Charcoal Consultancy Onsultancy Onsultancy Within the Framework Of

ChChCharcoalCharcoal CCConsultancyConsultancyonsultancyonsultancy within the framework of the Project to Fight Desertification in GhanaGhanaGhana’sGhana’s Eastern Region

by François Reuter Consultant for Ricerca e Cooperazione (RC)

Agricultural tractor with charcoal load during wet season near Bonkrom The woman - in white - is a charcoal buyer from Accra

SeptSeptSept 20 2009090909

The opinion are those of the author not necessarily those of RC. Comments welcome to [email protected]. All photographs are by the author.

LiLiListList of contentscontents: Executive summary 3 Acknowledgements 4 Note 4 Introduction 5 The greater picture 7 The local scene 12 History of charcoal in the Afram Plains 12 Some consequences of human activities mentioned 14 Legal and/or regulatory framework 17 Geographic side-step to Burkina Faso 20 Recent projects in Ghana with a charcoal component 21 RC’s project to fight desertification 22 General enquiries before the survey 22 Survey results 24 Suggestions and general comments from persons interviewed 26 Economic aspects 30 Charcoal statistics for the Afram Plains 31 Charcoal itinerary 33 Best standards and best practices 36 General considerations and challenges for woodfuel plantations 41 Other aspects of wood as fuel 42 General remarks for the RC project 44 Some remarks about alternative livelihoods 44 Conclusions 46 Recommendations 47 References consulted 48

AppendicesAppendices: A: Acronyms C: Costs involved with charcoal production D: Charcoal costs in Donkorkrom L: Land Lease Agreement – the FORUM example N: National Woodfuel Policy P: List of key persons contacted Q: Questionnaire for charcoal survey T: Charcoal Trucking - costs and profit calculation

Executive Summary

This consultancy report looks at various aspects of charcoal production in the Afram Plains in Ghana’s Eastern Region, adjacent to Lake Volta. A survey with a detailed questionnaire was carried out in eight communities to get some local feed-back from residents who had lived there at least ten years, i.e. long enough to notice changes in their environment, if any. Charcoal production has been on the increase lately in the Afram Plains to the point where some respondents think that it will collapse within the next three to five years, if allowed to continue at present levels which are totally unsustainable and uncontrolled. Now that the forests are all but gone there is a definite willingness on the part of long- term residents to plant trees, be it for firewood or charcoal, or for shade and fruit around their home. These long term residents are well aware of environmental impact due to deforestation which has brought about a change in rainfall pattern, higher temperatures and the loss of biodiversity. The main causes of deforestation are clearing tree patches for agriculture, timber exploitation, bushfires and – lately – charcoal. Some social problems resulting from the charcoal trade with fast cash coming into the communities are a new phenomenon. Economic aspects are looked into. Those profiting most from the charcoal business are traditional chiefs who are the landlords, some truck owners conveying charcoal to Accra, and the retailers there, as is the District Assembly: the tax levied on charcoal is one of the major sources of income for this local administration, therefore not really interested in seeing the charcoal trade diminish. Very little money stays behind in the villages around which charcoal is produced, although some locals look at it as quick cash. Those who produce charcoal in the bush are mainly migrants from northern Ghana, who have little interest in the land, if any at all. They work hard and are paid very little. The planting program just started under this RC project, mainly with Cassia (Senna siamea), comes at a most opportune time. Although only a drop in the bucket, it definitely is a step in the right direction. Let us hope that the seedlings will survive a few years unharmed by bushfires and thus produce some revenue - in the near future - as firewood or charcoal - for those farmers who planted them. Since traditional earthmound kilns are quite efficient there is no need to consider more sophisticated ones: these happen to be costly. The only community where a brick kiln might be advisable is Dim. There is also a definite need to use less wasteful stoves when preparing meals.

Acknowledgements

As usual, I am indebted to Dra. Gianna Da Re, RC’s Country Representative in Ghana, for having invited me to do this consultancy. It is always a challenge and a pleasure to contribute to a project conceptualized by her. The Project Director in Donkorkrom, Micol Sandrini, was very helpful by providing logistical and other support all along, making my work very pleasant. The following persons in Accra provided useful information about various aspects of charcoal in Ghana:

• Mr. Eric Ofori-Nyarko of the Energy Commission • Mr. Wisdom Ahiataku-Togobo of the Ministry of Energy • Mr. George Ortsin of UNDP- GEF’s Small Loans Program • Dr. E. Hagan of IIR – Institute of Industrial Research

All four of them have done extensive work and research on charcoal and are still passionate about it. Anyone of them is a fountain of practical knowledge on that subject. Without their help supplying technical articles and their comments it would not have been possible to present this report with so much detail. All the credit goes to them. My thanks also go to the seven questionnaire administrators who interviewed people in the villages in a very short period, yielding the results discussed below. Two local persons need special thanks: Mr. Daniel Obedy of the Revenue Control point in Ekye Amanfrom who went out of his way to help me even on my last week-end to extract data for statistics on the number of charcoal trucks and the revenue collected. The other gentleman is Louis Afatchao of Adeemmra who compiled questionnaire data, a rather tedious and time consuming exercise. He voluntarily took the files home to work on them at night.

NoteNoteNote

Due to the brevity of this consultancy – a total of 40 days including return trip from Canada to Ghana - plus a few trips within Ghana mainly to and from Accra - plus the fact that a detailed field survey was done which had not been foreseen in the TOR’s - little time was left to look into some other aspects of charcoal production such as charcoal kilns and fuel efficient cooking stoves. Fortunately, however, a lot of excellent work had already been done on charcoal in Ghana, mainly by the four experts listed above. For that reason extracts of their publications are reproduced here “as is”, since there is no value in reinventing the wheel. Where deemed appropriate, our comments are included in italics. Those other aspects might be addressed in the next consultancy, as and if desired by the Project Director, Mrs. Micol Sandrini of RC, in Donkorkrom.

IIIntroductionIntroduction

The Afram Plains, named after the Afram River which flows into Lake Volta, nowadays corresponds to Kwahu North, an administrative District of Ghana’s Eastern Region whose capital is Koforidua. For more details see maps below. It covers 5,040 square km and lies between latitudes 6º40’ and 7º10’ North and longi- tudes 0º40’ West and 0º10’East. Annual rainfall is about 1,900 mm depending on location. The rainy season goes from April to September. The dry season also lasts 6 months. According to official projections of the year 2,000 the population was going to reach 162,000 by the year 2,004, scattered over 685 villages and communities. The average annual population growth rate is 3.6% which is very high, making it difficult for development projects with an environmental component to have a real long-lasting impact. Besides the capital Donkorkrom with about 7,000 inhabitants, the largest towns are Mame Krobo – centre for yam production and trade – Tease, and Ekye Amanfrom where the pontoon crosses an arm of Volta Lake to Adawso on the way to Nkawkaw. “Ekye” as it is locally called, is the major point of transit for charcoal trucks on their way to Accra. Some charcoal leaves the Afram Plains by boat from various islands for the landing point of Gyamani in Volta Region from where it is sent mainly to the city of Tema. The same holds true for the town of Akati where much charcoal arrives from the Afram Plains without paying any levy, and is trucked to the regional capital Koforidua. Ricerca e Cooperazione (RC for short) is an Italian NGO that has been active in the Afram Plains since the early 1990s with several successful rural development, housing and related projects. Realizing the destruction of the natural forests in the Afram Plains, for various reasons, of which the latest is the uncontrolled charcoal production on a massive scale, RC prepared a project to grow and distribute tree seedlings for selected farmers in hopes of stemming the tide of a previous forest landscape turning into an almost treeless savannah. The present study is a consultancy within that three year project which started in 2009. Traditionally the most common energy source for cooking in Ghana is wood, either as firewood or charcoal. The percentage of households using natural gas is low, especially in rural areas. One reason is the low cost of charcoal and the ease of its procurement. The argument against natural gas is the high cost of the gas cylinder and gas stove coupled with the difficulty of getting natural gas in remote villages. One unfortunate aspect of charcoal is the fact that the tax levied by the District Assemblies represents one of the major sources of income for those Districts where charcoal is produced. For that reason they are not really interested in seeing the charcoal trade dwindle to sustainable levels.

Map of Ghana showing the location of the Afram Plains. Note that the Greenwich meridian passes through the District. Map by courtesy of RMSC, Kumasi for RC.

Map of the Afram Plains District, recently re-baptized as Kwahu North. The district boundary is indicated by a black line on land and in Volta Lake. Only localities of interest are shown so as to avoid clutter. Map drawn by Lawrence Akpalu of RMSC, Kumasi, for RC.

The greater picture According to Ortsin (2009): “The total indigenous primary energy produced in Ghana in 2003 was 6.6 million tonnes of oil equivalent or about 12 times the yearly average energy generated at Akosombo and Kpong hydroelectric plants. The primary indigenous energy is comprised of:

• 94.5% woodfuels (firewood and charcoal) • 5.3% hydro energy and • 0.2% solar (mostly for sun-drying of crops)

Biomass in the form of firewood and charcoal dominates the final energy consumed in the country (averaging 63%) in 2003. Petroleum products and electricity consumption was 27% and 9 % respectively.

The greenhouse gas emissions from energy usage rose from 7.7 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2000 to 9.5 million tonnes of CO2 in 2002 which is an indication that energy consumed in Ghana is not clean. The following statement is from the workshop report: Woodfuel Policy Regulation and Action Plan (2007): “About 84% of rural households and 25% of urban households depend on woodfuel for cooking and heating.” The Energy Commission developed a “Strategic National Energy Plan” in 2003, conducting research into supply and demand of woodfuel in the major urban centres. It projected by the year 2,010 (pretty well now- latter part of 2009) for the “business as usual” scenario a shortfall of 16.416.4.4.4 million tons of charcoal i.e. way above what the country grows sustainably in terms of wood available for firewood and charcoal. The other is a more optimistic scenario – which did not happen – called the High Economic Growth which assumed a gradually higher standard of living leading more people, especially the middle classs in the cities, to buy gas cylinders and give up wood as a cooking fuel. It projects a negative net balance of 5.4 million tons of charcoal.” Here is an excerpt from the draft of the revised National Woodfuel Policy, by the Minis-try of Energy (July 2009), chapter 1.1.2: Importance of the Woodfuel sub-sub-sector--sectorsectorsector: “The woodfuel business is a major source of employment for most rural and the urban poor people. It has been estimated that about 450.000 million people are directly involved in both in the production, transportation and marketing of fuels in the country as a primary occupation, whiles over 2 million people engage in the trade as secondary occupation. During the dry seasons, however, more rural farmers especially in the savannah and the transitional regions (mostly women) engage in woodfuel production and trading as the primary occupation. Comment: it is sad to see that so many people derive a large part of their income from wantonly destroying the tree cover in areas where it is badly needed for ecological reasons. What is even sadder is the fact that nothing is being done to stem that tide. Woodfuels are a source of cash income for rural and urban population (off-season and/or permanent). It is a supplementary income for typical farmers and a main one for some rural groups and urban traders. With few exceptions, woodfuel production is predominantly an income-generating activity for women. It has been estimated that more 84 per cent of all people engaged in the woodfuel business are women. The men usually derive their income almost exclusively from farming activities i.e. the selling of (cash) crops and/or, where possible, as seasonal migrant labourers on other farms. Charcoal and firewood production are considered a drudgery that does not give a high enough return on their labour. Based on the value of the annual wood harvested for fuel, it could be estimated the traditional energy sub-sector contributes to about 1.81%1.81%1.81% of the Gross Domestic Product, and indirectly supports the livelihood of over three million Ghanaians, mostly small-scale commercial and household enterprises. Production of woodfuel constitutes one important source of seasonal off-farm income for many rural communities in the three northern regions and transitional zones of the Brong Ahafo and Ashanti, including the Afram Plains. The annual per capita consumption of woodfuels is estimated around 1.080 kg and about 14 million m3 of wood are consumed annually for energy production. Available data has indicated that people do not easily substitute fuel and therefore the volume of woodfuel consumption in Ghana could rise to 20 million m3 by the year 2010 with an annual growth rate of 4.0%.

In the national accounts, woodfuels are a foreign currency savings. Although it is not recognised in the current accounts, about US$560 million, which would have been used to import other forms of energy, is saved annually by woodfuels. Charcoal exports from Ghana to Europe and Asia are valued at US$400,000 annually. Suspicious about this high figure, we went to Ghana Customs’ Research and Monitoring Department. Here are the figures they produced about charcoal exports through Ghana’s ports for the past few years:

YearYearYear Net mass (kg) f.o.b. GHCf.o.b. GHC c.i.f. GHCc.i.f. GHC 2004 712 1,387.25 1,604.77 2005 4,703 1,667.09 1,914.56 2006 334 654.93 751.93 2007 1,089,443 78,997.82 79,152.74 2008 354,830 29,623.56 30,366.61

Source: compiled from data supplied by Ghana Customs, Excise and Preventive Service’s Research and Monitoring Department. Comment: charcoal exports are notnotnot a major drain on the country’s tree cover: only in 2007 did they amount to slightly above 1,000 metric tons for a total value of under 80,000 GHC equivalent to more or less that same amount in USD, a far cry from US$400,000 quoted by others. Back to the revised National Wood Fuel Policy: Woodfuels are also a source of fiscal revenue for the Forest Services Division, Traditional Authorities and some District Assemblies although more than 70% of the potential revenue are not collected. The contribution of woodfuels in the national primary energy consumption is shown in the following table.

Contribution of Woodfuel in National Primary Energy Consumption

Primary Energy TOETOETOE %%% Electricity 674.100 8,04 Oil & Derivatives 1.095.000 13,06 Contribution of woodfuel in national Charcoal 3.745.000 44,67 primary energy consumption Fuelwood 2.870.000 34,23 Electricity TOTAL 8.384.1008.384.1008.384.100 100,00100,00100,00 Oil & Derivatives Charcoal

Fuelwood

The bulk of woodfuels (92%) are directly obtained from the forest and savannah

9 woodlands while the rest is from sawmill waste. The transitional and savannah regions of Ghana are the major sources of good quality woodfuels for both urban and rural communities and the export market.”

Ur ban households firewood 4% Urban households charcoal 30% Rural households firewood 31%

Other Sectors Rural households firewood charcoal 14% Other Sectors 11% charcoal 10%

The abovebreakdown of woodfuel consumption in Ghana is from an article by Nyarko, based on Riegelhaupt (FAO, 2001). It is obvious that most charcoal is consumed in the urban centres.

Woodfuel Situation - Ghana

40 35 s 30 n o 25 li il 20 M 15 10 5 0 1970 1984 2000

WF Yield (t/yr) Consumption (t/yr)

The above also shows clearly that by the year 2,000 the consumption of wood for fuel outstripped Nature’s capability in Ghana to produce it. In other words, this is the clear indication that a major ecological catastrophy is looming on a national scale. Too bad that there is no political will to do anything about it, contrary to what is happening in neighbouring Burkina Faso, as shown in more detail further on.

The local scene Here are some data from the Kwahu North Medium Term Development Plan (2006 – 2009) as far as cooking fuel is concerned (pages 54 and 55). The text was changed ever so slightly, not the figures. Old cedis were converted to GHC. One new so-called “Ghana cedi, abbreviated as GHC” is the equivalent of 10,000 ¢ or old cedis. 1.211.211.21 Access to Energy and its Management i Source of Energy for Cooking The major source of energy for cooking in the district is fire wood and charcoal which areareare used by about 90% percent of the population. Those who use electricity or gas constitute 2% respectively 8% percent. This indicates that the utilization of local resources like fuel wood has greatly influenced the source of energy for cooking. The average cost spent on energy for cooking per month is about 2.00GHC whilst the average distance covered to get firewood is about 5km. iii Reason of choice of energy source for cooking People have their own reasons for choosing a particular energy source for cooking. From the survey conducted, about 60% choose their energy source for cooking because it is affordable, 10% choose theirs because of proximity, 25% choose theirs because it is the only alternative available to them and 5% choose the source because it is convenient to them. This implies it is mainly because of availability and affordability that people choose their energy source for cooking. vi Problems with the use of energy source for cooking The energy source for cooking is also confronted with some problems. This is because 25% face the problem of high cost, 30% face irregular supply and 45% face the problem of long distance. This implies that the majority of the people face the problem of long distance to access fuel for cooking. This is because majority of the people use firewood which is obtained from their farms, which are some distance away from their homes.

HHHistoryHistory of charcoal iiinin the Afram Plains The densely forested Afram Plains traditionally were the hunting grounds of the Kwahus living on then nearby Kwahu Ridge. To this day they are the owners of the land here, the seat of their paramouncy being Abetifi. The flooding of Volta River behind the Akosombo dam in the 1960’s brought major changes: people living along the Volta River, many of them Ewes, had to be displaced to higher ground causing some ethnic strife. Agriculture developed gradually on some of the relatively fertile and virgin soils available after forest clearing. As traditional yam growers the Krachis came from the Volta Region, concerned with yam production alone. They cleared land for that purpose leaving dead trees behind. Yam (Dioscorea rotundata) is a light demanding vine with a large tuber, one of the major staples in many parts of Ghana. It takes so many nutrients out of the soil that farmers have to wait about ten years before growing a crop on the same piece of land. Since yam cannot grow in the shade of trees the farmers had to kill the trees, usually by setting a fire at their base. Dead and dry trees are good for firewood, but not ideal for charcoal for which green trees are far better. After the dry year of 1982 a fire in 1983 swept through Ghana from North to South, changing the ecology of large parts of the country, including the Afram Plains where it destroyed the flourishing cocoa farms, once the mainstay of agriculture, and partially opened up the canopy of the dense forests. The timber industry moved in logging for export in 1984, without any concern about sustainability although that theoretically is the backbone of sound forest management. In 2,001, under the new Government, the first group of Sissala people moved in from the North. They are a tribe that has been living from charcoal production for generations. With no restrictions put on their activity in the Afram Plains more of them followed. When local people saw how profitable charcoal production was and how easily quick cash could be generated, they also went into this business, especially women. What helped was the relative proximity of the insatiable markets for charcoal in the fast growing urban centres, especially Accra, and the improved infrastructure in the Afram Plains after the year 2,000 allowing heavy trucks to haul charcoal and yam and cross one arm of the lake on a pontoon which originally sailed only twice a day and then more frequently. Before the year 2,001 the local people cooked with firewood to prepare their meals with.

Young yam plantation on mounds in field cleared of trees, since yam is light demanding Over time bushfires have become an annual curse, helping to transform the forested Afram Plains into a savannah dominated by grasses. This in turn brought in cattle herders. Much blame is being put on Fulanis who often are only the herders and not the cattle owners who might be rich people in Accra. When cattle come across crops such as maize they eat it all. The herdsmen light fires during the dry season to stimulate the growth of young grass. Those fires continue unattended until they run out of fuel destroying pretty well everything in their path. Grass fires are also lit intentionally for hunting grasscutters (Thryonomys swinderianus), a beaver sized rodent that thrives in the grass thickets. As our survey revealed (see below) their numbers are in decline. The reason is that the animals cannot escape if surrounded by bushfire. As an RC staff member put it very aptly: bushfires have become an annual ritual. Sad but true, many people tell us that the major problem for any environmental project are the (Kwahu) chiefs who are the landownerslandowners, absentee landlords so to speak, who do not care about the land at all. Their only interest is money for their own pocket, in this case from charcoal and from the cattle herders. Most chiefs own large herds of cattle and protect the Fulani herders who light fires to cause fresh grass growth during the rainy season, thus contributing to bushfires and environmental degradation. The three major chiefs are the Nkwatiahene, the Pitikohene and the Brukuhene.

Some consequences of human acactivitiestivities mentioned above The consequences listed below are not exclusively due to charcoal production, but this definitely has been a major contributor since the year 2,000. The major causes for deforestation in the Afram Plains were clearing for agriculture, logging, bushfires and charcoal. All of them have led to the decline of agriculture. Farmers complain about less rain and too much sunshine. What they really mean is a warmer and dryer micro-climate near the ground level, effecting crop yields negatively. The total annual rainfall has not changed but number of rain days has. This means that more rain falls in fewer days. The start of the rainy season is less reliable. The average daily temperature in December has increased from 1,990 to 2,000, which means it is warmer during the day and colder at night. The average temperature also has risen by about 1.5ºC, partly due to the removal of the forest cover. The result of all this is a warmer micro-climate near the soil surface which means higher evaporation. Some of the above is based on our own analysis of rainfall data, some on the ongoing project by Pennsylvania State University on climate change in three areas in Ghana one of which are the Afram Plains (pers. communication, 2009). Charcoal is now so common that pretty well in every village there are long and high rows of charcoal bags along the roadside waiting for trucks to pick them up for conveyance to the urban centres. The few trees of any size left in the Afram Plains are unsuitable for charcoal, especially the silk cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra), dawa dawa (Parkia clappertoniana) and the incense tree (Daniellia oliverii). The latter is becoming the most common tree in many areas for the sole reason that its wood is not good for charcoal: it turns to powder. In other words, if it was any good for charcoal it would already have been cut and the areas would look more like grasslands than a treed savannah. However, where people get desperate, like in the fishing village of Dim, even the incense tree is cut for both charcoal and firewood for smoking fish. The reason is simple: all other trees with firewood potential have been cut within wide radius around that village. From a densely forested area the Afram Plains have turned into a savannah where grasses dominate, with a few trees left here and there and the odd forest along in the Northern part of the plains. Wildlife which used to be very rich including elephants, buffaloes, antelopes, bush pigs etc. etc. until recently, is pretty well gone: even snails which the local people delighted in are rare now. The major game species left is the grasscutter which thrives in the extensive grass thickets. They are flushed out by intentionally lit grass fires left to burn unattended, thus contributing even more to the expansion of grasslands. However, as our survey showed, even the grasscutter is becoming relatively rare due to hunting pressure and bushfires: if circled by fire there is no way to escape. Two of the most important grasses are spear grass ((Imperata cylindrica), and Guinea grass (Panicum maximum). Obviously there are several others. When dry, they represent the major fuel source to carry bushfires. Spear grass is used for thatching and is now getting sarce and relatively expensive. Why? Because acheampong (Chromolaena odorata) introduced from southeast Asia under President Acheampong to keep weeds down under power lines is very aggressive: its seeds, dispersed by wind, germinate faster than those

14 of spear grass and Guinea grass after bushfire. Thus acheampong overtakes and displaces grasses like spear grass and even Guinea grass. Farmers like acheampong to the point where they collect and spread its seed which keeps grasses under control, thus making clearing by hand for farming much easier than the tall and tough grasses. According to a widespread belief amongst farmers it “fertilizes” the soil, i.e. crops grow better after a fallow with acheampong.

Stand of incense trees (Daniellia oliverii) which are no good for charcoal. Note the dense grass which crept in after the removal of the previously much denser tree cover. It is pretty well impossible to get rid of the grass. When dry it provides ample fuel for bushfires.

Killing by ringbarking of native mahogany (Khaya ivorensis) – after fire – for agricultural production, in this case cassava. Tree in sawmill would be worth a lot of money. On nearby Volta Lake it is a prime species for boat construction.

Legal and/or regulatory framework There is no national law regulating charcoal. According to its Mission Statement the Forestry Commission – under the Ministry of Lands and Forests and Mines- is mandated to sustainably develop and manage the forest resources of the country both on and off reserve. “Unfortunately this is not entirely the case” in the words of one of its highly placed officials. Basically, the Forestry Commission’s Forest Services Division issues permits to individuals for harvesting trees and other forest products including wood for charcoal. It also controls the transport of logs by issuing conveyance certificates both on and off (forest) reserves. However, in Forest Reserves, green trees can only be cut for charcoal or firewood with the approval of the competent forest authorities, as legally defined in N.R.C.D. 243 as amended by Act 623 of 2002. In reality, anybody can harvest trees outside gazetted Forest Reserves (in Ghana) for charcoal production, without flouting any law. The producer can load it unto a truck and haul it to the market after paying a token fee to the District Assembly and possibly to the police at various traffic barriers. It is sad to say that many people in Ghana make a living by destroying the environment. Wood as a source of fuel falls under ttthethe Minishe MinistryMinistry of EnergEnergyyyy which is also mandated to regulate charcoal trade including exports. Some of it ends up in Europe and in Saudi Arabia. From the above it is clear that there is a lack of institutional coordination – between the Forestry Commission and the Ministry of Energy. Although it has no legal mandate to look after the resource, the Ministry of Energy, aware of this unsustainable and unregulated state of affairs recently prepared a Draft National Woodfuel Policy (July 2009). Here is their analysis of the situation and the guiding principles of that draft policy. For more details on the need for such a policy and its guiding principles refer to the appropriate appendix.

1.21.21.2 Need for National Woodfuel Policy a. In spite of the relative importance of the traditional energy, it is one of the most neglected and unregulated sub-sub-sectors--sectors of the national economy. The woodfuel sub-sector has not witnessed any significant direct public sector investment since the last two decades and there are no direct policies targeted at its growth and development. This has led to multiple taxation, levies and regulations on the woodfuel production, transportation and marketing. Unfortunately, none of these serve any regulatory purpose and do not promote growth and development. b. The woodfuel resource base is being depleted at rather an alarming rate due to virtually unplanned, uncontrolled and unregulated production and marketing.marketing.marketing. Except in few ecological areas, the wood energy demand and supply balance is negative indicating that the levels of woodfuel harvesting exceed the supply.

17 c. There are poor institutional linkages among the various agencies involved in the traditional energy sub-sector. This coupled with poor technological development, and lack of research has contributed significantly to stunted growth and development in the traditional energy sector. Woodfuel production technologies are still rudimentary but the trade is regulated by the market forces with a high environmental risk. d. The financial value of the tree resource inin commercial woodfuel production is almost zero and the price of woodfuels only reflects the labour, transport, tax cost and a modest profit margin of the trade. There is no incentive for investment in woodfuel plantations and sustainable management of the natural forest. e. Harvesting of the trees for woodfuels is done savagely, without any regards to stocks, species depletion or environmentally sensitive areas. As a result the current production and marketing of woodfuels are the biggest cause of the qualitative and quantitative depletion of the forest resource after clearing forests for agricultural purposes and bushfires. f. There are no accurate and consistent data on woodfuels to guide policy and planning for sustainable production, marketing and consumptconsumptionion of woodfuels.woodfuels.woodfuels. There are no comprehensive and consistent data on the stocks of woodfuels available in the country by each ecological zone, neither are there any data on the woodfuel consumption by the various sectors of the national economy. At the macro level, aggregate data are inferred from very weak database, which does not provide any meaningful basis for planning. g. There are no attempts to optimise woodfuel production potential of the woodland resource on a sustainable basis. No attention whatsoever has been given to the overall effect of wood harvesting on the remaining tree stand, mortality and recovery in relation to harvesting damage. There are no direct management controls over the exploitation of woodfuels in the country. The system of harvesting and producing woodfuels remove any incentive for rural people to manage their local woodlands sustainably because there are no mechanisms to plough back revenues from woodfuels to the local resource owners. h. The traditional energy sub-sector lacks a strong st rong human resource capacity at all levels of governance to formulate, implement and monitor policies on woodfuels...

CharcoalChChCharcoal production lacks the relevant technology and production skills. No formal training in charcoal production technologies has been obtained leading to increased waste. People enter into the business to survive and profit making is not the main motivation. The yields in charcoal production are therefore very low. Of the 16 principles that guide the national woodfuel policy only a few are listed below: Commercial production of woodfuel should comply with effective felling controls and standards on both reserve and off-reserve areas to ensure that harvesting of trees for commercial woodfuels are within sustainable annual allowable cut.

MaMaMarketMarket led pricing of woodfuels should reflect the economic value of the resource, to ensure efficient resource utilization, adequate funds for resource management and an equitable share of revenue to the resource owners.

Encourage private sector investment in commercial plantation development for sustainable supply of woodfuels to meet domestic demands and the export market.

The commercial production and marketing of woodfuels must be transformed from a traditional low value business to a high value trade based on the principles of sustainable woodland management.

Efficient endend----useuse devices must be introduced to reduce per capita consumption of woodfuels in the household, industrial commercial sectors of the national economy.

Public education on the energy efficiency and conservation, economic and strategic importance of woodfuels should be intensified at all levels of governance.

Taxation system should be introduced to favour woodfuel production from sustainably managed areas.

Note for instance the point about efficient end-use, without which the demand is not likely to go down. The traditional three-stone stove wastes over 85% of the energy which escapes into the atmosphere. To get the above principles applied in the field will require a gigantic effort, above all the necessary political will without which there can be no true change. Another document, specifically addressing the Afram Plains’ woodfuel situation was recently written by Ortsin (2009) on “Sustainable production and marketing of woodfuels in the Afram Plains. A strategy for poverty reduction and sustainable natural resource management in the Plains”. Here are some relevant ideas addressing the need for a holistic approach: “Promotion of sustainable production and marketing of woodfuel can only be done through the development of holistic natural resources management plans. These plans should not only be aimed at the production level, but at the whole production, marketing and consumption chain of traditional energy. This means inter alia: • Energy, livestock and agricultural interventions at production level need to be integrated • Promotion of security of land and tree tenure • Adding financial value to trees on both public and private lands • Ensuring higher prices for producers • Strengthening of conducive rules and regulations and tax compliance rates that promote investments in sustainable production techniques • Regulating the energy trade on a inter regional basis • Promotion of investments in more efficient energy consumption for large-scale users

• Exploration of alternative income generating sources from non-wood products

The efficient and effective implementation of such plans will have a huge net impact on poverty reduction in the district but to shift the current system based on exploitation or mining to a system based on sustainable utilisation of the resource base requires sizeable investments. Every production and marketing system has costs and benefits and although the net economic benefits of sustainable energy production are not disputed, it carries certain financial cost that needs to be paid for.” This RC project’s approach is pretty well the same.

Geographic sidestep to Burkina Faso In neighbouring Burkina Faso charcoal production is controlled by the Ministry of Forests (Ministère des Eaux et Forêts), which is organized like a police force. Like in Ghana, the trees belong to the nation. In Burkina nobody is allowed to transport even a sack of charcoal without an official permit with the person’s name and photo, to be renewed annually, with a copy kept in the official registers. Otherwise the charcoal is confiscated, the vehicle impounded and the person has to pay a fine anywhere between 20,000 and 1,000,000 F CFA, or face imprisonment. The Ministry sells charcoal to the public. Presently (2009) the price for a large bag in the capital Ouagadougou is 2,000 F CFA. If the customers do not bring an empty bag, they have to pay an additional 250 F CFA. The Ministry itself produces charcoal with its own labour force. The conversion rate is approximately 320 F CFA for 1 GHC (August 2009). Apart from that there are private individuals who produce charcoal with a Government permit, renewable yearly. They sell the charcoal in the open market: a large bag costs about 6,000 F CFA – the range is anywhere between 4,000 and 7,500 F CFA, without the cost of the bag which is an additional 400 F CFA. In other words, the Ministry of Forests sells one large bag, inclusive of the bag for 2,250 : 320 = 7.03 GHC. The private market price for the same product is 6,000 : 320 = 18.75 GHC. The above prices are retail prices. In other words charcoal is quite a bit more expensive in Burkina than in Ghana. That is one reason why so many burkinabe trucks on their way back from Ghana’s port of Tema where they offloaded their merchandise pick up charcoal in Northern Ghana and take it across the border. As a comparison the wholesale price for a large bag of charcoal in Accra presently (August-September 2009) is 10GHC, the retail price being 13GHC. As a MOFA official said when he heard about the Burkina charcoal approach: “we in Ghana have too much freedom, which is not good for the country.” This implies the necessity of stricter control if Ghana really wanted to save what is left of its tree cover outside the Forest Reserves and National Parks. The great hurdle is political will and the willingness to enforce the law. Law enforcement or rather the lack thereof is one of the great weaknesses of Ghana.

Recent projects in Ghana with a charcoal component 1.1.1. The German Government funded FORUM* project in the Volta Region executed by GTZ in conjunction with MOFA and the Forestry Commission from 1993 to 2008 had a woodlot component which also set up a few kilns, as discussed further down. The project provided technical assistance to farmers, gave free seedlings and motivated successful participants by handing out Wellington boots and cutlasses on National Farmers’ Day. The species that project planted were neem (Melia azadirachta), cassia (Senna siamea), teak (Tectona grandis), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus tereticornis), leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) and acacia (Acacia auriculiformis). Since land ownership is a crucial issue for long term projects, such as tree plantations, FORUM developed a Land Lease Agreement which helps the parties involved to clarify and sign land issues. Normally the tenant takes 2/3 while the land owner gets the other 1/3 of the crop. Since it is so important for the present RC project we copied it and included it slightly modified as Appendix L. *FORUM means “Forest Protection and Resource Use Management” 2.2.2. The Danish Government (DANIDA) funded the Savannah Resource Management Project from 1999 to 2002 in the three northern regions with headquarters in Tamale. One component of it dealt with “traditional energy”. The final report contains many interesting details including suggestions on how to put order into this totally uncontrolled business, by presenting practical recommendations on taxation and marketing, following the Burkina Faso model where licensed producers and licensed transporters make for a regulated market, something Ghana could really benefit from in the long run. 3.3.3. Under the CIDA funded Food Security Project for the three Northern Regions, with headquarters in Tamale, there was a Traditional Energy Unit, headed by Mr. George Ortsin. It promoted the involvement of District Assemblies in charcoal management and the introduction of new methods for the carbonization process (for higher recovery rates). When the project ended a few years ago the enthusiasm of the associations of woodfuel producers and suppliers fizzled out. As confirmed by various sources – Ministry of Energy, UNDP’s GEF programm director and the Director of the Institute of Industrial Research, there is no project dealing with charcoal at this moment in Ghana or growing trees for charcoal (August 2009).

RC’s project to fight desertification It is against the local and national background described above that RC prepared a project to help introduce trees into the farming environment in the Afram Plains in hopes of protecting the environment while producing firewood – and charcoal – thus generating some income for participating farmers. This three-year project, funded by the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs, started in 2009. During this first year (2009) about 26,000 seedlings of Cassia (formerly called Cassia siamea now Senna siamea) are being distributed to selected farmers who prepared their land adequately. In additionmany thousand seedlings of mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) are also given out to farmers, a valuable timber tree that is relatively slow growing. RC’s partner is APDO the Afram Plains Development Organization, a local NGO with many years of good work to its credit and well trained staff.

GeneralGeneralGeneral e enquiriesnquiriesnquiriesnquiries before the survey Informal discussions with charcoal truck drivers, chainsaw operators, men producing charcoal in the bush, village chiefs, long-time residents and Ministry of Agriculture extension agents helped to paint an overall picture.

Discussion with charcoal producers on road between Odumasua and Dim. Apart from the driver and his mates all are Sissala, a Northern tribe specializing in charcoal production. They are very efficient at it, but don’t care about the land being nomadic.

These discussions yielded some surprising answers. For example, when asked how much longer the present level of charcoal extraction can go on before it collapses, the chief of Dome answered without hesitation: 2 – 3 years! Seeing our surprise he elaborated: hardly any large trees are left around the village, even the small ones are being cut. In maximum 3 years it will be all finished! After we conducted a survey with a questionnaire based on feed-back from the field in order to be able to get quantitative data. For more details about the questionnaire itself refer to Appendix Q. The objective of this questionnaire survey was to: • Get a better picture of charcoal production in selected areas of the project area • Record people’s impressions about the impact of charcoal production on their natural environment • Find out about their desire to plant trees and the challenges around that issue. The survey was carried out in Donkorkorm – the capital of the Kwahu North District –and in the six target villages of the project, namely Tease, Dim, Kwesi Fante, Asenyanso, Bonkrom and Dome. Since Mame Krobo is a large trading centre where a lot of charcoal passes through, we also interviewed some people there. Please refer to the Afram Plains map shown earlier where these localities are all clearly indicated. The seven questionnaire administrators were trained and given the necessary follow-up by the consultant and other RC staff. The intention was to survey as wide a spectrum of the general population as possible. The field work took five days during which time 170 people were interviewed.

Survey: interviewing a man in Bonkrom - a typical village setting

Survey results Before going into the details, here are somesome highlights including points raised by the interviewers during aaa feed-feedfeedfeed-back--backbackback session in the office:office:::

• Economic aspects: the profits with charcoal business are made the retailers in the urban centres. The people doing all the “dirty” work in the field make very little money, including the charcoal buyers from Accra and elsewhere. In other words, the environmental destruction - to satisfy the cooking fuel requirements in Accra - leaves little money behind for the locals involved.

• The only locals who greatly benefit from the charcoal trade are the traditional chiefs – who are the landowners. They get anywhere between 10, 15 or even 20 out of every 100 bags produced. It is sad to think they don’t seem to care about the environment nor the future or their own people.

• The District Assembly gets a large share of the charcoal trade as a tax levied in several revenue collection points. According to one official estimate charcoal revenue represents about 70% of all the Internally Generated Funds.

• The truck owners claim not to make a lot of profit yet on an annual basis it can up to a nice sum (see Appendix on trucking costs).

• Long term residents (in the Afram Plains) are well aware of the negative environmental impact of wanton charcoal production and very receptive to the idea of planting trees for charcoal.

• There is an astounding mosaic of ethnic groups in the Afram Plains nowadays, considering that before Lake Volta formed behind Akosombo dam - less than 60 years ago - very few people lived here and they were mostly Kwahus (=Akan). Our relatively small sample in 8 villages and towns revealed over 25 different ethnic groups, many from the northern parts of Ghana.

• Technical knowledge about tree planting as a crop is low, as was to be expected.

• Although the greatest demand is for Cassia, some people want timber trees such as teak, mahogany as well as fruit trees such as oilpalm, mango, and oranges in that order of preference.

• Land acquisition is the greatest and most common problem mentioned by the people interviewed: many respondents who want to plant trees do not have land. RC will help them get a written land lease agreement to be signed by all parties concerned.

• Most charcoal producers think it is the only “good business” worth doing, since it produces quick cash. For that reason it is important to consider alternative livelihoods that can also produce quick cash when and if required.

• Dome is a special case because it is near the border of the Afram Plains District (capital Donkorkorm) and Sekyere Afram Plains (capital Kumawu, in Ashanti Region).

• Social problems associated with the charcoal trade especially because of truck drivers Sex (prostitution) High cost of food due higher demand from outside people with cash Decrease in foodstuff production since many a farmer switched to charcoal production, neglecting food crop production Child labour i.e. school drop-outs, hired for the charcoal business

Suggestions and general comments from the persons interviewed

Here are the most relevant suggestions: • Tree planting groups to be formed in various communities • Chiefs –the custodians of the land - are to be convinced to release land for tree planting • It would be wonderful if the RC project would consider other species (besides cassia and mahogany) such a teak, mango, oil palm and even orange trees • Beneficiaries need to be convinced to plant firebelts around their tree plantations • Awards should be given to the person who takes best care of his/her trees after year 1 and 2. • The District Assembly should enforce bye-laws for tree planting and environmental protection including bushfires • Get District Assembly members and Unit Committees involved in this tree planting exercise to make it a success.

Chapter by chapter, here are some of the highlights: Personal data

Out of the 170 respondents 67% were men and 33% women. The degree of illiteracy is rather high: 53.7% of respondents cannot read or write. As to language spoken at home, the answers revealed an incredible mosaic of 27 different languages with Twi being in the lead, by far (60 out of 168 answers or 36%), followed by Dagaari (22 answers), Krachi (18), Ewe (14), Konkomba (7), Adangbe (6), Wala (5), Frafra (5), Sisala (4), Basare (3), Guan (3), Krobo (3), Moshie = More (2), Kusala (2), Mamprusi (2) and 12 other languages with one representative each. This all reflects the mixing of people who were/ are attracted by the land still relatively easily available for farming in the Afram Plains after the construction of the Akosombo Dam and the infrastructure that followed. As far as gender distribution among the people interviewed 115 or 67.6% were men, and 55 or 32.4% were women. As far as the major occupation is concerned here is the breakdown: FarmingFarmingFarming:Farming 140 respondents, representing 82.84% of the respondents declared farming to be their major occupation, followed by charcoal (7 respondents or 4,14%), trading (2.37%), a Government job (2.37%), construction (1.78%), food business (1.78%), fishing (1.18%), tailoring (1.18%) and one respondent each for the profession of driver, truck owner, catechist and community health. Regarding the main occupation of the spouse, farming again takes the lead with 84 respondents out of 159 (or 52.83%), followed by trading (24 answers or 15.09%), Government (3.77%), food business (3.77%). It is noteworthy that 18 answers (or 11.32%) either had no spouse – for being single – or said they had no occupation, probably meaning “housewife”, although some others (3 answers or 1.88%) indicated that as their partner’s main

occupation. Another 3 are drivers. Two work in construction, two are fishermen, etc. Regarding family size or rather the number of children of the persons interviewed, the answers vary greatly from a modest 1 or 2 children, even among relatively old people, to large families: six respondents have 14 children or more, the record being 20. Some of these are Moslems with several wives...

Regarding major fuel for cooking (at home) ten years ago 88.1% said it was firewood, and 11.9% used charcoal. Nowadays 60.1% use firewood and 39.1% cook with charcoal. Those using firewood were asked whether it is still easy to find it. Only 27.1% said yes, whereas 70.9% said no. This is surprising, considering the fact that most of the respondents live in rural areas. When asked why it is difficult to find firewood, 62.0% point the finger at charcoal production and 39.0% blame it on deforestation. Obviously the two are interconnected. Regarding an estimate of money spent on cooking fuel per month, among those using firewood: 57.1% fall into the 6 – 20 GHC category, more or less the same for charcoal users: 55.6%. What social problems has the charcoal trade brought here, if any? Here are the answers: 1. Higher food prices - due greater demand (17 respondents) 2. Crime, including stealing of animals (13) 3. Drunkenness (12) 4. Conflicts in the community (11) 5. Prostitution (11) 6. Land scarcity (10) 7. Competition for work (7) 8. Indiscriminate relationships (5) 9. Teen-age pregnancies (2)

It would not be unreasonable to lump into one category the aspects of prostitution, indiscriminate relationships and teenage pregnancies, which would then top the list. A high number of answers were not related to social problems per se, for instance: “rainfall has changed”. Admittedly, this should have been picked up immediately by the questionnaire administrators, but was not. Fifteen persons simply answered: I don’t know.

Farming activities

-Which crops produce the most money for you? 1. Maize (120 answers) 2. Yam (54) 3. Groundnuts (19) 4. Cassava (13) 5. Beans (6) 6. Pepper (5) 7. Cashew (4), Plantain (4) 8. Tomatoes (2), Tiger nuts (2)

-What are the major problems with the crops you grow?

1. Lack of rainfall (38 answers) 2. Pests = mainly termites for maize (32) 3. Grasscutters (25) 4. Lack of inputs (19) 5. Low yields (16) 6. Weeds (15) 7. Stemborers (5) 8. (Excessive) sunshine (4)

-Are bushfires a problem on your farm? Out of 151 answers, 120 said: Yes, only 31 answered: No. If Yes, explain: Here are some answers: • Charcoal burners set bushfires • Hunters also do • Palm wine tappers • Fires destroy food stuffs • Bushfires lead to land infertility • We need firebelt

Natural environmentenvironmentironmentironment

Question 1. What are the major changes you have noticed in your natural environment in the last 10 years? Here are the answers. Note that multiple answers were allowed. 1. Lower rainfall or irregular rainfall pattern (70 answers) 2. Forest turning to grassland (45) 3. Soil fertility gone down (30) 4. Crop yields gone down (26) 5. Water bodies have dried up (20) 6. Loss of biodiversity (20) 7. High temperatures (7) 8. Erosion due loss of trees (3)

Points 3 and 4 are related and could be lumped together. Charcoal production undoubtedly contributes to points 6 and 7. Question 2. What are the plants and animals you miss the most that you used to find around herehere? A. Plants 1. Odum = Milicia excelsa: 65 answers 2. Wawa =Triplochiton scleroxylon: 46 3. Mahogany = Khaya ivorensis: 44 4. Shea butter tree = Bassia parkii: 21 5. Cocoa=Theobroma cacao: 16* 6. Paopao = Afzelia bella: 8

7. Ofram =Terminalia superba: 4 8. Mushrooms: 4 9. Medicinal plants: 4 10. Banana: 4* 11. ?Apro (4) 12. Emire =Terminalia ivorensis : 2 13. Coffee bush: 1 answer

Note: of the above number 1-4 and 6, 8 and 12 are forest trees i.e. good timber species.

*Cocoa plantations used to be flourishing in the Afram Plains before the 1983 fire. The banana plant is not adapted to the annual bushfires which kill it.

B. Animals 1. Grass cutters (67 answers) 2. Antelopes (60) 3. Snails (35) 4. Monkeys (30) 5. Rats (23) 6. Bush pigs (20) 7. Buffaloes (15) 8. Tortoises (14) 9. Crocodiles (10) 10. Elephants (10) 11. Wild Guinea fowl (8) 12. Porcupines (5) 13. Squirrels (4) 14. Crabs (1)

The fact that grass cutters came out as number one is a great surprise: not even 5 years ago they were still very common. Overhunting has taken its toll here too! The local fauna used to be exceptionally rich before the flooding of Lake Volta which brought about a migration of people from other parts of Ghana leading to massive deforestation and habitat destruction. For more details on wildlife species that used occur in the Afram Plains consult the socio-economic baseline survey done for RC in 2006 (Reuter).

• Costs involved with producing charcoal – same comment as 5. Above • Tree planting mainly for charcoal – but also for shade Very few respondents do not want to plant any trees at all. The species in highest demand is Cassia (for charcoal), followed by teak – people are quite familiar with it – then oil palm, mango, mahogany, orange. One answer each for moringa, avocado, cashew, and cedrela.

Economic aspects of charcoal production Of the 170 persons interviewed only 22 were directly or indirectly involved with the charcoal trade. Some answers were incomplete. This explains the small sample size in some cases.

How much do you pay the land owner for trees for charcoal? The answers varied greatly: • GHC100 to 1,000 per square mile, depending on tree cover • to be bargained each time • every (truck-) trip the chief take GHC 30.00 • “nothing” was the answer in Dim

How many sacks of charcoal do you have to give him for the trees you cut? Three types of answers: • 2 bags (of charcoal) out of every 10 (4 answers) • 1 bag out of every 10 (2 answers) • Nothing (2 answers in Dim)

Estimate of how many trees it takes on average to make one large pit The answers varied greatly: from 3 to 15 trees. In other words, the size of trees is one of the major factors. There is no standard size for a large pit, not for a small pit.

Number of trees to makemake a small pit? Same comment: numbers varied from 1 to 8

How many days does it take for wood to turn into charcoal in a large pit? Again, a great variation in the answers, anywhere from 2 weeks (7 answers), 3 weeks (5 answers) to 1 month (4 answers). Only two answers claimed 1 week to be enough, both of them from Dim where obviously a large pit is relatively small. The fact is that trees large and good enough for charcoal are very difficult to find around Dim, as mentioned earlier.

How many days does it taketake for wood to turn into charcoal in a small pit? Anywhere from 1 week (9 answers) to 2 weeks (6 answers). Exceptionally 2 and 4 days (Dim) to 21 days (Donkorkrom area)

How many large bags do you get from one large pit? The answers varied greatly: anywhere from 25 bags (Dim) to 80 bags. This depends on the number of trees involved and the area.

How many large bags do you get from a small pit? Same comment as above: anywhere from 15 (Dim) to 70.

What will you do when you cannot produce charcoal anymore aroundaround here?here?ound The most common answer was farming (6 answers), followed by farming and trading (3 answers), trading (1 answer), fishing (1 answer – in Dim).

One unusual answer from a person living presently in Dome: I will move to Mampong to burn charcoal there.

Are you willing to plant trees to grow wood for firewood and charcoal? Yes: 14 answers No:

How much do you pay for a bag of charcoal? A surprisingly large variation in prices, depending not only on the village but also on the individual respondent. Here are the answers for a large bag (=maxi) and a small (=mini) bag for July-Aug 2009.

LocalityLocalityLocality Purchase price range Purchase price range for a maxi bag for a mini bag in GHCin GHC in GHCin GHC Tease 3.00 - 5.00 2.00 - 3.00 Dome 2.50 - 4.00 1.00 - 2.00 Bonkrom 2.50 - 4.00 1.50 - 2.50 Adeemmra 5.00 - 6.00 2.50 - 3.00 Dim - 2.00 - 5.00 AnywhereAnywhereAnywhere Selling price per Selling price per Maxi bagMaxi bag Mini bagMini bag - 7.00 – 10.00 4.00 – 6.00

Note the large difference in price within a village e.g. in Dim where there are very few trees left within easy reach, and the very low prices in Dome and Bonkrom. The profit margin per bag is not very high. However if looked at from the point of view of a large truck or even a so-called “cargo truck” hauling several hundred bags in one trip, the profit picture changes. Granted, the truck owner does have some considerable expenditures to absorb, as shown in Appendix T.

Charcoal statistics for the Afram Plains The quantity of charcoal leaving the Afram Plains is amazing, yet difficult to imagine for anybody who has not repeatedly taken the pontoon from Ekye Amanfrom to Adawso or driven from Nkawkaw to Mpraeso for that matter seeing one overloaded charcoal truck after another heading south, mostly to Accra. Possibly even larger quantities leave the Afram basin through the Sekyere District via Atebubu – Ejura – Mampong to Kumasi and beyond. Unfortunetaly, it was not possible to get any statistics on the latter from Effiduase which is the capital of Sekyere East. Here are data supplied by the then District Financial Officer in early 2006 (Reuter, 2006). →We are still waiting to get an update from the new Administration “Exportation” estimates for charcoal originating in the Afram Plains or passing through the Afram Plains- including those trucks coming from Sekyere East through Dome:

Year Number of bags Comments 2002 2,550,000 all originating from within the Afram Plains proper 2003 2,650,000 same comment 2004 2,780,000 about one third originated in Sekyere East 2005 2,850,000 same comment

The above figures are derived from income the Ekye Amanfrom revenue collection point near the pontoon, where the trucks pay a tax based on truck size –and load if not full. In 2005 the revenue from charcoal and food export (maize, yam etc.) amounted to ¢890 million, of which charcoal represents an estimated ¢620 million. Trucks with yam and maize pay ¢5,000/100 tubers and ¢5,000/maxi bag of maize. In the Kwahu North District the IGF (=internally generated funds) amounted to ¢1,904.5 million in 2005. The tax from charcoal represented about 47%. “ The above figures are staggering although they are conservative. Just imagine over 2 million sacks of charcoal leaving the Afram Plains every year! On top of that one would have to include the local consumption of charcoal which is not negligible. Poor Mother Nature, literally going up in smoke slowly but steadily! Never mind all the firewood used by the locals. Right now (August 2009) the Revenue Inspector of the District estimates charcoal revenues to represent about 70% of the IGF. Apart from the survey a major effort was made to get statistics on the quantity of charcoal leaving the Afram Plains as detailed earlier. This turned out to be quite a challenge, because the District Assembly does not keep separate records on charcoal which is lumped into revenue collected at the pontoon, together with revenue from yam, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, fish, goats, sheep, cattle, bushmeat etc. The only way to get information was to painstakingly go through the ledgers and individual revenue receipts kept at that particular revenue collection point. Besides that we found many receipt books from Ekye Amanfrom in the Internal Auditor’s Office in the district assembly building in Donkorkrom. Unfortunately a complete set of receipt books was only available for very few months, the others were incomplete. Most charcoal exits the Afram Plains through Ekye Amanfrom. Apart from that there is a considerable amount getting to the Volta Region from the many islands in Lake Volta which also form part of the Kwahu North District. Special double-decker boats take the

32 charcoal across the lake to a landing site called GyamaniGyamaniGyamani.Gyamani That is where Tema gets most of its charcoal fromfrom. It was in fact a surprise to see that only 1 truck out of 980 passing through Ekye (during the period June 1 – Aug 5-09) went to Tema. In Gyamani charcoal bags attract a 10 pesewa tax per sack (=0.10GHC) collected by a District official according to whom many boatmen try to escape the tax by simply taking off in their boats. They arrive weekly on Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday.

Recent data on charcoal passing through the Ekye revenue collection point

Month Number of those Number of Revenue Comments Gyamani* of cargo large bags in GHC large bags Trucks trucks in addition to number those in column 4 Nov-07 479 0 61,092 7,988 Dry season Dec-07 479 0 56,182 7,603 Dry season Nov-08 299 1 56,866 6,599 Dry season 9,550 Apr-09 515 1 82,962 9,983 May-09 597 6 100,475 11,841 Jun-09 521 14 98,984 11,271 Rainy 7,950 season Jul-09 408 10 70,190 8,339 Rainy 8,751 season

Comments: when going through the individual receipt books it became apparent that there were major irregularities, leading us – the consultant and the new Revenue Collector of Ekyemanfrom, who started to work there in May 2009 and who helped extract the above data– to conclude that large trucks, which have to pay a higher tax because of their greater load, were recorded in lower tax classes so that some money could be siphoned off. Apart from that, many trucks were not recorded at all: there are considerably more trucks passing Ekye in the dry season than during the rainy season. This fact is not borne out by the above data which are based on complete official receipt books. There were other irregularities, e.g. 8 trucks in a row paying 10 GHC, something unheard of, Benz passenger cars with a few bags of charcoal going to Accra which never happens etc. Why are not more months listed above? Simply because many receipt books from Ekye and which should be in the Internal Auditor’s Office in Donkorkrom are missing.

Charcoal itinerary from Afram Plains The most common answer we got from our survey regarding destination of charcoal was Accra – pretty well anywhere from the Military Hospital to Madina etc. Mame Krobo was mentioned twice (in Bonkrom) and Akate twice (for charcoal from Dim from where people take it to the Akate market by boat) Accra is where the highest demand is and therefore the highest prices are paid.

Charcoal trucks in Ekye Amanfrom being guided onto the ferry across one arm of Lake Volta on their way to the capital Accra. On this particular crossing there were 5 trucks with a combined load of 1,680 charcoal bags! There are several trips a day. According to the receipts in Ekye Amanfrom where we checked for truck destinations, 925 out of 980 trucks (June 1 to early Aug 2009) or 94.39% left for AccraAccra. Of the other truck destinations the most common one is nearby Nkawkaw (24 trucks), followed by Koforidua (7), Swedru in Central Region (5), Suhum (4), Nsawam (3), Kibi (3), Kade (3), Akwapong E/R (2), Aflao on the border with Togo (2), Ada (1), Anyinam (1), Mpraeso (1), Kwahu Tafo (1), Nketia (1), TemaTemaTema (1). Occasionally trucks also go to Asamankese, although none did so from early June till early August. The surprise is the fact that only 1 truckload went to TemaTemaTema which is Ghana’s third largest city, and none at all to Kumasi – Ghana’s second largest city. Tema most likely gets its charcoal from the Volta Region, whereas Kumasi is supplied from the Afram basin (Sekyere East District) via Atebubu-Mampong.

On closer inspection it turned out that Tema does a large part of its charcoal from the Afram Plains, taken by special double-decker boats from the numerous islands in Volta Lake and landing in Gyamani (see map) which is much closer to Tema than taking them by truck by pontoon Nkawkaw etc. When the pontoon from Agordeke to Kpandu is operational (it has been down for a long time now) then charcoal from the Afram Plains goes to Ho, Tema, Aflao etc.

The charcoal market in HoHoHo is traditionally supplied from surrounding villages. Within Accra the largest single centre is Achimota. However there are many other centres for wholesalers – where the trucks offload and the charcoal is sold to retailers, for instance: Kasua, Mallam, Ofanko, Tanta (spelling?), Tettey Quarshie Circle, Madina, Nungwa, Fankaw (?), Labadi, Zungo and many others, one pretty well in every part of town.

No charcoal is trucked from the Afram Plains to coastal towns West of Accra such as Cape Coast or Sekondi-Takoradi. However some go to Agona Swedru in Central Region from where it is distributed to other towns.

Best standards and best practices Firewood produced in woodlot plantations is a crop. As such it needs to be tended: weeded, pruned, protected against fire, thinned (the number of coppice shoots needs to be reduced down to 3 – 5). All the above require technical know-how and trained labour. There is an excellent publication on this subject, available in Forest District offices, called: Why and how to grow Woodlots for Fuelwood Production. FORUM Experiences.

Plantation species Based on extensive recent experience in the FORUM project where the following species were tested on a large scale: • Azadirachta indica (neem) • Cassia siamea, now called Senna siamea • Eucalyptus tereticornis • Acacia auriculiformis • Tectonia grandis (teak) • Leucaena leucocephala By far the best one all round is Cassia. • It grows on pretty well any soil, unlike for instance teak which does not like clay soils. • It grows faster than the other species tested • It gives good firewood and charcoal. When used for smoking fish it does not leave an odour, unlike neem, according to some people, but not all. • It is an excellent firebelt species Questions that have been raised by farmers are for instance: • Is Cassia palatable to cattle? Normally not. However in the dry season especially in the Northern parts of Ghana - cows have been seen to browse the new shoots of Cassia, even neem –apparently very bitter – and even teak leaves. • Does Cassia pump water (like Eucalyptus) to point of surrounding area drying out? Not so, otherwise the earthworms would disappear, which is not the case.

Here are a few photographs from the firewood plantations of a farmer who participated in the FORUM project and who has made that activity his major livelihood. He has been so successful that he has already been able to build himself a new house. He lives a few kilometres North of Akatsi in Volta Region. He has a total of 65 acres of planted trees, mostly Cassia.

Fuelwood farmer with 6-month old Cassia (Senna siamea) sprouts, ready for pruning, near Akatsi, Volta Region.

Cassia coppices in fuelwood plantation near Akatsi, Volta Region. Note how clean the ground it is: a fire would stop for lack of fuel.

Farmer Yaovi Katabo crawling out of efficient brick kiln to show size. Note breathing holes on top and roof to protect kiln against rain damage. North of Akatsi, VR.

Metal kiln, abandoned in favour of the easier to handle brick kiln shown in background. North of Akatsi, Volta Region, July 2009

It would be worthwhile to take a few selected Afram Plains farmers there to see for themselves and get some motivation in the process. We do not recommend to plant mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) or cedrela (Cedrela odorata) for fuelwood, but there is nothing wrong in growing them for timber. A species well worth trying, although not part of the FORUM species is Casuarina equisetifolia – used extensively in francophone West Africa where it is called “filao”.

Recommended spacingspacingspacing depends on the objective of the plantation: if it is for small scale farmers who needs food crops it would be 3m x 3m to allow for intercropping for the first two years. If it is exclusively for fuelwood then the recommended spacing is 2m x 2m leading to canopy closure in the course of year 2 in the case of Cassia. In this case there will be no more need for weeding after the second year. It would be wrong to impose a specific planting distance. This is up to the individual farmer to decide.

Charcoal production methods The traditional earthmound "kiln" is not very efficient: 8 tons of wood only produce 1 ton of charcoal (acc. to Mr. Eric Nyarko, Energy Comm.)

The brick kiln is more efficient, can be built locally and is relatively cheap, compared to metal kilns which burn faster (3 days to transform wood into charcoal as opposed to 7 days in a brick kiln). However studies have been done comparing the earthmound kiln used by efficient Sissala producers and modern kilns. The results indicate that the difference is so minimal that it does not warrant for them to switch methods (Dr. Hagan of IIR). For this RC project the only place where a kiln might be indicated is DIM: people produce charcoal right in the village, bringing the wood from any trees they can find.

General considerations and cchallengeshallenges for fuelwood plantations Farmers need to feed their family. Those who are willing to plant trees for fuelwood as a source of future income do not have land and those who have land are not interested in planting trees. Rather than starting with 2 x 2 m or 3 x 3 m one night even consider 4 x 4 m or alley cropping or boundary planting. The individual farmer interested in tree planting will decide what is best for him. (S)he might prefer to plant a few trees on a patch of land where the soil is not good enough for crops It might be realistic to introduce the fuelwood tree/plantation concept gradually into the farming environment. Since this a new activity for most, it needs to be phased in gradually into the farming calendar (avoiding major tree planting and tending activities when the farmer is busy with his crops). Here are some of the challenges in no particular order of importance except for the first one which is the most serious one: BushfiresBushfiresBushfires: an annual scourge, lit for hunting grass cutters, for new grass growth for cows by cattle herders, mostly Fulani herders who are not necessarily the owners of the cattle, by farmers to clear land for farming, by careless palm wine tappers, honey gatherers, etc. The way to mitigate this problem is to keep the plantations clean of weeds, and an adequate firebreak around the plantation of about 3 meters 9 this is what the farmers near Akatsi use. They make heaps of the cut grass and burn it carefully so that by the time the bushfire season comes there is hardly any fuel left for a fire to consume. Lack of crop tending: weeding, replacing dead plants in the first or second year, Lack of technical know-know-how--howhowhow: regarding cutting angle and height at harvesting time. If Acacia is cut too low the stump will die. On the other hand if the stool (=the stump) is not cut correctly, the coppices can be blown over by wind. Planting on inadequate soil: this is not likely to occur with Cassia but can occur with teak on clay soils, on shallow soils or on soils with occasional water logging. Problems with landowner: One of the challenges for fuelwood plantations in the Afram Plains is the fact that many small farmers who would like to participate in RC’s program do not own the land. For that reason we strongly recommend a Land Lease Agreement signed by all parties with witnesses, following the example of the FORUM project. See sample in Appendix

Invasion by aggressive woody species from neighbouring areas. This can happen with some species e.g. Acacia auriculiformis, an example seen north of Akatsi, Volta Region. Here is another serious constraint for sustainable charcoal production from in the Afran Plains: Local charcoal producers are willing to be organized and participate in a sustainable program. However, they complain that many charcoal burners are totally nomadic: they come from outside – mainly from Northern parts of Ghana, make charcoal and move on. This became already apparent during a meeting with charcoal producers in the District Assembly in Donkorkrom in the year 2,000 where the author participated as an observer and the same complaint was voiced.

Other aspects of wood as a fuelfuelfuel It seems unfortunate that the wood from plantations is used for cooking as firewood or as charcoal in inefficientineine inefficient stoves. In other words, charcoal consumption could be drastically reduced by using more efficient cooking stoves. The UNDP- Ministry of Energy’s Energy Commission project on “Household Energy” has looked into this aspect and introduced improved stoves to collaborating housewives. The main mover was the Energy Commission’s Mr. Wisdom Ahiataku-Togobo who was that project’s coordinator in 2006-2007. If required this aspect can be looked into with more detail during the next consultancy.

Traditional three-stone stove, very fuel inefficient

General rGeneral rereeemarksmarksmarksmarks for the RC projectRC project What might be a good approach is the one taken by RC’s Sefwi Wiawso project namely introducing the (forest) tree into the farming environment.

It appeared to the consultant that the farmers in the Afram Plains were given the impression during the RC sensitization campaign that the fuelwood plantations are an easy and quick source of income. If so, over how much time were farmers told the profit would materialize? Cassia will take about 6 years for the first cut, after that the coppices can be cut every 4 years.

As mentioned above farmers need to be informed that fuelwood plantations need the same attention as any other crop (if a good result is to be expected): weeding (possibly) mulching, replacing dead seedlings (=so-called “beating-up”), pruning, protection against bushfires, eliminating coppice sprouts down to 3 – 5 per stool ( = stump).

A good protection against bushfires is to weed through and around the plantation, burn the weeds in small heaps under controlled conditions.

Some remarksremarksremarks about alternative livelihoods What can we offer people who presently derive benefit from charcoal as a source of quick cash, albeit unsustainably so? The need for quick cash won’t go away. Animal husbandry would seem a good alternative, considering the amount of grass available around most villages etc. Not only small ruminants (goats and sheep) but also pigs, However there would have to be a new “culture” about domestic animals, including rotational grazing which means control, mini fodder banks etc. The best approach is to consult with the local people rather than imposing an alternative livelihoods package. In the end it must generate money for them quicker than what they are already doing. Here are a few ideas from our previous report on socio-economic study in teh Afram Plains during the cashew consultancy (Reuter, April 2007):

Does anybody in your village or nearby grow or keep: snails, grasscutters, fish in ponds, bees, mushrooms, pigs, commercial poultry, black pepper, ginger, fruit trees? If yes, specify which fruit trees. Here are the answers by decreasing frequency with the number of answers in brackets: pigs (79), bees (41), grass cutters (19), fruit trees (19), poultry (17), snails (9), ginger (6), black pepper (3), fish in ponds (1)

Which ones of the above would you be interested in, if given the necessary training? Number one is grasscutter rearing (27), followed by bee keeping (22), mushrooms (11), snails (10), poultry (9), pigs (8), fish in ponds (4), ginger (3), fruit trees (2), rabbits (1).

In the case of fruit trees, specify which ones Mango and sweet oranges (or other citrus) come first with 20 answers each, followed by oil palm (6), cashew (2), and one answer each for avocado, pineapple and banana. Note: more questions were asked than listed above. Only those considered truly relevant were included.

Conclusions 1. The extent of charcoal extraction in the Afram Plains - with more than 1 million large bags per year is totally unsustainable. In the opinion of some local people interviewed, if it continues at present levels it will collapse within three to five years – for lack of trees. 2. The local people who profit most from charcoal are the (Kwahu) chiefs who demand anywhere between 10 and 20 bags out of every hundred for their own pocket. Since they do not live in the Afram Plains they do not care about the land. 3. Those doing the dirty work for charcoal production only eke out a meagre living. 4. As a result of wanton removal of the tree cover – due to bushfires and deforestation mainly for charcoal production nowadays – the environment has changed leading to more erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns, higher temperatures and lower agricultural productivity. 5. The willingness to plant trees for firewood and charcoal –or shade from fruit trees is very high among long-term residents. 6. Land acquisition is a major problem: many of those who want to plant do not have any land for planting trees. 7. A large percentage of persons interviewed see trees as a source of quick cash -this is a misconception. 8. This RC project is a good step in the right direction, assuming adequate measures will be taken to protect the young trees for a few years in a row against the annual curse of bushfires. 9. Many people cook with inefficient stoves, thus wasting energy.

Recommendations 1. Strengthen awareness creation whenever and wherever possible. Invite opinion leaders from neighbouring communities to spread the good news. 2. Include other species in the nursery program such as teak and fruit trees, while reducing the percentage of mahogany. 3. Do not sell the idea of tree planting as a source of quick cash, since it will take several years for trees to grow to a utilizable size and bushfires might interfere. 4. Create motivation by giving out prizes to the best tree planter or two in every community not only after the first year but also in consecutive years. 5. Trees for commercial use are like a crop which needs tending: weeding, protection against bushfires, replacement of dead ones, pruning etc. 6. If charcoal is to remain a major source of income for the District Assembly it has to be regulated and the reforestation effort has to become a major one i.e. at the level of pretty well every village. 7. Rather than relying on moral and other support from Government at all levels, especially the DA, it would be good if RC could get the local people to understand that THEY are responsible for their own environment. 8. Educate women to use more fuel efficient stoves to reduce fuel needs. 9. Alternative means of income need to be created for rural people presently involved with charcoal production for quick cash. 10. Take a group of selected people to see a farmer’s commercial firewood and charcoal plantations near Akatsi – Volta Region – to motivate them.

ReferencesReferencesReferences consulted Listed by author wherever possible, with a few comments where deemed necessary African Development Bank. March 2006. Afram Plains Agricultural Development Project. Appraisal Report. Ahiataku-Togobo, Wisdom. Project Coordinator, 2006-2007. Household Energy Project. 32 pages. Note: contains all aspects of improved wood burning cooking stoves, cost of cooking fuels, various charcoal production technologies. Afram Plains District’s Medium Term Development Plan (2006-2009) APDO. Afram Plains Regeneration Project. September 2002. Akpabe Impex. Dec. 2006. Commissioned and reviewed by Wisdom Ahiataku-Togobo. Gender aggregated needs assessment of charcoal producers. 44 pages. Identifies the needs and health hazards of women and children engaged in charcoal production. Energy Commission-Danida. Final report of the “Traditional Energy Resources Project” in Ghana’s three Northern Regions, 1999-2002. 2003. 79 pages. Contains recommen-dations on taxation and marketing. Forestry Commission. – FORUM – Experiences. Why and how to grow woodlots for woodfuel production. 21 p. undated, probably published in 2008. Contains a very useful 4-page annex on Land Lease Agreement. Forestry Commission. – FORUM – Experiences. How to set up and operate a brick kiln for charcoal production. Undated. 22 p. Green Energy Consult. Commissioned and reviewed by Wisdom A. Togobo. (UNDP. EC). Household energy for cooking. Ghana/UNDP. Dec. 2006. 39 pages. Compares various cooking fuels incl. LPG, kerosene, firewood and charcoal. Ministry of Energy. Government of Ghana. Draft National Woodfuel Policy. July 2009. 15 pages. Ministry of Energy: Energy Commission, UNDP. Workshop report. Woodfuel Policy Regulation and Action Plan. 29-31 August 2007. Kumasi. 25 pages. Nana Baffoe Solomon, Rapporteur. Report on stakeholders’ workshop on sustainable charcoal production, held at Donkorkrom from Thursday 2nd – Friday 3rd April, 2009. Nyarko, Eric Ofori. Undated, probably 2001. Woodfuel our largest energy resource in Ghana. A 4-page article. Shows that increasing woodfuel consumption already surpassed yield = total wood growth in Ghana in 2000! Ortsin George. Undated, probably 2005. GEF. Energy saving for institutional and commercial stoves in major urban centres in the Northern Savanna to mitigate climate change. Note: includes detailed information on various stoves. Ortsin George. 2009. Sustainable production and marketing of woodfuels in the Afram Plains: a strategy for poverty reduction and sustainable natural resource management in the plains. 7 pages Ortsin George. Traditional Energy and Development in Ghana. Traditional Energy Supply as Strategy for Poverty Alleviation in Ghana. Colloquium KNUST. July 18, 2009. 18 pages. Reuter François. 2006. Socio-economic baseline survey of cashew farmers in the Afram Plains, Consultancy report for RC. 51 pages plus appendices. Riegelhaupt, Enrique. Sustainable Forest Management Programme in African ACP Countries. FAO consultancy on Woodfuel Ghana. 2001. 13 pages plus Annexes. Contains detailed statistics on charcoal and other wood fuel for Ghana.

Rural Energy and Environmental Systems. Report on a training workshop for charcoal producers in the Casamance technology. Sekyere West District. Ashanti Region. Sept. 2003. 23. Pages. This report compares various kilns, among other topics.

Exchange rates at this moment (August 2009) • 1USD=1.45 GHC • 1Euro= 2.05 GHC • 1GHC= 320 F CFA. One GHC equals more or less 1 Canadian dollar Note: the “new” Ghana cedi or GHC is worth 10,000 ¢ = old Cedis. The revaluation happened a few years ago.

Appendices

A: Acronyms C: Costs involved with charcoal production D: Charcoal costs in Donkorkrom L: Land Lease Agreement – the FORUM example N: National Woodfuel Policy P: List of key persons contacted Q: Questionnaire for charcoal survey T: Charcoal Trucking - costs and profit calculation

AAAPPENDIXAPPENDIX A

Acronyms

APDO Afram Plains Development Organization, a local NGO with many years of experience in water and sanitation, sustainable rural development etc.

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency, an arm of the Canadian Government. CIDA does not execute projects but provides funding for “worthwhile” projects to be executed by national institutions

DA District Assembly, the administrative body at the district level, where the only politician is the District Chief Executive, all others are civil servants. This is the third administrative layer in Ghana below the National Government and the Regional Administration (which oversees the Districts)

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency

FC Forestry Commission, falls under the Ministry of Lands, Mining and Forestry. The FC has field offices throughout the country, headed by a District Forest Officer, who normally is a university graduate

FORUM Forest Protection and Resource Use Management Project. A German Government funded project executed by GTZ and the FC and MOFA. It lasted 15 years – from 1993 to 2008, with headquarters in HO, Volta Region

GEF Global Environment Fund of the United Nations Development Programme

MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture. It is represented in every District and headed by the District Director of MOFA with a full staff including extension agents

RC Ricerca e Cooperazione (=Research and technical Cooperation), an Italian NGO with many years of activities in Ghana

RMSC Resource Management Support Centre. The research arm of the Forestry Commission, located in Kumasi APPENDIX D

Charcoal prices – Donkorkrom – Aug-09

Note: in Donkorkrom only mini-bags are sold (fertilizer bags are used) 1 bag = 4 GHC, incl a 50 p profit The bushprice varies from 3.00 to 3.50 GHC Acc to James’ enquiries the prices are higher in the rainy season

Person # Cost of bag Sale price Profit 1 3.50 5.00 1.50 2 3.50 5.00 1.50 3 3.50 5.00 1.50 4 3.00 4.00 1.00 5 3.50 4.50 1.00 6 3.50 5.50 2.00 7 3.50 4.00 0.50

Note: persons 3 and 6 have permanent charcoal producers who supply them at a low price. Without a permanent producer the price tends to vary. During the dry season prices are lower than indicated above. The reason is that during the rainy season trucks cannot transit over the muddy roads, therefore agricultural tractors have to be hired, which causes the price increase. Person 7: This particular woman sells 30 – 40 bags every market day. She normally sells full bags for 4.00 GHC, making a 50 p profit /bag. If she retails in smaller quantities, a bag will yield 5.60 GHC, thus a 1.60 GHC profit/bag

APPENDIX L Land Lease Agreement Copied from the FORUM – experience Woodlots for fuelwood production

1.PARTIES 1.1 Landowner(s) ...... 1.2 Tree planting group/individual (called “tenant” in what follows) ...... 1.3 Forest Services Division Forest Services Division, Eastern Region, acting per its Regional Manager, represented by the District Manager of the ...... Forest District

2. LAND The land is situated in the Kwahu North District of the Eastern Region of the Republic of Ghana and bounded as follows: ...... Covering an area of ...... ha/acres according to the measurement by FSD

3. USER CLAUSE The above mentioned land is to be used exclusively for tree planting on the technical advice of the personnel from FSD However, the tenant reserves the right to inter-pant various species of food crops alongside the tree planting for a period of years mentioned below It is agreed that the following species shall be planted: Species of trees: ...... Food crops: ...... Number of years for food crops: ...... After those years only tree species will be permitted on the land

4. CONDITIONS AND TERMS OF LEASE (1)The landowner(s) hereby agree(s) to release the above-mentioned land for the tree planting activity for a term of ..... years, renewable for further periods of .... years if and when necessary. The term of lease shall correlate with the life span of the tree species agreed upon. Negotiations for renewal shall be between the Landowner(s) and Tenant(s) or their representative(s) or successor(s).

5. BENFITS TO PARTIES When the trees mature and are ready to be harvested, the farm shall be divided into ...... equal parts with ...... part(s) going to the Landowner(s) and ...... part(s) going to the Tenant. The same benefit sharing ratio shall apply in case of coppicing of the trees. In case the food crops mature and are ready to be harvested the below mentioned regulation shall be valid: Landowner(s): ...... Tenant: ......

6. COMMENCEMENT This agreement shall commence on ......

7. LANDOWNER’S RESPONSIBILITY 7.1. Landowner(s) to ensure that the Tenant has quiet enjoyment of the above mentioned and agreed upon terms. 7.2 The Landowner(s) ensure(s) that neither he/they nor his successor(s) will sell or otherwise alienate the land during the term of this lease. 7.3 Landowner(s) to be responsible for all actions relating to the title and ownership of the land that shall arise in the future in respect to the Tenant lease of the land. 7.4 Landowner(s) to be responsible for payment of taxes and bills in respect to his/their share of any revenues derived from tree planting. 7.5. In case of death of the landowner the below mentioned next of kin will be his successor concerning this agreement. Above terms accepted:

...... Signature of Landlord Signature of Tenant

...... Signature of next of kin

8. TENANT’S RESPONSIBILITY 8.1 The Tenant shall be responsible for all stages of tree planting and maintenance on said land until the trees mature for harvesting. 8.2 The Tenant shall not assign, sublet or part with the rights of possession under this agreement to other persons without the prior written consent of the Landowner. 8.3 The Tenant has to permit the Landowner, his representatives or his agents to enter the land prior to reasonable notice during daytime to inspect the land and its use as and when necessary. 8.4 The Tenant has to inform the Landowner prior to the time of any harvesting. 8.5. The Tenant ensures that the land is solely used for the agreed purpose as stated above. 8.6 The Tenant has to inform the Landowner as early as possible in case of any problem concerning the purpose of the lease of the land. 8.7 The Tenant allows FSD personnel at all times to enter the land, give technical advice as and when necessary. 8.8 The Tenant is responsible for the payment of taxes and bills in respect to his share of revenues derived from tree planting. 8.9 The Tenant has to undertake all necessary step to protect the trees from wildfire. 8.10 In case of death of the Tenant the below mentioned next of kin will be his successor concerning this agreement

The above mentioned terms are accepted:

...... Signature of Landlord Signature of Tenant

Signature of next of kin

9. RESPONSIBILITY OF FOREST SERVICES DIVISION 9.1 The personnel of the Forest Services Division have to determine the size of land and give written information about that size to the Landowner and the Tenant. The written advice shall include the most suitable tree species and the recommended life span to harvesting time. 9.2 After a period of two years after planting of the trees the personnel of the Forest Services Division have to monitor the growth performance of the trees and give a report to the Landowner as well as to the Tenant stating progress and, if possible, reasons 9.3 The personnel of the Forest Services Division shall visit the land frequently and shall give any advice to the Tenant to ensure that tree growth is acceptable. 9.4 The personnel of the Forest Services Division shall inform the Landowner and the Tenant in case of any problem occurring concerning the purpose of the lease. 9.5 The Forest Services Division shall not receive any professional fees for the services rendered to the Tenant.

Above mentioned clauses accepted

...... Signature of Forest Services District Manager

10. TRADITIONAL / CUSTOMARY RITES

The following traditional rites have to be followed according to the local customs: ......

11. PERPETUITY CLAUSE In this agreement, unless otherwise stated, any reference to the parties shall include a reference to their heirs, personal representatives, successors and assigns where the context admits or requires so.

12. TERMINATION CLAUSE 12.1 This Lease Agreement may not be terminated by either party before the expiration of the term hereby assured, in this particular case before the year: ...... 12.2 However, any breach of parts of this agreement by any party shall require a written notice by the party not in default to the party in breach and if within 6 months of this notice the breach is not stopped, the party in breach will be deemed to have been in wilful default. The party not in default has then to undertake the necessary steps to have its right addressed. 12.3 In case the Tenant wishes to abandon the tree planting he shall be at liberty to do so by informing the Landowner and the Forest Services division about his intention and in such a case shall not derive any benefits from the land due to the other parties. In case of non-willful default on the side of the tenant, the dispute shall be referred to the arbitration board. 12.4 All disputes to this agreement shall be referred to a board of arbitration to be established under this agreement for resolution in the first instance before reference is made to the law courts. 12.5 The composition of the arbitration board shall be as follows: each party shall nominate one representative. The District assembly in the particular area where the land is situated shall nominate two persons one of whom shall preside as chairman of the panel. 12.6 The decision of the panel is to be final is accepted by all parties to the dispute.

13. ADDITIONAL CONDITIONS OF LEASE

......

Signature of landowners, with date

After the foregoing has been read over and interpreted to them into the Landowner’s own language by: ...... of ...... When they seemed to perfectly understand the provisions thereof and purports thereat before causing their signature resp. right hand thumbprint to be hereunto affixed in the presence of two witnesses

...... Witness 1 Witness 2

SIGNAUTRE OF TENANT: ...... Name, date and signature After the foregoing had been read over and interpreted to them into the Tenant’ own language by ...... of ......

When they seemed to perfectly understand the provisions thereof and purports thereat before causing their signature resp. right hand thumbprint to be hereunto affixed in the presence of two witnesses

...... Witness 1 Witness 2

SIGNATURE OF FOREST SERVICES DIVISION’S REPRESENTATIVE

Forestry District Manager: ...... Name, date and signature

...... Witness 1 Witness 2

APPENDIX P

List of key persons contacted

Dr. Eben Ben HaganHagan,,,, Director CSIR-IIR, mob: 024-3606104, [email protected], independently did some work on charcoal prod’n incl comparing various kilns.

George Ortsin now with UNDP Small Loans - GEF, mob: 020-816 4683, 024 2977980, on 2nd Link Ringway Estates, [email protected] worked with Food Security Project in Northern Regions (CIDA funded)

Energy Commission - Ministry of Energy - Frema House, Spintex Road , Eric Ofori-Nyarko, ex Chief Program Officer – Renewables mob: 024-2224525 , 020-8112703, office: 813756/7/9 direct line: 813758, [email protected] now: Chief, Environmental Impact Assessment

Wisdom AhiatakuAhiataku----TogoboTogoboTogoboTogobo, Ministry of Energy: Renewable Energy Expert, mob: 020-813 9326, Rm 108 on second floor; [email protected], [email protected]

Lawrence AkpAkpalualualualu, GIS and Remote Sensing, RMSC, Kumasi, mob: 027-7724068 [email protected]

Paul NkansahNkansah, Ghana Customs: Deputy Commissioner, Research and Monitoring, mob: 020-8110579

Charcoal QCharcoal QuestionnaireQuestionnaire ––– July 2009 Ricerca e Cooperazione, an Italian NGO, and APDO Their 333-3---yyyyearear Project to FightFightFight “““Desertification“DesertificationDesertification”””” caused by Deforestation in the Afram Plains Interviewer: Please make sure the person to be interviewed feels at ease before you explain the purpose of this survey: “RC-APDO want to find out about your background and about charcoal in the Afram Plains in order to help local people Also explain the words “desertification” and “deforestation” in simple terms →You may explain the question to the person to be interviewed, but you are NOT supposed to suggest answers Record the answers as Yes or No, or by circling the appropriate word. If a question does not apply write N/A If the answer is: I do not know, please record that. We do NOT want blanks If an answer does not make sense to you, please ask for clarification. Example: “20 years from now people will die”.

Date: ...... / Name of village: ……………………………./Market day(s) ……………………../ Taboo day…………….. Name and phone number of interviewer ......

If the person has lived here less than 10 years, you thank the person and find somebody who has been here longer than that

1. PersonalPersonalPersonal and other background information Name of person interviewed: ...... Age: ...... / Male …/ Female ……/ Your main occupation: Farming,/Charcoal/Trading/Government job/ Other, specify:……………………………. Where were you born? Town and Region …………………………………….…/What language do you speak at home?...... Where do you live permanently now?...... / How many years have you lived in this village?...... / How many children do you have? ...... / Can you read and write? Yes……/ No……… In case you are married, what is the occupation of your spouse: ……………………………. …… What was your major fuel for cooking at home 10-15 years ago? …………… / What is it now? …………………/ In case of firewood: is it still easy to find enough firewood these days? Yes…./ No…/ Why not? …………………………………………………………. How much money do you spend on cooking fuel per month (firewood, charcoal, gas, kerosene, electricity)?...... GHC In the last few years has charcoal production around this village increased … …/or decreased …….? What social problems has the charcoal trade brought here, if any? …………………………………………………………….. If charcoal production continues at the same rate as now, how do you think the environment around your village will look like:

10 years from now: ………………………………………/ 20 years from now: ………………………………………

In how many years from now do you think the charcoal production at present level will collapse around here? ………… years

2. FFFarmingFarmingarmingarming ac activitiestivitiestivitiestivities::: Do you farm at all? No.…./If no →go to chapter 3/ If Yes: Do you own…./ lease…../ or sharecrop…../the land you farm on? What crops do you grow? …………………………………………………………………/ Do you intercrop? No…./ If Yes, which crops do you plant together? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. Which crops produce the most money for you? ………………………………………………………………………………………..

Which are the major problems you have with the crops you grow? ……………………………………………………………………. Are bushfires a problem on your farm(s)? No…./ Yes…./ In either case, explain:……………………………………………………… 3. NNNaturalNatural environment What are the major changes you have noticed in your natural environment in the last 10 years or more? ……………………………… What are the plants and animals you miss the most that you used to find around here? ………………………………………………….

444.4. Money: iMoney: incomeincome and expenditures: Which are your 2 major sources of income?...... / Any income from charcoal at all? …………../

If yes, how much per year from charcoal? ……GHC /This charcoal money represents what percentage of your total income? ………

What is your role in the charcoal production “chain” - outlined below? ………………………………………………………………… tree – pit – bags with charcoal – transport to village – buyers of charcoal – transport to city – sale to wholesalers – retailers

When charcoal is no longer a source of income for you in the future what alternatives do you have for income? ………………………

What about lifestock or animal rearing?...... / any other ideas for alternative income?......

Do you save any money at all from your work? No…/ Yes…./ If yes, do you use it to improve: your farm (incl. to buy inputs)……/ your living conditions...... /help your family...... /educate your children……../ give to the church……../ other:……………………….

What are the most difficult months for you? Name those when you are normally short of cash: ………………………………….

On what 5 categories does your family spend the most money on? Use 1 where the most money is spent on, 2 for the next one etc.

Household and food…./Education of children…/Health and Medicine …/Clothes…./Agricultural inputs and farm labour…/

Transportation…/ Rental fee for land…./Payment of debts …./Funerals…/Church or mosque…/Other: specify …………………..

555.5. CharcoalCharcoalCharcoal productionproduction: only for persons directly involved with charcoal production or trade. If not go to chapter 7 Are most of the charcoal producers in this village locals or people from outside? If outsiders where from?………………………. What proportion of the people in the bush are women?...... / What do they do? ………………………………………………….. Is charcoal production a good thing for this area? Yes…./ If yes, please explain ……………………………………………………. If not, what are the bad aspects about it for the locals and for the environment? …………………………………………………… Is the majority of the charcoal trucks owned by persons from the Afram Plains or from outside? (circle the appropriate words) Who makes the most money from charcoal around here? Is it the charcoal producer? The chief? The sub-chiefs? The truck owner? Who else?…………………………………………….../Do most charcoal producers work at it the whole year long? Yes…./No…./ If No, what do they do during those other months? ….. ………………………………………….

666.6... CCCostsCosts iosts involvedinvolved with producingproducingproducing charcoal charcoal: 1.Questions for the charcoal producer and/or people helping him in the bush 2

How much money do you have to pay the land owner (chief) ………………………………………………………………………… or how many sacks of charcoal you have to give him for the trees you want to cut for charcoal? ………………………………..

Give us an estimate on how many trees on average it takes to make: one large pit?...... / one small pit?...... /

How many days does it take for the wood to burn and turn into charcoal? Large pit…………….. days/ Small pit ……………. days/

How many large bags do you get from one large pit? ………………../ plus how many mini bags, if any………......

How many large bags do you get from a small pit? …..………. ../ plus how many mini bags, if any …..……………………………..

What will you do when you cannot produce charcoal anymore around here? …………………………………………………………..

Are willing to plant trees to grow wood for firewood and charcoal? No…../ Yes…../ Explain………………………………………….

2. Questions for the person buying charcoal in the bush or village for re-sale

How much do you pay for a large bag of charcoal? – bush price ...……GHC/ village price………....GHC / for a mini bag? – bush price ……… GHC/ village price ……………..GHC/

For how much do you sell a large bag:………GHC/a mini bag: ……….GHC/ Where do you sell the charcoal? ……………………

777.7. Tree planting mainly for charcoal::: please explain that we cannot make any promises right now to the person interviewed Charcoal is good business, especially if youyouyou get the money at harvesting time (let us say 2/3, depending on your land lease agreement in case you do not own the land). Would you be willing to plant trees for firewood, charcoal, shade etc. if you were given free seedlings and technical assistance? Yes:…. / No: ……/Do you have any land available for planting trees for charcoal?

No…/ Yes … /If yes, how much land ? …….acres or …… rods (whichever the person is more comfortable with)

Are you aware of the following? Only the first year or two you can grow crops between the planted trees depending on how close they are planted to each other . Growing trees for charcoal itself is like growing a crop: it requires weeding, replacing of the dead trees, pruning, protection against bushfires etc. Are you willing to do this, knowing that Cassia trees take close to 6 years to grow from seedling to a tree large enough to cut for charcoal? After that you can harvest Cassia every 4 years. Yes, I am willing to .…/ No…. /

If No, would you want to plant a few trees around your house or on your farm for shade or for timber or even fruit trees? No/ Yes…

If Yes, how many trees of what species would you want? ……………………………………………………………………………….

Why do you want that particular species? …………………………………………………………………………......

8. Questions, ssuggestionsuggestions and general comments from the person interviewed: 3

What are youyouyouryourrr major problems in general? ……………………………………………………………...…………………………….

RC is working with nurseries to produce seedlings for those who want to plant trees to be used for firewood, charcoal or timber only in a few selected villages at this particular moment. RC can also help those people who do not own land to put together a Land Lease Agreement with the land owner.

Any questions? …………………………………………………Any suggestions for RC? ………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

9. Comments and impressions by the interviewer …………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Thank youThank you François Reuter, Consultant for RC Ref: Qr-8-Charcoal July 29- 09

AAAPPENDIXAPPENDIXPPENDIXPPENDIX----TTTT Charcoal TruckTruckTruckingTruckinginging ––– Profit Calculation Based on info supplied by KIA truckKIA truck owner in Tease – Aug 5-09 François Reuter - RC This truck owner gets charcoal from women who buy it in the bush where the going price is about 2 GHC/mini bag and 3 GHC/maxi bag. Those are prices for the rainy season. In the dry season (October-April) the prices are lower. The women buying charcoal in the bush can be local or from Accra. The price the truck owner charges the charcoal owners (in this case the women mentioned above) for conveying the bags from the Afram Plains to Accra is 2 GHC per mini bag and 3 GHC for a large bag. The truck normally takes a load of large bags. A KIA truck can hold:

• 260-280 mini bags, let’s use 270, which represent 270 x 2.00 = 540.00GHC • 170 – 180 large bags, let’s use an average of 175: 175 x 3.00 = 525.00 GHC Let us use the latter figure as the income for a calculation of “profit” Note: this truck owner does not want to overload his truck. Some KIA trucks carry up to 300 mini-bags. Number of return trips from Tease to Accra 2/week during the rainy season (May to Oct) = 8 trips/month 3/week during the dry season (November-April) = 12 trips/month The rainy season is tougher on the truck than the dry season. Therefore the profit margin for the truck owner is lower during the rainy season. Cost of driver and his two mates:

• Loading and off-loading fee is 0.20 GHC/bag. Assuming a load of 175 bags this represents: 2 x 175 x 0.20 = 70 • “truck money”: allowance for food 3 GHC for each of the 2 mates in the bush = 6 5 GHC for each of the 2 mates for Accra = 10 • Truck money for driver 5 GHC for the bush + 20 for Accra = 25 ----- Total: 111

Expenditures for a trip to Accra

• Fuel: in and out: 200 • Counsel fee ( DA tax) at pontoon: 20 • Pontoon: loaded 13, empty 9GHC 22 • Police barriers, average* 13 ----- Total: 253GHC *police barriers: many more at night (8 of them from Suhum to Accra) than during day. Sometimes there are 2 – 4 barriers during the day, sometimes more, sometimes none. The above costs are all paid by the truck owner, not by the owner of the charcoal load. Annual costs for tyres and spare parts:

• Driving gear: one lasts only 4 months Cost of one: 500 A complete back axle costs 900 GHC Assumption: 3 driving gears/year 1,500 and one back axle/year 900

• Tyres: 6 tyres on KIA truck cost 250 GHC each Need to replaced 2x/year, i.e. 12 x 250 3,000 ------All the above, in an average year cost: 5,400

Truck costs prorated on a monthly basis: 5,400 : 12 = 450 GHC

*This is an average scenario. In a “good year” the complete back axle might not have to be replaced twice. In other words, the profit calculations below are conservative. On the other hand, “if the truck spoils the profit is gone” in the words of the owner. A. Monthly profit calculation during the rainy season IncomeIncomeIncome: Income For conveyance of 8 truck loads of large bags to Accra: 8 x 525 = 444, 4,,,202020200000 GHCGHCGHC ExpendituresExpenditures:

Driver and his 2 mates: 8 x 111 = 888 Fuel, counsel fee, pontoon and police barriers 8 x 253 = 2,024 Prorated truck costs (driving gear, tyres) 450 Oil change: 1 @ 45.00 GHC every 2 trips: 4 @ 45.00 180 ------Total expenditures: 3,5423,5423,542

Monthly profit in rainy seasonseason: 4,200 – 3,542 = 658658658 GHCGHCGHC B. During the dry season, with 12 return trips to Accra, the profit picture looks like this: IncomeIncomeIncome:Income 121212 x 525 = 6,300GHC6,300GHC6,300GHC ExpendituresExpenditures: Driver and his 2 mates: 12 x 111 = 1,332 Fuel, counsel fee, pontoon and police barriers 12 x 253 = 3,036 Prorated truck costs (driving gear, tyres) 450 Oil change: 1 @ 45.00 GHC every 2 trips: 6 x 45 = 270 ------Total expenditures: 555,5,,,088088088088 Monthly ppprofitprofitrofitrofit during dry seseasonasonasonason: 6,300 – 5,088 = 1,1,1,212 1,212212212 GHCGHCGHC Annual profitprofit: For the 6 months of dry season: 6 x 1,212 = 7,272 And 6 months of rainy season: 6 x 658 = 3,948 Note: the truck operates year round! ------Yearly gross profit: 111111,11,,,2222220000 GHC To be deducted from the above:

• Depreciation* 800 • Road worthiness every 6 months 15 GHC x 2 = 30 • Insurance fee once/year: 75 ----- Total per year = 905 GHC Yearly net profit: 11,220 ––– 905 = 10,315 *Depreciation: This KIA truck was bought second hand in Oct 2007 for 7,100 GHC. The owner wants to sell it when after using it for about 3 years, hoping to get about 5,700GHC for it. Before selling it he will have major maintenance done for approximately 1,000 GHC. Total expenditures: purchase minus sales price: 7,100 – 5,700 = 1,400 GHC Plus final maintenance: 1,400 + 1,000 = 2,400GHC. On a yearly basis this amounts to: 2,400 : 3 = 800 GHC Note: his first truck had an accident and was totally destroyed: A risk of being in this particular business.

When asked: in how many years do you think the charcoal business will collapse if it continues at present levels, the truck owner said: in 5 years’ time. In his opinion the people – apart from the landowners - who make money in the charcoal trade are the retailers in the urban centres, NOT the truck owners. Not quite so, as shown by the above figures: the profits might not be very high, but they are OK. Conversion rates at this moment (August 2009)

• 1USD=1.45 GHC • 1Euro=2.05 GHC APPENDIX WWW

National Wood Policy – Draft

Government of Ghana Ministry of Energy

Draft NATIONAL WOODFUEL POLICY

December 11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. PREA1. PREAMBLEPREAMBLEMBLEMBLE...... 222 1.1 BACKGROUND...... 2 1.1.1 Structure of the Woodfuel Sub-sector ...... 2 1.1.2 Importance of the Woodfuel sub-sector...... 2 1.2 NEED FOR NATIONAL WOODFUEL POLICY...... 4 2.2.2. THE POLICY FRAMEWORKFRAMEWORK...... 666 2.1 GUIDING PRINCIPLES ...... 6 2.2 POLICY GOAL ...... 8 2.3 POLICY OBJECTIVES:...... 8 3.3.3. POLICY GUIDELINES ...... 999 3.1 SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION OF WOODFUELS...... 9 3.2 IMPROVING THE WOODFUEL MARKETING SYSTEM ...... 9 3.2.2 Rural Woodfuel Markets Development...... 10 3.3 EFFICIENT PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION OF WOODFUELS ...... 10 3.4 INSTITUTIONAL AND FINANCIAL FRAMEWORK ...... 10 4.4.4. POLICY ACTIONS ...... 101010 4.1 SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION OF WOODFUELS...... 10 4.2 IMPROVING THE WOODFUEL MARKETING SYSTEM ...... 11 4.2.1 Rural Woodfuel Markets Development...... 12 4.3. EFFICIENT PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF WOODFUELS...... 12 4.4 INSTITUTIONAL AND FINANCIAL FRAMEWORK...... 13

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc I NATIONANATIONANATIONALNATIONAL WOODFUEL POLICY

1. PREAMBLE There are several million people in Ghana that do not have access to modern form of energy such as electricity, gas, solar photovoltaic, and oil to cook their food, light and heat their homes. These people derives energy traditional sources including burning of wood, crop residues, and animal dung. It has been estimated that 95% of energy consumed annually is derived from woodfuels and the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS4) estimated that about 84% of rural households and 25% of urban households depend on woodfuels for cooking and heating.

Ironically, policies on energy and the environment are overwhelmingly dominated by the production and use of modern energy forms to the neglect of woodfuel. Recent Government policy statement seeks to reverse this trend and promote the woodfuel business as a sustainable enterprise to address poverty and redistribute wealth in the rural areas. .

1.11.11.1 Background

The total indigenous primary energy produced in Ghana in 2003 was 6.6 million tones of oil equivalent (about 12 times the yearly average energy generated at Akosombo and Kpong hydroelectric plants). The primary indigenous energy comprised of 94.5% woodfuels, 5.3% hydro energy and

0.2% solar (mostly sun-drying of crops).

Biomass in the form of firewood and charcoal dominates the final energy consumed in the country (averaging 63%) in 2003. Petroleum products and electricity consumption was 27% and 9 % respectively. The Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS4) estimated that about 84% of rural households and 25% of urban households depend on woodfuels for cooking and heating.

1.1.1 Structure of the Woodfuel Sub-Sub-sector--sectorsectorsector

The woodfuel business comprises of woodfuel producers (woodcutters and charcoal producers); woodfuel transporters - (own transporters - donkey cuts, pushing trucks, bicycles, head loads; hired transporters; etc), woodfuel traders – (wholesalers, retailers, roadside sellers, mobile sellers, homestead sellers) and commercial and household end users –(Households – urban and rural, brewers, bakers, chopbars institutions etc). The sub-sector therefore falls under the domain of forestry and energy sectors of the national economy.

1.1.21.1.21.1.2 Importance of the Woodfuel sub-sub-sector--sectorsectorsector

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 2 The woodfuel business is a major source of employment for most rural and the urban poor people. It has been estimated that about 0.45 million people are directly involved in both in the production, transportation and marketing of fuels in the country as a primary occupation, whiles over 2 million people engage in the trade as secondary occupation. During the dry seasons, however, more rural farmers especially in the savannah and the transitional regions (mostly women) engage in woodfuel production and trading as the primary occupation.

Woodfuels are source of cash income for rural and urban population (off-season and/or permanent). It is a supplementary income for typical farmers and a main one for some rural groups and urban traders. Except in few places, woodfuel production is predominantly income- generating activity for women. It has been estimated that more 84 per cent of all people engaged in the woodfuel business are women. The men usually derive their income almost exclusively from farming activities i.e. the selling of (cash) crops and/or where possible as seasonal migrant labourers on other farms. Charcoal and firewood production are considered a drudgery that does not give a high enough return on their labour.

Based on the value of the annual wood harvested for fuel, it could be estimated the traditional energy sub-sector contributes to about 1.81%1.81%1.81% of the Gross Domestic Product, and indirectly supports the livelihood of over three million Ghanaians, mostly small-scale commercial and household enterprises. Production of woodfuel constitutes one important source of seasonal off- farm income for many rural communities in the three northern regions and transitional zones of the Brong Ahafo, Ashanti including the Afram Plains. .

The annual per capita consumption of woodfuels is estimated around 1,080 kg and about 14 million m3 of wood are consumed annually for energy production. Available data has indicated that people do not easily substitute fuel and therefore the volume of woodfuel consumption in Ghana could rise to 20 million m3 by the year 2010 with an annual growth rate of 4.0%.

Woodfuels are also a source of fiscal revenue for the Forest Services Division, Traditional Authorities and some District Assemblies. On the average some District Assemblies collect ¢85 million as monthly levies from woodfuels although more than 70% of the potential revenue are not collected.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 3

The contribution of woodfuels in the national primary energy consumption is shown in table 1.

Table 1 Contribution of Woodfuel in National Primary Energy Consumption

Primary Energy TOE % Electricity 674,100 8.04 Oil & Derivatives 1,095,000 13.06 Contribution of woodfuel in national Charcoal 3,745,000 44.67 primary energy consumption Fuelwood 2,870,000 34.23 Electricity TOTAL 8,384,100 100.00 Oil & Derivatives Charcoal

Fuelwood

Source:

The bulk of woodfuels (92%) are directly obtained from the forest and savannah woodlands whiles the rest are sawmill waste. The transitional and savannah regions of Ghana are the major sources of good quality woodfuels for both urban and rural communities and the export market.

1.21.21.2 Need for National Woodfuel Policy

a. In spite of the relative importance of the traditional energy, it is one of the most neglected and unregulatedunregulated sub-subed sub-sectors--sectors of the national economy. The woodfuel sub-sector has not witnessed any significant direct public sector investment since the last two decades and there are no direct policies targeted at its growth and development. This has led to multiple taxation, levies and regulations on the woodfuel production, transportation and marketing. Unfortunately, none of these serve any regulatory purpose and do not promote growth and development.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 4 b. The woodfuel resource base is being depleted at rather an alarmingalarming rate due to virtually unplanned, uncontrolled and unregulated production and marketing.marketing.marketing. Except in few ecological areas, the wood energy demand and supply balance is negative indicating that the levels of woodfuel harvesting exceed the supply. c. There areararare poor institutional linkages among the various agencies involved in the traditional energy sub-sector. This coupled with poor technological development, and lack of research has contributed significantly to stunted growth and development in the traditional energy sector. Woodfuel production technologies are still rudimentary but the trade is regulated by the market forces with a high environmental risk. d. The financial value of the tree resource in commercial woodfuel production is almost zero and the price of woodfuels only reflects the labour, transport, tax cost and a modest profit margin of the trade. There is no incentive for investment in woodfuel plantations and sustainable management of the natural forest. e. Harvesting of the trees for woodfuels is done savagely, without any regards to stocks, species depletion or environmentally sensitive areas. As a result the current production and marketing of woodfuels are the biggest cause of the qualitative and quantitative depletion of the forest resource after clearing forests for agricultural purposes and bushfires. f. There are no accurate and consistent data on woodfuels to guide policy and planning for sustainable production, marketing and consumption of woodfuels.woodfuels.woodfuels. There are no comprehensive and consistent data on the stocks of woodfuels available in the country by each ecological zone, neither are there any data on the woodfuel consumption by the various sectors of the national economy. At the macro level, aggregate data are inferred from very weak database, which does not provide any meaningful basis for planning. g. There are no attempts to optimise woodfuel production potential of the woodland resource on a sustainable basis. No attention whatsoever has been given to the overall effect of wood harvesting on the remaining tree stand, mortality and recovery in relation to harvesting damage. There are no direct management controls over the exploitation of woodfuels in the country. The system of harvesting and producing woodfuels remove any incentive for rural people to manage their local woodlands sustainably because there are no mechanisms to plough back revenues from woodfuels to the local resource owners. h. The traditional energy sub-sector lacks a strong human resource capacity at all levels of governance to formulate, implement and monitor policies on woodfuels... i. CharcoalChChCharcoal production lacks the relevant technology and production skills. No formal training in charcoal production technologies has been obtained leading to

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 5 increased waste. People enter into the business to survive and profit making is not the main motivation. The yields in charcoal production are therefore very low.

This is not to say that the overall charcoal and fuelwood production in country is beyond sustainable levels. Figures suggest that current production levels can be sustained and even improved if and when production is regulated. But as long as production is only guided by the market forces of supply and demand an imbalance of over supply, i.e. unsustainable production, from certain areas and under supply from other areas will continue to exist.

This development is having adverse environmental impacts and costs that are likely to jeopardise the future growth and development of the country in the medium to long term. It is important therefore to ensure a more vibrant traditional energy sub-sector that will be able to respond adequately to the future demands of the country without completely depleting the existing indigenous woodland base. This implies that a fundamentally new approach to woodfuel production, marketing and use need to be initiated in the country, not only to balance production with the environment but also to promote development within the traditional energy sub-sector itself.

2.2.2. THE POLICY FRAMEWORK

The policy proposed provides a framework for addressing the problems and issues in the traditional energy sub-sector of the country and seeks to ensure sustainable production, marketing and utilization of woodfuels at cost effective prices and equitable sharing of revenues accruing from the woodfuel business.

The policy also seeks to establish the rural resource owning communities as primary clients of resource management with an inalienable right to real monetary gains from the woodland resource management. It is to encourage local community initiatives, enhance land, and tree tenure rights of farmers thereby creating woodfuel resource-based rural economies.

The policy targets the traditional energy sub-sector as one of the sectors to be developed to address endemic poverty in the rural areas of the economy. It is to ensure a gradual shift from the current unregulated extraction or mining of woodfuels to a more sustainable utilisation of existing tree resources in an environmentally benign, affordable and workable manner.

2.12.12.1 GUIDING PRINCIPLES

The principles guiding this policy reflects on the main issues and constraints confronting the traditional energy sub-sector, the convictions of the major woodfuel stakeholders nationwide, experiences from the neighbouring sahelian countries on the development of the traditional energy sub-sector, and international guidelines on sustainable management

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 6 of natural resources. The principles are also embodied in the National Energy Policy of 2004, Forest and Wildlife Policy of 1994, the 1999 National Land Policy, the National Renewable Energy Policy and the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy.

The principles that guide the national woodfuel policy are:

1. Commercial production of woodfuel should comply with effective felling controls ananandand standards on both reserved and off-reserve areas to ensure that harvesting of trees for commercial woodfuels are within sustainable annual allowable cut.

2. Market led pricing of woodfuels should reflect the economic value of the resource, to ensure efficient resource utilization, adequate funds for resource management and an equitable share of revenue to the resource owners.

3. Improvement of accounting and timely collection of woodfuel revenues in order to augment the finances of landowners, local produceproducersrs and local level institutions.

4. Encouraging private sector investment in commercial plantation development for sustainable supply of woodfuels to meet domestic demands and the export market.

5. The indigenous forest fringfringeeee communities must have the right of access to the forest reserves for maintaining a basic standard of living and must have the opportunities and responsibilities to manage the resources sustainably for commercial woodfuel production.

6. The woodfuel sector must be based on improved technology and standards with a comprehensive upupup- up---totototo----datedate database and information linkages to facilitate decision making, policy planning and monitoring of commercial woodfuels;

7. Reviewing legislative instruments and administrative arrange-ments to ensure effective resource management for the supply of woodfuels.

8. The commercial production and marketing of woodfuels must be transformed from a traditional low value business to a high value trade based on the principles of sustainable woodland management.

9. Developments in the woodfuel business require genuine negotiations and discussions among producers, traders; policy makers, resource owners; and consumers. The discussions and negotiations have to centre on the production levels, financial costs and benefits, tax levels, collection procedures, risks and uncertainties in the business.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 7 10. Taxation system should be introduced to favour woodfuel production from sustainably managed areas.

11. Land-owning communities with abundant uncultivated woodlands must be encouraged to constitute permanent community forest reserves for sustainable production of woodfuels and effective control of woodfuel resource base.

12. The management of the off-reserve defined areas should be based on the principle of compensatory planting, enhanceenhancedd natural regeneration, protection of fragile ecosystem and management of rare and endangered plants.plants

13.13.13. Improved technologies must be applied at all levels in the production, distribution and use of woodfuels for efficient economic and sustainable use.

14. EfEfEfficientEfficient endficient end-end---useuse devices must be introduced to reduce per capita consumption of woodfuels in the household, industrial commercial sectors of the national economy.

15. Activities to ensure sustainable production, marketing and use of woodfuels should be cost efcost effective,effective, efficient and demand driven.

16. Public education on the energy efficiency and conservation, economic and strategic importance of woodfuels should be intensified at all levels of governance.

2.22.22.2 Policy GoalGoalPolicy The national woodfuel policy aims at integrated management of the country’s forest resources for sustainable supply of woodfuel to support efficient marketing of woodfuels at fair prices, equitable distribution of woodfuel revenues and efficient utilization of the woodfuel to enhance the socio-economic well being of the people who own and use these resources and the maintenance of ecological quality.

2.3 Policy Objectives:

The specific objectives of this policy are to:

a. Promote sound management of the country’s natural woodlands for sustainable supply of woodfuel and maintenance of environmental quality.

b. Improve the woodfuel marketing system to encourage producers and consumers to adopt more sustainable production practices and ensure equitable distribution of revenues accruing from woodfuel to all stakeholders.

c. Introduce improved technologies and higher levels of efficiency in the production and consumption of woodfuels

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 8

d. Establish a comprehensive institutional framework to enhance and co-ordinate woodfuel related activities as an integral part of natural resource management plans

3.3.3. POLICY GUIDELINES

The objectives and guiding principles have to be translated into policy statements to guide the policy actions and strategies:

3.13.13.1 SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION OF WOODFUELS

Commercial production of woodfuel should be allowed only from sustainably managed forest areas covered by resource management plans, which specifies the compartments, harvesting schedules, harvesting quotas and yield controls including monitoring and evaluation systems.

3.23.23.2 IMPROVING THE WOODFUEL MARKETING SYSTEM

1. The woodfuel trade must be reorganised through a new control system and regulations and an effective taxation system to control the entry of woodfuel into the urban woodfuel markets. The taxation system should be used to discourage Dealers from obtaining their supplies from more heavily degraded woodlands and promote the acquisition from remote and better-endowed woodland areas by differentiating tax levels.

2. A district based Permit system should be introduced for woodfuel wholesalers. The permit should authorise the registered wholesaler to purchase a specified quantity of pre-paid woodfuel from a specified location.

3. The tax revenue accruing from woodfuels should be redistributed to the producers, landowning traditional authorities. The accrued revenue should be shared based on the national constitution as follows: 50% to rural producer(s) 20% to Skins/landowning traditional authorities 15% to silvicultural and reforestation funds managed at the resource base 10% to District Assembly 5% revenue collection and administration (Traditional Energy fund)

4. Any trade in charcoal should be done in the official sealed bagsbags.

5. Commercial transactions in woodfuel should be covered with contract agreements renewed yearly. The Contract Agreement should allow traders to buy special branded bags (changed monthly) to convey the agreed quantities to designated markets.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 9 6. A cost efficient and effective transport control system should be put in place covering the woodfuel production routes and main routes to the urban markets. All commercial vehicles carrying woodfuels within an area should register with the District Assemblies and issued with licenses.

3.2.23.2.23.2.2 Rural Woodfuel Markets Development

1. The establishment of woodfuel markets should be controlled by the District Assemblies. All commercial sale of woodfuel in designated markets, along the highways, in settlements and along production routes must be registered and accredited. Sale of woodfuels from non-accredited markets should be made to pay taxes up 100% of the unit cost of the commodity.

2. The rural woodfuel markets are expected to draw their wood from an area of natural woodland formally delimited or planted area and accepted by the market entity and the District Assembly.

3.33.33.3 EFFICIENT PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION OF WOODFUELS

1. Improved technologies and higher levels of efficiency must be introduced at levels in the production, distribution and use of woodfuels.

3.43.43.4 INSTITUTIONAL AND FINANCIAL FRAMEWORK

1. All institutional agencies associated with the traditional energy should be involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of activities in the sub-sector. However, for effective and rapid development of the traditional energy sub-sector, a National Woodfuel Authority should be set up to manage the traditional energy sub-sector of the national economy and ensure sustainable production, marketing and utilization of woodfuels in the count.

2. The Authority should be semi-autonomous operating under the management supervision of the Forestry and Energy Ministries. The Authority should be resourced to work through the District Assemblies to implement the National Woodfuel Policy.

4.4.4. POLICY ACTIONS

The enunciation of the national woodfuel policy is to safeguard the country’s natural resources from excessive exploitation. In implementing the policy therefore the following actions will be pursued:

4.14.14.1 SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION OF WOODFUELS

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 10 1. All sustainably woodfuel managed areas outside the forest reserves should be surveyed, mapped, registered and gazetted by the District Assemblies with the endorsement of the Forest Services Division and traditional authorities.

2. Assist local communities to establish community woodland reserves for purposes of producing woodfuels. These woodlands should be supported with simple management plans to guide production.

3. Introduce woodfuel utilization contracts, which allow the utilization of timber off- cuts from the forest reserves for the production woodfuels.

4. Form and train woodfuel producers groups and provide them with simple silvicultural training in woodfuel harvesting, woodland management and improved woodfuel production technologies.

5. Define rights and responsibilities of fringing landowning communities in forest reserve management and in the harvesting and sale of the woodfuels.

6. Encourage and assist local community groups or individual entrepreneurs to establish woodlots or plantations to ensure sustainable supply of wood.

7. Pursue enactment of legislations to register all commercial woodfuel producers by the District Assemblies through the Forest Services Division to be given exclusive trading rights.

8. Establish standards and registration requirements for woodfuel producers.

9. Create and develop a data bank and resource documentation centre for woodfuels.

4.24.24.2 IMPROVING THE WOODFUEL MARKETING SYSTEM

1. Pursue enactment of legislation to amalgamate all taxes and levies on woodfuels into one common tax to be administered by institution. The legislation should: introduce differentiating tax and levies levels and appropriate penalties on woodfuels to discourage Dealers from obtaining their supplies from heavily degraded woodlands but rather acquire them from better-endowed areas by. favour ‘sustainable production’. Woodfuels produced ‘sustainably managed areas should be exempted from tax or at least enjoy a tax rebate. introduce paid bag system for the sale of charcoal. Ensure that trade in charcoal are transacted in the official sealed bagsbags. Heavy penalties for non-compliance such as confiscation of load, vehicles and revoking the traders’ license should be introduced.

2. Conduct the feasibility of authorising the District Assemblies, the Forest Services Division or establishing a Private Public Partnership company to collect and redistribute the amalgamated woodfuel taxes and levies.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 11

3. Enact legislation to introduce Permit system for woodfuel wholesalers. The permit should authorise the wholesaler to purchase a specified quantity of pre-paid woodfuel from a specified location. Permits can only be bought by registered woodfuel business associations and not individual unregistered buyers. Only those woodfuel wholesalers who are members of a registered association and recognised by the District Assembly should be allowed to trade. The number of permits issued to a District should reflect the ‘sustainable production’ levels in that District.

4. In collaboration with all relevant stakeholders establish guidelines for the redistribution of revenues accruing from woodfuels.

5. Establish standards for the marketing of woodfuels in steres at the resource base markets.

6. Introduce incentive systems to ensure that commercial transactions in woodfuel are covered with contract agreements renewed yearly.

7. Review and enact legislation to ensure cost efficient and effective woodfuel transport control system. Put in place the necessary mechanisms to ensure that all commercial woodfuel transporters carry at any time, a document specifying the origin of the load with due signature of the landowners/producers and the destination of the load.

4.2.14.2.14.2.1 Rural Woodfuel Markets Development

1. Encourage the District Assemblies to enact the necessary byelaws to register and regulate rural woodfuel markets (i.e. roadside markets). The law should empower the District Assemblies to register and accredit commercial sale of woodfuel along the highways, in settlements and along the production routes.

4.3.4.3.4.3. Efficient Production And Utilization Of Woodfuels

1. In collaboration with the Renewable Energy Unit of the Ministry of Energy, and the necessary research institutions introduce improved technologies and higher levels of efficiency in the production, distribution and use of woodfuels.

2. Collaborate with National Board for Small Scale Industries to train artisans in the manufacture of improved stoves.

3. Liaise with the University of Science and Technology (mechanical Department) to research into improved end-use devices for woodfuels

4. Collaborate with Road and Building Research Institute to train registered commercial charcoal producers in improved carbonisation process.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 12 5. Educate the general public on systematic and continuous basis energy efficiency and conservation practices.

6. Monitor the health impact of woodfuel production and use especially on women and feed information to end-use device designs and policy formulation.

4.44.44.4 Institutional And Financial Framework

1. Set-up and make functional a National Woodfuel Development Authority to oversee planning, implementation and monitoring of traditional energy policies.

2. Enact legislation to allow the National Woodfuel Authority to be semi-autonomous operating under the management supervision of the Forestry and Energy Commissions.

Appendix W- National Woodfuel Policy.doc 13