmony independence

7. Demonstrate the ability to balance when singing harmony and blend with the other voices in the ensemble.

II. Analysis/Critical Thinking Skills

A. Critical Listening

1. Maintain a listening online blog reviewing exemplary examples of jazz recordings or live performances.

a. Instrumental improvisation

b. Solo vocalists with scat solos

c. Vocal jazz ensembles

B. Select 1. Select appropriate solo jazz literature based on interest, skill level, and technical factors in the appropriate vocal range.

C. Analyze

1. Analyze the structure and context of vocal jazz solo with the intention of preparing for a live performance. Based on exemplary models of quality and effectiveness of performance, apply these criteria to the personal development of selected vocal solo.

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 41

D. Interpretation

1. Develop personal and ensemble interpretation that is consistent with the composer or arrangers intent.

E. Evaluation

1. Listen to two peer improvisations and provide feedback on the creative

devices used in the performance (24 bars)

a. Syllabic variety and use of aural imagery

b. Melodic embellishments

c. Rhythmic alterations and embellishments.

2. Listen to three peer performances of solo jazz literature and provide feedback in regard to the following four criteria on a four point rubric (week 6)

a. Tone production/vocal quality

b. Rhythm and pulse accuracy

c. Pitch and intonation accuracy

d. Expressive qualities/stylistic interpretation

3. Listen to two recordings in contrasting tempo from a rehearsal and provide positive and constructive detailed feedback to the ensemble in regard to:

a. Tonal ensemble quality (blend and balance)

b. Rhythm and pulse accuracy

c. Pitch and intonation accuracy

d. Expressive qualities/stylistic interpretation

III. Historical and Interdisciplinary connections

A. Historical overview

1. The Delta Region-gospel and blues ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 42

2. Brass Bands

3. Ragtime

4. Vaudeville

5. Tin Pan Alley

6.

7. Swing Era

8. Bebop

9. Ensembles through the eras of jazz

B. Jazz Connections

1. Early Broadway

2. Emerging genres

a. Rock and roll

b. Rhythm and blues

c. Soul and Funk ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 43

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Appendix 1

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Appendix 1 continued

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Appendix 1 continued

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Appendix 1continued

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Appendix 2

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Appendix 2 continued

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Appendix 3

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Appendix 3 continued

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 65

Appendix 3 contiued

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 66

Appendix 3 continued

ESTABLISHING A HIGH SCHOOL VOCAL JAZZ ENSEMBLE 67

Appendix 4