Fukushima: Life and the Transnationality of Radioactive Contamination 生命と国境を越える放射能汚染

Adam Broinowski

discern how public understanding has been, and continues to be, confused. Finally, given Japanese translation available 生命 that the Fukushima disaster is distinguishable と国境を越える放射能汚染 from other radiological events in scale and type of contamination, this essay argues that far- reaching change is called-for in the current legal standards and institutional responses When Fukushima 1 Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) which have been governed thus far by mid was torn apart by several explosions, whether twentieth century power relations. due to technical failings in correspondence I The Priorities of Sovereign Power with the earthquakes, tsunami or a combination of both, it not only dispersed radioactive Over nearly 70 years of the ‘postwar system’, contaminant but also exposed the bonds nuclear power has steadily become connecting people’s lives with nuclear power. synonymous with the political order in Japan Over the two and a half years since then, the and deeply integrated it within its international corruption, inadequacies and mendacities at institutional frame. Its introduction into Japan the centre of the sovereign power structure by a consortium of young politicians and that has prevailed in Japan since 1945 have captains of industry (via the 1953-4 Eisenhower become ever more visible. This essay first Atoms for Peace campaign) helped to solidify introduces the foundations of this structure, bilateral political and corporate relations exploring how the long-standing relationship between the US and Japan, within the wider between Government and major private electric geopolitical re-formation. As part of the utilities in Japan informs the present crisis, reconstitution of interlocking zaibatsu- noting in particular the ramifications ofgovernment relations from 1949 on, with the decisions being made within this structure at base value of a successful democracy in ‘free the individual level in present and projected Asia’ commensurate with continuous effects to human health. Followingconstruction and centralized energy production consideration of the effects of radiation on (or ‘plutonium economy’) in all aspects of the human health, the discussion then turns to nation (the signature LDP policy ofdoken visual and local testimonies of the effects of kokka or ‘construction state’),2 the destruction other radiological events – Hanford, Hiroshima of the natural environment was seen as a and Nagasaki, Chernobyl and Iraq – so as to necessary contingency in the essential practice offer a comparative assessment of theof resource extraction, production and Fukushima disaster. While mindful of the construction for optimizing economic growth difficulty in arriving at an absolutely conclusive and containing political tensions. position on these conditions, enough evidence has now accumulated to make a realistic Following the formation of the US Atomic assessment of the human health impact, and to Energy Commission (AEC 1954) and Japan

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Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA 1955), the materials were ‘res nullius’ (mushubutsu) – International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) things belonging to no one, like mist or fish – was established in 1957. Article 2 of its and that it was owned by those whose land foundational mandate referred to theupon which it fell. In this case the radiation promotion of ‘safe, responsible development of levels were equivalent to those in the uranium resources’ and the mission toChernobyl exclusion zone (Cs137 235,000 ‘accelerate and enlarge the contribution of bq/kg, Sr90 98 bq/kg). On the other hand, while atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity apparently not of their concern, TEPCO lawyers world wide’. Just as Japan eagerly committed counter-examined the technical accuracy of itself to the ‘peaceful use of nuclear power’, so government dosimetry and their understanding too did signatory nations to the nuclear club of radiation effects, using the oft-cited pro- agree to the IAEA assuming the role of key nuclear argument that 10 mSv of natural promoter of the nuclear industry worldwide. In radiation is to be found in inhabited parts of the 1959, the WHO agreed to the IAEA taking world with no ill health effects. Although the primary responsibility for reporting the health district court maintained the right of companies effects of nuclear radiation despite the heavy to file complaints, they held that the onus of concentration of IAEA expertise in nuclear decontamination rested on local and federal physics (28 May 1959, WHO WHA 12-40). governments, and absolved TEPCO of the duty Along with establishing radiation safety and to compensate the golf company.3 environmental protection standards, the IAEA and other radiation protection authorities have Although both TEPCO and the central consistently downplayed events and evidence Government had received adequate and pathologised health concerns for low dose forewarnings of the risk in 2008, both radiation as ‘radiophobia’, which itmaintained for more than a year after the characterised as more hazardous than radiation disaster that the tsunami and earthquakes were itself. Their understanding of and response to an ‘unforeseeable force of nature’ and ‘beyond the ongoing disaster at the Fukushima Nuclear prediction’. They refused liability for damage Power Plant (NPP) is no exception. caused from radioactive contaminant released beyond their respective private or national As a sovereign industry, controlled by powerful borders. Apparently, their position is supported forces in society, nuclear power in Japan came by The London Convention on the Prevention of to influence foreign policy, national security Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and and transnational ties. The insouciant over- Other Matters (1972) that limits liability to confidence displayed by Tokyo Electric Power radioactive waste released into the sea from Company managers (TEPCO) in the first two ships and not land-based sources.4 However, years of the Fukushima nuclear disaster, was the 1996 Protocol to the 1972 Convention an expression of the long-held technicalcodifies the ‘precautionary approach’ and the monopoly over nuclear power plants enjoyed by ‘polluter pays’ principle. Rather than prohibit a the Federation of Electric Power Companies of certain list of hazardous materials, this Japan. In a 2012 court action by Sunfield Protocol shifts the Convention to include waste Nihonmatsu Golf Course for compensation over discharged from land as well by stating that losses incurred due to forced closure as a result anything not included on the said list, of which of high radiation levels, TEPCO argued that as contaminant from nuclear reactors is not a a private contractor its responsibilities to the part, cannot be discharged into the ocean and public were limited and that it was no longer must be managed on land. The case can be the owner of radioactive matter released from made that precautionary measures were the Fukushima Daiichi NPP. It claimed the insufficient and that the polluter was negligent

2 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF in refusing to adequately store the materials. while being encouraged to manage a portfolio that promises to provide returns in the broader In this sense, TEPCO and the Government have effort to maintain the buoyancy of the nuclear operated in tandem. While the nationalindustry. In this sense, the reality of molten government took financial control of the utility, radioactive metal sitting beneath the ruined setting up a permanent government fund of 1 plant is abstracted into a financial liability that trillion yen (which includes public taxes and is ‘contained’ to prevent any loss of confidence international donations) to protect the utility on the part of prospective investors. Neoliberal (offset costs) from insolvency and collapse,5 free market principles permit state intervention TEPCO managers continue to own and run the where there is opportunity for financial benefit, plant, assuming ultimate authority on nuclear- but otherwise adhere to strict economic related operational issues including human and imperative. Moreover, the issues are not environmental health. A key functional problem restricted to Japan. Since the earliest days of underlying this position is that TEPCO is bound the disaster, all three administrations have to recoup the costs it has incurred during the proactively canvassed prospective buyers for clean-up. At the same time, the Government its nuclear technology exports. Confirmed can shift responsibility to TEPCO for the buyers include Vietnam, Turkey, Saudi Arabia disaster when it is expedient to do so. and the UAE, while negotiations with other central European and Asian buyers continue.6 TEPCO is a major representative of a sovereign Further, anticipating local obstruction, Hitachi industry, which is regarded as too important to and Toshiba have acquired or are acquiring be allowed to collapse, existing in this sense nuclear plants overseas (UK) to expand their beyond society. While technical problems posed nuclear power operations.7 by engineering operations, health safety limits, radiation detection methods, safety procedures While ceding responsibility to corporate and financial management have dominated entities such as TEPCO allows the Government public discourse, serious considerations of to limit its accountability, the toxicity of the responsibility and ultimate causation have been materials handled by these corporations in either marginalised or rejected by the courts. terms of their long-term waste and propensity Protecting its share price and profitability to penetrate the biosphere is far greater than remains the ultimate priority of TEPCO qua the short-term economic gain they return corporation, resulting in the curtailing of its through their use. The importance attributed to disaster operations on the basis ofTEPCO as part of a transnational industry considerations of cost-effectiveness. This leads overrides the core international principles of to slipshod safety procedures, includingfair trading and avoiding transnational random and inadequate ocean and land-based pollution. The fact that adequate prior warning measurements and hastily assembled and or consultation is not offered to those who are carelessly monitored temporary storageor will be affected, shows that both the state facilities (over 1000 tanks containing roughly and corporation have reneged upon their 380,000 tonnes of highly contaminated water). responsibility to protect the rights of the civilian. Instead, they privilege the corporation Even as it has failed and failed again, however, as a sovereign asset. This sort of corporate TEPCO has been bailed out by the Government welfare at the expense of public health and well so that it can continue to operate as a business. being suggests the degree of interests shared Regarded as ‘too big to fail’, the corporation by state and corporate managers and the has been granted immunity from either raw professional fluidity between them. This has capitalist logic or due democratic process, been further aided by a distorted scale

3 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF established in the late 1950s for weighing the dangers posed by radioactive contamination against the political and economic benefits of nuclear power.

Despite the seismic volatility of the archipelago, the concentrated investment, research, planning, construction and operation of the 54 nuclear reactors in Japan by the utilities, government, and cooperating international organisations that make up the transnational ‘nuclear village’ and its monolithic supply chain, suggests why radiation-related industries and agencies are being protected from liability for damage or ‘I absolutely assure that health problems cost overruns. have not been a problem until now and will not be a problem in the future’ – PM Abe Prime Minister Abe’s statement in Japan on 4 Shinzo, IOC speech, 7 September 2013. September 2013, followed by his performance as part of a final pitch to win the Olympics for Tokyo at the IOC meeting in Buenos Aires three As contractors continue with ‘decontamination’ days later, was intended to display decisive projects, the initial strategy adopted by TEPCO resolve toward the crisis. However, theto cool the melted fuel with constant hydration discrepancy between representation and reality and filtering of contaminated water stored in could not have been clearer. Abe assured the tanks (with the Advanced Liquid Processing nation, and then the Olympic panel and an System provided by French nuclear technology international audience that ‘the [Fukushima] specialist company AREVA) has been constantly situation is under control. It has never done hampered by problems. It has also been the and will never do any damage to Tokyo’. He target of criticism by Gregory Jaczko, former guaranteed, with a pledge of 47 billion yen (US head of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, as $500 million) toward the plant, that hiswell as groups such as Greenpeace and government would stop the radiation-Physicians for Social Responsibility (PSR), for contaminated water leaks from the Fukushima its inability to thoroughly remove radioactive Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) so that ‘there would isotopes.9 An initial offer of zeolite absorbent be no problem at all in 2020’. In turn, Takeda from Rosatom, the Russian nuclear power Tsunekazu, the leader of the IOC bid claimed corporation, in the first few months after the that life in Tokyo where people believed that explosions, repeated in August 2013, was the air and water quality was safe would rebuffed by TEPCO, presumably to favour its continue as normal, as in most cities ‘like Paris, arrangement with AREVA.10 However, unless London and New York’, and that ‘Fukushima’ significant amounts of forested land is cleared posed no risk to a ‘great and safe Games’.8 and prepared at the site, contaminated water Contrary to their belief that contaminated and soil storage is expected to reach the water had been contained within the 0.3km maximum space available by November 2013. port housing of the NPP, ionising radiation had The adoption of the decontamination method been dispersed (and was continuing to spread) without planning the logistics for permanent throughout the Kantō area, and further into the storage facilities at the NPP, suggests that ocean. eventual discharge of contaminated water into

4 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF the ocean or air has been and remains power in Japan. anticipated by TEPCO.11 As techniques of persuasion and confusion II Human requirements for safety versus continue to be insinuated into public economic health consciousness (‘Look forward with optimism!’; ‘Ganbare Nippon!’; ‘Kizuna!’), the popular Beyond the concerns of contamination from nationalist drive to restore Japan to its glory melted radioactive fuel, public trust in the days of the Meiji era, or to the Kishi Government has also been a casualty of the administrative initiatives of the late 1950s, has Fukushima disaster. The Noda government (2 made claims by affected citizens for September 2011 – 26 December 2012)compensated evacuation and health care more equivocated over the plan by the Kandifficult. Redoubling its effort to stamp out administration to shut down nuclear power in ‘baseless rumours’ (fūhyō), the Abe government Japan, and that plan was then emphatically has pressed evacuees to return to their former revoked by the Abe government fromresidences. Despite a municipal government December 2012. Instead, the latter, at least campaign to encourage residents to prioritise initially, vowed to export, restart andfamily, community and the land (thekizuna accelerate nuclear power-related production, project), along with staged apologies, reverting to and consolidating the LDPpromotional drives for Fukushima produce, construction-state formula to boost economic distribution of free dosimetry meters to growth. potential returnees, decontamination and construction programs, and even miracle cures The post facto raising of safety limits for for cancer,14 the public are also being told to radiation exposure on 19 April 2011 (from 1 to make their own decisions regarding the risks of 20mSv) and reduction of the evacuation zone to radiation exposure. However, the ability of less than 30 km from the NPP, driven by an those citizens from the mandatory or voluntary unapologetic ‘logic’ of optimal growth, ignored evacuation zones (160,000 in total) to make the passage of radioactive concentrations such decisions has been handicapped by the beyond the official concentric circlesauthorities’ screening information. The same is emanating from the crippled plant. These were true for those who have remained behind. They to denote the 20km mandatory exclusion zone have been deprived of necessary detail and (greater than 50mSv) and the 30km voluntary treatment concerning radiation levels in food, 12 exclusion zone (20-50mSv). The continued water and air, for sufficient protection against dispersal of radioactive contaminant from the damage from myriad types of radionuclides.15 stricken and leaking NPP, waste incineration, the relaxation of food testing and re-circulation While sophisticated detection of radioactive of irradiated fish from the Fukushima coast matter is obviously essential (across the (Sōma, Iwaki), and re-use of contaminated gamma-beta-alpha range in water, soil, air, areas by fast food chains for cheap food organic and inorganic matter), the over- production, for example,13 contributes to the emphasis on a national ‘can-do’ positivity and creation of a surplus population of humans and on an economic solution by the Abe other living beings through thegovernment distracts from realistic bioaccumulation of radioactive materials. This assessments and appropriate responses to the means that due to institutional policies adopted complex problems at Fukushima. with regard to the hazard of radiation, a certain Decontamination for example, can cause portion of the population has been factored in serious damage to the lived environment,16 and as part of the ‘costs’ of maintaining nuclear there is little guarantee that mobile radioactive

5 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF particles will not re-contaminate cleaned areas. industry, their health has been and is being Despite the US Atomic Energy Commision sacrificed in exchange for the protection and (AEC) having known since 1955 from its expansion of sovereign life. disastrous nuclear weapons testing in the Marshall Islands that radioactive material does III An outline of radiation effects not dissipate but moves in scattered pockets and streams in sea water,17 in 2013 the While the public are being served variants of Japanese government and TEPCO continue to misinformation concerning radiation, from the use a dispersal as decontamination method, universal common of natural background both on land and into the Pacific ocean. The radiation for the creation of planetary life, to use of decontamination instead of evacuation comparative doses of radiation in aircraft, X- and entombment of the reactors, has meant the rays, CAT scans and bananas (natural award of significant contracts to construction background potassium K40 radiation in companies to perform tasks whose truebananas is 0.0117 Bq/kg) to psychosocial effectiveness are disputed. At the same time, prescriptions of happiness (Dr Yamashita general confusion prevails concerning the Shunichi, Fukushima Medical University), it is effects of radioactive materials, how they generally agreed that, prior to 1945, the human spread and how to protect against them.18 body had evolved to correct mutations from natural radiation exposure over time. The subsequent creation of this surplusAnthropogenic radioactive materials however, population in addition to those affected by the which have been produced by nuclear bombs or initial disaster is symptomatic of a crisis of late power plants cannot be balanced so easily, capitalism. In the same way that medical whether internally or externally exposed to the treatment of HIV and cancer now favours a human body. When man-made uranium managerial over a curative approach which products enter the food chain, depending on benefits the pharmaceutical industry through the radionuclide the additional and unnatural long-term course prescriptions, monitoring and burden of radioactive ionisation takes a long decontamination programs in Fukushima tend time to stabilise in the environment (generally to defer the recognition of reality as part of the 100,000 years). prescription. Similarly, the chronic illness caused by low-level radiation exposure leaves Where once it was believed thathibakusha the person alive but in a permanentlysuffered illness only from the direct external debilitated state. The concerted attempt to flash and thermal wave from the atomic bombs assuage public anxiety seems to be aimed at over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, it only gradually gradually normalising radiation as part of became known that the chroniceffects such as everyday life – studied or transformed into fatigue, cardiac abnormalities, various cancers, industrial production in some way, but not leukaemias, alopecia, skin lesions and rashes accurately diagnosed and sufficiently treated. were also due to low-dose internal radiation As the sovereign appetite for power increases exposures.19 The US-led Atomic Bomb Casualty in lieu of trans-national market competition, Commission (ABCC) longitudinal studies on projected external threats and national policy hibakusha, used by the Atomic Energy transformation, stress fractures in the social Commission to establish the international and environmental fabric are developing of formula for radiation exposure and safety which the Fukushima disaster is just one standards, calculated the risk of cancer in example. As people ingest radioactive materials direct proportion to the dose received (linear (hot metal particles) dispersed from theno threshold model). It concluded that any reactors as a by-product of a stressed sovereign exposure below 100mSv/year (1 mSv = 1 X-

6 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF ray), particularly internal exposure, would be instability, and cancers and leukaemias.25 When negligible to human health. This calculation did reproductive organs are so embedded, the not allow distinctions for gender, age,damage to the sex cells therein is reproduced physiological differences, diet, period ofin the next generation. When embedded in the exposure and ecological particularities in soft tissue of an embryo the activity of these distribution. It also disregarded all non-cancer, products can impair birth, and cause defects non-genetic, or non-fatal illnesses as being (teratogenic defects). Even when these radiation-induced (auto-immune disease,products are excreted they remain active and fertility impairment or birth defects, orcan continue to cause damage when re- combination with other carcinogens). Although absorbed by living beings. some authorities now recognize that this measurement understates risk by between 100 Despite tight institutional control over national and 1000 times, this model formulated by the health statistics and health diagnoses at International Committee for Radiationmedical centres in affected areas, at the time of Protection (ICRP) continues to informwriting 43 children measured from Fukushima international radiation policyprefecture have been diagnosed with thyroid (IAEA/UNSCEAR/WHO), and has been applied cancer, or are suspected of it. 18 were in calibrations for radiation emergencies at diagnosed with thyroid cancer from 210,000 Windscale, Sellafield, Three Mile Island,children tested in Fukushima, up from 12 Chernobyl, Fukushima, and elsewhere.20 Even reported on 5 June 2013, and 25 other cases when the external dose rate is below the are suspected of developing into full-blown stipulated action level (external dose rate limit cancers.26 Although the Fukushima Medical for sheltering is 100μSvh-1), radioactive University has yet to release all its thyroid test particles may still be present in the air or water data, the Eighth Fukushima Prefecture Health and pose risk of ingestion. In fact, on 27 May Management Survey between April and August 2012, the UN Special Rapporteur on2012 showed 43% of 42,060 children tested Fukushima Anand Grover released a report presenting abnormal nodules and enlarged which was sharply critical of the approach cysts on their thyroids.27 This may be an taken by Japanese authorities, and pointed out underestimate given that the tests skimmed that much had been learned about low dose over small cysts (1-2mm), but is still a higher radiation effects from the Chernobyl disaster.21 rate compared to the same illnesses in the Chernobyl vicinity after that disaster.28 In Although there is evidence that the danger has addition, Caesium has been detected in 70% of 22 been understood ever since the early 1940s, 85 children measured in the Ibaraki Prefecture in vitro and in vivo studies over the past 20 Cooperative Association study,29 and there have years have confirmed that uranium products, been numerous instances of symptoms typical when ingested in micro-particles, can be of radiation poisoning, such as regular, genotoxic (damaging DNA), cytotoxicprolonged, enduring and aggravated anaemia, (damaging cells) and mutagenic(mutation rashes, lethargy, uncontrolled nose-bleeding, 24 inducing) to living beings. They then embed in dizziness, nausea and headaches.30 the cells, soft tissues, organs, blood and bones, and continue to emit regular low doses of Conclusions by the WHO and UNSCEAR that radiation in specific areas as they decay the releases from Fukushima were much lower (ionisation). The ‘heat’ from these emissions than those of Chernobyl and that there will be kills the affected cells or alters theironly a small absolute increase in health effects biochemistry. This creates the conditions for seem excessively optimistic. Firstly, the exact disorders and diseases, mutation/genomic amount of radioactive material released from

7 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF the Fukushima NPP is unknown because the in 2003, a Japanese documentary team led by corium (melted fuel) are yet to be located and Kamanaka Hitomi visited Iraq (Basra, Fallujah) cannot be measured, and the release of to trace the effects of radioactive materials contamination has not yet been contained. The dispersed during the first Gulf War of 1991 amount of Cs 137 alone released from the (Hibakusha: sekai no owari ni, 2003). initial explosions (roughly 3.8 x 1017 Bq) warranted a Level 7 International Nuclear The documentary showed reports from medical Event Scale (INES) code, while the estimated doctors and affected families from 1998 amount of all radioactive materialsonward of spikes in infant and child leukaemias subsequently released into the air and sea over (acute myeloid leukaemias specific to nuclear the following two years is 44.9 terabecqerels radiation) and serious birth defects in Basra (TBq). Secondly, Government health estimates and Fallujah, and cases suspected in other have been scaled against the entirelocations. They traced the source to depleted population.31 Given that the differenturanium munitions (DU) used by US and UK metabolisms of pregnant women, children and forces in Operation Desert Storm during the adults have been exposed to radioactive first Iraq War (1990–1991). DU is a uranium contamination in excess of 250mSvy, whether product derived from enrichment processing of accumulated or singular doses (the Chernobyl uranium ore, which concentrates the isotope mandatory evacuation level was 5 mSvy, the uranium 235 for use in nuclear bombs or voluntary evacuation level was 1mSvy, and the nuclear power reactors. The mixture of present European limit for nuclear plant radioactive waste from this is comprised mostly workers is 5mSvy), it seems clear that the risks of U238 (others are Thorium and Proactinium) from Fukushima are being downplayed by the which has a radioactive half-life of 4.5 billion Government and the IAEA-affiliated radiation years. In both the first and second (Operation protection institutions.33 From August 2013, the Enduring Freedom, 2003) Iraq Wars, A-10 South Korean government responded by Warthog aircraft and armoured ground units implementing selective bans on fish and food (Abrams tanks and Bradley Fighting Vehicles) products from prefectures in Tōhoku, while the deployed rounds coated in solid uranium (4,500 US Food and Drug Administration added new grams), which dispersed 300 and 500 tonnes respectively of powderised DU into the local products to its import alert list revised from 35 July 2013 (Import Alert 99-33) and Russia’s fields and water-ways. Rosselkhoznadzor maintained its ban of imports from selected companies selling produce from 8 prefectures. The position adopted by TEPCO and the Government warrants a prima facie case of criminal negligence, and more broadly, points to the need for a review of international law concerning transboundary pollution to more effectively address the consequences of the Fukushima disaster and anticipate the dangers posed by similar events in the future.

IV Iraq, US, Japan: Hibakusha

It is instructive to refer to other sites of mass ‘Approximately 2000 tonnes of DU’ - radiation exposures as comparators to the screenshot from Kamanaka Hitomi (dir.), Fukushima disaster. For example, in 1998 and ‘Hibakusha: Sekai no owari ni’ (Group

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Gendai Films, 2003) to not give birth to more children.

In addition, several studies have found that Under pressure from the UK and US30% of the 800,000 US military personnel who governments and in contravention of its served in Operation Desert Storm later mandate in denying the risk from DU, the WHO developed chronic illnesses from ingested DU delayed the release of its own commissioned fragments and the children of these veterans report (2004) which cautions that inhalation of have also shown spikes in deformities. Loosely dust containing DU would affect the long-term termed ‘Gulf War Illness’, these effects include health of Iraq’s civilian population in the form chronic fatigue, cognitive impairment, of birth defects, congenital malformations and autonomic dysfunction and nervous system 36 cancers. The publication of a joint WHO-Iraqi damage.42 As the plutonium for the Nagasaki Ministry of Health Report covering 10,800 bomb was being produced in 1944-45 at the households to measure the rate of congenital Hanford reactor, large plumes of aerosolized defects in Iraq due for release in November uranium products were released (550,000 2012 was also delayed, and only the first Curies). People living near the Hanford reactor ‘provisional’ part of its three parts has so far were exposed to dispersed material through been made public. The anonymous authors absorption over a prolonged period. From conclude that there is no evidence for an talking with one family, Hida learned that in unusually high rate of congenital defects in 1949 secret government tests (only revealed in Iraq.37 The former Assistant Secretary General 1984) had found a five-fold increase in cancers of the United Nations Hans von Sponeck also in communities near the plant and factories in stated that the ‘US government restricted WHO Hanford and Rocky Flats.43 This is supported by surveys from southern Iraq where depleted the ‘Petkau Effect’ observed by Abram Petkau uranium had been used and caused serious in 1972, which finds that regular low level health and environmental dangers’.38 radiation exposure can be more damaging over time than a one-off high dose of radiation. This In January and February 2012, 11 researchers was confirmed from investigations by visited 711 houses (4,800 individuals) in Burlakova et al. in the early 1990s which Fallujah to survey for details of cancers, birth observed changes at the cellular level in 39 outcomes and infant mortality. The study, animals and humans after irradiation akin to entitled ‘Cancer, Infant Mortality and Birth the aging process.44 Sex-Ratio in Fallujah, Iraq 2005-2009’, concluded that anecdotal evidence of a sharp Given that as early as 1941, as part of US rise in cancer and congenital birth defects was military research into radiological warfare correct. Infant mortality (80 per 1,000 births) (1941-1974), uranium products had been found was much higher in Iraq than Egypt (19), to be seriously harmful when ingested Jordan (17) and Kuwait (9.7). They found a 38- (dependent upon contact time, particle fold increase in leukaemia, a ten-fold increase solubility, half-life, rate of elimination), the in female breast cancer and significantresults from Hanford, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, increases in lymphoma and brain tumours in Basra and Fallujah among other sites where adults. They report that the types of cancers uranium products have been used and were ‘similar to [those found] in Hiroshima dispersed suggest criminal negligence and/or survivors who were exposed to ionisingcrimes against humanity through the use of radiation from the bomb and uranium in the weapons of mass destruction (chemical, fallout’, while the rate of illness was also much biological or otherwise) on two counts: the use higher.40 Many Iraqi women have been advised of such weapons against civilians or

9 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF combatants; and the degradation of theCommunis) from Reuenthal, Switzerland © environment in the failure to protect individual Cornelia Hesse-Honegger entitlement to adequate conditions of life including health and well-being. The ecological distribution and re-mobilisation of fine DU Her research suggests that the official ‘low further afield is also of serious concern. As dose event’ category for Chernobyl, and its estimate of 28-32 deaths from acute radiation those living in primary affected areas have and 15 subsequent deaths from thyroid cancer most obviously experienced, exposure to NPP 47 emissions downwind or downstream also gain is mistaken and should be re-calculated. Of the 16,000 bugs collected until 2007, she found heightened susceptibility to cancer and non- a 30% increase in severe deformities (missing cancer related illnesses. feeler sections, malformed wings, asymmetric V Local testimonies body segments, ulcers, black spots, altered pigmentation), 10 times higher than the 1-3% Dr Hida’s thesis and the ‘downwinder’ theory norm. Rather than concentric circles used to may not be far-fetched.45 Cornelia Hesse- measure the distance from the hypocenter as in Honneger, a Swiss scientific artist, has over 20 the model used for Hiroshima, she found years collected and drawn ‘true leaf bugs’ topography, wind direction and hydrology as (Heteroptera) from around fallout areas and determinants in radiation distribution. the peripheries of nuclear power plants. In 2000, only after thousands of scientific Characterised by their remaining within their studies conducted in the affected regions habitat, Hesse-Honegger describes these bugs around Chernobyl over the 1990s did the UN as ‘bio-indicators’ (early warnings) because Secretary General Kofi Annan announce that they are sensitive to radiation and develop radiation dispersed from Chernobyl (100 times much more rapidly than mice and humans.46 the amount from the atomic bombs in Her field-work sites include Chernobyl, Hiroshima and Nagasaki) had caused chronic Switzerland (Aargau), Sweden, France (La illness in 7 million more people, and the Hague), Germany (Gundremmingen), Sellafield premature deaths of 3 million children.48 This (Cumbria), Pennsylvania (Three Mile Island) contrasted starkly with IAEA recommendations and the Nevada desert. (and the consensus of ‘radioprotection authorities’) that families continue life as normal in contaminated areas and that their illnesses were psychosocial.

Takeda Shimpei is one artist who has attempted to counter the prevailing narrative and to perceive more clearly the presence of radioactive contamination in everyday life in the Tōhoku area since the reactor meltdowns. Fukushima-born and New York based, in contrast to mainstream symbolic images and information used to represent ‘3.11’, Takeda sought to make an alternative and ‘direct record’ of the ‘worst man-made nuclear accident in history’. Left: Soft bug (Miridae) from Gösgen, Switzerland ; Right: Scorpion fly (Panorpis In ‘Trace’, which received its Japan debut at

10 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF the Fukushima Biennale 2012, he collected soil continue to burn within the body. As these samples from 12 different locations of historical materials continue to circulate in the and cultural value while traveling in the biosphere, given the deep geological time of Tōhoku-Kantō area with hip-hop activist Shingo uranium products, the danger is that through Annen and architect Keisuke Hiei (temples, repetition of the message that ‘all is safe’, shrines, battle sites, ruins, a hospital). Takeda radiation monitoring could become like used an ‘auto-radiographic’ process in which he weather readings, announced and accepted as exposed the soil samples to photo-sensitive a fact of life. In choosing not to separate and materials in a light-sealed box over 1 month quantify the radiation amount and particle (gelatin silver halide film). The ionisingtype, Takeda seems to have rejected reliance products scattered on the soil permanently on radiation monitoring as an end in itself, and imprinted the film as decay continued. By the erroneous, arbitrarily determined, radiation minimising his interference in this way, like dose limits. Alive to the possibility that such Hesse-Honegger, Takeda has devised an measurements may be easily manipulated to accessible way to record and display the represent a fictitious reality, the focus of chemical and radiological reactions inherent to ‘Trace’ is on manifesting radiation as the soil’s active ingredients (mass-time-heat). undeniable materiality.

In addition, scientific studies on animals affected by distributed radioactive contamination in local areas in Tōhoku are also beginning to appear. The ornithologists Timothy Mousseau and Anders Møller, whose work on cataracts in birds in areas with high levels of ionising radiation (10 uSvh) around Chernobyl is well known, extended their studies to swallows surrounding the Fukushima NPP and found that these birds have nearly vanished, while those that survive have ‘smaller heads and low breeding rates’.49

Macaques, horses, mice and moss show similar effects. Wild macaques, which eat leaf buds from the surrounding forests, show high levels of Cs137 in their muscle tissues (10,000-25,000 Takeda Shimpei, Nihonmatsu Castle soil bq/kg March 2011; 500-1,500 bq/kg June 2011; sample, Fukushima prefecture, ‘Trace’ 2,000 bq/kg Dec-Mar 2012).50 Some have been (2012). fitted with GPS devices and dosimeters by Fukushima University researchers so as to This work also demands interpretation as a collect and map levels as they comb the visual representation. Setting aside purely mountain forests in the no-entry zone of aesthetic considerations, the concrete scientific southern Minami-Soma. Of the 15 horses born form of Takeda’s work is strategically aimed at at the Hosokawa ranch 20kms from the reactor exposing the politicised conditions of life amid in 2013, 14 lived between 1 week and 1 radioactive contamination. Takeda’s images month.51 4 adult horses also collapsed and reflect the burning particles in the soil, which eventually perished. The horses were when ingested (through air, water or food) diagnosed with liver failure (lack of red blood

11 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF cell production). Fieldmice in their 52nd Meteorological Agency scientist, at the IAEA generation since the disaster sampled in early 2013 Scientific Forum reported 60 billion Bq of 2012 from a forest 30 km from the NPP1 Cs137 and Sr-90 being released directly into (Kawauchi-mura forest, Ibaraki-ken) stillthe Pacific ocean from the NPP on a daily basis showed genetic mutations 100 times the (900 billion Bq respectively per month). This control and very high Cs137 levels (3100 bq), was even greater than a recent estimate by as did earthworms, leaves and soil from the Kanda Jōta, an oceanographer at Tokyo same area.52 People are still growing rice in University of Marine Science and Technology, these areas, and are also returning to them. In who calculated that the NPP is leaking 0.3 Tbq early July 2013, moss on the roof of a building (300 billion Bq) of Cs137 per month.56 Aoyama in Fukushima city 50kms from the NPP included the amount of water vacuumed from returned extremely high Cs137 concentration the port by Units 5 and 6 to cool the reactors, 53 (1,785,216 Bq/Kg). subsequently discharged north of the site.57

Contrary to assurances from the nuclear industry, tritiated water 3(H2O, or ‘heavy water’) binds to the DNA and can cause great damage to life. There is no method yet discovered to remove Tritium once it has bonded with water.58 In addition the total release from the reactors into the permeated basements has been revised upward to 276 PetaBq Cs-137 (40 percent of the reactor core inventory), and Strontium-90 from 23 to 33 PBq (4.4 to 6.3 percent of the reactor core inventory). This is roughly triple the total amount released into the air from the Chernobyl accident.59

Despite all this, local government recently A dead horse at the Hosokawa ranch, 2013 opened the public beach at Iwaki-shi (40 km from the NPP) for swimming, claiming that radiation levels are below the detectable limit (omitting the specific amounts or types of radiation they had tested).60 This was decided In July 2013, the groundwater flowing beneath knowing of high Cs137 concentrations in the NPP recorded the highest readings yet seaweeds, crustaceans and fish along the measured, a rise of 9000% since the beginning Tōhoku coast, and of TEPCO dumping of 3 of the disaster (900 million Bq/m of all radioactive matter into the ocean. βparticles- Sr, Cs, Tr, Pu). On 22 July, one day after the LDP and New Komeito won the This is also of concern given the known effects national election, TEPCO operators admitted to since 2011 on ocean wildlife further afield, a daily discharge of 300 tonnes of irradiated including ringed seals and walruses along the water into the sea (since upgraded to 400 Bering Straits, the Arctic coastlines of Russia, tonnes),54 and the leak of an additional 24 the Arctic wildlife sanctuary, Alaska and British billion Bq of tritiated water from storage tanks Columbia. Necroscopies of the seals have into the ocean.55 Aoyama Michio, Japan shown fluid on the lungs, white spots on the

12 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF liver, and abnormal brain growths. Indigenous from local residents as well as scientific studies people living in British Columbia who rely on confirm such damage. Although context Skeena River sockeye salmon have alsospecific, these diverse cases indicate a common reported dramatically reduced numbers and ill- experience that transcends nationality and health of the fish returning from their ocean- cultural particularity – a radioactive going maturational phase to spawn up-river. transnationality. The symptoms these animals are displaying in the form of bleeding lesions, alopecia,The obfuscation of the transnational nuclear psoriasis, internal growths and lethargyindustry on questions of radiation is indicate diseases consistent with radiation presumably motivated by the sheer scale and exposure which affects the autoimmune, intensive long-term investment in the nuclear lymphatic and endocrine systems. As the seals production chain (uranium mining, nuclear in these areas eat the ocean-going herring, power plant technology, national electricity tuna, greenling and salmon, their carcasses are production, military weapons production and then eaten by polar bears and birds.61 Further, use, decommissioning and nuclear waste large numbers of dead starfish have collected storage) in which executives, politicians and in the shallows and on the beaches ofbureaucrats are deeply embedded. Vancouver Island. On 12 September 2013, a local diver witnessed large numbers ofWhile funds for new military hardware, sunflower starfish (Pycnopodia helianthoides), technological innovation, public works and that feeds mostly on sea urchins and snails, in public relations operations seem to be readily various stages of disintegration on the sea available to the Abe administration, it shrinks floor. As he described, ‘the arms just detach, from the costs required to return the water, and the central disc falls apart. It seems to food and air to a ‘safe’ legal radiation limit (1 63 happen rapidly, and not just dead animals mSvy). Despite being an advanced industrial undergoing decomposition, … The bottom from nation, its government seems incapable of about 20 to 50 feet [6 to 15 meters] was taking appropriate measures to protect people absolutely littered with arms, oral discs, tube – closing all schools which measure above 1 feet, gonads and gills.’62 mSvy in affected areas, assisting all citizens that wish to be evacuated from areas within a If estimates are correct regarding increases in 80km radius from the NPP with sufficient caesium levels in the entire Pacific Ocean well subventions for their moving, living and beyond the peak level during the nuclear schooling costs, preventing the consumption of weapons tests, these are preliminary findings contaminated foods nationally and of degradation of the ecosystem at a far greater internationally, providing a nationalised course scale than has been anticipated. of medical treatment commensurate with the actual danger posed by the toxicity of radiation VI In sum exposure, and storing radiation contaminated materials.64 Abstract data is difficult to decode and easily manipulated for the untrained reader, but the Even if they are less clear on the structural and visual testimonies of radioactive contamination scientific reasons for it, many people in Japan by Kamanaka Hibakusha( ), Hesse-Honegger seem to be well aware of the falsity of Abe’s (Heteroptera) and Takeda Trace( ) render contention that the Fukushima NPP is under visible the apparently invisible damage to the control.65 The abstraction of material conditions biosphere. Testimonies of radiation-to justify the protection of and maintain the contaminated animals and plants emerging confidence in sovereign assets and illusory

13 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF growth, is incurring real and mounting costs in 1 An initial version of this article entitled ‘Limits human and non-human life. If unchecked, this in the Modern Episteme: Understanding system will continue to do so into the future Fukushima through visualising radioactivity’ until exhaustion and potential collapse.66 Either was presented at the Japanese Studies way, the situation is likely to get worse before Association of Australia conference in July significant change is achieved, which depends 2013. on the ability of people in Japan and the 2 international community to grasp the urgency See Gavan McCormack, The emptiness of of the crisis and to demand an end to delay in Japanese affluence, New York: M.E. Sharpe, preventing further contamination of the ocean 2001; and Jeff Kingston,Japan's quiet and regenerating one of the most vitaltransformation: social change and civil society structures supporting life on the planet. In the in 21st Century Japan, London and New York: Routlegecurzon, 2004, pp. 122-156. short-term, the formula for measuring the risk posed by nuclear power must be re-adjusted to 3 The proprietor sued TEPCO for losses as the reflect the health of living beings in the contamination led to its closure (45 kms from biosphere as a non-negotiable factor. This will the Fukushima NPP). The TEPCO lawyers have immediate effects on public health, food (Nagashima, Ohno and Tsunematsu) argued safety and evacuation from contaminated that they could not be held liable for that which areas. In the long term, while the debate over was not their property. The court upheld the the choice of energy sources is critical, the defence. The court also stated that golf course systemic and astigmatic prioritisation of profit operations could be resumed because radiation has to be revised, so that state-corporate levels on average were below 3.8 uSv/h, the interests can no longer hijack the core values yardstick for schoolyards set in April 2011. which sustain life. Iwata Tomohiro, ‘TEPCO: Radioactive substances belong to landowners, not us’, Asahi Adam Broinowski is an Australian Research Shimbun Weekly AERA, 24 November 2011, Council post-doctoral research fellow athere. Culture, History and Language, College of Asia and the Pacific, the Australian National4 See David Pacchioli, ‘Absurd: Intentionally University. His book Cultural Responses to dumping Fukushima nuclear material into Occupation in Japan: The Performing Body ocean from land “is not considered dumping” — during and after the Cold War is forthcoming in Allowed under international law?’, Seafood 2014. His current research is concerned with Safety and Policy, Oceanus, WHOI, Vol. 50, No. understandings of radioactive contamination 1, Spring 2013, 14 May, 2013. since 1945. 5 About 10 billion yen of the 25 trillion yen Recommended citation: Adam Broinowski, pledged for disaster recovery over several "Fukushima: Life and the Transnationality of years has been reserved to offset costs for Radioactive Contamination," The Asia-Pacific utility companies that were ordered to shut Journal, Vol. 11, Issue 41, No. 3, October 14, nuclear power plants in the aftermath of the 2013. Fukushima disaster. See ‘Funds from disaster relief budget given to nuclear operators’,

29 June 2013, here. Notes 6 John Holifena, ‘Japan’s PM Abe to push nuclear sales in Europe’, JDP, 14 May 2013,

14 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF http://japandailypress.com/japans-pm-abe-to-pu remove radioactive particles will not be sh-nuclear-technology-sales-in- possible without removing large amounts of europe-1428791/. soil, leaves and plants,’The Guardian, 9 January 2012, here. The radiation safety 7 Uchiyama Osamu, ‘Toshiba set to buy British standard of 100mSvy cited in this article are nuclear power firm for 10 billion yen,’Asahi contested. Shimbun, 6 October 2013, here. 17 Robert Alvarez, ‘Nuclear Tuna and NPR's 8 ‘Japan's PM Abe: "Contaminated Water Trivialization’, Institute for Policy Studies, 31 Problem Will Be Gone by 2020 Summer May 2012, here. See also, ‘Fukushima radiation Olympics in Tokyo”,’ Jiji Tsushin, 4 September could be ocean risk’, 26 January 2012, here. 2013, here. 18 Alexey Yablokov, Vassily Nesterenko and 9 See PSR, Nuclear Power and France: Setting Alexei Nesterenko, Mycle Schneider, Hirose the Record Straight’, 16 September 2008, here, Takashi, Koide Hiroaki, Helen Caldicott, Arnie Jeff McMahon, ‘French System for Cleaning Gundersen and Murata Mitsuhei among others, Fuushima Water Blamed for Leukemia,have argued that radiation and other problems Polluted Beaches in Europe’, 25 April 2011, are worse than either TEPCO or the Japanese here. government have admitted. The National Regulation Authority commissioner Fuketa 11 Mari Yamaguchi, ‘Overflowing tank cause of Toyoshi also wondered if TEPCO’s data could new leak at Fukushima, Associated Press, 3 be relied upon at all. See Matt McGrath, October 2013, here. ‘Fukushima leak is 'much worse than we were led to believe', 22 August 2013,here ; Jason 12 See Miguel Quintana, ‘RadiationMotlagh, ‘The News From Fukushima Just Gets Decontamination in Fukushima: a critical Worse, and the Japanese Public Wants perspective from the ground’, The Asia-Pacific Answers’, 22 August 2013,here . Journal, Vol 10, Issue 13, No 3, March 26, 2012 - See more here. 19 Satoh C., Kodaira M., ‘Effects of Radiation on Children,’ Nature, 1996, 383: 226; Nakamura 13 ‘Fish caught off the Fukushima coast to hit N., ‘Genetic Effects of Radiation in Atomic- the market’, 26 September 2013,here ; bomb Survivors and Their Children: Past, ‘Yoshinoya to grow rice and vegetables in Present and Future,’Journal of Radiation Fukushima,’ 1 October 2013, here. Research, 2006, 47 (Supplement): B67-B73.

14 For example, Kameda Medical Institute 20 See ‘Recommendations of the European purchased a system for cancer treatment from Committee on Radiation Risk: Health Effects of Israel’s IceCure Medical Inc., 2 October 2013, Ionising Radiation Exposure at Low Doses for ‘Innovative Israeli Cancer Treatment to be Radiation Protection Purposes Regulators’, Tested in Japan’, here. Brussels, 2003, here.

15 ‘White Paper: Fukushima Health Survey 21 Thierry Ribault, ‘UN Special Rapporteur Occupies Medical and Legal Conundrum’, Anand Grover on Fukushima: A Stunning Simply Info, 8 November 2012,here . Report Brushed Aside by the Japanese Government 国連人権委員会理事長アナンド・グ 16 Winifred Bird, ‘Fukushima nuclear cleanup ローバー氏の目覚ましい福島報告書を払いのけ could create its own environmental disaster: る日本政府’, Japan Focus, 10 June 2013, Decontaminating the Fukushima region to here.

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22 Between 1939 and 1941, scientists in the fuel and nuclear waste. Its half-life of 30 yrs, Manhattan Project observed that ‘fission high-energy decay, chemical reactivity and high products’ emitted photon and particulate solubility (Ci), means that Cs 137 will be radiation, and from studying their metabolism present for roughly 300 years after Fukushima. they found that radiation was harmful when It attracts to muscle tissues ingested as well as to the embryo, and that (prostate/ovary/breast cancer) and causes Strontium was a Calcium analogue and had malignant muscle cancers carcinogenic effects that was harmful to the (rhabdomyosarcomas, heart arrhythmias and unborn. In October 1943, a subcommittee of cardiac arrests, muscle seizures, loss of the S-1 Committee for ‘Use of radioactive consciousness, memory loss). Strontium materials as military weapons’ comprising of (Sr89-90) mimics calcium, goes to the bone and Drs. J. Conant, A. Compton and H. Urey wrote teeth, causes bone cancers and leukaemia and to General Groves advising on weaponising is radioactive for 300 years. Along with the such uranium products collected from nuclear above, there are many other radionuclides in pile rods and dispersed by various means into the inventory of nuclear reactors: alpha - enemy territory (dust, smoke or liquidthorium, radium, neptunium, curium 244, distributed by ground-fired projectile, land americium 241, californium, polonium 210 vehicle or aerial bomb). The objective of such (transuranic and actinides); gamma - Cobalt 60, weapons was to contaminate enemy food and Irridium 92, Barium 137, Iodine 131, water supplies, making the land uninhabitable, Lanthanum 140; Beta - Tritium, Phosphorous, including airports and railroad yards, cause Nickel, Carbon; Alpha and Beta - Strontium 90, casualties in military and civilian populations, Cadmium 113, Europium 155, Krypton 85, Tin while protecting US troops and civilians with 121 (Sn), Samarium 90; noble gases - Xenon potassium and vitamin D and calciumand Iodine 131. As the weight or chemical mass concentrate. See ‘Groves Memo’, 30 October of a radionuclide causes most damage to 1943, here; also Langley P., Medicine and the internal structures, when ingested heavy alpha Bomb: Deceptions from Trinity to Maralinga, particles are even more destructive than beta Port Willunga, SA: Paul J. Langley, July 2012: and gamma emitters. 7-9. 25 Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth 23 For example, Agency for Toxic Substances come from natural radioisotopes, and from and Disease Registry (ATSDR),Toxicological interactions with cosmic ray particles. The Profile for Uranium, U.S. Department of Health capacity of radiation to mutate cells and and Human Services, 1999, here. increase mitosis rate means that radiation is used in cancer therapy (white T cells or red 24 Pu 239 is an alpha emitter, has a half-life of blood cells) and agriculture (new plant strains 24,000 years, mimics iron and goes to the liver, through mutated seeds; controlled irradiation spleen and bone marrow. It causes 10 to 1000 to kill bacteria in food). This can also create times more chromosome damage than the same less resistance to cytotoxins (chemical cells) amount of gamma or beta radiation. It is which can increase sickness. pyrophoric (combusts upon contact with oxygen) and changes its volume and density 26 See ‘Fukushima Prefecture Health with temperature change. Its heat makes it Management Survey’, here; ‘Thyroid cancer highly toxic when ingested, glows in the dark found in 18 Fukushima children’, NHK, 21 (Pu 238), and currently fuels the Curiosity August 2013, here; ‘Thyroid cancer found in 12 rover on Mars. Caesium 137, a gamma emitter, minors in Fukushima’, Kyodo, 5 June 2013, is the most abundant fission product in nuclear ‘Fukushima gov't forced to reveal children's

16 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF thyroid gland tests,’ 22 April 2013, here. claim that ‘the stable supply of power is indispensable for maintaining the 27 This amount was estimated from Aoyama competitiveness of industries, and that a Michio’s IAEA statement on Caesium and nuclear power plant costs enormous amount of strontium only releases, ‘44.9 Tbqmoney if we think about the cost of Contamination Released to Sea and Air in Last decommissioning, but while it is operating the 2 years at Fuku Daiichi’, 24 September 2013, cost is relatively cheap’. Editorial, ‘“There are here. no deaths from the nuclear accident”, LDP Policy Bureau Chief’, Asahi Shimbun, here. 28 Fukushima is registering 24.9 children per 100,000 compared to 11.3 children per 100,000 32 The health risk from regular tritium in Chernobyl in the same time period. Kinoshita emissions (40,000 Bq/l) from nuclear power Kōta’s calculation of 24.9 children per 100,000 plants has been a source of contention between people is higher than Dr. Bandazhevsky’s nuclear protection bodies. In 1990 in Canada calculation from the Gomel region 5 years after concern was such that the ICRP sought to the accident in 1991, where the frequency of lower the safety standard for tritium to 7000 thyroid cancer in children was 11.3 children Bq/litre and then to lower it by 100 Bq/litre per 100,000 people. Including all actual and every five years until 20 Bq /litre. suspected cases, the rate of children in Fukushima is more than two times higher than 33 ‘S. Korean minister calls Japan ‘immoral’ for the rate in areas near Chernobyl in less than covering-up radiation leak’,Yonhap , 30 half the time. Kinoshita Kôta, ‘Radiation September 2013, here. protection project’, Kinoshita Kôta blog, here. 34 John Pilger, ‘From Iraq, a tragic reminder to 29 ‘TEPCO finds new radioactive water leak at prosecute the war criminals,’ 27 May 2013, Fukushima’, Arirang News, 3 October 2013, here. The US military also used white 00:40-1:00, here. phosphorus (wP) against Iraqi ‘insurgents’ during the assault on Fallujah in April and 30 For a survey from 20 September – 3 October November 2004. WP disperses into a gaseous 2013, see Katsumi Takahiro, ‘Fall Japan 2013 cloud from the exploded warhead, and burns Japan National Residents Nosebleed Survey upon contact with oxygen, water or the skin. v1.0’, here. See also, Takenouchi Mari, ‘Health The Pentagon claimed wP was a conventional damage shown among a family from Fukushima not a chemical weapon and that civilians were city’, 24 September 2013, here. not targeted. Maurizio Torrealta, ‘Fallujah: The Hidden Massacre’, RAI TV, 2005; George 31 Similar to the way in which the dismissal of Monbiot, ‘The US Used Chemical Weapons in the relation of internal radiation to the death Iraq–And Then Lied About It’, The Guardian, 15 from oesophagus cancer and cerebralNovember 2005. haemhorrage of 58 year old Yoshida Masao, who had remained to control the meltdowns at 35 An estimated 14 per cent of Iraq's population the Fukushima NPP, the LDP Policy Bureau are orphans, and one million families are Chief Sanae Takaichi sought to justify the without fathers. nuclear power plant restarts by declaring that ‘it is not that there has been a death from the 36 See Baverstock K., ‘Science, Politics and nuclear accident, including at Fukushima 1 Ethics in the Low Dose Debate’,Medicine, Nuclear Power Plant. We have no choice but Conflict and Survival, vol 21 (2), 2005: 88-100. utilize nuclear power plants as long as we secure maximum safety’. Sanae went on to 37 See here.

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38 See Mozhgan Savabieasfahani, Rise‘ of Syndrome are not yet answered’, International Cancers and Birth Defects in Iraq: World Journal of Health Services, vol 36, No 3, 2006: Health Organization Refuses to Release Data,’ 503-520, McDiarmid MA. et al.,Journal of Global Research, 31 July 2013. Savabieasfahani Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, states that Iraqi doctors are convinced that the 67:277–296, 2004. There remains contention epidemic is self-evident, despite the difficulties over whether it is the alpha-particles or the in absolute proof of cancer etiology. He cites chemical toxicity of uranium which effects British oncologist Karol Sikora, chief of the genetic material. See Royal Society,Health cancer programme of WHO in theBritish Hazards of Depleted Uranium Munitions: Part Medical Journal (Owen Dyer, ‘WHO suppressed II, London: Royal Society, March 2002; Hindin evidence on effects of depleted uranium, expert R., Brugge D., Panikkar B., ‘Teratogenicity of says’, 9 November 2006) who points out that Depleted Uranium Aerosols: A Review from an ‘requested radiotherapy equipment,Epidemiological Perspective,’ Environmental chemotherapy drugs and analgesics areHealth, 2005, 26(4): 17. Albina L., Belles M., consistently blocked by United States and Gomez M., Sanchez D.J., Domingo J. L., British advisers [to the Iraq Sanctions‘Influence of Maternal Stress on Uranium- Committee]’, and that mentioning Iraq at the Induced Developmental Toxicity in WHO was discouraged due to its political Rats,’ Experimental Biology and Medicine, nature. See also Denis Halliday, ‘WHO Refuses 2003, 228 (9):1072-1077; Arfsten D.P., Still to Publish Report on Cancers and Birth Defects K.R., Ritchie G.D., ‘A Review of the Effects of in Iraq Caused by Depleted UraniumUranium and Depleted Uranium Exposure on Ammunition’, Global Research, 13 September, Reproduction and Fetal 2013; Rob Edwards, ‘WHO ‘Suppressed’ Development,’ Toxicology and Industrial Scientific Study Into Depleted Uranium Cancer Health, 2001, 17: 180-191. Fears in Iraq,’ The Sunday Herald, 24 February 42 2004. From documents released by the RERF in December 2011, Honda Koya of the Ota 39 Busby C., Hamdan M., Ariabi E., ‘Cancer, Hospital in Nagasaki found that the ABCC had Infant Mortality and Birth Sex-Ratio in Fallujah, done a survey linking black rain exposure to Iraq 2005–2009’, International Journal of purpura and epilation. 13,000 people were Environmental Research and Public Health. exposed to black rain. Direct exposure after See also, Patrick Cockburn, ‘Toxic legacy of US detonation within 1km was 4,500 mSv, and assault on Fallujah 'worse than Hiroshima': The 2km 100 mSv, but indirect exposure of 10-35 shocking rates of infant mortality and cancer in mSv through rain and ground shine extended Iraqi city raise new questions about battle’, The beyond the 2km radius and was suppressed. Independent, 24 July 2010, here. See ‘Black Rain: Fruitless data on the A-bomb survivors’, NHK, 1 September 2012, here. 40 Chris Busby, ‘Why the WHO report on congenital anomalies in Iraq is a disgrace,’ 29 43 Hanford was a plutonium fabrication facility September 2013, here. on the Columbia River in Washington. Rocky Flats is owned by the US AEC in Arvada, 41 There are reports which suggest the chemical Colorado, and was operated initially by Dow toxicity of DU (U238) munitions were being Chemical. The metal would be shipped to Rocky associated with post-exertional malaise. See US Flats to be made into useful shapes for the Army Environmental Policy Institute, June reactors – the ‘pits’ – and then shipped to the 1995. Also Bertell R., ‘Depleted Uranium: All Pantex Plant for final assembly into bombs. By the questions about DU and Gulf War1984, many families had been driven from

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Hanford due to sickness and cancers. Tom 50 25,000 Bq/Kg were measured in macaques. Bailey was a leader of a lobby group seeking See Nippon Veterinary and Life Science compensation, which was finally recognised in University (NVLU) quoted in ‘Scientists in the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act groundbreaking study on effects of radiation in (1990). There is now major concern for the Fukushima’, Asahi Shimbun, 10 April 2012, remaining plutonium waste buried beneath the here. Hanford site (10 metric tonnes, 67 tanks, 51 710,000 m3) contaminating the groundwater. ‘Surviving at the Ranch of Hope: Irradiated Cows from Namie, Evidence of the Nuclear 44 Graeub R., The Petkau Effect – The Reactor Accident’,Tokyo Shimbun, 6 Devastating Effect of Nuclear Radiation on September 2013, here in ‘Ranch of Hope – Human Health and the Environment, New Fukushima’ Official Blog, here; also ‘The man York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1994;living within20km of the nuclear reactor: Alone Burlakova E. B., Naidich V., The Effects of Low in the Zone’, Vice, 10 March 2013, here. Dose Radiation: New Aspects of Radiobiological 52 ‘3100 Bq/kg of Radioactive Caesium from Research prompted by the Chernobyl nuclear Wild Mice in Kawauchi-mura’, EX-SKF, 13 May disaster, Utrecht and Boston: VSP, 2004. 2012, here; NHK, 14 May 2012, here. The

45 Forestry and Forest Products Research See Sternglass E., Secret Fallout: Low level Institute also measured worms (19,500 Bq/kg radiation from Hiroshima to Three-Mile Island, Cs137), leaves (319,000 Bq/kg Cs137) and soil New York: McGraw Hill 1981. (5cm - 20,900 Bq/kg Cs137). See ‘High 46 Hesse-Honegger C., Heteroptera, New York: radioactive Caesium levels detected in worms Scalo Publishers, 2002. 20 km from nuke plant’, Mainichi Daily News, 6 February 2012, here; ‘High Caesium found in 47 These figures were re-confirmed at the earthworms’, Japan Times Online, 8 February Chernobyl Forum 2005, attended by delegates 2012, here. from Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, the IAEA, World 53 ‘Scientists detect highest Caesium levels in a Bank Group, WHO and UNSCEAR. See here. year in Fukushima,’ Asahi Shimbun, 4 July

48 2013, here. Hesse-Honegger C., Wallimann P.,

‘Malformation of True Bug (Heteroptera): a 54 Reiji Yoshida, ‘Tepco raises estimate to 400 Phenotype Field Study of the Possible Influence tons a day’, Japan Times, 27 September 2013, of Artificial Low-Level Radioactivity’, Chemistry here. & Biodiversity, 2008, Vol. 5, Issue 4, pp. 499-539. See also Tom Raum, Associated Press, 55 Between 3-5 July 2013,Fukushima Diary ‘U.N.: Worst effects of Chernobyl disaster may reported 4,300,000 Bq/m3 of all β at 6m from yet occur’, Record Journal, 26 April 2000; the sea (an 1.4 x increase in 3 days) and Rebecca Harms, ‘The Chernobyl Legacy’, 9 900,000,000 Bq/m3 of all β in the groundwater, June 2006, #645-646, here. the worst reading in groundwater ever published by TEPCO. The exact readings of 49 Møller A., Mousseau T. et al., ‘Abundance of Strontium-90 were not announced. See here. birds in Fukushima as judged from Chernobyl,’ Environmental Pollution, Vol 164, May 2012: 56 ‘How a Scientist Was Censored by the 36–39, here; ‘Cataracts in the eyes of birds in Japanese Government After the Fukushima Chernobyl and Fukushima’, The Economist, 7 Accident’, Fukushima Voice, 27 September September 2013, here. 2013, here; Kanda J., ‘Continuing 137Cs

19 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF release to the sea from the Fukushima Dai-ichi 61 The NOAA was quoted by the Emergency and Nuclear Power Plant through 2012’,Disaster Information Service – Biological Biogeosciences Discussions, 10: 3577-3595, Hazard in multi-countries as reporting over 200 2013, here; Geoff Brumfel, ‘Oceans still diseased or dead seals found in Canada suffering from Ocean still suffering from (Tuktoyuktak), Russia (Kaktovik, Chukotka), Fukushima fallout: Continuing leaks and Alaska (Barrow, Arctic National Wildlife contaminated sediment keep radiation levels Refuge). high’, Nature, 14 November 2012, here. http://hisz.rsoe.hu/alertmap/site/?pageid=event _desc&edis_id=BH-20111013-32661-MLC. This 57 Aoyama M., ‘Fukushima derivedwas also reported by major news agencies radionuclides in the ocean’,here , Negishi including MSNBC and Reuters. See Takuro, Fujiwara Shinichi, ‘Contaminated ‘Independent fisheries scientist Alexandra water flowing into ocean despite Abe's claim’, Morton reported the damage to sock eye Asahi Shimbun, 20 September 2013, here. salmon. See Lake Babine sockeye fishery at risk of unprecedented closure’, The Globe and 58 While tritiated water may be cleared from the Mail, 12 August 2013, here. human body in about 10 days (Garland), 62 organically bound tritium (tritium bound in Carrie Arnold, ‘Massive Starfish Die-Off animal or plant tissue) can stay in the body for Baffles Scientists,’ National Geographic, 9 10 years or more and regular exposure can September 2013, lead to chronic exposure. Tritium from tritiated here. water can become incorporated into DNA, the molecular basis of heredity for living63 On 23 May 2011, hundreds of parents armed organisms. Most studies indicate that tritium in with over 50,000 signatures surrounded the living creatures can produce typical radiogenic MEXT government offices demanding a effects including cancer, genetic effects, lowering of this limit. However, a Japanese developmental abnormalities and reproductive High Court decision handed down three months effects (Straume; Rytomaa; Torok; Dobson). after the hearing in 21 January 2013, rejected Studies have shown that there is no evidence of the right of children to receive compensated a threshold for damage from 3H exposure, and evacuation from Koriyama city reflects the that low doses of tritium can even cause more official position that health effects below cell death (Dobson), mutations (Ito) and100mSvy are not proven. See Yanagihara chromosome damage (Hori) than higher tritium Toshio, representative lawyer for the plaintiffs, doses. Tritium can cause damage two or more the Fukushima Collective Evacuation Trial times greater per dose than either x-rays or Team’, 24 April 2013,here . gamma rays (Straume; Dobson). There is no technology that has been developed to remove 64 These are akin to the recommendations it from water. See Folkers C., ‘Tritium: Health offered by Russian radiation specialist Alexey Consequences’, NIRS, 2006, here. Yablokov on 15 April 2011, concerning the viable actions the Government could take in 59 Mycle Schneider, Antony Froggatt et al., The response to the Fukushima disaster. See World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2013, 30 Penney M., Selden M., ‘What Price the July 2013, here. Fukushima Meltdown? Comparing Chernobyl and Fukushima’, here. 60 ‘Sun, sand, surf and radiation in shadow of Fukushima’, The Daily Tribune, 1 September 65 A survey on 5-6 October found ‘76% don’t 2013, here. believe Fukushima situation ‘under control’;

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Abe support rate steady at 56%’,Asahi Jeff Kingston Shimbun, here. See more here 66 Professor Eiji Makino of Hosei University stated that the Fukushima disaster is indicative Muto Ruiko and the Movement of of how the nation’s ‘political, social, economic, Fukushima Residents to Pursue Criminal and moral standards are falling apart… Japan is Charges against Tepco Executives and on the verge of a collapse’. See ‘0.23μSv – Government Officials Fukushima: Is There a Way Out?’, Arirang TV, 9 Tomomi YAMAGUCHI and Muto Ruiko September 2013, from 46:00, here. - See more here

Radiation Decontamination in Fukushima: Related articles: a critical perspective from the ground Abe at Ground Zero: the consequences of Miguel Quintana inaction at Fukushima Daiichi1 安倍首相のゼロ地点不決断の帰結は - See more here

Andrew Dewit and Christopher Hobson UN Special Rapporteur Anand Grover on Fukushima: A Stunning Report Brushed - See more here Aside by the Japanese Government 国連人権委員会理事長アナンド・グローバー氏の目覚ま The Roadmap for Fukushima Daiichi and しい福島報告書を払いのける日本政府 the Sacrifice of Japan's Clean-up Workers 福島第一原発のロードマップと除染作業員 By Thierry Ribault

Paul Jobin See more here

- See more here What Price the Fukushima Meltdown? Comparing Chernobyl and Fukushima’ What Price the Fukushima Meltdown? Comparing Chernobyl and Fukushima By Matthew Penney and Mark Selden

Matthew Penney and Mark Selden See more here

- See more here Fukushima: An Assessment of the Quake, Tsunami and Nuclear Meltdown 福島—地震、 Scientists and Research on the Effects of 津波、そしてメルトダウンの評価 Radiation Exposure: From Hiroshima to Fukushima 放射線影響の研究と科学者—広島か By Gavan McCormack ら福島へ See more here Sawada Shoji The Lessons of the 3.11 Meltdown for - See more here Japanese Nuclear Power: Citizenship Vs. A Corporate Culture of Collusion 日本原子力に Abe’s Nuclear Energy Policy and Japan’s たいする3.11炉心溶融の教訓−−市民対企業結託 Future 安倍首相の原子力政策と日本の未来文化

21 11 | 41 | 3 APJ | JF

Roger Pulvers - See more here

See more here Iraq – A Nuclear Polluted Land

“We used chemical weapons in Vietnam”: by Toyoda Naomi Oliver Stone and Peter Kuznick explain how telling the untold history can change See more here the world for the better 'It is the Same Here as in Hiroshima and Joint Interview by The Asia-Pacific Journal: Nagasaki.'Serbians Suffer Long-term Japan Focus and Shukan Kinyobi, Tokyo, Effects of NATO Depleted Uranium Bombs August 11, 2013 by Suemori Akira Satoko Oka Norimatsu and Narusawa Muneo See more here

See more here Japan's Nuclear Crisis: A Wakeup Call for the World 日本の核機器−−世界への警鐘 Complicity and Victimhood: Director Kamanaka Hitomi's Nuclear Warnings By Gavan McCormack

Introduced and translated by Norma Field See more here