ESTUDOS GERMÂNICOS

N» 1 — LITERATURA E LÍNGUA

1. Organização Professores do Departamento de Letras Angb-Germânicas da FALE/UFMG.

CONSELHO EDITORIAL

Bemadina da Silveira Pinheiro(UFRJ) Cleusa Vieira de Aguiar(UFMG) Erwln Theodor Rosenthal (USP) Georg Otte (UFMG) Heloísa Boxwell (UFPe) JúlioCésarMachado Pinto (UFMG) Júnia de Castro Magalhães Alves (UFMG) Luiz Pauloda Moita Lopes (UFRJ) Marco Antônio Oliveira (UFMG) Maria da Conceição Magalhães Vaz de Mello(UFMG) Solange Ribeirode Oliveira (UFOP) Stela Beatris Torres Arnold (UFMG)

Digitação e Formatação Micro_Letra Digitações Lida

2. Periodicidade anual

ISSN 0101-837 X

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.01 DEZ. 1989 SUMÁRIO

Apresentação 05

The Bear in the Bush Aimara da Cunha Resende 07 Feminist Epistemology in Pierc/s WOMAN ON THE EDGE OF TIME BillieMaciunas 15

A Ironia em MORTE EM VENEZA de Thomas Mann GeorgOtte 22 The Written Text in a Context of Orality: an Approachto the African Novel Gláucia Renate Gonçalves 30 ALiteratura Afro-Americana sob a ótica da Tradução Idelber VasconcelosAvelar 36 Second Language Teaching: a Semiotic Approach Jeanette Bopry 40

The Three MacBeths: Fact and Fiction JonathanP.J.Radvan 49 O Ensino de Língua Estrangeira em Cuba José Carlos PaesdeAlmeida Filho 54

O Olho, o Narrador e o Monstro Leopoldo Comitti 58 Dynamic Equivalence versus Formal Correspondence in the Translation of Songs Maria Helena Lott Lage 62 The Deeper Role of Gender Conflict in Willa Cathe^s THE PROFESSORA HOUSE Stepben L. Tanner 68

Huck and 'Sivilization' Tbomas LaBorie Burns 73

The Use of Clichês in Advertising Discourse Vera Lúcia Menezes de Oliveira e Paiva 77 Byron's DONJUAN: Source and Imitation William ValentineRedmond 85

istudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N° 1 p.03 DEZ. 1989 Summary and propriety, classical motives. The Baroque, in its opposition to the Thisstudydiscusses the different Renaissance and in its search for use of duplication in the expansion and infinitude, isbuilt up structuring ofideologicalstances through lack of delineation, doubt, inAMidsummer Nighfs Dream. complexity. As a result of these opposedtendencies the duplication Linearduplication reinforcedby structuring them is one of linear classicalmotivesandtechniques mirroring in the case of the forms the delimitation Renaissance; and of complexmirrors characteristic of in Baroqueworks of literature. Inhis play AMidsummer NigbfsDream The Bearin the Renaissance art while William Shakespeare makes use of voicing the ideais ofthe both kinds of specularity so that statusquo. Ontheother band, the certainty and stability of notseldom simultaneously, a the establishment is shaken and complexplay ofmirrors brings ironically destroyed at thedeep levei Bush about the effusion and blurred of the text while on the superficial levei there is an appearance of contours of Baroque art idealized values both social and and ironically destroys the artistic. established anistie and social ideais ofthe time, introducing Inthe MidsummerNigbfsDream one has a comedybased on classical O Urso no Arbusto doubt andasense ofrelativity. motives such as love hindered by a father's antagonism, crossed pairs Resumo of lovers, misunderstanding and misplaced interference, partial Este estudo discute o usodife disguise, ofthesortof BottonVs asses' Aimara da Cunha Resende' renciado daduplicação nopro head.1 At the very beginning the cesso deconstrução de Sonho de reader/audience ispresented withthe uma Noite de Verão. A dupli characterization of Theseus - the cação linear, reforçada por representative ofthe ideais ofthe time - as a man utterly aware of the motivos e técnicas clássicas, human condition and consequently forma a delimitação caracte verymuchlinkedto the earth.Tohim rística da arte renascentista doubtless man had better live the enquanto expressa osideais do presentmoment (and hereone has status quo. Poroutro lado, enão an obvious Renaissance motive) than experience the beatitude of spiritual raro, um complexojogode es existence. He is also the man awareof pelhos leva à efusão e aoscon the facts of thisworld,to whomonly tornos indistintos da arte bar feasoncounts,and whosejudgement roca, destruindo ironicamente cannot be directed by fantasy or os ideais artísticos e sociais dreaming. Itisthe sensible mind that speaksthrough him. When Hippolyta vigentes, introduzindo a dúvida comments on the strangeness of the e a relatividade. younglovefsreport he replies: "More strangethantrue.Inevermaybelieve/ Renaissance art is characterized by a strong tendency to clear countours, definite ideais of balance * Departamento de Letras Germânicas, Faculdade de Letras, UFMG.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 NM p.7-14 DEZ. 1989

TbeBearintbeBusb These antique fables, rior these fairy yours', 'it were pity on my life', 'the Falrys Overhill,over dale, toys."(v.i.3-4). truth is so', 'in truth'body forth the Thorough bush,thorough brier, Overpark, over pale, actuality theyendeavour to establish Thorough flood, thoroughfire, Asa counterpart to the classical during theprologue and inthereplies ruler embodied by Theseus, one has Ido wandereverywhere, of the actors to the interfering Swifterthanthe moon's sphere; the rustics. Crudemechanicals, they audience ofthe 'play withinthe play". And Iservethe fairy queen, are unable to grasp what is beyond To dew herorbsupon the green: the appearance of truth and Of ali these rustics Bottom is the The cowsllps tall herpensioners be; consequently the play they are going one who most deeply embodies Intheir gold coatsspotsyou see; topresent before thenobility needsali Theseus's counterpart. Mirroring Those be rubles, fairy favours, In their freckles live their savours: warrant ofreaffirmations. Theycannot the amateur actors of that time who Imustgoseek some dewdrops here, appre-end the dream-world of the thought of themselves as excellent Andhangapearl ineverycowsIlps's ear. treatre andso they feel the utterneed performers, able to playany part, 01. L1-15) for explanations concerning the Bottom cannot flutter aboveTheseus's The balance achieved in the duplicity of theirroles. Reality is an earthly kingdom and so depends fairy's speechisbasedon antithetical imperative for them; andtheir reality entirely on truth, discharging eventhe images: hili-dale; bush-brier; park- is, aboveali, theirdelineated being, possibility ofadream beingtold. From pale; flood-fire; on some alliteration, having a defínitive place and time to the very beginninghe is a 'man of such as park-pale; flood-fire; bush- exist. They must be ensured of this evidences' and as such unable to brier; swirter-moon's-sphere; must- concreteness by the insertion oftheir appreciate the subtle opportunities seek-some-drops; one repetition: identity inthelanguage ofthe play or offered him by enamouredTitania. thorough; and mainlyon the rhythm, by detailed information concerning In the scene in the woods, when marked but not tiresome, due to a their characterization. They must she introduces her eives to him, the gradual variation which takes place be sure of not being mistaken for earthliness with which hetalks to them someoneor some beastthey really makesthe reader/audience instantly as the idea is developed from the suggestion of the elfs errands, in are not: change from the paradisiac dream- world to his prosaic universe. Just the beginning, bringing forth Bottom:Write mea prologue;andletthe observe theopposition, brought forth the connotation of his hopping prologue seemtosay,we willdo noharm movement. The rhythm conveying withourswords, andthatPyramus isnot by language, between the scenes this movement is brought about by killed indeed; and, for the more better when Puck meets a fairy and when assurance, teü themthatI, Pyramus, am Titania goestosleep, on theonehand, amphimacer dimeters whichmakeup not Pyramus, but Bottom the weaver. and that with Bottom among the the first four lines and first halfofthe OHi-18-23) fairies, on the other.The environment fifth, when it changesto iambic feet Bottonu Nay, you must name his name, isthesamebutthe feeling transmitted of which the following lines are andhalfhisface mustbeseenthrough the isradically changed. Inthe first scenes composed in tetrameters, except for lion's neck: andhe himselfmustspeak mentioned, wherethe whole pattern the beginning of the sixth, seventh through, saying thus, or to the same and eleventh lines, where a trochee defect, •Ladies", or,"Fair ladies", 'Iwould isa Renaissance one, there isa touch wishyou', or, 'Iwouldentreatyou, notto of suave beauty, like a miniature by introduces the ideasof comparison fear, notto tremble: my life for yours. If Nicholas Hilliard. The suggestion to the movement of the moon, you thinkI comehltherasa lion,itwere of the enchanted land iscreated by statements of the elfs function and pity ofmy life: no,I amno suchthing: I means of the rhythm, of antithesis, the jewel-like present of the fairies. am a man as other men are; and there This melodious speech has no indeed let him namehis name, and tell of enumeration - ali Renaissance them plainly he isSnug thejoiner. techniques. There isclear delineation enjambment, which accounts for (1II.1.3M8) ofeach element and one is aware of the clearly marked rhythm. In this balanced indirect description of And they go on with their a composition where every image accords with the others, in some sort Titania's Nature Kingdom, where preparations makingsure thatevery England's countryside isdepicted, one little device does embody reality. In of complementation; inact II, scene1 the fairy describes the fairyland both hasthe environment functioning not their little clear-cut worldsointensely as some confuse interpenetration of contrasted with Oberon's andTitania's to Puck and, obviouly, to the reader/ audience: the human and fairy worlds, of the fairyland! - every detail has to kind found in Baroquepictures, but conform with the place assigned for it; Pucks How now,splriti VPhither wander onlyasthebackground wherehuman noimagination isallowed. Very often you? and supernatural beings move and expresions such as 'par.', 'my life for

Revista deEstudos Germânicos are juxtaposed in their parallel but rhythm is fixedly marked. Iambic desire toabootle of hay: good hay, sweet separate worlds. pentameters make upthelargest part hay,hath no fellow. of the stanzas; onlywhen anew idea (TV.1.42-3) The second Renaissance scene to is introduced is the foot changed. Titania evokes around her the beconsidered isthe one just before Thus, in the second line, one has classical atmosphere of a Boticelli and during the time when Titania is a dactylic trimeter encompassing canvas, while Bottom's gross lulled by the fairies, inaotII, scene 2: Titania's dismissal ofherservants; the materialism pulls one backto earth. TUanlat Come,nowa roundelanda fairy third line, which opens the listing song; of their appointed tasks, begins It isalsoonly in the rustics' play Then, forthe thlrd of a minute,hence; with a trochee, to go on in iambic that language appears inverse form. Some to klll cankers In the musk-rose pentameters. When the fairy queen Here Shakespeare plunges into buds, derision of the rules of Renaissance Some war with rere-mice for their stopsenumerating hervassaPs offíces leathem wings, and orders them to lull her,the iamb poetics by ironically recreating, in Tomakemy small eivescoats, andsome gives room to atrochaictrimeter. As a acoordance withthe alleged rules, the keepbadc matter of fact on a first reading ofthis sortof poetrywhichwouldnotstand The clamorousowl, that nightly hoots, line the Latin scansion woulddetect an criticism if brought into focus, not as andwonders Atourquaintspirits. Singmenowasleep; iamb. It happens that due to the the productof arude, almostilliterate Thentoyourofflces, andletmerest peculiar stresses of the English workman-writer, but as art for arfs (the fairies sing) language the words 'Sing me now sake. Quince cannot create poetry asleep' correspond to atrochaic foot, though he obeys the established I not an iamb. In the song there is norms of repetition, alliteration, Youspotted snakeswithdoubletongue, extense variation offeet,which creates explanation, marked rhythm, simile, Thorny hedge-hogs, be not seen; a lively rhythm, suitable to the light personification. Despite that Newts, and bllnd-worms, do no wrong; subservience, his incapability to"turn Corne not nearour fairy queen. creatures that singitatthe same time Phiiomel, with melody, thatit reflects the multiplebeingsitis to sha-pe" "things unknown" makes Sing In oursweetlullaby addressedto. The device ofthe song, him awriter who hadbetterdisappear, Lulla, lulla, lullaby; lulla lulla, lullaby: at this point, is a good way of asTheseusremarks: Neverharm, bringing forth the 'essences' of Norspell, norcharm, if he thatwritithad played Pyramus, and Come ourlovelyladynigh; Titania's natural kingdom. hanged himself So goodnlghtwith lullaby. lnThlsbe's garter, itwould have beenafine If one compares these two tragedy. II previous scenes withthose inthesame (v.L 366-8) environment, where Bottom is Veavlng spiders comenothere; present, onenotices anabrupt change Concerning therustic's language, Hence, youlong teggU spinners, hence! of atmosphere, as if the human thevery bushwhere a bear seems to Beetles black, approach not near, be hidden, though on thesuperficial Wormnor snail,do no offence. earthly being were here todestroy the Phiiomel, with melody &c. flimsy background then existing. The levei it reflects the unpolished and 01. U. 1-24) unimaginative man, unable to grasp incorrect utterance of rude people, themeaning ofbeauty, can onlyseein ata deeper one it leads the reader/ Once again alliteration, chiefly audience to the criticism of attitudes of sibillant sounds, creates an nature anditsbountythe practicality at hand. In act II, scene 1 and act IV, reflecting feelings characteristic of atmosphere of peace and drowsiness: Shakespeare's time, ideologically some-cankers-musk-rose-buds;war- scene1,the fairies' world ischanged into mere tools to satisfy Bottom's conditioned to accept certain rere-their-leathern; small-elves- established values. The fact thatthey coats-some-spirits-sing-asleep-of- material wishes. When Titania orders her eives to bring him the exquisite sooftenmisuse words, asifinaslip of fices-rest-spotted-snakes; hedge- the tongue, makesone suspicious of hogs; long-legged; beetles-beach. fruit of the forest, Bottom, the realist who states that 'tosaythetruth reason so-me unconscious need or emotion Besides alliteration, repetition lulls repressedlongagoandthroughsome one into a doze: Some-some; Hence- and love keep little company together now-a-days* does not want catexis able to emerge, though hence; this isreinforced bytherefrain, disguised.2 Close analysis will show another sortofrepetition. Once again the delicious meai offered him, but declares that h. would prefer: these slips of the tongue disguised mostofthestanzasare formed ofend- among some real errors. But the stopped lines, thus deiineating the ...apeckofprovenden Icould munch your disguise cannot prevent thediscovery images created atthe same time that good dry oats. Methinks 1have a good that the thoughts misrepresented

The Bearinibe Busb lhrough those "joking" exchanges are following the track oflinear reflections central symbolism of Hero/Helen. nothing butthe Poefsglimpses of provided by the deep levei. The Heroisthemodel consciously chosen another truth, nottheonesearched for reversed image is to come out asduplication oftruelove. She wasso by the Renaissance Theseus/rustics, suddenly, veering from the linear to faithful to Leander that she killed but the truth behind the mask, some the unexpected complex play of herself after hisdeath. But ina slip of repres-sed feeling concerningeither mirrors, typical ofthe Baroque, inthe thetongue, Pyramus/Bottom calls her social values and 'status quo' or Helen symbol andthrough aslip ofthe Helen, the symbol of sensuality, of sexual yearnings. It isnotmerely the tongue. Pyramus andThisbe, through feminine frailty. Thechange, here, is language of the uncultured. Thereis themouth oftheignorant Bottom and quite to the pointsince it cannot be something behind such expressions Flute, present aseries ofduplications linguistically explained, asisLimander as: of true love: Pyramus/Thisbe; forLeander; thismistake comesoutof Leander/Hero; Cephalus/Procris. ignorant distortion bywayofaddition; a) Bot.s We wlll meet; and there we may rehearse more obscenely and Their names are somewhat distorted, or Shafalus forCephalus, and Procrus courageously. Q.ii. 111-12) just astheirsymbolism isreverted. So for Procris, also explained through b) Bot: and he himself(the lion) must far, the same kind of Renaissance the similarity in the position of the speak through, saying thus, or to the linear reflexibility is found. mouth during the production of same defect... (III.i, 40-41) . Nevertheless the synthesis of the c) Quln.: Ay, or else one must come in these sounds. But the nearly total withabush of thornsand a lantern, and incongruous ideal ofeverlasting love modification ofHelen for Hero has no sayhe comesto disfigure, or to present seems to spring up in the Baroque possible explanation on linguistic the personofMoonshine. (IH.i, 63-66) mannerinthe language theyuse.The grounds. Onlyaslipofthe tonguecan d) Quin^ andhe isavery pammour for Renaissance attitude expressedinthe a sweet voice. (IV. ii, 12-13) be responsible for it. Shakespeare's (myitalics) Pyramus/Thisbe dialogue is the belief that love is not everlasting certainty of theirtrue love: comes out skillfully mixed in the distorted symbolism. This isaBaroque In quotes a) and d) the sexual Thlsj Mylove! Thouartmylove, Ithink. Pry.:Think what thou wilt, 1am thy moment,asithas no cleardelineation, connotation is clear; at a moment lover"s grace. no step bystepelaboration suchasis before thenuptial night itisvery likely (V. 1,1984) found in the 'myse en abyme' of the thatmanymindswould beconcerned sequenceofmythological truelovers. with the expected "finale" ofthe and it isthenelaborated through the It confronts one in the reversed verb wedding rites and thus the words repetition - characteristic of classical sensation of the beginning and emerging inadequately from the equilibrium - of other mythological achieves itsfull disturbed synthesis in rustic's unconscious, merely reflect symbols: Hero and Leander, Cefalus the implications conveyed by the the general thoughts of both and Procris. The distorted names are Helenmyth. audiences, theoneofthe'play within easily accepted as mispronunciation theplay' and the one ofAMidsummer due to the speakers' ignorance. But Another example of Nighfs Dream. before the exchange of theiroaths, Shakespeare's stance running counter something takes placesubtly - the to the Renaissance canons comes to In the other two instances the presentation, in language, of the light inThisbe's speechwhenshesees repressed feeling is not erotic, disturbance and bewilderment Pyramus dead: but criticai - literary, a sort of implicit in the Baroque attitude, by malapropism. Here the Poetthrusts a means ofmisplacedsensations: "Pyr.: Tlilsj Asleep,my love? dagger into the established normsof Isee a voice:now willI to the chink/ O Pyramys, arise! the Renaissance. As a matter of fact Speak,speak! Quitedumb? To spyanIcanhear myThisb/sface." Dead,dead!A tomb what there is in the play isa farce, (V. i,195-6): This misuse oflanguage Must coverthy sweet eyes. which "desfigures" art to the "defect" may be thought to have its origin These lilylips, ofa badlywrittenwork. in the actor'slack of knowldge and, Thischerrynose, obviously, considered a device These yellowcowslip cheeks, Another very subtle use of Are gone, are gone: to achieve comic effects. So far, distortion isto be found inthe 'play Lovers,make moan! acceptable. But as one goes on within the play', in the scene of the Hiseyes were green as leeks. critically detaching these OSistersThree, exchange of loving oaths between mispronunciations one getsto a point Come, come to me, Pyramus and Thisbe. Here the With handsaspale as milk; when the cause for the confusion is great symbol of everlasting love - Lay them in gore, obvious - itwill spring up inthevery Pyramus and Thisbe- ismadefunof, Sinceyou haveshore With shears his thread ofsllk.

JO Revista de Estudos Germânicos Tongue, not a word: Idealization of sentimental experience, Could everhear bytale orhistory, Come, trustysword: mainlypresented through Tltania's love The course of true love never did run Come, blade, my breast imbrue: for ass-headed Bottom. smooth; (stabs herself) e) Search for stability, which permeates But,either itwas different in blood,- CV. i. 332-353) thewhole play bymeans of theattempt Her.» O cross! too hightobe cnthrall'd to low. Among the repetitions and tosupport thestatus quo.represented by Theseus and wedlock. Lys.:Or else misgraffed in respea of alliterations that due to years,- misrepresentation and hyperbolic 0 Man- In alicases,in the Midsummer Her^ O spite! too old to be engaged to Nighfs Dream seen as easily analyzed, exprcssion of distress lead one to a young. presenting no rlddle.One can predict Lys-- Orelseitstood uponthe choice of mocking vision of the established what is to become ofali characters. friends, - norms, thereappears Shakespeare's Her.! O hcll! to choselove by another's g) More lmportanly: the present time attitude towards classical impositions: embodied inthe May nights, chieflythe eye. thewrongly applied description ofthe midsummer night. Lys.:Or, if there were a sympathyin choice, beloved. One hasonly to compare it h) Use of pastoral imagestwice inside War, death orsickness didlaysiege toIt, to any literary composition after two edogues to be studiedfurther on. Making itmomentaryasa sound, Petrarch to see the ridicule of the Swift as a shadow, shortas any dream, imagery here presented inreverse: lips The Baroque elements inthis play Briefasthe lightning Inthe colliednight, are not cherry, but lily; marble-like do not appear so massively as the That, in a spleen, unfolds both heaven and earth, nosebecomescherry andlovelyrose Renaissance ones do. These are found as part of the presentation of the And ere a man hath power to say, cheeks are now yellow cowslip. To 'Behold!' complete the ironical portrait nothing identity of thecharacters and also of The jaws of darkness do devour itup: better than leeks tostand assymbolical thesociety thecomedy iswritten for. Soquickbright things come toconfusion. 0.1,132-149) of his eyes. The marked rhythm is But theBaroque clash ofemotions, the brokenwhen an interjection appears; lack of delineation, the obscurity of Shakespeare's idea oftrue love, as andthe passage is full of interjections. ideais are conveyed through presented through Lysander, is at first language, and more extensiveiy, in Shakespeare's criticism of one of something 'momentany' as contemporary writers isthusclear. five moments; the Pyramus-Thisbe lightning inthedarkness. But theway play, already considered here, he puts it follows the Renaissance Titania's speech onthedisturbance of Aplay absorbed intheideology of decoram.The reasons why 'truelove its time, the Midsummer Nighfs the seasons, Hippolita's wordsabout neverdidrunsmoth'are given, stepby Dream tends towards the use of the impact of hunting dogs in Crete, step: it cannot be fulfilled because Renaissance structure as well as Helena's speech evocative ofhers and there is a difference in social status, or the motives and techniques then Hermia's childhood and in Theseus's in age, or because relatives won't considered importam. The main speech on the poets, madmen and accept thematch. Ifnothing like that Renaissance motives here found are: lovers. If these are confronted with occurs, then some outer force will three other speeches, which resemble come in its way - death, war, a)The realistic man either sensible and edogues, thetwokinds ofduplication intellectualized- and as a consequence sickness. Hermia's interference comes upholding the status quo.embodied in can be seen. in just to corroborate what Lysander Theseus; or the earthyman,gross and ignorant, whose characteristic stance The eclogues, written at their says and to add a 'crescendo' to the Is drawn through Bottom and his beginning after theArcadian manner, misfortunes presented: 'O cross!'; 'O companions; arestructured around the Renaissance hell!'. The 'crescendo', a Baroque b) Love seen as immarure experience. principies of balance, repetition technique, insinuates itselfamong the Theseus's love for Hyppolita isutterly and opposition. When Hermia and Renaissance threads and reinforces different from that felt by the young Lysander are left alone after her being the motive of impossible, suffering people. It ismature and lacks beauty, given some time to decide between love. After the balanced collocation looking more like some necessary and subtle interpolation of the compromise while theirs, full of Demetrius and the convent, they romantlcism, standsout as being unflrm lament over the predicament of true 'crescendo' there is a clash ofemotion andsoeasilychangeable. love. Their dialogue sounds classical, and thought when the Baroque c) Clearly exposed feeling; the young atFirst, with ar.tithetical ideas: high x synthesis makes its appearance - the lovers' feelings are seen through their low, oldx young; and with balanced image ofnight devouring uplightning; expressions. rhythm, in end-stopped lines: theidea ofthe swiftpassing byoflove. d) Ideal Platonlc/Petrarchan feminine The symbolism of the lightning beauty, chiefly symbolized in Helena. Lys.i Ayme! for aught that ever Icould (power andutmost creative element, read,

lhe BearintbeBusb 11 uniting heaven andearth) conveys the HeLs 01thatmy prayers could such accepted conventional poetics. In the idea ofareturn to the womb, possibly aflectlon move. duplication here found Hermia isthe Her.i The more I hate, the more he theonlysituation inwhichhappiness follows me. mirror reflecting Helena's wishesas can be achieved.3 Though here, too, HeLs Themoreilove, themorehehateth well as the values of Shakespeare's alliteration appears, it is only once: me. society. 'Swift as a shadow, short as'; and Her.: His folly, Helena, is no fault of mine. This sort of linear duplication it is skillfully used to reinforce HeL» None butyourbeauty; wouldthat is repeated in act I, scene 2, in the the achievement of sensation of fault were mine! dialogue between Demetrius and movement created by the short 0.1,181-201) sounding words in the lines: 'war, Helena, inthewoods. Using thesame death... night', which come after The classical construction goes devices of contrast and repetition, slowly flowing verses and from the pastoral images - lode-star, induding theantithetical images ofthe followed by longsoundingandnasal shepherd; green wheat, hawthorn reversed hunting when 'cowardice wordssuch asappear intheline: That, buds - to repetitions - eye... eye; pursues andvalour flies' - Daphne x inaspleen, unfolds both heaven and tongue... tongue. Thenitmoveson to Apollo; dove x griffin; hindx tiger; earth'. The nasalization helps to the balanced oppositions - frown x cowardice x valour, Demetrius's conveythe impression of heaviness. smile; cursex love;love x hate.Inthe speechreproduces unlovedHelena's evolution ofthesebalanced rhetorical verbal construct. Another moment to be statements, one element marks the considered, this time a Renaisüance passage in Helena's mood from From the suggestion of one, the talk between Hermia and despondency todecision (thedecision incongruity in the idea of human Helena, brings forth once moresome here hinted at which will later on be love's everlasting essence as is characteristic elements of pastoral thecatalyst inthedevelopment ofthe reiterated throughout the play edogues: thecontrasted predicaments plotof criss-cross lovers). She shows by variously constructed linear creating balance, the clearly marked how ready she is to do anything mirror reflexions or duplications, rhythm (iambic), thepastoral images capable of abating Demetrius's Shakespeare Ieads onetothe deeper surrounding idyllic love. The girls' resistance to her love. This momentof vision of theonlyvalid possibility of feelings are presented in the transformation in hermood is marked intense feeling: creative experience. Renaissance style of classical pastoral by a change in rhythm; a trochee Itis through fancy that beauty and ideais: suddenly thwarts the iambic lines: happiness take place. Fancy and imagination - the dream that is a llell.t Call youme fair? that falr again 'Sickness iscatching: O were favour unsay. so/YourswouldI catch, fair Hermia, vision, 'a most rare vision' because it Demetrius loves you fair: Ohappy fair! ere I go'. is not part of ideologically viewed Your eyes are lode-stars! and your human life, cannot be conveyed by tongue's sweet air This dialogue isloaded with the means oftheaccepted poetic standard More tuneable thanlark to shepherd's established elements of Renaissance ofthetimes, Renaissance duplication. ear, poetics. One doesn't find in it Whenwheat Isgreen, when hawthorn At this moment, when the Poet budsappear. any device conducive to doubt, probably meansto stress thevalue of Sickness iscatching: O werefavour so, disturbance, unbalanced positioning. creative life, he makes use of the Yours would Icatch, fair Hermia, ere Igo; Helena's suffering is the classical Baroque synthesis: glimpses of a My ear should catch your voice, myeye suffering of'star-crossed lovers'. Inher youreye, compound ofimpressions, mixed up features the conventional romantic My tongue should catch yourtongue's visionlacking real istic contour. sweetmelody. lover is present (pale, tall, unendingly Were the world mine, Demetrius being doting upon an emotionally The ideal of beauty/love as bated, disinterested man). In her suffering Shakespeare seems toconceive it, will The rest I'd glve to betoyoutranslated. and in its contrast to Hermia's fortune emerge and set the pattern for the O!teachme howyoulook,andwithwhat deeper structure: love will be great art lies themotif ofthe speech - love as You swaythe motion ofDemetrius, heart. itis ideally seen bythose watching the and trueonly when experienced by Her.« I frown uponhimyethe loves me play. Such love, as it isgoing to be lovers whose place is among lunatics still. developed in the structure of the and poets. Asthese are theonly ones HeüO! that your frowns would teach my Midsummer Night's Dream is the able to grasp deep and everlasting smllessuchskill. Hens I givehimcurses, yethe gives me one fitting the ideology of the feelings, they can feel love to its love. audience it is addressed to; it must full, or the ecstasy of creation in its then be presented by means of the quintessence:

12 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Lovers andmadmen have such seething Bothone sampler, sittingonone cushion, pastoral elementssomeofwhichwere brabis, Bothwarbling of one song, both Inone Such shaping fantasies, that apprehend key, used linearly in the Hermia-Helena More than cool reason ever As lf ourhands,oursides,voicesand speech and in the fairies* scenes, comprehends. minds, Shakespeare empties them of their Thelunatic, the loverandthe poet, Had been incorporate. So we grew previous meanings and what was Are of Imaglnation alicompaa- together, once gradual opposition becomes One sees more devlls than vast hell can Like toadouble cherry, seeming parted, hold, Butyet anunion Inpartition; now total apprehension of a state of That is the madman; the lover, ali as Twolovelyberrlesmouldedon onestem; bewildermentand disturbance: fiamlc, So, with two seeming bodies, but one Sees Helen's beauty inabrowof Egypt- heart; TU.t And never, since the middle Thepoefs eye,In a fine frenzy rolling, Twoof the first, likecoats In heraldry, summert spring, Doth glance from heavento earth, from Due but to one, and crowned with one Met we on hill,Indale, forest, ormead, earth to heaven crest. By pavedfountain, orby rushybrook, And,asimaglnation bodies forth (111.11,198-214) Or In the beached margent ofthe sea, Theforms ofthlngs unknown,thepoefs To dance our ringletsto the whisding pen As if on a tapestry the picture wind, Turns them to shapes, and givesto airy of the two girls is brought before Butwith thy brawisthou hast disturiVd oursport nothing the reader/audience, in a unified A local habitation and a name. Therefore thewinds, plplng tousinvain, composition. The imagery connoting (V. 1,4-17) As In revenge, have suck'dup from the the idea of two in one is repeatedly sea These words, in the mouth ofthe conveyed: 'both on one sampler, Contagious fogs; which, Ming in the sensible man, Theseus, echo the sitting on one cushion', bothwarbling land, Haveevery peltingrivermadeso proud opposition Renaissance x Baroque of one song'; 'both in one key'; That they have overborne their inside the play. Theseus's imagery is 'double cherry'; 'union in partition'; contlnents: Baroque. It is the apprehension of 'two lovely berries moulded in one The ox haththereforestretch'd his yoke another world, not the world of stem'; 'two seeming bodies'; 'coats invain, The ploughmanhas losthis sweat, and reality, but of fancy. In his creative crowned with one crest'. There the greencom process, the poetgivesa place and a is repetition, here, not aiming at Hath rottederehis youthattain'd abeard: name totheinacceptable andsobuilds enumeration or opposition, but The fold stands empty in the drowned a bridge between dream and reality; presented insuchawayasto prepare fleld, the lunatic and the lover experience one for the 'crescendo' in lines 207, And crows are fatted with the murrion flock; the'most rare vision' butare powerles 208: 'Asifourhands,our sides,voices, The ninemen monis isflll'd up withmud, to give it an habitation and a name, andmindshadbeenincorporate'. This And the quaint mazes in the wanton because they don'tmaster language. is one of the few examples, in the green Midsummer Night's Dream, of what For lackof treadareundistinguishable: TheBaroque motive ofevocation Hatzfeldcalls'hidden antithesis'.* The The human mortais want their winter here: issuperbly created in a moment of static viewof thetwogirls together, as dassically comic abuse. In themidst of No night is now with hymn or carro! fruit coming from one commonstem, blest; the dissensions between the four in truth leads one to some deeper Therefore the moon, the governess of young people, when Helena believes feeling ofloss. The Baroque motives floods, Pale in heranger, washesalithe air, both Lysander's and Demetrius's ofevocation, passing oftime, spiritual protestations of love to be a means That rheumatic diseases do abouncL- incorporation of physical aspects are Andthoroughthisdistemperature wesee of ridiculing her, which she thinks ali there waiting tobe detected andin The seasonsalter: hoary-headed frosts Hermia approves, there appears her fact give the passage its main mood. Fali Inthe fresh lapof the crimson rose, address to the latter, full of tender This mood isalso built upbymeans of And on HienVs thin and icy crown evocation oftheir childhood: An odorous chaplet of sweet summer the alliteration ofsibilants together buds, Isalithe counselthatwe two have shartf, with many caesuras in the verses, Is, as In mockery, set. The spring, the The slster-vows,the hours thatwe have which create an atmosphere of summer, spent, diaphanous irreal ity. The childing autumn, angry winter, Whenwe havechldthehasty-footedtime change For parting us, o!is itali forgot? It is through Titania, a fairy Their wonted liveries, and the mazed Alischool-days' friendship, childhood goddess, thequeen of England's green world, innocence? By their increase, now knows not which We, Hennia,like two artificial gods, world thatthere appears the greatest is which. Have with our needles created both one Baroque poetical synthesis in A Andthissameprogenyof evil comes flower Midsummer Nighfs Dream. Handling

Tbe Bearin tbe Busb 13 Fromour debate, from our dissension: overborne continents; stretcfrd yoke; Titania, with the imagery of rain We aretheirparents andoriginal. fatted crows; drownedfield; abundant and floods, yearns for some sort of 01. i, 82-117) diseases), thisabundancemeanslack, purification which will put an end to Disturbance here is due to lack void (fogssucked up from the sea; the compelling force that disturbs of love and misunderstanding. lost sweat; stretched yokeinvain; no the environment: lack of true love. Shakespeare isnot talkingof married seasoning of com; empty field; Hatred, embodied in the fairy love, of love as it is established by murrion flock). The world which sovereigns 'debate' and'dissenáon',is sodal rales, butofharmony. Thesame might be paradisal becomes full the cause of it ali. And hatred cannot images which might be connected either of nothingness or evil. This coexist with beauty and creativity. with idealized pastoral values appear paradoxically unified image ofplenty/ Beingdestructive, it has demolished inthispassage. Butthere isno Arcadia voidiscompressed intothe confused every possible suggestion of peace here. They are emptied of their visualization of the altered seasons. and classical illusory beauty.Titania's pastoral meaning and come out as a There is no balance, no distribution. speech,Baroque initsunity, expresses voidthatistransposed from the outer The only global image is that perhaps some repressed ideal of to the inner surface. Void in wedlock of 'distemperature'. The sweet return totherichness ofthe imaginary (true love?) » void in symbolism of remembrance of hymnsand carols worldofthe poet/lunatic/lover lostin pastorallifeconnotative of love. Here being sunginwinter nights iswashed the Renaissance 'cool reason*. Q the opposition becomes a paradox: away bythe'governess offlood'. One where there is plenty (contagious fogs; might say that Shakespeare, through

NOTES

Ali quotations from Shakespeare are from GRAIG.J. W, Tbe Complete Works ofWilliam Shakespeare. Oxford; Oxford University Prees, 1955. 1On classical motivessee NEVO, R., ComictransformationsinShakespeare. London;Methuen, 1980, p.37-107. 2See FREUD, S., Introductory lectures onpsycbo-atialysis. London; Hogarth, 1973, part I, v.14 of the Standard Edition. 3See HATZFELD, H. Estúdiossobre eiBarroco. Trans. FIGUEIRA, A., CLAVEIRA, C. &MJNIATI, M. Madrid; Gredos, 1966 p.122. 4 Ibidem, p.196.

14 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Summary porânea vê uma sociedade isenta de gênero. Especifica Sandra Harding's view of mente, examineialgumasfor science as a social activity mas em que a cultura imagi leads her topropose criticai nária de Piercy relaciona-se interpretation as a mode of com a discussão das epistemo- knowledge-seekingparticularly logiasfeministasde Harding, usefulfor theorizing "theeffects queestão emergindo como uma onthe naturalsciencesofgender resposta a políticas sexistas, symbolism, genderstructure, classistase racistas. Feminist and'individualgender."1 Ihave cbosen Piercy's novel, Woman For Harding, science-as-usual, on the Edge ofTime, with a view while functioning under cover towarddiscovering how of a supposed value-neutral ethics,is inherently sexist, racist and classist. She identifies three typesof feminist I}p*bZ&lW{)l(jgy 1X1 American feminist epistemologies whose nascent writer envisions a non- practice has the potential for gendered society. Specifically, I producing "a politics of knowledge- will examine seeking that would show us the conditions necessary to tranfer control Piercfs Woman on Z™of f from the 'haves' to the 'have-nots.'"2 Harding labels these epistemologies which Piercy's feminist empirícism, the feminist imaginary culture relates to siandpoint, and feminist Harding 's discussion postmodernism. the Edge ofTime °{, ,/em*f, Feminist empirícism, working for O epistemologies that the reform of "bad science," reveals are emerging as a the incoherencies of empiricist response to sexist, classist and epistemologies by subverting the racistpolicies inscience. notion that the social identityof the observer is irrelevant to the results of Resumo the research. Harding points out, for Epistemologia Feminista em example, that women in science are A visão de Sandra Harding da "more likely than men to notice Woman on the Edge of Time ciência como uma atividade androcentric bias."3 In spite of their de Piercy social, leva-a a propor uma commitment to empiricist principies feminist empiricists argue that "asa interpretação crítica como um group (they] are more likely to modo deconhecimentoparticu produce unbiased and objetive results larmente útilpara teorizar "os than are men (or nonfeminists) as a Billie Maciunas* efeitos nas ciências naturais de group." simbolismo degênero, estrutura The second type of feminist degenero, egênero individual." epistemology, thefeminist siandpoint, Escolhi o romance de Piercy, is based in Hegelian "thinking about Woman on theEdge of Time, the relationship between the master com oobjetivo de descobrircomo and the slave"4 as elaborated in the a escritorafeminista contem *University of North Carolina atChapei Hill. Comparative Literature Department.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.15-21 DEZ. 1989

Feminist Epistemology inPiercysWorcan on tlie Edge of Time 15 writings of Marx, Engels, and Lukacs. sdence" "rewrite itshistory in a way assures that a white male elite The proposal of the feminist that oftenhidesthenature of its early ("less than 0.01 percent of scientific standpoint is that subjugated struggles."6 workers"10) is privileged with knowledge provides the grounds for decision-making, while the unravelling the "partial and perverse Harding compares the practices technicians and domestic staff who understandings" ofasdencebased on of women scientists (presumably carry outthe work are composed for the interests of dominant groups. feminist empiridsts) tothepractices of the most part of white middle class Unlike feminist empirícism, the those artisans of the New Science women (in the upper ranks of feminist standpoint regards thesocial Movement. Their "new kind of technicians) and minority men and identity of the inquirer asavariable. labor made possible the ensuing women(among the lower ranks of widespread appreciation ofthevirtues technidans and domestic staff). The The third type of feminist of experimental observation."7 She case for value-neutral results is epistemology, feminist lists five kinds ofcritiques which have damaged whenoneconsidere thegap postmodernism, would begin from helped in forming an emancipatory inknowledgebetween"thesdentist" the perspective of inevitable theory inresponse to normal sdence. in his search for truth and the fragmentation. Asa part ofthe general They are: workforce that implements the postmodernist movement, feminist research into problems deemed postmodernism would seek a 1) equity studies that identify and worthyofinquiry.11 solidarity of oppositions to the document the ways that de fado myth of an essential human being discrimination is maintained even Harding questions whether the after formal barriers have broken that has been conceptualized in selection of problems tobesolved will down. Motivation studies, for fact by historical males. Feminist not always reflect the interests of example,show adifference between postmodernism shares with the dominant groups. But given this boys' and girls' interest in excelling feminist standpoint the view thatthe necessarily value-laden bias she in such subjects as science, fiction of the "uniquely human" has considers whether some value- engineering, andmathematics. To the generated distorted and exploitative laden research projects may not be point, Harding asks why women policies. However, post-modern "maximally objective" within the would want to be "just like men" in suspidon of holistic epistemologies structure ofanalready existing overtly interesting themselves in questions precludes acceptance of a single sexist, racist, anddassist program. For feminist standpoint. "skewed toward men's perception of what they find puzzling."8 example, wouldnot self-consdously For Harding, theepistemological anti-sexist and/or antiracist inquiries foundations of our present science 2) studies documenting the be more objective than "sex-blind" practices are history-specific. She abu-ses of sdentific technologies in ones? biology and thesodal sdences. Such divides the emergence ofthe "New 4) "(Tlhe related techniques Sdence Movement" ofthe fourteenth abuses include the perpetration of reproductive policies that are of literaty criticism, historical century into stages. The final stage, interpretation and psychoanalysis"12 the "moment of mythologizing," oppressive to women (doubly so in the case of poorwomen, induding have unveiled the social meanings coincides with the development of metaphorsused in the founding of Descartes' method for the women of color). As anexample of suchabuse Harding mentions of modem science. In addition, the production of a "value-neutral" familiar dichotomies, reason vs. science. Instrumentalist in itsoutlook, the resuscltation of sclentifically emotion, mind vs. body, etc, are Cartesian science "compromised the supported sentimental Images of related tomasculinity and femininity, political goals of the New Science motherhood andnuclear forms of famlly espedally inthecontext ofasupposed Movement,"5 whose organization of life for some at the same time that social supports for mothers and non-nudear necessity to control emotions, the social laborstood in opposition to families aresystematically wlthdrawn for body, and "the feminine" in the church dogma. As Harding herself others.' interest of human progress. points out, herargument follows that ofThomas Kuhn in Tbe Structure of 3) challenges to the idea of 5) Finally, asmentioned, feminist Scientific Revolutions in which Kuhn the possibility of a "purê science". epistemologies have emerged that shows how "normal science" and its Harding relates this challenge to the reflect more accuratelly "shifting methods are merely theafter-effeots of process of selection of problems to configurations of gender, race, and revolutionary paradigm shifts. besolvedbysdence.Thehierarchical class...."13 Moreover, defenders of "normal structure of the science profession

16 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Marge Piercy's novel, published The nightmare of such a reality is loving and tender. So we ali became in 1976, offers constrasting visions glaringly shown in Piercy's image of mothers.,9 between the present world view another possible world into which (perhaps the early 1960's) and a Connie stumbles by accident while In this instance, Piercy imagines "possible" future (2137) in whichthe tryingto contactLuciente. In the near a future whose grounding is in feminist epistemologies described by future Connie encounters Gildina, feminist postmodernism. Feminist Harding helpto form theworld view. DoIly's exaggerated double. Gildina is postmodernism does not ostensibly This possible future can emerge "a built-up contract.... [closmetically seek to reform science or to raise only through the imagination and fixedforsexuse."16 subjugated forms of knowledge intentional actions ofConnie, a37 year to higher status. Rather, like oldChicana mental patient. Connie's Piercy shows, too, the postmodernist theories in general, it visions take her into the world of contradiction inherent in the seeks an end to globalizing discourses Luciente, whomay be imagined as a socialization of women strictly for in which an elite avant-garde is possible version of Connie herself, motherhood. Connie and her niece empowered to define and administer given a world in which gender can afford to raise their children only the tenets of "truth." One type of socialization and the concurrent at the cost of dependence on men feminist postmodernist theory is division of labor along gender and/ who are for the most part abusive. At object-relations theory. Object- ordass lines is abolished.Ludente is thesametime, thewomeninConnie's relations theory considere philosophy aplantgenetidstwhose workinvolves world are subject to the abusive tobethesite ofthe problematization reconstructing species of plants that technology connected with of"the relationships between subject have been destroyed bypollution, as reproductive policies that deny them and object, mind and body, inner well as creating plants that are useful the achievement of the ideal of and outer, reason and sense..."20 It for food and other human needs. Most motherhood. Both Connie and her proposes that men's preoccupation ofthe other characters in Piercy's mother, for example, after being with objectivity stems from infantile novel also mirror each otherinterms admitted to the hospital for other separation from the mother. Men, ofpresent and future. For example, reasons, were given hysterectomies morethanwomen, remain frozen ina Sybil, who is confined to the hospital "because the residents wanted defensive infantile need to dominate for being awitch, is mirrored by practice."17 Connie's sister is given and/or repress others in order to Erzulia, a blackwoman in the future sugar pills instead ofbirth control pilis retain... individual identity." Women's who practices both witchcraft and after her sixth child because of an experience thereby becomes the traditionai surgery. experiment. Herseventh child is then opposite pole oftheduality bywhich bom with deficiences that require men"take their own experience as When Luciente first appears to costly treatment, "AH because Inez paradigmatically humanrather than Connie she ismistaken for aman.The thought she had adoctor, but she got merely as typically masculine."21 narratorsays asdentist."48 Mothering (caring work), then, must be incorporated as a human Luciente spoke, she moved with thatair For Piercy, egalitarianism ofbrisk unselfconsdous authority Connie experience and located at the center assodated with men. Luciente sat down, necessitates women giving up their ofculture, rather than remaining at the taking upmore space than women ever exclusive right to bear children, in margins ofculture as "women's work, did. She squatted, she sprawled, she order that men may participate in undervalued and/or sentimentalized." strolled, never thinking about how her thecommunity as mothers (children body was displayed.w are laboratory created; men are Feminist postmodernism, as Bycontrast, women inConnie's world administered hormones so that they Harding notes, proposes redprodty as are absurdly socialized according to can nurse their children). Luciente amore desirable way ofknowing than men's conceptions of their reality. explains defensive gendering. In Woman on Connie's niece, Dolly, for example, It was part ofwomen's long revolution. the Edge ofTime Piercy imagines a is a prostitute who changes her When we were breaking ali the old world inwhich interpersonal relations appearance so that she will look hierarchies. Finally there wasthat one are valued as a form of community more like the white male's idea of a thing wc had togive uptoo, theonly activity. Members of this intentional beautiful woman. She says power we ever had, in return for no community participate in "wormings" more power for anyone. The original in order to discover and eliminate Igot tostay skinny, carita. The money is production: the powerto give birth. with the Anglos and they like you skinny Because as long as wewere biologically the sources of hostility between andAmerican-looking. Itpaysmore if enchained, we'd never be equal. And individuais. Connie, visiting from the you look Anglo, you know. '5 males neverwouldbe humaiuzed to be past, complains, "Don't you people

Feminist Epistemology inPiercyS Woman on the Edge ofTime 17 have nothing to worry aboutbesides number ofviolent crimes committed earlier between the division of labor personal stuff?" Oneofthe community by men in our present society, in the sdences and in sodety makes members then points out the particularly when many ofthe most clear that ruling conceptualschemes connection between individual and violent are committed as a matter of donotindudecategories adequate for national warfare: course by men against women.76 defining women'sreality, although the Piercy shows a parallel berween attempt isnevertheless made, withan (Wle believemanyacrJons fali becauseof inner tensions. To get revenge agalnst violent crimes against women andthe arrogance that is both ignorant and someone anindividual thlnkswronged practices of science-as-usual. The invasive. Regarding women'sworkof per, individuais haveoffered up nations white male doctors privileged to personal maintenance Harding says, tnconquest22 define Connie's reality on the ward label herasviolent. The description, Men who are relleved of the need to Thieves in this society are given maintain their own bodies and the local presents to relieve feelings of neglect however, is ironic since Connie's places wherethey existcan... seeasreal and poverty (there is no private violence consists in her defending onlywhatcorresponds totheir abstracted mental world.2' property). Likewise, crimes of herself against physical abuse by her niece'spimp, referred to as the violence are regarded astreatable by Piercy's novel is hopeful in its niece's "fiancé" bythedoctors.27 The healing. However, ifaperson commits images of a possible future in interpretation of Connie's actions as such a crime for a secondtime, they which the revolutionary feminist "violent" is used to justify forms of are executed. Parra, the Hispanic epistemologies described by Harding research intobehaviorcontrol,called woman who is selected as referee are instrumental in creating a more "treatment," such as forced isolatíon, (judgu) for aworming explains, "We egalitarian world. As Harding administration ofsoporific drugs, don't want to watch each other or to suggests, change is a labor intensive shocktherapy, andbrain implants for imprisoneach other. Wearen't willing activity. The emergence of the "New thecontrol of"patienfs" emotions by tolive withpeoplewho choosetouse Science Movement" in the early electrical impulses administered from violence. We execute them."23 Renaissance required a new type of outside. Pierc/s valuation ofinterpersonal individual who was both educated andwilling to perform manual labor: relations (to the point ofan absolute In order to avoid "treatment" artisans, shipbuilders, mariners, intolerance for violence) reflects the Connie tries to provehernormalcy by feminist standpoint epistemology in volunteering to do houseworkon the miners, foundrymen, and which relational forms ofknowing are ward. Likewise, inorder to persuade carpenters."30 When Connie imagines regarded asmorally preferable to the her brother(who has committed her) revolution as "Hon-chos marching objectification of individuais and tolethervisit him,Connie mustagree around in imítation uniforms," she is groups. In opposition to Cartesian to do the housework for him and his informed that Anglo wife. Thus Connie's labor is dualisms, interpersonal caring as Ifslhepeoplewhoworkedoutthelabor- community work unitesthe "manual, extracted on the basis ofdefinitions of andland-lntensive farming we do.Ifsali mentJ, and emotional ('hand, brain, normalcy for women that posit a the people who changed how people and heart') activity characteristic natural gênesis for women's caring, bought food, raisedchildren,went to scncoU31 of women's work..."24 It also recalls as opposed to a social one. These the craft labor necessary for the definitions ofwomenandtheir reality Sybil, the mental ward image of emergence of the "New Science help to naturalize theirvictimization. Erzulia, thehealer, manages tomake ; Movement" ofthe fourteenth century. In Piercy*s book, Connie isaware of contact with the future in such a I AsHarding pointsout the connection: concreteway. Near the conclusionof i [Tllie pressure wastosayplease andput the book Sybil notesthat someofthe Theorganizational forms ofthe women's onlipstick andsitatatable playing cards, movement, unlike those of capitalist college girl volunteers on theward are to obey andwork for nothing, deaning productlon relations and its science, interested inthehealing properties of i tliehousesofthe staff. Tolook awayfrom resist divlding mental, manual, and herbs. Although Sybil couldnotgoto graft and abuse.To keep quiet as you caring activity amongdifferent classes of watchedthem beatother patlents. To college, much lessstudy witchcraft persons. And its project isto provldethe pretend thatthe rape In the linenroom there, she istold by the college girls knowledgewomen need to understand andmanage ourownbodies: subject and was apatienfs fantasy.28 about "a class in a women's school" . object ofinquiry are one.2^ where they learned, among other.; Reading the above passage from a things, to cure infections withlovage » The intolerance ofviolence in the feminist standpoint, it is easyto see compresses.32 Thus, Sybil can be seen ! that therape fantasy isthat ofthewhite possible future can beread as Piercy's as a "foremother" of the emerging ' reaction to the disproportionate male doctors. The parallel drawn

18 Revista de Estudos Germânicos movement in which forms of the ability to comprehend and But neither was she active in the medicine that have been suppressed implementchange for those whose political struggles (like Sybil, for as "voodoo" and "witchcraft" are ways of knowing and forms of example) that would have created a practiced along with surgery and knowledge have beendenied reality. more ambiguous relationship with genetic engineering. One of the Piercy's metaphor for implementing that culture than definitions ofmother most renowned "healers" in Piercy's these changes, however, is war. She and/ormental patient couldprovide. possible future is a black woman, concludes herbook withthecertainty Instead, Connie's resistance is Erzulia, who isfamous for developing thatConnie will be forced toundergo confinedtoconforming toherdoctors' amethodof setting boné fractures in a brain implant in spiteof hermodel expectations of her in order to buy the aged and who practices mental behavior. Such an event bodes the time and gain privileges, attempting telepathy in the control of physícal emergenceof Gildina's worldandthe to escape, and finally committing processes. Connie asks, "How can possibility of melding human and murder. anybody be into voodoo and machine for use and control by the medicine? It doesn't make sense!" empowered. While this paper is unable to Ludente, her guide,responds, "Each address in detail ali ofthe issues raised makes adifferent kindofsense, no?"33 Attheconclusion of Pierc/sstory, in Harding's and Piercy's books, Piercy's vision reflects the emergence asatthebeginning, Connie's choice is it is hoped that it nonetheless of feminist epistemologies in that todefendherselfagainst violence with demonstrates the relationship forms of subjugated knowledge violence. After losing herappeal tothe between sexist, classist, and racist stemming from suppressed practices doctors thatshebe allowed to forego policies in science and in societyat areaccepted in her future world. In thebrain implant, Connie poisons four large. For Harding, such policies addition, the valorization of a black ofthedoctors withapesticide that she are not a science-as-usual, whose woman as a professional healer hasstolenfrom herbrother's nursery. epistemological foundation of value- indicates an interest in redressing Her method of murder underscores neutral, objective inquiry is skewed the imbalance ofthe division oflabor the tragedy of her being thwarted in toward the needs of a white male discussed by Harding asthe position her potential development as a elite. Asboth Harding's and Piercy*s of feminist empiricists. Inthis instance, member of a caring community. As texts argue, feminist epistemologies Piercy isimagining areform ofsdence mentioned, her mirror image in the indicate revolutionary changes in such that the presence of women future, Luciente, is a plant geneticist knowers, waysof knowing, andthe scientists works to eliminate who is concerned to create and world tobeknown.Theyought toand androcentric bias that prohibits use plants for the growth of the do show us"theconditions necessary useful forms of medicine.Further, the community, not its destruction. to transfer control from the 'haves' to character of Erzulia addresses the Moreover, Sybil and her future the 'have-nots.'" Q issue ofthe absence ofblack women counterpart, Erzulia, show how the (and men) in the upper strata of the development of their knowledge of sdenceprofession's hierarchy andthe plants can lead to cures. Connie's forms of knowledge consequently solution of murder withtheverytools lacking in science for any sort of that could be used for good reflects "objetive" knowledge about theworld the dominant culture's own misuse of we inhabit. technology inits objectifying viewof the environment. Piercy's novel reveals the emergenge of the three feminist Assoon asConnie has poisoned epistemologies as detailed by the doctors, she understands that she Harding. Itdoesnot,however, offera is no longer receptiveto Luciente's Utopian vision, nor does it show an world. Piercy thusseems to conclude "intuitive grasp" of anyemancipatory that the possibility of the world that theory. Piercy simply imagines she imagines isdosed off by violence. a possible world given the Although Connie was receptive to intentionalityof people receptive to change, she could not escape the change. Connie's "receptivity" in confinesofthe reality defined for her contacting Luciente isa metaphor for by the dominant white male culture.

Feminist Epistemology inPiercysWoaan on the Edge ofTime 19 NOTES

1HARDING, S. Tbe Science Question inFeminism. Ithaca: Cornei! UP, 1986. p.33- 2Ibidem, p.20. 3 Ibidem, p.25. 4 Ibidem, p.26. 5 ibidem, p217. 6 Ibidem, p.202. 7 iodem, p.139. 8 ibidem, p.22. 9Ibidem. The "withdrawal" ofsodal support indudes programs for controlling reproduction, induding withholding of state funds for abortion for the poor, aswellassterilization ofthe poor. 10 HARDING, Sandra. Op. dt., p.73- 11 Harding's example ofthe selective revival ofsentimental images of motherhood suggests thedivision oflabor within thenudear family that corresponds tothehierarchical structure ofthescience industry. Inthenudearfamily, thewoman's work isessentialized asalabor of loveand isunpaid. Atthesame time, women'sworkmaybe classified as"leisure" ac tivity instudies thatseparate leisure andwork on the basis of moneyeamed. 12 HARDING, Sandra. Op. dt., p.23. 13 Ibidem, p.28. 14 PIERCY, Marge. Woman on tbe Edge ofTime. New York; Fawcett Crest, 1976, p.67. "Ibidem, p.218. 16 Ibidem, p.299. 17 Ibidem, p.45. 18 Ibidem, p.275. 19 Ibidem, p.105. 20 HARDING, Sandra. Op. dt., p.152. 21 Ibidem, p.153. 22 PIERCY, Marge. Op. cit., p.207. 23 Ibidem, p.209. 24 HARDING, Sandra. Op. cit., p.142. (HARDING dtes Hilary Rose, "Hand, Brain and Heart: AFeminist Epistemology for the Natural Sdences." Sign&Journal ofWomenin Culture andSociety 9(1983)). 25HARDLNG,S.Op.cit.,p.l44. 26 Rape, as disgusting to this future community as cannibalism is to us, is virtually unknown.

20 Revista de Estudos Germânicos 27 PIERCY concludes her bookwith excerpts from theOfficial History of Consuelo Camacho Ramos, presumably an actual "dinical summary" of a woman's confinement to Bellevue Hospital in New York. This history istelling in its objeaification of,"This 35-year-old Mexican-American Catholic woman separated from herhusband Edward..." 28 PIERCY, Marge. Op. cit., p. 194. 29 HARDING, Sandra. Op. cit., p.156. 30 Ibidem, p.218. 31 PIERCY, Marge. Op. cit., p. 198. 32 Ibidem, p.342. 33 Ibidem, p.159.

: Feminist Epistemology inPiercy's Woman on the Edge ofTime 21 Summary Assim, a definição mais corri queira de ironia aponta para essa Given that our knowledge of incongruência quando explica a ironia realUyisalwaysprovisional, that como"procedimentoexpressivo que is, since there isan inevitable consiste em dar a entender que não gap between our concepts se diz o que se diz." (Diaz-Migoyo, 1980:50). Esta definição 'lingüística' and "Dinge an sicb", irony não só estabelece um contraste entre isusedtobridgethisgap. Tbomas aquilo quesedizeaquilo quesequer Mann, the"Ironic dizer, mas chama também a atenção at • 1» i German" (E. para a desconfiança em relação à A Ironia em Morte m^^^ palavra por parte do receptor. not only through Doplanolingüístico pode-se pas his characters, butalso through sardiretamente parao planofilosófi hisstyle, provoking the readers co,umavezque a palavra é expressão de um determinado conceito, concei "mistrust". emVeneza toesteque, porsua vez,é reladonado Resumo a objetos ("objeto" no sentido mais amplo). ArelaçãoConceito - Objeto é Partindo dopressuposto dequeo problemática na medidaem que um nosso conhecimento conceito serve, normalmente, para abranger ou uma grande multipli darealidadesempre cidade de objetos ou objetos muito de Thomas Mann éprovisório, ouseja, complexos, tãocomplexos que costu que há uma eterna mam escapar aos limites delineados ruptura entre osnossosconceitos peloconceito.Aquestãoepistemoló- ea "coisa em si", a ironia entra gica, portanto, consistebasicamente como instância mediadorapara no problema da congruênciaou in- congruêndaentre Conceito e Objeto, irony in Thomas Mann's superar essa ruptura. Tbomas entre Conceito e Realidade, entre Death in Venice Mann, o "alemão irônico"(E. Consdênda e Ser, entre Eu e Mundo Heller), recorreà ironia não (cf.Bourgeois, 1974:30/31):

somente através deseusprota elleQlronle) n'estrien demoinsqu'une gonistas, mas principalmente attitude de1'esprit devam leprobleme de Georg Otte' através desualinguagem, que 1'existence, qu'une prise de posltion philosophique dans Ia question fonda- exige "desconfiança"porparte mentale des rapports du moi et du do leitor. monde. Desta dicotomia fazpartea divisão do Eu em Eu consciente e Eu incons 1. Reflexões preliminares sobre ciente. A busca da identidade do ironia indivíduo nada maisé que a buscade uma congruência entre o conceito Partindoda idéia de que todairo elaboradopelaconsdênda do Eu e o nia é resultado de uma incon- Eu inconsdente. gruêndae, partindo também do pres suposto lógico de que cadaincogru- Porém, a simplesrupturaepiste- ência implica uma relação binaria, mológica entre Conceito e Objeto, toda análise da ironia deve consistir normalmente designadapela noção em detectar os dois lados daquela do 'erro',nãoé suficiente paraexpli- incongruência. * Departamento de Letras Germânicas, Faculdade de Letras, UFMG.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.22-29 DEZ. 1989

22 Revistade EstudosGermânicos ear, demaneira satisfatória, o fenôme conceito à realidade, realidade esta conceitos tradicionais, mas no sen nodaironia. Como jáfoi dito, a com quepornatureza sempre foge ao ideal tido de defender a Realidade como preensão de umacolocação irônica do Conceito (cf. a relação simulacro- tal, contra o poder "aniquilador" pressupõe uma atitude de descon idéia na filosofia platônica), significa (Nietzsche/ Ecce homo). fiança por parte do receptor, ouseja, forçar uma congruência entre um um mínimo deatenção paraeventuais conceito "poderoso" e a realidade. A Éprovavelmente nesse sentido sinais de ironia. Vendo a linguagem atitude irônica, concedendo vida que Th. Mann, nassuas"Meditações como reflexo de determinados con própria à Realidade, desmascara o deum apolítico", defende uma posi ceitos, esta desconfiança, naverdade, caráter impositivo do Conceito, ou ção "conservadora" que considera questiona asinceridadedo falanteem seja, a pseudo-congruência entre irônica e ataca, ao mesmo tempo, o relação àcongruênda entreConceito Conceito e Realidade. "radicalismo" político, no casoo radi eObjeto (estamos falando de um caso calismo de cunho marxista. Tendo o de "ironia intencional"; a seguir). Apesar de serumareduçãoinad marxismo como fundamento a idéia "Sinceridade" e "desconfiança" aqui missível, a oposição entre Conceito e de que a Realidade podeser inteira não são consideradas no seu sentido Realidade podecontribuir para escla mentecompreendida atravésde con moral, mas como noçõespsicológicas recer também a divisão geralmente ceitos teóricos, ouseja, nãoadmitindo que evidenciam o fato de que uma adotada entre "ironia intencional" e uma praxis que fuja, parasempre, à pessoa tem uma certa liberdade em "ironia do destino". Mesmo desig teoria, o marxismoseria uma filosofia relação aos conceitos, sejam eles nando uma ruptura entre Conceito e não-irônica, nos termos da ironia do conceitos individuais ou sodais (valo Realidade, asduas divergem segundo destino. Admitindo uma correção res , etc), e de distandar-se deles. Na o alvodo questionamento irônico. O dialética pela práxis, o marxismo não suatentativa de captar o Mundo men tipode ironia acima descrito, quevisa aceita nenhuma ruptura ontológica talmente através de conceitos, de a questionar a validadede determina entre os dois. racionalizar o Mundo, o ser humano dosconceitos, poderiaserconsidera da como "ironia do destino". A "ironia teria, portanto, a liberdadede ques 2. A ironiano planodo enunciado tionar ou até de abandonar estes intendonal" seria, consequentemente, conceitos que, conseqüentemente, dirigida contra a Realidade, questio Segundo E. Heller (1958:23), perderiam qualquer valorabsoluto. A nando um determinado estado de existe, na obradeThomas Mann, uma noção da ironia é ligada justamente a coisas. Neste caso,algum ponto de "incongruência calculada e artisti esta margem de liberdade emrelação vista teórico, mais ou menos bem camente bem sucedidaentreo sentido aosconceitos quesofrem,assim, uma definido, serviria como base para da história narrada e a maneira de relativação permanente(cf. a "bufo- questionar, ou seja, ironizar "inten narrá-la". Construindo "uma casa naria permanente" de F. Schlegel). cionalmente" uma situação indese- tradidonalmentesólida em local meta- jada. Do romance-pícaro à literatura fisicamente condenado", deixando Uma vez que os conceitos são engajada faz-se uso da ironia inten uma ruptura entre uma "forma tradi questionáveis e relativos, deve-se donala fim decriticar principalmente cional" e a "experiênda de desinte perguntar pelasuarazãodeser.Histo alguma realidade social. gração" (entre Conceito e Realidade), ricamente, a tendência de concei- Mann causaria uma impressão de Perguntar-se-ia seosdoistiposde tualizar o Mundo teve o seu maior "profundaironia" (Heller, 25). impulso na época do Iluminismo, ironianão estariam ligados, também, quando o Saber era considerado co a determinadas posições ideológicas Transferindo a dicotomia Concei mo base indispensável para aemand- ou políticas. Sendoa ironia intencio tox Realidade paraa literatura, o efeito pação do Homem, paraa "libertação nal uma ironia voltada contra uma irônico surgiria comoprodutode uma do Homem da sua menoridade" determinada realidade, baseando-se rupturaentrediscurso literário e mun (Kant/ O queé Ilustração?). O termo na "intenção" de contribuir para a do ficdonal. Étarefa do leitor "descon "menoridade" expressa bem como a transformação desta realidade, esse fiar" da coerência aparente deste falta de saber é ligada a uma questão tipo de ironia, provavelmente, deve mundo, insinuada por um discurso de impotência, ou seja, de falta de ser encontrado mais no campo pro tradicional. Esta desconfiança em poder. Encaixar uma determinada gressista. A "ironia do destino", ao relação a um narrador "tongue-in- realidadedentro de um conceito e contrário, que ataca, como um todo, cheek" (Almansi), de um narrador tomar, assim, esta realidade manejá- a possibilidade de conceituaiizar a que esconde qualquersinalóbviode vel, significa não só emandpar-se da Realidade de maneira abrangente, ironia, deve ter, contudo, algum fun dependência desta realidade, mas teria um caráter"conservador", não no damento, por parte do leitor, seja também apoderar-se dela. Impor um sentido deconservar valores, ou seja, dentro da obra literária, seja em

AIronia em Morte emVeneza deThomas Mann 23 conhecimentos extra-literários (co ao primeiro tipo de ironia, atacando a sua província natal foi conquistada nhecimentos históricos sobreaépoca "intencionalmente", por meios esti (20), ou quando ele aplica para asua em questão, p. ex.). Estes últimos lísticos, umarealidade pseudo-harmo- vida o lema "resistir" (o original podemlevar aumacomparação entre niosa, aopasso queMann "finge" uma "durchhalten" tem uma conotação aobra e asituação histórica naépoca continuidade conceituai servindo-se militar). dasuacriação e levantar no leitor uma de umalinguagem tradicional, conti primeira suspeita em relação à"since nuidadeesta, no entanto, desmentida Aluta interna deAschenbach para ridade" do autor. O leitor pode se pelo "destino", quer dizer pela própria venceraprópria instabilidade física ou perguntar se é intenção do autor Realidade. Nesse sentido, Mann pode psíquica, mostra como elesubordina fornecer, p. ex., um retrato maisou atésercomparado a Kafka, que tam asuavidaauma imagemde"grande menos fiel da época (a pretensão bém se mostrou avesso a qualquer za" (20) ou superioridade, alimentada realista) ou se ele quer questionaro experimentalismo formal (emrelação pormodelos históricos etambém pelo estadode coisaspor meios irônicos. às normas sintáticas, p. ex.), escre espírito (militarista) da época, na vendosobre um mundo absurdo, sem véspera da 1' Guerra Mundial. Todas Voltandoàsafirmaçõesde Heller, coerência. asdúvidas em relação aesta imagem, pode-seentrever como pressuposto a do modo como elassurgiram na ju idéia dequeexiste para cada conteúdo ventude (222/23), são consideradas uma forma adequada, ou seja uma 2.1. RetratodeAschenbach produto do "encanto picante e amar congruênda entreenunciadoe enun- go do conhedmento"(23), conheci Outra possibilidade de o leitor ciação. Para a literatura "tradicional", mento este que tem, para o "mestre "desconfiar" da "sinceridade" do nar isto significaria que uma linguagem maduro", um caráter de superficia- rador é a análise dos personagens coesa reflete uma realidade suposta lidade, comparada com a "profun ficcionais (quando osmesmosnãosão mente coesa. Segundoesta visãomi- didade" que "negao saber, recusa-o, idênticos à figura do narrador). Os mética, ainda, autores modernos co ultrapassa-o de cabeça erguida, toda personagens, por um lado, fazem mo Joyce e Proust seriam coerentes vez que este(o saber) ameaça, ainda parte do "Mundo" do narrador, por quandoseservemde uma linguagem que de longe, tolher, desencorajar e outro lado, são portadores de uma fragmentada para representar um desmerecer avontade,aação, o senti consdênda própria e têm que lidar, mundo fragmentado ou, como no mento e mesmo a paixão." Éinteres por sua vez, com relação conflitante caso de Proust, um Eu fragmentado. sante observar que é nesse contexto entre Conceito e Realidade. É o caso Com esta congruência "negativa", que surge a palavra "ironia" que, para do protagonista Aschenbach em "Mor estesautores continuariamsendo nao- Aschenbach, junto com a dúvida, é te em Veneza". Logo no início do irônicos, uma vez que eles aspiram a fruto do conhedmento e, com isso, conto, quando da sua "apresentação" uma congruênda entre enunciaçãoe obstáculo no caminho de Aschenbach ao leitor, destaca-se o caráter coerd- enunciado. Mantendo umalinguagem para a "dignidade" (22/23). Ela é tivo das suasatividadescomoescritor: tradicional diante de uma realidade sinônimo de "dubiedade moral" e em desintegração, Th. Mann optou Aschenbach jádissera uma vez expres "simpatia pelo abismo" (24), supe porum discurso irônico que exigedo samente ...quequase tudoqueexiste de radas pelo "milagre da espontanei grandioso existe comoum "apesar de", leitor um maior grau de atenção para dade renascida." o "tongue-in-cheek", ou seja, que ou seja, algo quese realizou apesar de preocupações e tormentos, apesar da Coma superação dos problemas deixa o leitor numa dúvida maior a pobreza, do abandono, da fragilidade respeito da postura do narrador. física, dovício, dapaixão e demiloutros do conhecimento que questionam a obstáculos. relação Conceito - Realidade e com a Seria uma simplificação inad imposição de uma pretensa "espon missível considerar Joyce e Proust Até"jatos de água fria no peitoe taneidade" ("Unbefangenheit", em como autores não-irônicos. Tanto nas costas" (20; númerossimples se alemão, significa literalmente 'des Joyce quantoProust questionam, de referemàtradução brasileira, menci prendimento'), Aschenbach serecusa maneira irônica, a suposta homoge onada nabibliografia) têmque ajudar a admitiralguma ruptura irônica na neidade, seja de uma determinada para que Aschenbach, que pormoti sua visão do mundo. De uma certa cosmovisão individual, seja de deter vosde saúde não pôde freqüentar a maneira, Aschenbach reclama ser minados valores sociais. Porém, escola, vençaa inércia e a fragilidade representante da Realidade como ela transferindo a divisão em "ironia do corpo. Toda aatitude de Aschen é, postulando um acesso direto ("es intendonal" e "ironia do destino" para bachganha atéum aspecto guerreiro pontâneo") aela, sem o intermediário a técnica narrativa, poder-se-ia dizer quando a tenacidade da sua"luta" é de uma razãocrítica, ou seja irônica. que estes dois autoresrecorremmais comparada àtenacidade coma qual É por essa ausência de qualquer

24 Revista de Estudos Germânicos dúvida "corrosiva" que Aschenbach razão e pelaautodisciplina "exercida último "não tinha direito a se fazer conquista tanto a "confiança de am desdeajuventude." (14) Ele desiste do passar por um deles (dos jovens)..." plas massas de público" quanto o seu plano de voltar ao trabalho, oca (31). reconhecimento por parte do Gover sião máxima paraexercitar asua auto noque inclui "páginas dasua autoria disciplina, e, temendo a vingança do Detectar o "engano" do velho, nasantologias escolaresoficialmente "sentimento esaavizado" (15), acaba para Aschenbach, é uma maneira de adotadas" e lhe confere o título de cedendo a uma "necessidade de uma manter o controle do seu mundo que nobreza. Acolaboração como Poder pausa, umpoucode improvização, de é o mundo da relação inequívoca Oficial pode ser vista como conti vadiagem..." (16). entre Conceito e Realidade, entre nuação da imposição dos princípios aparêndae verdade. Aschenbachnão na vidapessoal de Aschenbach. Os é capaz deaceitar, como osjovens do seus escritos ganham um "caráter 2.2Aschenbach viajando grupo, a brincadeira (a "bufonaria") ofidalmente pedagógico" depois de do velho e lhe contesta o "direito"de Aviagema \fenezaé uma conces ele ter eliminado qualquer espírito disfarçar-se. O velho é um "jovem sãodeAschenbach aoseu"desejo de crítico-irônico, espíritoeste que tam fuga", ela representa um meio termo postiço" (31), falso, aos olhos de bém é inimigo do poder governa que permite a sua "almaeuropéia" Aschenbach que, por sua vez, se mental. A"espontaneidade renasdda" satisfazer veleidades até então repri recusa a qualquer ambigüidade que deAschenbach, queé resultado de um midase continuar, ao mesmo tempo, questionaria a sua compreensão do ceticismo reprimido, toma-se instru dentro do mundo familiar europeu. A mundoe, comisso, oseupodersobre mento paraa repressãopolítica. este mundo. Itália, ou seja, Veneza, representam Esta breve retrospectiva biográ para Aschenbach a possibilidade de Porém,aviagemse toma ao mes fica, quenosapresenta o protagonista escaparparaum "far-niente de trêsou mo tempo uma despedida da terra Aschenbach como pessoa "não-irô quatro semanas", mas o dispensam firme dos conceitos fixos e, pouco nica", segueao primeirocapítulo(na também de ir mais longe("nãoexa depois dapartida donavio, depois de tradução brasileira, a divisão em tamente atéostigres") e de ultrapassar constatar que"nem tudo se encaixava capítulos é apenas indicada por as barreiras do mundo ocidental. Esta de modo habitual", a sua indignação espaços em branco), que mostra divisão geográfica emEuropa Central, cede ao embalo dos movimentos do Aschenbach durante um passeio por Europa do Sul e Trópicos reflete, de navio e, perdendo cada vez mais o um bairro de Munique. Durante o uma certamaneira, a 'geografia inter 'controle da situação',ele não resiste passeio, inicialmente uma tentativa na'deAschenbach, geografia naqual mais ao cansaço que o vinha acom para descansarde um "trabalho árduo Veneza representaria o lugaronde a panhando desde Munique, cansaço e arriscado", Aschenbach é surpre rigidez dos "conceitos centro-euro- esteque,além deserconseqüênda de endido porum "sentimento tãovivo, peus" entra em conflito com a reali um trabalho árduo, tem características tão novo, ou, antes, há tanto tempo dade meridional, que, nessa hora, metafísicas e parece ter suas causas inabitual e desaprendido" (12) que representa a Realidade. naquela 'rigidez conceituai' que o nem a tão treinada autodisciplina Aprópria viagem de navio para impedia de aceitar situações 'inade podeimpedir umaluta interior entre Veneza temcaráter de transição, por quadas',ou seja, rupturas irônicas. visões de uma paisagem tropical e que nela reaparece a luta interna de tentativas de compreender e de do Éinteressante observar que o Aschenbach entre impulsos incons minar estas investidas descontroladas autor, para descrever aatmosfera desta do seu inconsciente. Com uma apa cientes e tentativas da consciência de viagem, recorre a um vocabulário colocar estes impulsos noseu"devido rente facilidade, Aschenbach dá um parecidoàquele que servia paraevo lugar", ou seja, entre a tentação de se nomea estes impulsos("Era vontade car o ambiente de uma paisagem de viajar, nada mais" (12)—"Ele sabia entregar àsedução domeio e o impe tropical: rativo de não perder o controle da perfeitamente por que motivo a ten ... céu carregado de vapores ... região tação surgira tão inopinadamente. Era situação. Assim, Aschenbachobserva a aparência "repugnante" do vende pantanosa, úmida...brejos ebraços derio desejo de fuga..." (14)), tentando não lamacentos ... flores flutuantes de um dorde passagens (quetem um"arde perder o controle, o poder sobre as branco ieitoso (13) manifestações do inconsciente. Po- diretor de circo mambembe"(29)) e fica horrorizado com a descoberta de O céu estava cinzento; o vento, úmido ... rém^Àschenbach não consegue mais horizonte nevoento... flocos de fuligem moderar estas manifestações ecolocá- um velho disfarçado de jovem. ... cúpula opaca do céu... espaço vazio las, no «devido lugar" através da sua Aschenbach se recusa a aceitar simu e indiviso... incomensurável... gestos lação e disfarce e reclama que este vagos ... palavras confusas, como num sonho ...62/33). AJ^emMtíe em Veneza de Thomas Mann 25 Apesar dese tratarde duassitua e conteúdo,Aschenbach só conhece Pois abeleza, meu caro Fedro, e apenas ções topográficas bem diferentes, "aforma" (24), cujas origens elevêna ela,é simultaneamentevisívele enleva- dora. Elaé—nota bem—aúnica forma predomina,nos dois casos,a impres cultura grega, o "berço" da cultura ideal que percebemos por melo dos são da umidade, do opaco-cinzento, européia, queé damaior importânria sentidose que nossos sentidos podem do vago e do sujo, todos elementos para a justificação da sua atuação suportar. (74) quecontradizem osconceitos claros e como escritor ("Excessivamente "limpos" deAschenbach e queatrapa ocupado com astarefas queseu eu e Tratando-se, porém, deumapro lhamqualquerconceitualização bem a alma européia lhe propunham,..." jeção queaplica aTadzio, Aschenbach trai, de certa maneira, a teoria de delineada das coisas.Tratando-se, no (13)). primeiro caso, de um impulso incons Schiller, que considerava a síntese ciente, uma "visão", Aschenbach se É nesse mundo grego que entre o sensível e o espiritual/formal Aschenbach procura encabcar ojovem censura a si mesmo ("meneando a comoumatode liberdade, rejeitando; cabeça" (13)), recalcando, assim, a Tadzio: assim, uma normalização rígida da arte (Schiller atacava a estética ilu- realidade inconsciente do próprio Eu. ...belocomoum deus,erauma visãoque Aviagem para Veneza, entretanto, inspirava concepçõesmísticas, eracomo minista).Paradoxalmente, a teoriada sendouma realidade domundoexter o anúncio poético do início dostempos, (livre)conciliação torna-se,nasmãos noquenãopodesernegada, provoca dasorigensdaforma edonascimento dos de Aschenbach, uma camisa de força deuses. (52) uma mudança em Aschenbach: ele para "prender" seu "objeto" Tadzio, desiste de censurar "enganos" e se Se,nesta citação, ainda parece ser a cujocorpoé admirado porexpressar deixa vencer por um ambiente mais nova realidade que causa ("inspira") "disciplina"e "precisão de pensa "poderoso". a "concepção", a insistência com a mento" (72). Como Aschenbach não qual Aschenbach se dirige a Tadzio consegue lidar com a força sedutora como"Fedro" (semchegara falar com que a figura de Tadzio exerce sobre 2.3. Aschenbache Tadzio ele de fato) mostra comotentaconse ele,comonãoé capazde admitir uma realidade alheia aos seus conceitos e Aviagem de Aschenbach, origi guir algum domínio sobre o jovem . Aschenbach transforma o diálogo de entregar-se cegamente a ela, tem nalmente "uma medida higiênica, que que "apoderar-se" deTadzio, impon erapreciso adotarde temposem tem platônico num monólogo que impõe do-lhe"concepções míticas". Quando pos" (13), torna-seuma tentativa de a Tadzio a concepção que tem do rapaz. Aschenbach mantém o silêncio a res conciliar o conceito que adotoupara peitodaepidemia de cólera queflage asua vidae os "impulsos" do incons Em momento algum, Aschenbach la a região de Veneza, ele dá uma ciente que abalam a firmeza destes procura o contacto direto comTadzio, provaprática do seu desejode domi conceitos. Como ele não é capazde e o seu "amor" por eleevitaqualquer narTadzio. O planodesegurarTadzio adotar umapostura irônica em relação resposta. Assim, Tadzio aparece muito ao seu lado se frustra, porém, — aos seus conceitos, no sentido de mais como uma projeção doseucon ironicamente — com outra realidade aceitar asmanifestações desteincons ceito de beleza que de um amor à inconcebível que é a morte. cientecomo algo que escapa a um busca de satisfação mútua. Aschen controle total, ele procurase libertar bach, querendo, mais umavez, impor delas comodeumcorpoestranhoque ao outro a sua imagem, aniquila 3.Aironiano plano daenunciação temque serextirpadoatravésde uma Tadzio como Outro e impede assim Aironia, em Th.Mann,manifesta- "medida higiênica". uma relaçãoverdadeiramente amoro se sob várias facetas, inclusive auto sa,que,segundo F. Schlegel, é neces Aschenbach não só mostra esta biográficas (asobras queAschenbach sariamente irônica. Tadzio representa intransigênda em relação asi mesmo, levou a cabo com tanto sacrifício, paraAschenbach umideal de beleza, mas também no que dizrespeito aos como a biografia de Frederico o cujo modelo, desde o classicismo outros. Como nocasodo "jovem pos Grande, são projetos abandonados alemãoaté Nietzsche, é a arte grega. tiço", Aschenbach não admite uma pelo próprio Mann). Espedalmente Seguindo a teoria sobre o belo do relaçãolúdicaentre Conceitoe Reali no início doconto, na"apresentação" autorclássico F. Schiller ("A Educação dade(que,segundo Friedrich Schiller de Aschenbach,não faltamelementos Estética do Homem"), segundoa qual é base de uma visão estética do mun irônicos baseados no princípio do a arte como concretização do belo do) e censura o comportamento exagero que podem ser vistos como seria a única maneira de conciliar "inadequado" do velho. Em vez de sinais de ironia. O exagero como matéria e forma, Aschenbach procura deixar estarelaçãoem aberto,emvez recurso da ironia retórica (cf. a repe- de admitir um jogo livre entre forma estaconciliação na figura de Tadzio: tição de "excessivamente" na pág. 13)

26 Revista deEstudos Germantcos -| reflete o exagero na "autodisciplina" relaçãoaos própriosconceitoscomo Assim, p. ex.,a merajustaposição de Aschenbach. Qualificar um deter condiçãoindispensável da ironianão mais ou menosbruscados impulsos minado discurso comoexpressão de se encontra no protagonista, eladeve inconscientes de Aschenbach com a umexagero depende,semdúvida, da ser resultado da própria leitura da censura subsequentedestesmesmos recepção por parte do leitor(a repe obra, cujonarrador pode contribuir, impulsos podeprovocar noleitor um tição comorecursoretóriconãoé um de maneira mais ou menos sutil, para primeiro protesto contra esta censura sinal inequívoco da produção de o distanciamento irônico entreo leitor e levá-lo a abandonar uma eventual efeitos irônicos), assim como todo e osconceitosdo protagonista. Tratan identificação inicial com o prota efeito irônico pressupõe uma deter do-se, em ThomasMann,de um autor gonista. Aceitando avida inconsdente minada interpretação que, até nos "tongue-in-cheek", este distancia de Aschenbach comorealidade inegá casosmais"óbvios", pode variar de mento não é conseguido através vel, o leitor distancia-se automati receptor parareceptor. Assim é de se de sinaisexplícitos, mas atravésda camente da posição intransigente esperar quemuitos leitores daépoca, técnica narrativa. deste personagem,cujareaçãonega quando adisdplina militar fazia parte tivaàs manifestaçõesdo inconsdente Não se pode, aqui, entrar em até da vida nas escolas, não tenham ganha para o leitor um aspecto exa detalhes danarratologia de"Morte em visto nenhumaironiana descrição da geradoou atéridículo. Distanciando- Veneza", devido àsuacomplexidade. atitude de Aschenbach. Participando se tanto da realidade (inconsdente) Sabendo-se, porém, que o narrador dos mesmos princípios' militaristas, quanto dosconceitos (consdentes) do destaobra ocupauma posição osci muitos leitores, pelo menos nesta protagonista, o leitor descobre a lante entre a narração onisdente na primeira parte dotexto, nãodevem ter incongruência entreos doisplanos e terceira pessoa eaperspectiva pessoal constatado nenhum exagero na assiste ao desmascaramento irônico do protagonista, passando pelomeio "Weltanschauung" de Aschenbach, dos princípios intransigentes de termo do"style indirecte libre", saben exagero este que poderia criar a Aschenbach. Arepetição dosmesmos do-sequeelevacila entreumaposição expectativa defuturas incongruências princípios no final do texto (cf. págs. objetiva e subjetiva, abre-se uma irônicas. 23/24 e 113), quando Aschenbach, primeira pista em direção a uma nar provavelmente contagiado pelacóle Como jáfoi ditoanteriormente, a rativa irônica. Identificando-se com a ra,estáà beirada morte, a colocação figura doprotagonista, o narrador tem meraincongruência entre Conceito e destes princípios numambiente som Realidade, o simples erro, não são a possibilidade deconhecer asuavida brio, os torna cada vez mais quês- • suficientes para se poder falar em interior, inclusive os seus "impulsos" tionáveis: ironia, poiso erro pressupõea noção inconscientes. Saindo desta identi da verdade,e a ironia,sendo de natu ficação, afastando-se do protagonista Láestava ele sentado, o mestre, o artista reza essencialmente aberta, sempre e tomando a posição de um narrador dignificado, oautor de Um miserável, que vai além desse maniqueísmo entre em terceira pessoa, eleestabelece a emtão exemplar pureza deforma recusa ra a boêmia e as profundezas turvas, verdadeiro e falso. Ela questiona, ou distância necessária para provocar negara qualquer simpatia pelo abismo e até nega, a possibilidade de uma efeitos irônicos, distância esta (a reprovara o réprobo... (113). relação inequívoca entre Conceito e "lacuna" daestética darecepção) que Realidade, evitando assim qualquer tem queserpreenchida pelo leitor. Osmesmos princípios, repetidos "verdade" com valor absoluto. depois da tentativa fracassada de Aschenbach, que rejeita "qualquer Assim, o distandamento neces possuirTadzio, são desmentidos pelos simpatia peloabismo" (24; tb. 113) sário à postura irônica, uma vez que fatos, ouseja pela decadênda física de ele não é conseguido pelo protago considera-se "liberto de toda ironia" Aschenbach e aparecem, com isso, nista Aschenbach, efetua-se através de (113). Ele não se distancia dos pró sob umfococompletamente diferen prios conceitos que delimitam a um narrador onisciente. Como este, te.Arigidez dosprintípios cedeaum Realidade e sãoresponsáveis pelasua porém, não recorre asinais explícitos discurso de "palavras desconexas", deironia, eleapenas oferece aoleitor proferidas por "lábios frouxos, rele visão "fechada" das coisas e de si umamargem para poderadotar uma vadospelos cosméticos" (113). mesmo. leitura crítica. Adisposição donarrado Se o protagonista Aschenbach é talvez sejao recurso mais importante A maquilagem de Aschenbach umpersonagem "anti-irônico", se ele do narrador para guiar, porumlado, não é apenas grotesca por apontar se vangloria da sua "espontaneidade o andamento da leitura, sem deter para um comportamento "inadequa reconquistada" (115),deve-sepergun minar, poroutro lado, oentendimento do" (em relação ao comportamento tarentão de onde surge o efeito irô definitivo do texto. anterior), mas ganha um peso nico. Uma vez que a distância em específico por representar um

A Ironia em Morte em Veneza de Tbomas Mann 27 espelhamento, uma repetição in rência de um esvaziamento dos mes A morte em "Morteem Veneza', vertida, do "jovem postiço", tão mos conceitos que carecem de um como realidade definitiva, não só condenado anteriormente. O fato de sustento real. A descrição do estado desmente a arrogânda dos conceitos Aschenbach adotar uma atitude antes lamentável de Aschenbach relativiza e deAschenbach, mas morre, junto com rejeitada não produz nenhum efeito ironiza também o último discurso ele, toda a grecomania que, por sua irônico nele, no sentido de perceber "platônico", dirigido aTadzio. Acolo vez,é representativa daalienação dos a contradição e de reconhecer a cação deste discurso imediatamente intelectuais da época em relação aos relatividade dos próprios conceitos. depois da descrição de Aschenbach acontecimentos políticos. Nesta obra, A ironia apresenta-se apenas para cria um contraste entre o aspecto Mann não só ironiza a atitude não- o leitor atento que compara o deplorável de Aschenbach e o con irônica de um protagonista isolado, Aschenbach do início com o teúdo idealista do discurso que come mastambém a mentalidade"fechada" Aschenbach no final do texto. ça, maisumavez, com"Pois abeleza, de umaépoca concreta. Esta mentali Fedro,... (114)." Mais uma vez, a dade, por maiselaborada que tenha A relação entre Aschenbach e simples justaposição, ouseja, sucessão sido, mostrou-se estreita demais para Tadzio também é caracterizada por imediata no plano da enunciação, absorver asnovastendêndaspolíticas. uma paulatina inversão de posições provoca umaruptura brusca no plano Para osadeptos do"belesprit", acatás que evidencia a fragilidade dos seus doenundado,ruptura queé interpre trofe da Primeira Guerra Mundial foi conceitos. Esta inversão vai da usur- tada como contradição. Esta justapo uma realidade que não se encaixava pação da figura de Tadzio através da siçãodispensao narrador de usarum em conceito nenhum. Q imposição de um sistemade conceitos sinal de ironia explícito e deixa a (no caso a mitologia grega) até à critério do leitor o preenchimento do "derrota" de Aschenbach, em decor "vazio" irônico.

BIBLIOGRAFIA

A) MANN, Thomas. DerTodin Vcnedig, IN: Sümtliche Erzãhlungen inzweiBãnden. Frankfurt: Fischer, 1966, v.l, p.493-584. MANN, Thomas. Morteem Veneza. TonioKroeger. Trad. Eloísa Ferreira Araújo Silva. Rio deJaneiro: Nova Fronteira, 1984. MANN, Thomas. Ironie undRadikalismus, IN: HASS/MOHRLUEDER (a seguir), p.359-372.

B) ALMANSI, Guido. L'ajfairemystérieuse de1'abominable tongue-in-cheek. In: Poêtique, 36(1978), p.413-426.

BAUMGART, Reinhard. Daslroniscbeund dieIronieinden Werken ThomasManns. Frankfurt - Berlin- Wien: 1974. BOECKMANN, Paul. DerWiderstreit von Geist undLeben undseine ironisebe Vermittlung indenRomanen Thomas Manns. IN: Wissenschaft aisDialog, 1969, p.194-215. BOURGEOIS, André. "Préface et introduetion." In: Uironie romantique. Grenoble, 1974. DIAZ-MIGOYO, Gonzalo. Elfuncionametüodela ironia In: MONEGAL, Emir Rodriguez. Humor, ironia, parodia. Caracas/ Madrid, 1980.

HASS, Hans-Egon; MOHRLUEDER, Gustav-Adolf (eds.). Ironie aisliterarischesPbânomen. Kõln , 1973. HEIMRICH, Bernhard. DerBegriJfderParel^aseina^Irmie-TemindogieMedrkbScblegels, IN: HASS/MOHRLUEDER, p.163-167.

28 Revista de Estudos Germânicos HELLER, Erich. Tbe ironie German. Astudy qfTIjomasMann. London: Secker e Warburg, 1958. KANT, Imanuel. BeanttvortungderFrage: WasistAufklãrung. In: Werke, v.9,p.53-6l. Darmstadt, 1975. KOOPMANN, Helmut. TbomasMann. Tbeorie und Praxis derepiscben Ironie. IN: Deutsche Romantheorien. Frankfurt a.M. - Bonn, Athenaeum Verlag, 1968, p.274-296.

N1ETZSCHE, Friedrich. Eccebomo, In: Werke, v.2.München, 1982. SCHILLER, Friedrich. ÜberdieãstbetiscbeErziebungdesMenschen. In: Werke, v.2. München, 1984.

AIronia em Morte emVeneza deTbomas Mann ^ Summary a focus onthe latter, Iwill demonstrate how written form of certain novéis Thepurpose ofthis studyis to creates a fictional representation showhowthe context oforality of the externai world and how it deeplyinfluences thestructure of incorporates and reflects the African the African novel, contributing oral tradition. to its identity. Tbefirstpart of The paper will be divided into thepaperserves as a supportfor two main segments. The first deals tbe second with the development ofthe African novel; it provides a theoretical in framework and historical background The Written Textin a Zlb it for the second, which constitutes an emphasizes analysis of threerepresentative novéis thattheAfrican novelclearly that contain basic characteristics portrays its of oral literature. Before outlining general features present in works, I would like to discuss two importam C/OfltCXt OJ vJVallty! political context. aspects regarding the identity of the Tbe secondpart, African novel. then, analyzes The contemporaryAfrican novel how characteristics of of the second half of the twentieth century and the earlyworks, written anApproach to HZZZt1""" duringthe first halfof the century or before, derive from the European Resumo literary tradition. As Chidi Amuta explains, African writers were to a O propósito deste certain extent influencedby westem novéis, since these "formed part of theAfricanNovel ££ZZ the literature syllabus of colonialist oralidade influen educationin differentparts of África" ciaprofundamente a estrutura (125).The African novel, however, is do romance africano, contri not amere'deviation' ofthe European novel.African writers havenotsimply buindoparaa identidade deste. copied European literary forms: 0 Texto Escrito no Contexto da Aprimeirapartedeste trabalho they have adapted them to theirown Oralidade: uma Abordagem ao servecomoapoiopara a segun literarycontext. In other words, the written textinÁfrica isa product of its Romance Africano da, uma vezenfatizando queo romanceafricano retrata clara context,Obviouslydifferent from the European one. menteseucontextopolítico ecul tural. A segunda parte, pois, Referring to the question of Gláucia Renate Gonçalves* analisa como característicasda whether the African novel is the same oralidade são manifestadas no as the westem novel, CharlesLarson indicates that there are similarities,but texto escrito. the African novel has developed its own peculiar characteristics, in that The purpose of this research "in spite ofthelack ofseveral typical paper istoshowhowtheAfrican unities which are generally considered novel has evolved in the twentieth to hold the western novel together, century in terms of theme, style, purposeor objective, and form. With * Unlversity of North Carolina atChapei HÜ1. __

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.30-35 DEZ. 1989

30 Revista de Estudos Germânicos that is, to give it its structural modified usage of the English In1953, the Nigerian writerAmos background, the African writer has language, which is then adapted to Tutuola published Tbe Palm-Wine created new unities which give his African linguistic patterns. It is an Drinkard. At that time, Europe was fiction form and pattern"(21). On the innovated and innovative language: more aware of África and its literary other hand, several critics havestated it allows the 'intrusion' ofvemacular development, andTutuola's novel, at that thenovel istheonlyliterary genre terms, as well as the imposition of first criticized for being a series of which does not have African roots— a foreign syntax, through which episodic tales, awkwardly arranged, in contrast to poetry and drama.1 As musicality and rhythm overflow. was later praised for its narrative Frantz Fanon has written, "we today Figures ofspeech,suchashyperbole, spontaneity and simplistic, but cando everything, so long as we do repetition and onomatopoeia are original andcreative useoflanguage. not imitate Europe (253)"- The constantly present. It is through Fromthen on, a seriesof other novéis question that emerges here is: have language structure that one of the were published. An examinationof African writers totally copiedthenovel most important features of orality is general characteristics of African as a literary genre, or have they portrayed, that being the use of novéis reveals that they tend toward simply borrowed thewritten form of proverbs. This 'unusual' language realistcportrayalsof specificsettings the novel to function as concrete indicates a need to read the novéis in and historicalmoments. Basically one documentation for the oral narrative an also 'unusual' way. Although the mayidentify twodistinct 'generations' ofthe continent? language iswestern,the textsare not of writers, each with its own western and should not be read as particular features: a first one, Based on the African oral such. Ali ofthismustbe kept dearly in grouping writers of the 1950's and tradition, it can be affirmed that mind in order to avoid criticizing 1960's; and a second, fromthe 1970's the folk tale could very well have African fiction bylooking atitthrough up to today — a generation of provided the 'seed' for the written 'westerneyes'.An unbiased approach post-colonial writers. Each of these novel of the late nineteenth and the is, thus, necessary. generations, although thematically twentieth centuries. As McEwa notes, different, is generallycommited to a "novéis ... depend before anything fictional representation ofthe externai elseon the art of story-telling" (28). The Rise ofthe Novel social and political situation. The western influence should not be From a chronological point of disregarded; however, the African Within the first generation of view, poetry was thefirst literary genre novel may be seen as written and writers, a certain thematic change is toappearinÁfrica, interms ofwritten expanded versions of tales. Both the evident. In thebeginningofthe 1950's literature. Itwassoon followed bythe novel and the tale implythe narration novéis tended to be documentations novel form, which representatively ofastory, and inthiscase, the roleof ofAfrican traditional life in a village, began to manifest itself in ;he the writer may becompared tothatof illustrating itwith description offood, early 1900's. Thomas Mofolo, a South the teller. clothing, daily habits. Moving toward African, published Tbe Traveler of the period of independence of most The fact that many novel ists tbeEast in 1906; several other works British and French colonies, the then followed. The first group of choose to write in European 'literary mood'changed considerably. languages may occasionally lead to novéis and novelists must be studied It was certainly a period of political misinterpretation of their intentions. separately. They share common and exdtement, and the focus wasshifted The useofa European languageraises unique characteristics, such as the from the traditional life to the turmoil thequestion of identity, but it does praising of the colonizers and the ofthe questforindependence. not necessarily imply imitation of changes brought bythese, especially European models. In the same way christ-ianity. Because of the small The decade of the sixties was that the African writer 'borrows' the number of writers, there was hardly undoubtedly one of nationalism, novel as a literary genre, he also any competition among them, as and the glory of the African past was 'borrows* European languages as regards publishing in Europe. Critics praised. It was time to rediscover a vehicle for the creating of his texts. point outthat the first African novéis, their values; the African essence had Amos Tutuola's Tbe Palm-Wine considered to be artless and 'raw' survived the years of colonialism. Drinkard(l955) andChinua Achebe's narratives, were published in Europe Consequently, the colonizer wasseen TbingsFallApart(1958), forexample, dueonly toacertain 'paternalism* and as a disturbing and destructive are written in the same language as hunger for exótica (Owomoyela 76). element, and was many times even that used by Charles Dickens and ridiculed. European materialism was James Joyce. However it is rather a put in stark contrast withthe African

Tbe Written Text in a Context ofOrality: an Approach totbeAfrican Novel 31 spiritualism, the latter beingportrayed documenting role, as Owomoyela modernization brought from thewest. asideal and worthy ofreward. remarks: Interacting withthenew environment, characters werealsoapproachedina The characters in the novéis Dialogue... tendstoconfer theaura ofthe of that period are not very deeply hereandnowon the story beingtold, different way. In contrast with the developed, and as a result, the since to give the characters speech ls to characters of the previous decades, give them life. readers usually have an externai they became more rounded and were view of them. They are mostly ...The stories are better presented inthe allowed tospeakmoreforthemselves, characterized bytheiractions, instead perfect tense and inthe perfect sense; In instead of through the voice of a other words, inthe form of summary as narrator. The situational plot gave ofthoughts; sometimes they areeven opposedto actualizing dialogue. (80) definedbyproverbs—a devicewhich way to the individual one, focusing Chinua Achebe brilliantly exploits. As the 1970's approached, both now on the individuaPs psyche Thistype ofcharacterization isdue to the content and the form of the and his spiritual conflicts caused emphasis being placed more on the novéis gradually changed. Most by the externai world. The small 'situational construction':2 agroup of colonies had already gained parts (individuais) which together people—rather than an individual— independence, a fact which caused constituted a whole(community) are being affected by an event. This strongimpact on literary production, now seen separately. The characters trend was, to a certain extent, an thematically speaking. The writers' arestill engaged in society, buttheir unconsdous attitude on the partofthe focus shifts considerably towards the innerconflicts arefore-grounded from writers. The concept ofmembership present, ratherthanthe past, sincethe the political scene. They areportrayed of a group was embedded in their latterisno longerseen asasolutionto asbrutalized bythecircumstances and minds, and since literary production present conflits. Worshipping thepast, terribly alienated deep inside. The grows out of societal behavior, the Africans were indeed worshipping internai problems of a character situational construction was a natural freedom and independence, since it (reflected externally on his consequence. was only then that they had known relationship withtheothercharacters) and experienced such state. But areoften due to the impossibility of The structure of the novel was independence is now a present adjusting againto theAfrican tradition generally linear, with events following condition, even if chimeric.3 Social after spending some time abroad. oneanother inchronological order, or, issues are now seen under a new Pitifully, the character iscaught half sometimes, it consisted of a series of light.Forinstance, the 1958character way through a journey, and stories or tales put together. Thetone Okonkwo, a central figure of the unfortunately hecanneither reach his was a didactic one, and the novéis Umuofian clan in Chinua Achebe's final destiny nor return tohis point of were neither written norread simply Things Fali Apart, isreplaced bythe origin: hewill never betotally westem for the pleasure ofthe text itself: they frivolous businessman El Hadji Abdou because heisAfrican, andbythe same were instructive too, used as a means Kader Beye, in Sembène Ousmane's token he cannot be totally African ofteachingamoral. Xala (1974). Polygyny is another again since he has become partially The 'documentar/style ofAfrican example: portrayed as a natural 'westernized*. Thus, he becomes a novéis is another aspect worth phenomenon inAchebe's Arrow of foreigner inhis own land andamong hisown people. mentioning. The eyes which God(\%4) it begins to be seriously questioned inMariana Bâ's So long a supposedly see the events (the Insummary, the prevailing tone narrator) are now passing that Letter (1980). With theemergence of theAfrican bourgeoisie, topicssuch as in most contemporary African informationon to the readers. In order narrative isoneofdisillusionment, and to create a relative distance between politics and education became relevant. Thenovéis presented scenes even of a certain pessimism: the narrator and what is being "bitterness, disgust, and a lack of narrated (a distance which isimplied ofcruelty andpoverty, since "fictional realism (was) a contemporary and hesitancy to criticize thestatus quo, by such narrative style), indirect stronglyidentify the works ofthe most urgent art" (McEwan127). speech, as well as third person recent novelists" (Larson 245). narration, ispreferred — as opposed Anewkindofsetting isgradually to the use of dialogues in introduced. Instead of villages The aspects pointed out in this study are shared by the whole the text. The characters are seldom and their compounds, the reader communityof novelistsin África, but allowed speech, so that they do not is now confronted with towns interfere with the narrator's and their modemvillas, apartments, these areonly general characteristics. In a continent as large as África and cars, and several other indexes of one that is influenced by so many

32 Revista deEstudos Germânicos different foreign culturesasitis,much Both written and oral literatures story. The choice of novéis from diversity is encountered within it. are provided with form and content. variedgeographiclocations and from Applied to literature, such diversity The basic difference is that the form different timesemphasizes how wide refers to a number of exceptions and content of written literature isthe practice of drawing on oral art. and unique characteristics among appear as letters printedon paper, predominant features. In thespecific while in oral literature they depend Ousmane's Xala isvery similar in case of South África, for instance, exclusively on performance. African form (short narrative) to the African particular characteristics set the works novelists draw on orality when oral folk tale, and is, as well, apart from the African literary creating their texts as far as they characterized by its didacticism. community in general. As regards include in the novéis different forms With a modernized setting, Xala's themes, South African novelists are oforal literature, sudiasproverbs and instructional function is presented deeply engaged in the issue of songs; give fiction the same purpose through theprotagonist, whois part of apartheid and the fight against white ofsome forms oforal literature, such the African bourgeoisie that emerged supremacy. The novéis are used as as the didacticism of folk tales and after the independence. El Hadji vehiclesof political discourse bymany legends; or make explicit in novéis Abdou Kader Beyer, on the occasion writers. The language usedby writers the vital aspect of oral literature: of histhird marriage, isassailed bythe of South African origin differs performance. It is not my intention, xala (impotence). He puts ali the somewhat from other anglophone however, to place more value on efforts he can into'becoming a man' writers, in that it presents fewer either oral or written literatures. Both again, even at the cost of his wealth similarities to the African pattern, co-exist nowadays, andifanykind of and business. El Hadji canonlysee El using, for example,lessproverbs and hierarchy isto beestablished between Hadji, feel El Hadji, think El Hadji. His 'showing instead dose kinship with the two, it has to be necessarily 'Self outgrowseverythingelseto the the language of American Blacks' a chronological one. Writing was pointthathe becomestheoenter ofhis (Owomo-yela 98). brought into África by the colonizer, own world. After bankruptcy, he isleft whereasthe practice oforal literature helpless withhisfirst wife.Abeggar— Inconclusion, notonly orality, as is hundreds of years old among who had in fact put a curse on him, wewill seenext,butalso the political, Africans. causing his xala — is the only one social and cultural contextshave dose who can restore his 'manhood'. relationship to and are therefore The first novel chosen for Giving power to one who is, reflected inthe written text.The novel, analysis is Xala, by the Senegalese according to El Hadji's values, an or in the greaterscope literature in Sembène Ousmane. Published in outcast of society, Ousmane is África, goesbeyond 'art for art*s sake'. 1974, itdraws onanimportant aspect teaching a lesson about life in an It issignificandy relevant totheAfrican oforal art:the didacticism offolk tales. African society: selfishness and context and assumes a political The next novel is Chinua Achebe's materialism are to be severely function, inasmuch asitisaproduct of Tbings Fali Apart, published in 1958. punished. agivensodety. The Nigerian writer draws on orality in a way different from the author In Tbings Fali Apart the mentioned before. Instead of the instructional objective isnotsodeeply OralLiteratureandthe Novel moralizingtone of folk tales, Achebe developed asin the novel mentioned Thepurpose ofthe secondpart of uses throughout the novel one of before. The characteristic of orality thisstudy is to verify the existence several forms of oral literature: revealed in Chinua Achebe's work is of a common bond shared by the proverbs. Another characteristic of the fact that the author indudes forms majority of novelists throughout orality ispresent inAchebe's novel,as oforal literature in thestructureofthe the continent: the presence of oral well as in the last novel chosen for written work.The novel is an account literature in the written novéis. analysis inthis paper. Both TbingsFall ofa character's tragedy. Regarded as Novelists coming from different Apart and Mayombe (published in amanofseveral qualities andamodel regions and cultural backgrounds 1980) reflect the performance oforal forthe villageinhabitants, Okonkwo draw on the African oral tradition and literature. Despite very different accidentally kills a member of his rely on some of its charaaeristics to settings— Pepetela's Mayombe takes community, and therefore goes build the structure oftheir novéis. In place in an Angolan forest, while into exile. By the time of his return, other words, orality isthecontext they Tbings FaliApart is set in a Nigerian Okonkwo becomes indignant atthe share and reflect in their works. village — the narrators of the two Umuofians for having accepted the novéisplay thesamerole addressing presence of the whites and their the audience, as if orally telling the interference in matters that were

Tbe Written Text in a Context ofOrality: an Approach to tbe African Novel 33 exdusivelyof the villagers. Without Despite the change in theme, Suchindexesofanimplied reader their support toreject theintruders, he the next novel analysed shares leadto anintentional engaging ofthe desperately takes hisown life. the same aspect of oral narratives readers inalivelyrelationship withthe pointed out in Tbing Fali Apart: text, as the audience is supposedly A brilliant documentation of Mayombe's narrators address the engaged in the act of telling. traditional life among Igbos, this readers and establisha channel novel, as well as others by Achebe, for communication, consequently The novels analysedinthisstudy relies on the use of one of the forms resembling the performance of oral draw on orality basically in three of oral literature: the proverbs. Not literature. Not surprisingly at ali, differentways: relatedto the purpose only do they contextualize the novel Pepetela (pseudonym for Arthur of oral literature, to its form and to within the African oral tradition; Carlos Maurído Pestana dos Santos) its performance. Other aspects of proverbs were alsoused as a device won the Angolan National Award for oral literature may also be found for description. The clan was Literature in 1980. Set in the forest in the novels: for example, the characterized for being"like a lizard; whichgave title tothebook, thenovel characters in Mayombe are according if it lost its tail it soon grew another" is a vivid portrayal of the fighters' to their position within their social (121); Obierika's son, Maduka, is conflicts caused by colonialism and cosmos,emphasizing the importance defined intermsofhissimilarity to his tribalism. Trying to find strategies to of membership of a group over father by the proverb"when mother- abate the colonizer, they endure individuality. They are named after cow is chewing grass its young difficult times and must overcome their role and characteristic in the ones watch its mouth" (49). Besides their tribal differences. guerrilla group: Theoty, Political proverbs, Achebeusesother forms of Commissar, Fearless, Operations Chief oral literature, such assongs (25,36, Mayombe 's narrative begins with and Miracle, among others. 42,83) and tales(38,67), obtaining a third person omniscient narrator, tremendous literary richness as a responsible for the diegetic levei of In the final analysis, African result. the story. Butoften along the novel literature, stiil initsinfancy interms of (15 times, to be morespecific), a first writtentexts, isin a periodof growth Tbings FaliApart alsoportrays person narrative takes place, before and transformatiori. It is therefore the essential aspect of oral art, which isindicated'I,THENARRATOR, difficult to indicate the specific namely, its performance. The act of AM X' (X » variable character). The directions it will take as it evolves. performing oral literature implies third person narrative is fragmented, Diverse tendencies such as focus necessarily two opposite poles: the butthestory itself, initsdiegetic levei, on the present rather than on the tellerand the listener,both identified isprovided with continuity. What the past, use of a more cosmopolitan within Achebe's novel. The third first person narrators do is to retell, language, and inumerable other personnarrator createdby the author from adifferent perspective, thesame trends have emerged in this early in this novel clearly indicates that thingthe third person narrator had phase of its growth. A certain unity, Okonkwo'sstoryisnotsimply written, already told, orsometimes theysimply however, is createdby the importam but it is being told to someone. The add their pointof view about what characteristic of the orality that has sentence structure is very similar to has been narrated. The third person continuously manifested itself in the that of oral speech, as it is seen, for narrative isalternated with first person written literature. The manifestationof instance, in the way the following micro-reports, which constitute the the oral tradition in African novels paragraph isintroduced: pseudo-diegetic levei5 of the novel. comesto prove,also, thethesesstated That was many years ago* Today In this levei the different narrators in the introduction ofthis paper: the Okonkwo was not bringing his mother address the readers, as the teller novel in África is not a mere imitation home to be buriedwith her people.(91) addresses his audience, expecting of the European novel. Orality isthe some kind of response (verbalized context inwhich Africanfiction grew, Achebe also makes use of the or not). For example, when talking and consequently the former is repetition of the conjunctions and abouttribalism inhismicro-report, the reflected in the latter. Q and but to begin independent or main clauses, exactly as a speaker character Miracle says: does when narrating an event, in See how the Commander was so orderto give itcontinuity: concernedaboutthe hundredescudosof thatCabinda traltor? Didnt you askwhy, Butalthough he thought fora long time didn't youwonder? Well, I wlU explaln. he found noanswer. (87) Andthencarne (28) the dap of thunder.

34 Revista de Estudos Germânicos NOTES

1 See AMUTA (Jbeory, 1989) and DATHORNE {African Literature, 1976). 2 Iamborrowing Larson's term.See The Emergence, 1972, p.19. 3 The adjective chimeric is used here since itiswell known that although African nations achieved political indepen dence, theverysameeconomicandsodal structure of colonialism wasmaintained.

4 The italics are mine.

5 1amusingGenette's terminology. Cf. Genett, Narrative, p.237.

BIBUOGRAPHY

ACHEBE, Chinua. Tbings Fali Apart. London: Heinemann Educational BooksLtd., 1988. AMUTA, Chidi. The Theory ofAfrican Literature. London: Zed Books Ltda., 1989. DATHORNE, O. R. African Literature in tbe Twentietb Century. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1976. FANON, Frantz. Tbe Wretcbed ofthe Earth. Trans. Constance Farrington. New York: Grove Press Inc., 1966. GENETTE, Gerard. NarrativeDiscourse. Trans. Jane E. Lewin. NewYork: Cornell UP, 1980. LARSON, Charles R. Tbe Emergence ofAfrican Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1972. McEWAN, Neil. African and tbeNovel. Newjersey: Humanities Press, 1983. OUSMANE, Sembene. Xala. Trans. Clive Wake. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1976. OWOMOYELA, Oyekan. African Literature: An Introduclion. Massachusetts: Crossroads Press, 1979- PEPETELA. Mayombe. Trans. Michael Wolfers. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., 1984.

Tbe Written Text in a Context ofOrality: anApproach to tbe African Novel 35 Summary to seguinte, mostra-se que tais processos implicam uma teoria The articlemakes use ofGilles da tradução que privilegia a Deleuze andFêlix GuattarVs diferença e contesta a autori concept ofminor literature - dade do original. i.e. that which isproduced by a minority within a major language - to shed light on Tradução e literaturamenor the displacements imposed by Afro-American writers upon the Háuma ambigüidadefundamen tal e constitutivade toda a pro A Literatura symbolic tradition they inherit dução literáriado negro norte-ameri through theEnglish language. cano: ao escrever, ele reencontra, a By means ofan analysis ofa cada texto, sua condição de ameri shortstory byKatherine cano/estrangeiro. Para este sujeito, a /» a • Porter and apõem by não há como escrever a não ser em inglês, língua imposta pelo domina JyiO~JljM61^CCítlCl PaulLaurenceDunbar, dor, língua originada alhures, língua emphasis is placed parasempree desdesempreestranha. on the recurrent process of Ler a poesia negra americana é reco demetaphorization one locar permanentemente um proble * finds in African-American ma:quais são as implicaçõestextuais — semióticas— de se produzir lite sob a Ótica da texts-such Pr°cesses are ratura numa língua que não diz das shown to entail a theory origens e da história do sujeito que oftranslation that highlights escreve? Quais são as marcas dessa difference and contests the escrita que se encena na língua do authority oftheoriginal. Outro? Se a literatura é também um olhar que lançamos sobre nós Resumo mesmos, ser um escritor negro nos Tradução E.U.A. implica um permanente e Oartigo utiliza, apartirdeGüles inquietante enxergar-se pelos olhos DeleuzeefélixGuattari, o con do Outro. Édessa contradição que partimos. Éesta a contradição que Afro-American Literature ceito deliteratura menor-litera W.E.B. DuBois,no começo do século, as Translation turaproduzidapor uma mino já percebia: "One ever feels his ria no interior de uma língua twoness: an American; a Negro; two majoritária - para analisar os souls, twothoughts, twounreconciled deslocamentos operados pelos strivings; two warring ideas in one darkbody."2 Idelber Vasconcelos Avelar* escritores negrosamericanosna tradição simbólica herdadapor Por isso a literatura negra ameri elesatravés da língua inglesa. canapodee deveserestudadaa partir Por meio de uma leitura de um do conceitode literatura menor,aque la produzida por uma minoria do in conto de Katherine Porter e "So perhaps we shy from confronting terior de um língua maior. Ao pen our cultural wholeness because it offers umpoema de Paul Laurence no easily recognizable points of rest, sarmos emliteratura menor, portanto, no facile certainties asto who, what, or Dunbar, enfatiza-seos recor estamos partindo da relação dosujei- where (cuiturally or historically)we rentesprocessos de desmetafo- to-escritor com a linguagem, que é are. Instead, the whole is always in necessariamente estranhada e confli- cacophonic motion."1 rização encontrados nos textos RalphEllíson afro-americanos. Num momen- * Faculdade de Letras, UFMG.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N»l p.36-39 DEZ. 1989

36 Revista deEstudos Germânicos tuosa. Ao herdar a língua do domina problema primeiro de toda e qualquer preendo uma palavra sequerdaIíngua dore construir nela sua literatura, o teoria da tradução: o dasemelhança entre quevocês falam."4 Relemos o intradu escritor negro herda uma série de original e tradução. Semdúvida, por muito tempo, os leitores do Gênesis zível também na poesia africana, nos construções simbólicas entranhadas deram maior destaque à semelhança versos de Agostinho Neto: "Escrevo nalíngua e jáinseparáveis dela. Escre entre homem e Deus. Sabe-se hoje, versosque não entendes/compreen vernalíngua do Outroé assim um fato porém,que ahistória acabousendo feita des a minhaangústia?"5 quetraz conseqüências que vãomuito menos pela semelhança que pela dife além do meramente lingüístico. A rença. Caso houvesseapenas a Identi Naliteratura negra americana, o dade absoluta entre original (Deus) e conto "The Witness", de Katherine língua herdada traz parao momento tradução (homem), esta não teriahistó de produção de cada texto toda a ria própria, independente, quenãofosse Porter, coloca radicalmente o proble tradição queelaveicula: exerceassim seqüência ou parte da história daquela. ma datradutibilidade. Unclejimbilly, um efeito modelador sobre o olhardo E, comoDeus, porsereterno, existindo, um velho negro ex-escravo, conta portanto, fora dotempo, nãotemhistória hoje às crianças as experiências do escritor menor. Este não pode ser — nenhuma história existiria."* entãovisto como umsujeito onipo tempo da escravidão.Eleé o narrador tente, senhordesualinguagem; é um Éeste, "mutatis mutandi", tam dássico benjaminiano: transmite um sujeito ao qual já foram conferidos bém o problemada literatura menor. testemunho, um vivido. É um narra territórios, limites, inclusiveos limites A condição de existência de uma dor que mantém um fortesentimento do dizível e do indizível. escrita menoré a conflituosa preser- de comunhão com as origens, com vação/reinvenção de uma diferença seu lugar,seu território. Seu relato, Mais que ninguém, o escritor em relação à tradição "main-stream". legitimado pelo fato de tratar de sua menorencontra palavrashabitadas. A Para esse sujeito-escritor, é impossível própria experiênda, só pode ser nar escrita torna-se esse espaço radical manter uma relação naturalizadacom rado no dialeto negro. Alíngua aqui mente intertextual: necessidade de a linguagem; há um estranhamento deixa de ser simples instrumento de traduzir-se na língua do Outro, de instaurador, constitutivo do próprio comunicação para se transformarem coexistir com as palavras das quais texto. Trata-se de manter um espaço instância legitimadora do próprio ecoam vozes outras. Nesse teatroonde vital: para isso, há que se deslocar, relato: "Deyused to take'emout and seencena a crisedo lugardo sujeito- desterritorializar, introduzirfissuras na tie'em down and whup'em (...) wid criador, só há reelaboração e reescri- língua do Outro. Devolver-lhe um gret big letherstrops inch tliick long as tura de signos; tudo já é imediata olharestrangeiro. Num certosentido, yo'ahm, wid round holes bored inem mente tradução. Nãohá maiscomo, a língua e a tradição do branco só so's evey timedey hifem de hide and portanto, se pensar romahticamente podem reviver no texto do negro se de meat done come offdeybonés in nosujeito que-escreve. Este é jogado forem previamente assassinadas. A little roundchunks"6. Trata-se de uma para o interior óje uma rede semiótica literatura menor seconfigura assim em narrativa intraduzível para o inglês na qual não é máisque um ponto, um espaçoprivilegiadoparasecontestara padrão, pois se podemos evidente signoremetendoa outros. Aotraduzir- concepçãodetraduçãoservilesubmis mente contar a mesma história no sena língua maior, osujeito é também saao original. Atradução, mais que dialetobranco,a relaçãoartesanal de traduzido por ela. Escrevertorna-se nunca, surge como encenação inter- Uncle Jimbilly com a linguagem só uma operação tradutora permanente. textual/antropofágica da diferença. podese construir em"Black English". Nesse palcoonde me reencontro com Enquanto a mensagem literal veicu a tradição do Outro e me reinvento Para essa escrita que só pode lada pelo relato de Uncle Jimbilly nela, escrever parece eqüivaler a existir traduzindo a tradição doOutro, presta-se à tradução, o processo de traçar uma linha de fuga, construir reinventando-se na língua do Outro, produção de sentido, no entanto, diferenças, permanecer vivo enfim. e ao mesmo tempo construindo uma envolve esferas que extrapolam o diferença em relaçãoa ele, o texto meramente lingüístico. O sentido de freqüentemente tangenda olimite da um relato como o seu só pode ser Adiferença e o limitedo traduzível tradutibilidade. Nessa escrita-suidda, definido a partir da consideração de É pois pelos descaminhos da reencontra-se a todo o tempo a in aspectos como as relações sujeito- compreensão, o intraduzível, o que é tradução que enveredamos. Como linguagem e sujeito-história. Enfim, impossível de ser dito na língua do afirma Nelson Archer, o versículo do para além da tradutibilidade lingüís Outro. Em "O Grande Nadador", de Gênesis "Deus criou o homem à sua tica, há a intradutibilidadesemiótica. Kafka, porexemplo, umdospersona imagem" pode gens confessa atônito: "devo constatar Areação dascrianças queouvem "ser considerado o primeiro exemplode queestou naminha terra eque, apesar atesta a impossibilidade da tradução tradução (...) Desde já, ela propõe o de todos osmeus esforços, nãocom do relato de Unclejimbilly emoutro

Aliteratura Afro-Americana sob a Ótica da Tradução 37 código: "Thechildren (...)sat disposed Averedaaberta por PaulLaurence natureza ("summer^ day","budsof around Unclejimbilly and listened Dunbaremseupoema"A Song" é ada May", "theeyeof heaven") cumprem with faint tingiings of embarrass- reescritura desrespeitosa da tradição o papel de reforçar a impermeabi- ment"7. Para o ouvinte jásituado fora branca. Assumindo o caráter neces lidade damusa aofluxo dotempo. Há, da tradição do narrado, o embaraço, sariamente intertextual da literatura emShakespeare, umabeleza algo pla a estranheza é a única possibilidade. menor, o texto repensa o problema do tônica que permanece idealmente Rompe-se aí a relaçãoingênua entre símbolo a partir de um soneto de imune aos estragosdo tempo sobre a narrador-ouvinte, que,segundo Ben- Shakespeare (sonetoXVW): matéria. O texto assim articula cons jamin, caracteriza este tipo de narra truçõessimbólicas que,na medida em tiva. Não hámais qualquer sentimento "Shall Icompare theetoasummertday? Thou art more lovely and more que se pretendem eternas, se apre decomunhão. Nesse estranhamento, temperate: sentam naturalizadas. nessa fissura que se abre a partirdo Rough windsdo shakethe dartlng buds encontro algo assustador com o Ou ofMay. Ao investirparodicamente sobre tro,surge a necessidade de uma outra And summer^ lease hath ali too short a o texto de Shakespeare, Paul Laurence date: Dunbar reescreveseussímbolos, des- tradução, capazde dizer algoa esse Sometlme too hot the eye of heaven ouvinte que vem de alhures. O até shlnes, construindo-os. Seatentarmos parao entãoconfiável relato de uma expe Andoftenishisgold complexion dimnVd; trabalho desenvolvido em "A Song", riência é remetido para o terreno da And every fair from fair sometlme veremos que se trata de uma tempo- fidelidade incerta da memória. Como declines, ralizaçãodosímbolo; esteé deslocado By chanceor nature's changlng course recontar ao Outro a história que ele untrimnYd; para o ddo vida/ morte ("the rose is sempre escreveu sozinho? Como dizer Butthy eternal summershall not fade, dead", "the summer is fled"): escrito/ dos fatos quando o que hásão cica Nor tose possession of that fair thou inscrito novamente na história, relati- trizes? Qual o distanciamento possível owest, vizado, temporalizado. Enquanto a Norshall deathbrag thouwanderest in quando o queestáem jogo é o pró hisshade, amada é remetida paraumoutro lugar prio corpo? Qual a retórica possível When In eternal lines to Ume thou — o da incerteza —, começa-se a quandoo próprio corpo é uma elo growest; desconfiar do poderdarepresentação qüência? Anecessidade de traduzir-se Solong asmencanbreathe, oreyescan da metáfora. Oqueacontece quando para o Outro, na língua do Outro see, asmetáforas construídas pelobranco So longlivesthis,andthisgiveslifeto marca paraa literatura negra a perda thee."' já não dizem do amor do menor? de toda inocência. Diante da impossibilidade de ignorá- ASong(Paul L Dunbar) las—o quecorresponderia à utopia de um lugar fora do simbólico — Para além(aquém?)do símbolo "Thou art thesoulofasummertday, Thou art the breath ofthe rose. resta-lhe arranhá-las, esvaziá-las, "r^setrataderevelarosentldoOatente) Butthe summer is fled reescrevê-las à luzdaprópria crise de de um enunciado, de um traço, de uma And the rose is dead. seupoder derepresentação. Opoema narrativa, masde fissuraraprópria repre Where arethey gone,who knows, who deDunbar setece, assim, nojogo das knows? sentação do sentido; não se trata de ausêndas: à ausência da amada cor mudarou purificar os símbolos,mas de contestaro próprio simbólico."" Thou art thebloodofmyheart o'hearts, responde aausênda dosimbólico que Roland Banhes Thou art my soul's repose, dê conta dedizer dodesejo. Butntyheartgrowsnumb Esse aventurar-se na língua do Andmy soulisdumb Para a literatura menor não se Outro que é a escrita negra deve Where artthou, love, who knows, who trata, evidentemente, de pretender deparar-se necessariamente com as knows? ingenuamente um espaço a salvodo construções simbólicas da tradição Thou art thehopeofmy after years— simbólico, no qual umarelação mais branca, elaborada ao longo dos Sunfor my wintersnows. "direta" e "autêntica" com o referente séculos. Pensando-se a linguagem Butthe years goby pudesse ser resgatada. Trata-se, ao enquantoalgodaordem do simbólico 'Neath adouded sky. invés,como no poema de Dunbar,de Where shall we meet, who knows, who (e portanto da lei), qual é o lugar do knowsT10 investir sobre o próprio simbólico, escritor menor face aesseaparato que introduzindo-lhe fissuras, forçando-o jádetermina o que é e o que não é No texto shakespeareano,a lite a seus limites. Para o escritor negro, possível ser dito? Sabendo-se que a ratura surge como o lugar possível desnaturalizarsua relação com a lín- língua é fascista (Barthes), podemos de eternização da beleza da amada gua herdada é umaquestãovital, de percebê-la como um demarcador de ("when in eternal lines to time thou sobrevivência indusive. Estranhá-la já territórios e de limites. growest''). As metáforas retiradas da no próprioolhar, desterritorializá-la, |

38 Revista deEstudos Germânicos num processo pelo qual o próprio traduzido pelo simbólico. Como no faz: fazouviratravés da língua pátria sujeito sedescentra. Traduzir o branco texto do poetaafricano: — que afinal, é sempre a língua que incessantemente, para além de seescreve nostextos literários—avoz "Omeu poema joga boladespreocupado toda servilidade, até transformá-lo no grupo onde todo mundo é criado modulada da mãe, esta voz maldita, em tradução da tradução. Fazer de e grita terrível, e acalentadora, no entanto."13 Shakespeare, borgianamente, atradu Obeçaite golo golo*u Essa vereda pela qual o texto força çãode Dunbar. brechas, fendasno edifíciocongelado A oralidade é aí reinscrita no do símbolo-pátrio. Essa escrita-bura- corpo do significante. A língua da Compreendendo o símbolo, jun co, paradoxal, cheia de ausência. tribo retorna, abrindo uma fissura na tamente com Peirce,11 como o pri Como uma rosa envelhedda, desme- mado da lei, a desterritorialização língua do Estado. Reencenando o taforizada, que não diz de nenhum intraduzível por essa vereda algo eqüivaleria portanto ao retorno da desejo. Q quele traço, risco, do balbucio não- feminina da escrita: "A escrita feminina

NOTAS

1ELLISON, R. apud BAKER, Houston A. Blues, Ideology, andAfro-American Literature.- a vernacular theory. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1984, p.l. 2DUBOIS, W.E.B. apud MILLIGAN, N.M. W.E.B. Dubois' American Pragmatism. In: Journal ofAmerican Culture, Bowling Grees, Bowling Green Popular Press, Summer1985. p.36. 3ASCHER, N. O textoe suasombra (teses sobrea teoria datradução). In: 34 letras, Rio de Janeiro, 34 Literatura S/C & Nova Fronteira, n.3,mar. 1989- pl42. *KAFKA, F. apud DELEUZE, G. &GUATTARI, F. Kafka: por uma literatura menor. Trad. Júlio Castaflon Guimarães. Rio deJaneiro, Imago, 1977. p.4l. 5NETO, A. Poemas deAngola. 2.ed. Rio deJaneiro, Codecri, 1979. p.18. 6PORTER, K.A. The Witness. In: KEARNS, F.E. (org.) BlackIdentity. athematic reader. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Win- ston, 1970. p.40. 7Ibidem, p.40. 8BARTHES, R. Amitologia hoje. In: Orumor dalíngua. Trad. Mário Laranjeira. São Paulo, Brasiliense, 1988. p.80. 9SHAKESPEARE,W. Sonnet XVIII. In: Tbe Complete Works ofWillian Shakespeare. London, Atlantis, 1980. p.13- 10 DUNBAR, P.L. ASong. In: BONTEMPS, A. (org.) American Negro Poetry. New York, Hill andWang, 1968. p.13. 11 Cf. o conceito de símbolo tal como usado nestetextoem: PEIRCE, CS. Semiótica. Tradução deJosé Teixeira Coelho. São Paulo, Perspectiva, 1977. Espedalmente doistextos: "Sinopse pardal de umaproposta para um trabalho sobre lógica", p.21-37e "ícone, índice, Símbolo", p.63-76. 12 FORTES, C. Boca aBariavento. In: FERREIRA, M. (org.) No reino deCaliban -Antologia panorâmica depoesia africana deexpressão portuguesa. Lisboa, Seara Nova, 1975. p.136. 13 CASTELLO BRANCO, L. Oumbigo daescrita, (inédito).

ALiteratura Afro-Americana sob a Ótica da Tradução 39 Summary métodos de ensino, bem como suasaplicações emsaladeaula. Thepurpose ofthispaper is to Apartefinal apresentarápossí discuss the application of veis aplicações da abordagem semiotics to theinstruction of semiótica deensino delíngua no language,particularlyforeign or treinamento deprofessores. Nes second language. The first sa abordagem, critériossemi section of this paperwill deal primarily with óticos seriam utilizados como instrumentoparaavaliaravia what semiotics is Secona LanmiaQe and, «• bilidade de métodos e técnicas. *-* *-* implicationsfor Trata-se de umaabordagem de education. The ensino de língua; não há, em second section will consider termossemióticos, umcurrículo criteriasuggestedbysemiotics by prescritivo. which methods of language Teaching: a instruction can be evaluated Inpreparingmyself toteach English and discuss applications to the in Japan, I read Earl Stevick's Memory, meaning &method. Inithe classroom. Thefinalsection will poses aparadox asfollows: inthefield deal with oflanguage teaching, Method Aisthe logical contradiction of Method B: if SemioticApproach ^^ the assumptions from which Aclaims teacher to be derived are correct, then B training suggested by a semiotic cannot work, and vice versa. Yetone approach to language colleague is getting excellent results with A and another is getting instruction. Jn thisapproach, comparable results withB. Howisthis Ensino de Segunda Língua: Uma semiotic criteria would be used possible? asks Stevick (1976). In a Abordagem Semiótica primarilyasanevaluative tool to positivistic paradigmsuch results are determinewhethermethodsand not supposed to happen. techniques areviable. This isan I havespentthe pastsixyears of approach to language my life asa teacher trying to cometo Jeanette Bopry instruction; there is no terms with what I consider to be a prescriptive semiotic serious flaw in instructional practice. curriculum. I consider myselfa humanist and as such desire that humanism be the Resumo driving force behind myactions inthe classroom. I sense, however, that Esteartigo discuteaaplicação da humanistic practice in the classroom semiótica ao ensino de língua, is at best a spotty affair, at worst, especialmente língua estran simply givenlipservioe. The primary geira ou segunda língua. A bug in the works seems to be primeira parte lidará com o positivism, in particular itsoffspring, conceito de semiótica e suas behaviorism. Mypersonal dilemma implicaçõesparaa educação. A wasthatevenwhen Irecognized that I was simply putting my students segunda parteanalisará crité through the hoops, my training in rios sugeridos pela semiótica atravésdosquaissepossaavaliar * Indiana Urüversity ;

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.40-48 DEZ. 1989^

40 Revista de EstudosGermânicos; behavioral methodologywas ali Ihad What is Semiotics and what does individuais environment. Culture to fali back on; Icould not think ofan It have to do with education? determines in a very dramatic way alternative to putting my student what experiences the individual will through the hoops.I havesincebeen Semiotics is a philosophy that and will not have, let alone the insearch ofacomplete philosophy of posits thatali knowledgeismediated importance attached to experiences by signs.A sign is something that instruction within which to structure that do happen. the instruction Iwished to provide. stands for something else (Deely 1982). Ali we can know ofthe world Knowledge is an aspect of the This lack of a philosophy of issigns. This meansin effectthat we present state ofthe Umwelt. Learning, education encompassing humanism do not see the world as it reallyis, we orgrowth, happensatthe juncture of has led to a situation where there is a perceive signs that makeitpossible for the Umweltandthe physical world. A number of fine teachers and us to construct a reality - an ideaof newexperience mayreinforce current instructional designers creating what the world is. Each individuais knowledge or it may challenge it. excellent alternatives to traditional construction of reality is his or her When the Umweltchangesbecauseof instruction while there is no structure Umwelt. It is in effect a bubble in experience, learning has occurred. for these alternativesto fit within - no which each individual lives (von Learning is a naturally occurring means for them to become viable to Uexküll 1981). The Umwelt is phenomenon. For an organism to the vast majority of educational composed of each individuais inner survive, it must constantly learn and planners. Some oftheseprograms find self,indudingcognitive potential and changebased upon experiencesthat homes for short periods in schools or the experienceseach individual has occur through this constant schoolsystemswhere they surviveon had. These are used to build a communication. The process is the patronage of some powerful or subjective construction ofthe physical semiosis. The study of this processis strong-willed person. The program, world. Everythingwe perceive about Semiotics. however, islikelyto disappear when the physical world isfiltered through the patron does, because it has no this Umwelt. Because ofthis filter we integral place in the curriculum. In cannot know the physical world How do Semiotic assumptions Japan, for example, a climateexists directly. The Umwelt therefore about education dlffer from whereinnovation isacceptedbecause constructsand is constructed by the Posltlvistic assumptions? there appears to be a number of physical world. The Umwelten of Positivistic assumptions learning blocks associated with the indivituals are in constant concerning education include the instruction of English. In general, communication with the physical notion that the environment is an however, no structure exists to world as well as the Umwelten of objective location existing separate integrate innovation into the formal other individuais. from the individual. The environment structure of educational institutions. is the same foraliindividuais, indeed, Programs that are not successful in Thenotion of Umwelt isespecially ali species-it isbasically unchanging. short periodsof time, or programs importam for education. The Umwelt It isaphysically existing entity that has dependem uponindividual patronage is created through continuous an impact upon an organism and (mostlanguage teachers stayinJapan interaction ofthe individual with the serves as a source of stimulation. onlyashort time) tend to fade away. physical world. This interaction Through manipulation of the This is particularly unfortunate involves ali the senses; it is both environment, learning can be because the effects of any particular verbal and non-verbal. According to controlled. program are usually long-term rather John Deely (1986), verbal language is an extension of non-verbal than short-term. Knowledge is located in the communication. This is demonstrated physical world and it is the by the ability of humans to I propose that using a semiotic responsibility of the individual to model tostructure language education communicate not only with other discover it. There is correct humanswho speak other languages, would make room for innovations in interpretation of this knowledge instruction, and provide us with some but with non-human speciesaswell. because the world exists in only one humanistic criteria by which to do It has been estimated that 80% of ali way. Hence Stevick's Paradox. formative evaluation of such communication is non-verbal. Finding this correct interpretation is innovations. Culture plays an importam role in also the responsibility of the the construction of Umwelten in individual. Inability to do so is the humansbecause it isan aspect ofthe result oflack ofinformation dueto the

Second language Teaching: a Semiotic Approach 41 state of the artor some failing on the Whatwould instruction basedon a individual members to revert to a partofthe investigator. semiotic philosophy belike? passive mode; teacher interactions withsmallnumbers are morelikely to betimely andappropriate tothe needs Knowledge is to be transferred 1.Experiential: handson. from teacher to learner in a manner of learners; teacher interactions are such that lhe studentunderstands it in First of ali, it would be likely tohave a more powerful effect the same way astheteacher, who isa experiential. Elliot Eisner comments on a small group than on a large more qualified interpreter. When that: "what people become is largely group; and teachers get out ofthe job faulty communication occurs a function of what they have an ofhandling content and into the job of remediation or correction may be opportunity to experience" (1981: handling sodal interactions, they get required to get the student in line with 466). Nicolas Fergu-son likes to say to know their students better - "truth0 (Cunninghan 1987: 202). that iftyping classes were taught like importam to understanding the Students aremere receptadesfor the language classes, there would beone Umwelten oftheirstudents. Asemiotic information the teacher has deemed typewriter at the from ofthe dassroom approach suggests that without this importam. and teachers would invitestudents to basic knowledge of the learner's the from individually to show them Umwelt on the part of the teacher Semiotic assumptions concerning wherethe"j" was.His responsewasto instruction isvery much ahitandmiss education arequite different. Inplace - develop a language program where affair. of the notion of environment is the each learner spends about 40% ofhis notion of Umwelt. An Umwelt of an time speaking and50% listening. Instruction founded on organism isnot independem of the experience is primarily concerned organism butexists only inrelation to There are two aspects to with the experiences ofthe learner. the organism (Cunningham 1987: communication experience: receiving This seems to me a sounder choice 210). Thisshould explain why one and sending. Ferguson attempts to than founding instruction on cannot structure an environment for balance the two. What is most knowledge. This makes itpossible to learning - itonly exists asUmwelt - a importam to consider is that the focuson the knowledge constructions subjective world, andiscontrolled by performing talents ofthe instructor are of individual learners.Dedsionsabout the learner.Wecan onlystructure our irrelevant to anexperiential education spedfic instructional experiences will own personal "environment" except to the extent that they are depend upon the instructor's although we can certainly have an interactions with students. This interpretation of the Umwelten of impact upon the Umwelten ofothers suggests a restructuring of the his or her learners. tlirough communication. The Umwelt traditionalclassroominasmuchas the isnotstatic, itisconstantly dynamic at teacher would give up center both the levei ofspecies andlevei of stage— there would be no center 2. Make use of ali senses and individual. The planet with its stage—a three ring circus, minus the potentials availableinstudents. atmosphere is itselfa living, changing nasty connotations, would bea more Experiences should cover ali organism. appropriate description. modalities of communication. In the Knowledge is created by each One highly effective means of process of learning as a natural individual to account forexperience. restructuring the dassroom is todivide phenomenon individuais are not It existsat the intersection ofUmwelt the class into pairs. This has anumber limited to one or two senses with and the physical world. Students of advantages: Experience of whichto com-municate, ratheralithe therefore are not receptades of individuaisismaximized,much more sensesare available fordrawingupon. knowledge - they are agents in its language ispraticed; the instructor can Eisner believes that ali individuais creation. Knowledge does not exist deal with pairs ina similar manner as should receive educationso that they apart from the learner, anditdoes not with individuais, effectively cutting are competent in ali forms of necessarily exist in the same way in class size in half; peersmay be more communication. He names this two individuais, multiple effective at making corrections than literacy and says that learners interpretations arepossible. teachers; teachers seem to be "outof should be literate in ali forms of the loop" from the perspective of representation. j students; thepair isoptimal from the There are no coinddences. Forms ] vantage point ofresponsibility - each of representation like mathematics j member mustshare equally, asgroups and music existspedfically because get larger there is a tendency for they are the only way that the ,.

Revista deEstudos Germânicos 42 meanings they convey are made "how" or process (how the learner Using procedural exercises: possible. Meanings made possibleby manipulatessignshimself in order to activities where one student gives dance are different from those made make new discoveries). A semiotics- directions while the other follows possible bypoetry. Literal translations based philosophyofeducationwould them are an effective combination cannotbe madefromone modalityto deal with the question ofthe process of cognitive, verbal and bodily- another without significam loss of learners use to create knowledge. kinestheticand/or spatial skills. The meaning(Eisner 1981). use of commonly knownprocedures Whatsign systemsare significam described inthetargetlanguage bythe Every individual hasthe potential to language education? One could instructor makes use of the students' to create meaning in multiple certainly argue that ali are useful. innate abil-ities to problem solve. modal-ities, however, the extent to After ali, we attempt to describe They understand what is happening which that individual is capable of experiences, no matterthetype,with andthis gives themimportam dues to language. Assuming Deely's such anactivity isdependemupon the what isbeing said. forms of representation he learns to conjecture that language grows use. Theability tousethesemodalities naturally from non-verbal forms of Inan immersionprogram,school affects both the ability to understand communication, especiallygesture, is subject matter, espedally that with its meanings created by others and the correct, dealing with language as a own obvious sign system (music, ability to create meanings. There ts purely verbal entity is somewhat math) can be taught totally in the interaction between our sensory sterile. targetlanguage. systems and forms of representation For example, the instructional so thatwecan conceive an idea in one Atmore advanced leveis,students modality and expressit in another. A techique of roleplay uses a large may discussexamples of art work, writer maybegin with pictures in his amount ofone'ssensory capacity and cookery, athletic expertise, or head and end with words on paper requires conjuring up memories of emotional experiences in the target (Eisner 1981). others.Ithasgreat potential foruse in language. At this pointstudentscan the classroom, provided that the begin to provide support to one At present, the development of instructor iswilling totakethetrouble another in the target language and literacy in the many of the forms of to make certain thatstudents use their hopefully make thelanguage learning representation thatareavailable inthe emotions,physical acuity, and ability environment a special experience for culture is neglected. This neglect to visualize, as well as their verbal those involved. denieslearners accesto meaningsthat skills. An added benefitof roleplay is are specificto particular forms and that it iseasyto introduce aspectsof adversely affects the kinds of targetcultureintoinstruction through 3. Purpose: to nurture change in meanings they can express ( Eisner the appropriate use of movement, Umwelten vocalizing, and emotional display. 1981). a. To provide a rich context in One wayto breakthroughthe verbal which interaction can take This sentiment is echoed by barrieristo useambiguous dialogues, place. Rockefeller (1977) in his report those whose meanings are totally "Corning to Our Senses: The dependent upon context. TPR, for It also makes sense to emphasize Significance ofthe Arts in American example, makes use of the fact that thoseexperiences thatbringabout a Education." We use ali ofoursenses to learners know how to walk, throw change in the Umwelten of learners. interpret andconvey the complexities things, jump on things, etc. Itsimply Opportunity for neededinteraction is of everyday life. While verbal and demonstrates a new way of talking greater in a rich context than written language is essential,ali our about these actions. An instructor an impoverished one. The more sensory languages need to be using the Natural Approach might information, the greater the potential developed as well if words are to take students through a procedure thatsomethingwill catchtheattention fulfill their deeperfunction anddeliver they are familiar with: sharpening a of some learner, or in Krashen's both subtle and vivid messages. pencil, driving a ear, planning and terms provide the ali essential i + I. Man is by nature a sign taking a photograph, learning a Pragmatically this means throwing a manipulator, so itmakessense thatthe dance. The importam message of wide enough net in terms of content methods like TPR is that physical education of man should concern that the present knowledge of each itself with the manipulation ofsigns. actions are involved in first language learner in the group iscoveredaswell This would lead to a focus on the learning and can be used in second as the + 1. John Oller provides a language learning. criterion by which to judge the

Second language Teaching: a Semiotic Approach 43 richness of language materiais. hand, the entire vocabulary and hand, this focus must be balanced He suggests writing out as many structure of the target language with the notion that semiosis is the questions about the material as you has great potential for providing product of interaction, in large part, cancome up with. The greater the surprising information to thestudent. interaction with other people. Group numberof questions, the greater the The problem is that most teachers interaction is required in order for depthofthe material (Oller 1983). In explain away the surprises before maximum learning to occur. This general, it is far moresat-isfying to a students getatryatthem.Theactivity will first of ali bring the student to language learner tocometogrips with tums from one of problem solvingto understand that other constructions a passage with some meat in it. one of tryingto remember what the than his own exist, and secondly Lozanovor Ferguson would certainly teachersaidwas happening. facilitate his learning process by argue that making something too giving him experiences that challenge simple, by dealing for example with When such opportunities arise, hispresent construction oftheworld. only one idea,signals the learner that as they definitely do, the instructor youhave noconfidence inhisabilities. should curb her initial desire to Discussions with fellow students Evenif his languagelevei islow, one explain (especially to an entire class, will provide evidence to individuais should not assume his cognitive because noteveryone will beready for thatmultiple realities exist,especially abilities are, but rather, make use ofhis anexplanation anyway). Rather, offer if reflexive skills (discussed below) are problem solvingabilities. the studentswith the question other developed. Language instruction, examplesof use of language with the however, offers something more. For example, notions of family same problem, and let them form The foreign or second language is and friendship are universally hypothesesfor surprising information. the product of another culture, common. One can as easily identify Finally, help them test these understanding it isin part dependem Sally as one's sister's best friend as hypotheses. uponunderstanding that culture. The identify her as a girl. In English the fact that languages are so different Instructors should keep in mind question "Is Sally a girl?" would be suggests multiple realities, asdoother that abductive reasoning places a considered silly. Furthermore it is aspects of target cultures. impoverishedenough in information majorpart inthe growth of Umwelten to be quite boring to most learners. and that depriving students of Cultural experiences need to be The richer the context, the more abductive experiencesdeprivesthem provided to language learners. Ifthe likely entry points for making the not only of immediate growth but instructor has lived in the targt connection that makes growth in the potentiallyof developing the skills culture, shecanprovide someof these Umwelt possible. that make growth possible. One experiences, using roleplay, literature, responsibility of a semiotics-based fine arts, films, and other books and language curriculum would then be to recordings. Ifamemberof the target b. To provide opportunity for ailow students to pratice abductive abductive reasoning. culture could be interviewed by processes. members of the class, ali lhe better. Growth of the Umwelt happens This would have the advantage of whenthe individual ischallenged by c. To provide students with providing students experience with somesurprising pieceof information evidence that multiple realities methods of inquiry, which they will (experience)that forces him orherto exist. transfer to other language learning alter his or her Umwelt to account for environments, and even to totally it.This creative activityis accounted Because of the individualized different subject fields. Ifitispossible for by abduction. Abduction is the nature of constructions of the world for students to get the experience of process of making educatedguesses created through semiosis, it makes immersion in the target culture, that's sense that the focus of instruction about the world around us. It is a even better. In the United States there creative process, away of formulating should be in large part at least areethnic neighborhoodsthatmight hypotheses fromthe cues we receive the current state and potential of the serve this purpose. Of course in the from the physical world. These cues individual student. According to second language situation, the target areoften non-verbal,and our reading Reigeiuth (1987:3) ourgroup-based, culture is readily avaiblable to the lock-stepped, graded, and time- of them may even be sub-conscious. student. Field work should be an oriented system is responsible for integral part of instruction, i. e., In learning a language, this is effectively destroying the inherent scavenger hunts,observations, etc. potentially thesimplestto understand, desire to learn in ali but a small yethardest to implement. On the one percentage oflearners. On the other

44 Revista de Estudos Germânicos d. Providestudentswith reflexive questions and listening to the these processes; evaluation inorder to skills, and nurture responses. remain in touch with how well empowerment. selected materiais, techniques, and The objective of development of resources are helping students, and For students to come to terms reflexive skills in students is to make inquiry in order to contribute to withtheir own learning processes and it possible for them to realize that knowledge in the field. The latter can with the knowledge they will when they learn something, they are be justified onthebasis that asemiotic construct, reflexivity willbe importam. at the same time changing the world approach to instruction involves as they know it. Proactive decison- To know that there are multiple helping students gain the skills they making, then, can affect the world. realities should be a liberating need in orderto create knowledgefor realization. To realize then, that you This realization should help each themselves. Instructors can set or I am empowered to effect the student come to terms with the stake examples for their students by world around us as a group or as he has in his own education. modeling techniques of inquiry. individuais and that knowledge can play a role in how we decide to have Teacher training should indude that effect isapowerful motivation for Applicationto teacher training requirements for completion of case the creation of more knowledge. To 1.Being aware ofthe Umwelten of studies (hands on) using naturalistic reach this point responsibly, each learners methods both for the purpose of learner shouldengageinasignificam reconstruction of the Umwelten of amount of soul searching both The primary charge of teachers individuais (inquiry) and for the individually and ingroups where his would be to fácilitate semiosis or purposeof analyzing the interaaion thoughts can be critiqued by others. growth. Instruaors would berequired of individuais with instructional to be continually aware of the materiais (evaluation). Techniques Thereareanumberoftechniques processes of their charges to make could indude ethnographic studies, available for developing skills in certain that they get the experiences emic studies,and hermeneutic circles reflexivity. Students can be asked they needtogrow. This would require as described by Lincoln and Guba to keep personal journals of their the skill of beingableto reconstruain (1985; see alsoGuba&Lincoln 1985). language learning experience. one's own mind the Umwelten of Execution of these techniqueswould lnitially, at least, these should be other individuais in order to give help instructors develop skills doneinthenativelanguage. Later the advice and counsel on how to in observation, note-taking, and instructor can require that they be proceed, or what experiences are interviewing (listening as well as done in a mixture of the target and- likelyto be productive. It would be question asking). native languages or even the target importam tokeep in mind the levei of language alone -theability toexpress ability each student demonstrates in 2. Being reflexive oneselfaffectively inanother language the manipulation of various sign Instruction would be focused on isevidence of being fairly skilled in systems. The use of naturalistic thestudent,notcontent, wouldunfold that language. methods of evaluation and inquiry as student needs became apparent, within a Semiotics-based curriculum In addition, the instructor would and would be oriented toward the seems quite natural. Reigeluth's benefit from occasional reflexive individual learner or small groupsof debriefing sessions withherstudents. suggestion that teachers maintain learners. Knowledge would be profiles onindividual students does as These will assist the instructor in regarded as a process, not a static evaluation of instructional strategies, well(Reigeluth 1987). structure to be learned and and if handled skillfully will create Ofimportance inUexkülTs notion remembered. Instructors can be a bond of trust in the classroom. To of Umwelt, is the idea that one can encouraged to reach this conclusion make such sessions work, instruaors learn about the Umwelt of another ontheir own through development of should be prepared toallow students through what he calls "participatory reflexive skills. This would involve to express themselves emotionally, observation" (Uexküll,T. 1981). Skills small sem-inar size groups, like should accept whatstudents say, even inparticipatory observation should be support groups, where pre-service when disagreeing with them (multiple cultivated inpre-service and in-service and/or in-service instructors would realities), andshouldtryto reconstrua instructors. They are of value for meet to discuss their own learning for themselves the reality of the reasons of evaluation and inquiry. preferences and problems and later, students through interviewing Teachers should be involved in both those of their students. This would techniques: asking thoughtful encourage a construaive interaaion

Second Language Teaching: a Semiotic Approach 45 among participants to solve the importam in a field that proposes to potentials ofstudents, ali their sensory problems of individuais with their introduce another culture to their capacities. own learning problems andwith the students. Instructorsneedto know the Instructors should attempt to learning problems of theirstudents. extentto which they are shaped by include other senses than auditoryin their own culture so that they can As teachers become aware ofthe challenge their students to see the the language learning process. The multitude of ways they and their world in new ways. Thiswould put auditory channel maynotprovide the colleagues approach learning foreign language teachers inan ideal easiest route to language learning for problems, theywill becomeaware of position toconfront theencapsulation ali students, those particularly weak some ofthe ways theirown students of their students and nurture their audi-torily may find language may do the same, and hopefully growth. instruaion frustrating to the pointof expeato find even more.Thiswill, it giving up on it. Instructors should is hoped, prompt instructors Iwouldsuggest that ali instructors experiment with instructional to investigate many approaches, haveanexperience inanother culture, activities using variousand multiple methods and techniques of language have the experience of confronting sensory modalities. Agreat deal more instruaion, in order to deal with the their own encapsulation asdefinedby needs to be investigated in thisárea. I speciai needs their students may their culture. Again,the experience cannot think of one method of exhibit. As they come to understand should be recorded in the form of a language instruaion thattrulymakes thattheirown learningisunique and reflexive journal. When possible use ofalithe learner'ssenses, except under their own control they should supportgroups shouldbe formed to possibly role play, and it is not come to understand that they do not encourage the understanding of the normally used to this end, but in control the learning oftheirstudents, target culture and the growth of practice usually focuses on verbal but thatthey can nurture it. individual Umwelten in the milieu of intelligence andauditoryperception. this culture. Instructors should Instructors shouldbe encouraged especially be encouraged to keep Teacher training courses should to keep reflexive journals to log their trackof those thingsaboutthe target include language learning own reaaions to and thoughts about culture theyespedallyliked,disliked, experiences with many different the instructional processes of or foundsurprising. There shouldbe methods ofinstruaion. Manyschools their classrooms. This is usually a anattempt through asupport group to talk about innovative methods of requirement ofnaturalistic inquiry, so reconstruathe realities ofmembersof instruaion, but few engage in them. that the Umwelt of the researcher/ the target culture. Here again, inquiry Experienced instructors in the Silent instruaorcanbetaken into account as tediniques like observation will be Way, Suggesto-pedia, Community an aspect of the study. It would very helpful. Language Learning, TPR, and Natural providethe instruaor with an account Approach should be utilized to of how she interacted with the * provide significam instruction in a instructional environment and 4. Learning to deal with the language, rather than short provide a basis upon which the uniqueneeds of students. workshops. instruaor mightdecideto modify her In order to accomplish this, course ofaction. It should be used as In addition instruaors should be anaspect ofcourseevaluation on the instructors will need to be aware of exposed to methods of instruaional the manyresources thatare available part of the instructor; because a design, so that they can set about to them, themanywayspeople learn, method of instruction is a contract structuring learning experiencesinto and techniques for providintg an between instruaor and student, the a system that resemblesthe whole of instruaionthatexploitsthe resources instructor must feel confidentthat the the target language. This may mean contraa hasbeenupheldon herpart. available within students themselves. more keeping trackof the skillsand Resourcesavailableto instructors experiencesoftheirstudents inorder 3- Corning to terms with the indude the variety of instructional to suggest furtherstudy rather than impact of culture on the methods and approaches available. prescribing learning experiences (at individual These can be assessed using the least on a whole group basis, it is criteria provided in the previous expeaed thatexperiencesmay have Reflexive sessions will also be section of the paper. Instructors to be prescribed for individual used to help instruaors discover the should espedally search formethods students).Itmay alsomean makingan impact that culture has had on their oflanguage instruaion that utilize the informed decision not to structure own Umwelten. This is particularly these learning experiences at ali. I

46 Revista de Estudos Germânicos would however suggest thatsuchrule teams, instructors could engage monitors of the student's ongoing breaking should bededded upon by in simulations that involve the semiosis. Classrooms become places someone well acquainted with the construction of foreign language where appropriate contexts for rules and the consequences and curricula forpublicorprivate schools knowledge making are provided benefits ofsuch rule breaking. or for different developmental leveis (Cunningham1987). ofstudents. In the same vein, instructors Thesuggestions providedin this should be encouraged to develop In summary, instruction in a paper are not intended to be total their ownsystems of instruction that semiotic approach wouldemphasize prescriptive systems of instruction gobeyond the parameters ofpresently ways of knowing a language not either for students or for teachers. existing methods, thatemploy moreof simplyinthe traditional verbal mode, Specific instruaionisdependentupon thesensorycapabilities of students, but in a variety of interconnected the contract between the instruaor and that integrate the best of many modes. In this view, instruction and her students.Thisisultimately the different methods without creating becomes an activity whereby we answer to Stevick's paradox, people something that works against itself, equipstudents todeliberately andself- learn in ways that they are convinced that is internally inconsistent. consciously construa the world in it is best for them to leam and this is This would require certain skills which they are to live. In this case, determined by student/instructor instructional design, particularly task through learning another language interaction and negotiation. The analysis. students are opening themselvesto a suggestions givenforteachertraining should be integrated into teacher Use of knowledge gleaned from world of people, literature, and a way ofthinking notnecessarily available to education program, rather than be inquiry and evaluation will help the them in theirown language. Teachers seen aspossible replacements for instructor build such systems. In become models of semiosis and present praaice. Q

B1BUOGRAPHY

Select

CUNNINGHAM, D. Outline ofan education semiotic. Tbe AmericanJournal ofSemiotics v.5, n.2, p.205-216,1987.

.Semiotic aspects of pedagogy. Unpublishedpaper. 1988. DEELY, J. Semiotic as framework and direction. In: DELLY, J.; KRUSE, F. E.; WILLIAMS, B. (eds.). Frontiers insemiotics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press, 1986. . Introducingsemiotic. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press, 1982. EISNER, E. Mind ascultural achievement. EducationalLeadersbip v.38, p.466-471,1981. GUBA, E. G. &LINCOLN, Y. S. Effective evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1985. KRASHEN, S. D. Tbeinputbypothesis: issues and implications. London: Longman, 1985. LINCOLN, Y. S. &GUBA, E. G. Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1985. OLLER, J.W,Jr. Some working ideas for language teaching. In: OLLER, J. W. &RICHARD-AMATO, P. A. (eds.). Methods that work. Rowley, MA: Newbury House,1983- p.3-19- REIGELUTH, C. M. Thesearch for meaningfui reform: a third wave educational system. Journal ofInstructional Development v.10, n.4, p.3-14,1977. ROCKEFELLER, D.,Jr. Coming to oursenses: thesignificance ofthe arts inAmerican education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1977. UEXKÜLL, T. von.The sign theory ofJakob von Uexküll. In: KRAMPEN, M.; OEHLER, K.; POSNER, R.; SEBEOK, T. A.; UEXKULL, T.von(eds.). Classicsofsemiotics. New York: Plenum Press, 1981.

Second language Teaching: a Semiotic Approach 47 General ASHERJ.J. Learning anotherlanguage througb actions. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks, 1982. BANCROFT, WJ. Suggestopedia, sophrology and the traditional foreign language class. Foreign LanguageAnnals,v.l5, n.5,p.373-379,1982. CURRAN, C. A. Counseling-learning in second languages. Apple River, IL: Apple River Press, 1976.

FERGUSON, N. TbeGordianknot. Geneva: CEEL, 1980. FUGELSANG, A. From extension talk tocommunity therapy. In: .Applied communication indevelopingcountries. Sweden: DagHammarskjold Foundation, 1973, p.30-42. GARDNER, Howard. Framesofmind. NewYork: Basic Books, 1983. GATTEGO, C. Wbatweowe children. NewYork: Outerbridge&Dienstfrey, 1970. HOSENFELD, C. Aleaming-teaching viewofsecondlanguage instruction. Foreign LanguageAnnals, v.12, n.l, p.51-54, 1979. SADOW, S. A. Experiential techniques thatpromote aoss-cultural awareness. Foreign LanguageAnnals v.20, n.l, p.25- 30,1987. SEBEOK, T. A. You knowmymethod. In: . Theplayofmusement. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press, 1981. SUHOR, C. Towards a semiotics-based curriculum. JournalofCurriculum Studies v.l6, n.3, p.247-257,1984.

48 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Summary of exceptional pietyand devotion to The ThreeMacBethsofthispaper God, who even made a pilgrimage are, first, the real King of to Rome. The man in question had the strongest claim to the throne of Scotlandfrom 1040 to 1057; Scotland, stronger even than the second, the character from young and irresponsible King Holinsheds Chronicles, Duncan. The bishopsand magnates Shakespeare s source; and agreed to get ridof Duncanand asked third, Shakespeares character the strongest claimantto the throne in bis eponymous play. This to lead an army to depose and kill study the king, which was duly done. The The Three MacBeths: examines new king's main accomplice in the overthrow of Duncan was a certain the Banquo, but we must remember that interrelationships offact and thisisan age inwhichthe majority of fiction in the three kings and claimants are murdered, MacBeths of history, usually much more furtively than in FactandFiction chronicle, and the case of Duncan. His successor literature, as well as managesto establish peaceand order, where many monarchs before him significant changes made by have failed. Duringhisseventeen-year Shakespeare in the interests ofa reign churches are built, many wise more dramatic and politically laws enacted, and much of the Os Três MacBeths: Fato e Ficção acceptablework. endemic civil strife is quelled. In the normal course of events, a rival claimant to the throne, Malcolm, Resumo son of Duncan, raises an army and succeeds in defeatingand killing the Jonathan PJ. Radvan' Ostrês Macbethsdiscutidosneste ensaio são, primeiro, o rei da king, who, as you are probably ali aware by now, was MacBeth, but not Escócia entre 1040 e 1057; em the MacBeth ofShakespeare, noreven segundo lugar, opersonagem of Shakespeare's primary source, das Crônicas deHolinshed,fonte Holinshed. The man I have introduced utilizada por Shakespeare; e, to you is a stranger, the unknown finalmente, opersonagem da MacBeth of modem historical research, kingof Scotland from 1040 peça shakespeareana. Este es to 1057. This Macbeth of fact can tudo examina as interrelações tell us a great deal about the great entre fato e ficção nos três MacBethof fiaion, without whom the Macbeths- o da história, o da real MacBeth would long ago have crônica eoda literatura. Exa fallen into obscurity. mina, ainda, as alterações It iswell-knownthatShakespeare significativas efetuadas por gleaned most ofthe plot for MacBeth Shakespeare afim de criarum from the Chronicles of England, Scotland, and lreland, to which texto mais teatral e mais acei Holinshed put his name. The preface távelpoliticamente. informs us that the main source for volume five, which deals with Imagine a nobleman of eleventh- Scotland, was the Latintext of Heaor century Scotland, anaccomplished warrior and military leader,yet a man * Northeast Louisiana University.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.49-53 DEZ. 1989

The Three MacBeths: Fact andFiction 49 Boethius translated into Scots (a However, none of this was adapt his work tothe needs and tastes dialeaof English) byJohnBellenden, terribly importam to Shakespeare, of his patron, and this is particularly Archdeacon of Murray, and thence who only wanted to find a plot for a clear in MacBeth. intoEnglish by Holinshed,who takes play inwhich the aaion would take Banquo appears as an heroic aedit for the period ending in 1571, place inScotland and would insome charaaer without blemish, although after which the Chronicles were way involve the ancestors of the Holinshed states that Banquo was taken to 1587 by others. Apart from reigning king, Shakespeare's patron MacBeth's chief confederate in the Boethius, Holinshed cites many James VIofScotland andIof England, murderof Duncan (269). Banquo was other named and unnamed sources. who was the first Scottish king to claimed by James VI and I as an Nevertheless, Holinshed is truly the rule over bothEngland andScotland. ancestor of the Stuart family, and author ofthe Chronicles, which are James' catholic mother, Mary, had primarily aliterary work,similar inthis been put to death by his immediate this is corroborated by the witches' respea,to the histories of Herodotus, predecessoron the English throne, prophecy inHolinshed (268), dted in Thucydides and Tacitus and other Elizabeth Tudor, who left no direct act I oiMacBeth, that Banquo would historical writers, who made use of heirs. James, asprotestam andanheir not be king,but thathis heirswould: mythology, personal opinion, legends to thethrone, was invited to England govern the Scottish kingdome by long anda hotch potch of faa and fiaion, as king to establish peace and to order ofcontinuall descem (268) to recordthe epic feats of men and secure the dominion ofProtestantism, nations. which had already once been The procession of eight kings in challenged and briefly overthrown, Aa IV, Sc. I, the last of them holding For Holinshed, the truth was by thecatholic daughter of Henry VIII, a mirror to show infinite succession, subjective and in accordance with Queen Mary Tudor.James,therefore, and followedby the ghostofBanquo, his religion and other beliefs. What needed to do everything he could to is introduced by Shakespeare, as an modem historian nowadays could assure hispowerandthesuccession of original invention, which serves as get away with starting an historical hisline, whichwasdirectly threatened propaganda, to affirm the unbroken work(as Holinshed does in VolumeV more than once. When king of line of kings of the family ofJames of the Chronicles) by delivering Scotland, beforealso becomingking Stuart through the centuries, although an excoriating condemnation of England in 1603, James' life had the claim does not bear up to of intemperance and its evil beenthreatened bytheEarl ofGowrie close historical scrutiny. Even in the consequences,ofwhich the worst,he in 1600. In 1605 James and the Chronicles Holinshed informs us that warns us, is sterility? He further entire parliament narrowly escaped Fleance, the son of Banquo, escaped admonishes the British people for assassination from the conspirators in toWales afterthe murder ofhis father. their slothfulness in notexploiting the the Gunpowder Plot, who almost ThereFleance wasputto death bythe abundam resources with which God managedto blow up the Houses of Welsh king, for getting his daughter has blessedtheir nations. Ifthis sounds Parliament. with childwithoutmarrying her. This likethe protestam work ethic that is effectively makes the entire line of exactly what it is. Throughout the Shakespeare wasgreatly indebted BanquoandJamesStuart illegitimate. Chronicles protestants are referred to to King James. His predecessor, Itisnot suprising to see that,although as"the people of the religion" and Elizabeth, hadoutlawed professional Shakespeare foiIows Holinshed neither catholics, nor the enemies of actors, unless they obtained the closely elsewhere, this entire episode England geta fair press. Thesubjective official patronage and protection of a is omitted. points ofviewinsuch aworkare only nobleman.James further restricted this to be expected in the century of bypermitting professional actors, only Shakespeare was not concerned Reformation in which, depending under his own personal patronage. with historical truth,which wasnot as whatcountryyou lived in, there was Shakespeare and his actors were importam to his contemporaries asit a right and a wrong way of looking chosen, andJames was generous to is to us, but with adapting history to at religion, politics and personal them,increasing theremuneration for suithisanistie and political purposes. morality. Apart from this, historians each court performance from ten to One casein which this is particularly had torely onbiased and incomplete twenty pounds, more than doubling true, is in the treatment of Duncan. sources, and objective empirical the number of court performances, We ali know the saintly, old king of methods of research were largely andby granting theactors permanent Shakespeare's creation, who was unknown. status asgroomsof thechamber. Itwas perhaps modelled on an English therefore verymuchinShakespeare's eleventh-century king, Edward the interest, asoffidal court playwright, to Confessor. Holinshed does not state

50 Revista de Estudos Germânicos whether Ducan was old or young, but MacBeth and the entire emotional a purely practical measure,necessary he does call hima"dull, coward and development ofthe plotcan be traced in a brutal world in which kings had slouthfull person" and an ineffeaual to this murder, but imagine how to be strong, cunning, ruthless and ruler (267) and has very little tosay in different andhow dull the playwould lucky, justto survive. his favour. be if the death of Duncan were portrayed exactly as it occurred in At the end of the tenth century More recenthistorical schoiarship history! certain kings had tried to establish reveals a Duncan diametrically hereditary succession, but it was opposed to that of Shakespeare: a The murder of Duncan is not legally recognized in Scotland young, impulsive king, inthehabit of described very briefly in the until well into the thirteenth century. ordering disastrous raids on England, Chronicles (269) and, as pointedout Duncan was nominated by his in which many of his finest warriors by bothKenneth Adger andR. A.Law, grandfather (his father being dead) were slain, without any benefit to it is probable that Shakespeare Malcolm II (1005-34), but the former Scotland. As I have mentioned, the borrowedepisodesunrelated to the onlysucceèdedtothethrone, because bishops and magnates of Scotland storyof MacBeth, from elsewhere in two other claimants were murdered finally rebelled and sent MacBeth the Cbronicles, such asthe murderof shortly before his investiture, andthe and Banquo with an armyto depose King Duffe, in which the murderer other, Lulach, was a child, reputed to Duncan. A battle was fought in intoxicates the king's bodyguards, be simple-minded. The system of the northeast, at Burghead, where prior tothemurder, ortheepisode in tanists (as ali the possible heirs were Duncan was defeated and killed, which the guilt of King Kenneth is known) effectively established a either during, or shortly after the described, after the murder of his succession of the fittest, that man battle. This happened in 1040, so it nephew. While Shakespeare may being theonewhocould kill his rivais is understandable that Holinshed, have borrowed in this way, it seems and avoid being killed himself. writing over five centuries later, equally possible for him to have Between 943 and 1097 there were should have recorded a rather diluted invented these alterations to the fourteen kingsof Scotland, of whom and unclear version of events. historical narrative, ashe didso freely ten were murdered. Of course many However, despite the primitive elsewhere, notably inthe legitimacy of more tanists were also killed in that methodsofresearch available to him, MacBeths claim to the throne. period. Compared to other kings Holinshed did record that Duncan was MacBeth carne to the throne in the Earlier I mentioned how a poor ruler and yet Shakespeare least reprehensible ofways, inbroad Shakespeare used MacBeth as a portrays him as asaintly, oldman, a daylight, as it were, and with lhe full vehicle to support the succession of Iamb to the slaughter, for dramatic backing of the clergy and nobility. James Stuart, butthis also depends, in reasons. MacBeth was also the most obvious theplay, upon diminishing or omitting candidate to succeed Duncan, fornot Even if Shakespeare had been the historically strong claim to the only was he the most accomplished aware of the historical facts as we throne of Scotland which MacBeth military leader, but his claim was knowthem, he wouldprobably have had, which is carefully excised by aaually stronger than that of either ignored oraltered them, as he did in Shakespeare. His contemporaries Duncan, or his son Malcolm. The many cases withtheaccount given in were used to succession remaining geneology iscomplex, but suffice it to the Chronicles. In the case ofDuncan within one family andcrowns being say that MacBeth was not merely a itisnot hard to seewhy Shakespeare passed from father to son or daughter grandson of Malcolm II, as was made this decision. MacBeth is and even Holinshed seems to have Duncan, butwas also related byblood depiaed as a fallen hero, a man of been unaware of the system of and by marriage, to Malcolm II's extremesandsohis bad deeds have to succession which operated in immediate predecessor, Kenneth III be truly evil. Therefore Duncan Scotland in the eleventh century, (997-1005). MacBeth would have is defenceless, asleep, a friend which followedthe Gaelic tradition of been unable to rule in peace for and kinsman of MacBeth (on this tanistry, bywhich the right tobeking so long, had his claim not been last point, Shakespeare is accurate fell to the"mostworthy"malerelative recognized by the great majority of historically). The murder is plotted of the reigning monarch. The abuse the other magnates andtanists. Here and premeditated, and innocent inherent in such a system can well again, even if Shakespeare had been people are inculpated, so that be imagined, although it was designed aware of these facts, they would not to keep those who were too young, the whole deed reeks of unhealthy havebeenusedinthe plot, astheydo or infirm, or in some other way ambition, treachery and sacrilege. The not serve either the artistic or the remorse felt by MacBeth and Lady unsuitable, fromthe throne.This was

51 The Three MacBeths: Fact andFiction political purposes of the play of appropriate to the subject and GruodVs first husband had MacBeth. pleasing toJames Stuart. been Gillacomgain, the virtually autonomousruler ofMoray, who was These political purposes are Quite aside from the symbolic acousin of Macbeth. MacBeüVs father further underscored by Henry N. power ofHecate and the witches and had also been ruler of Moray, and Paul in his book, Tbe Royal Play of their dramatic effeaiveness, we must MacBeth is often called MacBeth of MacBeth. Hemaintainsconvincingly, bearin mind thatthey were real to Moray in historical sources. GruodVs that the play was ordered expressly for most people in early seventeenth son by her first marriage was Lulach, a court performance to celebrate a century Britain. Women were quite and she maywell have beenbehind visit ofthe king of Denmark. Oames legally puttodeath for being witches. the ill-fated attempt to puthimonthe was married to a Danish princess.) The weird sisters or faeries or spirits throne afterthe death ofMacBeth. She This certainly would explain, as Paul mentioned by Hollinshed are worthy certainly hada reputation asa tough asserts, why the Danes of Holinshed's material for history, andthe common and ambitious woman, so much so in Chronicles, vanquished by MacBeth explanation he gives for MacBeth's fact, thatshe isone ofthe fewwomen and Banquo in Act I, have been transformation from agoodtoanevil who standout in the sources of early king ishis association with witches diplomatically transformed by Scottish history. Shakespeare into Norwegians. The andwizards, who were seen asa real Danish kingcould familiarize himself source of evil (274). Although the Shakespeare hassuchavivid idea a littlewith Scotland and with James witches are evil, it is a neat irony to ofhis charaaers, that it istempting to through this play and could feel notice that it is through these evil believethem to havebeen historically, reassured that the protestam apparitions in Aa IV, Sc. I, thatJames exaaly ashe portrayed them.InAa II succession wassecure in England and Stuart affirms the ancient, divinely the Porter ispurêShakespeare, comic Scotland. appointed succession of his family as relief, likethe gravediggers inHamlet, kings, by means ofthe procession of andyetthecastle of MacBeth maywell The play also gives evidence of kings. have had such a man with such James' great interest in the oceult, feelings andasimilar charaaer. Inthis whidi inspired him to writea book on Of course those parts of the wayShakespeare brings history to life demonology. Shakespeare knew his play which do not derive from by transporting us into another place patron well, and when he read in the Chronicles and which are the Chronicles aboutaScottish king, Shakespeare's purê invention, are andanother century, whileatthesame time making us keenly awareof the ruled bywitches anddependent upon arguably more importam than the their prophecies, and who was also sources from which they ultimately common bond of humanity which such a fascinating mixture of great derive. Lady MacBeth for example, links us ali to one another. goodandgreat evil, itislittle wonder possibly one ofthe greatest female One of the great set pieces that he chose MacBeth asthe subject dramatic roles ever created, is of MacBeth is also Shakespeare's ofhis Scottish play - acharacter which mentionedby Holinshed only in the invention: the banquet in Aa III, Sc. could satisfy Shakespeare's fascination briefest of terms in reference to the IV. Of course it is quite probable with human psychology and at the murder of Duncan, as the wife of that such a banquet could actually same time incorporate not only an MacBeth thus: have taken place, but history is ancestor ofJames, but alsoone ofhis His wifelaysoreuponhimtoattempt the only one colourin the palette which favorite interests: witches and the thing, as she that was verie ambitious, Shakespeare uses to paintcountless oceult. Here again Shakespeare burning in inquenchable desire, to bear universal portraits of humanity. borrows what he wants from the thenameofa queene.(269) Chronicles in the form ofthe witches' In Act IV, Sc. III, Shakespeare prophecies in Act I, Sc. III and Certainly the germ of the entire chooses to ignore the evidence of againin Aa IV, Ac. I. In the latter case charaaer istherealready, but it took Holinshed, that MacDuffwas awareof though, Shakespeare has fun with thegenius ofShakespeare todevelop the slaughter of his family (274-5), the idea, introducing symbolic it to full fruition. before he went to England. The apparitions, induding the procession Holinshed maywellbe correct in audience has just witnessed the of kings. Aa Iopens withthe witches his description of MacBeth's wife, murder of MacDuffs wife, servants concoainga foul brewandthe whole whose real name was Gruoch. She and children, and it is dramatically play isthereby given a brooding, evil was the daughter of Boite, a man most effeaive for us to wonder how atmosphere which is dramatically murderedby Malcolm II, to assure the MacDuffwill reaa when he hears the most effective, as well as being succession of his grandson Duncan. news. Historical veracity is quite

52 Revista de Estudos Germânicos

i rightly sacrificed for dramatic of day. We know who the different When put together, the historical, effeaiveness. MacBeths are, but I do not think literary and dramatic elements of The relationship between history anyone would like to label one of MacBeth are constantly evolving them the "true MacBeth", since each and changing, like images in a and Shakespeare's drama iscomplex, kaleidoscope. because it can be understood onmany one contains importam truths, and it isonly when seen together, side by leveis: Shakespeare's use of sources, Theinsights ofHistory canenrich side, that we can begin to see the alterations made to those sources, studies ofTheatre and English, and I whole truth about MacBeth. the accuracy or inaccuracy of those wish the converse were true, although sources, the relationship between Of the three MacBeths I have I must admit I have read many history as wesee it, as Shakespeare mentioned, even the true MacBeth of scornful remarks about Shakespeare's saw itand as Holinshedsaw it;but to history iswell-known today, ifonly to MacBeth inbooks on Scottish history! get things into perspective, it is a thousands ofScottish school-children. Be that as it may, I do believe that testimony to Shakespeare that very However we must guard ourselves a truly interdisciplinary approach few people would have any interest in from thinking thatwe know ali that within the academic field and an MacBeth ofMoray atali, wereitnotfor there is to know on the subject, abandonment of the prejudices and the play, written in 1606. It is only a because although ali Scottish history superiorities felt between different matter of interest to us that MacBeth books written this century have a departments in most universities are was infaa slain nearLumphanan near better grasp of the truth, than did long overdue. This can be achieved Mar in the Moray country, far from Holinshed in the 1570s, the life of equallysuccessfully throughthestudy Dunsinane or Birnam Wbod, because MacBeth, which occurred nearly a of MacBeth, as by the study of any we know the fictional MacBeth. It is thousand years agonow,isina period subject worthyofhuman attention. thegreatnesstherefore,ofthe fictional of history forwhich, although there is My purpose in examining the MacBeth which inspiresinus a desire evidence, it is scanty and has to be different MacBeths of fact and fiaion to become acquainted with the pieced together like a jigsaw puzzle. has not been to make any definite real MacBeth of history. Neither Ifanotherpieceisdiscovered, thenthe parallels, or to establish any fixed Shakespeare, nor Holinshed were sense we have made from the relationships between them, but awareofthe trulyhistorical MacBeth, evidence we possess may become rather to present them in such a way and there is no way that they could nonsense. that each one of us may decide their have been, but itiscurious to note that We may be tempted to think that significance, not only in historical, the truth about an eleventh-century literary, or dramaticterms, but also in king, who became a legend due to this is not true of the MacBeth of Shakespeare, becausehe wascreated termsofthe more personalimpression a sevententh-century myth, long once forever. However, successive that the three faces of this man, accepted by many as a real mirror to interpretations of MacBeth do reveal presentedtousovera periodofnearly history, should have had to wait for new aspects of the work, in a similar one thousand years, has on each one nineteenth and twentieth-century waythathistorical research constantly ofus.Q historical researchto come to the light uncovers new áreas of knowledge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANDERSON, A. O. Early Sources ofScottish History, 500-1286.2 vols. Edinburgh, 1922.

DICKINSON, W. C. Scotland. Edinburgh: Nelson, 1922. HOLINSHED, et ai. Chronicles ofEngland, Scotland and Wales. 6vols. London, 1808. LAW, R. A. "The Composition ofMacBeth with Reference toHolinshed." University ofTexas Studies inEnglish 31, (1952), p.35-41. PAUL, H. N. Tbe Royal PlayofMacBeth. NewYork: Octagon, 1971. PREBBLE, John. TbeLion in tbeNortb. NewYork: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, Inc., 1971. ROWSE, A. L TbeAnnotatedShakespeare. 3 vols. London: Orbis, 1978. WHEELER.T. MacBeth. An AnnotatedBibliograpby. New York: Garland, 1990.

Tbe Three MacBeths: Fact andFiction 53 Summary Assim que o visitante deixa o aeroporto internadonal emCu The article provides a ba seus olhos não podem deixar de background to help understand verum dospersonagens mais comuns tbe educational scene in Cuba do cenário quotidiano cubano: o andparticularly the foreign estudante. Camisa brancade mangas languagepoliciesandpraticesin curtas,calças ou saiascaqui e o mar cante lenço vermelho amarrado em that country. Most ofthe major nó na frente do peito. structuring ^v r, • j -r' aspects suchas A presença dos estudantes em toda parte, asescolasabertas emtodos O Ensino de Língua number <,/ os cantosevidenciam a preocupação classes per básica com aeducação geral em Cuba. tveek, grades in which the A Cuba revolucinária nasceu sob o foreign language is signo da educação mediante uma «nr . • taught .and type of campanha nadonal de alfabetização lançada em março de 1959, dois meses HStYCltlQClVCl 6ftl textbook are treated as apósa vitória da Revolução. Em fins wellas thegeneral role de 1961, ano do começo oficial da and importance of that Campanha, já não se contavam mais discipline for educational analfabetos no pais. Mas a educação authorities. Tbe questions of de adultos seguiu sendoumapriorida Cuba textbook content selection and de. Emduasdécadas que seseguiram methodology arediscussedfrom àCampanha, estabeleceu-se portodo o arquipélago a Batalha pelo Sexto sampledata collectedinHavana Grau (ou sexta série nosistema brasi- andcompared to current trends leiro). Com auxílio dos meios de in Brasil. comunicação de massa, dos sindica Foreign Language Teaching tos, das ligas femininas e Centros de Resumo Defesa da Revolução (CDRs), a Bata in Cuba lhacumpriusuametabásica de elevar Oensaio apresenta umpanode o nível global de instrução em Cuba fundopara a compreensão do para asextasériedaescola de 1° grau. cenário educacionalem Cuba, Esse esforçoinduiu obviamentea José Carlos Paes de Almeida particularmente quanto àspolí produção de material didático que Filho* ticas epráticas no ensino de língua estrangeira. São aborda atendesse especificamente àsnecessi dosaspectos como número de dadesdesseprojeto. O livro deleitura ' Leitura Camponesa', reeditado muitas aulassemanais, séries nasquais vezesnas décadas de 70 e 80, contem se ensina língua estrangeira e pequenos poemas,estórias, fragmen tipo de livro didático, e ainda a tos literários e biografias com títulos funçãogeralea importância da como"A MulherCubana","Momentos disciplinapara as autoridades do Diário de Che" e "Versos Simples" educacionais. Questões referen (de José Mati). tes à metodologia e ao conteúdo Há no momento em Cuba prepa delivrosdidáticossãodiscutidas rativos para o desencadeamento ple Agradeço a Olga P. Paes o Interesse apartirdeamostragensdedados constante e a participação concreta no no de umanova'Batalha' pelo9o grau levantamento dosdadosem Havana, sem coletados em Havana e compa completo. os quais este estudo exploratório não rados às tendências atuais no • UNICAMP teria sido possível. Brasil.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.54-57 DEZ. 1989

54 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Desses dados educacionais nos do espanhol levaram as autoridades o enfoque oral no Io semestre e o interessava espedficamente o movi cubanas a restringirem o ensino de LE escrito no 2osemestre. Na 8a série, a mentodentro da áreade educação em ao inglês. Não foi possívelobter ne ênfase é na compreensão de lingua línguaestrangeiramoderna, de modo nhum documento ofidal que justifi gem oral e, na 9a série, o foco é cen que os dados servissem como uma casse explicitamenteessa escolha de trado nos processos de composição análise preliminar dasituaçãocubana língua para preencher a disciplina escrita. e para os primeiros contrastes com a LEM. Nas escolas visitadas os profes política e tendências no Brasil naárea sores falaram no valor pragmático Esse sistema de ênfase deve ser de ensino de LEs. (ciência, comunicações internacio revisto após a introdução provável, nais, turismo) queesseidioma possui. em 1989, de LE nas 5a e 6aséries da Vejamos primeiramente o que escola primária após a consolidação dispõe o currículo dasescolascomuns Épossível estudar russo naescola do processode alfabetização. deCuba quantoà presençade LE e sua secundária em algumas poucas insti carga horáriapor semana. tuições de experimentação. Outras Quanto ás características da abor línguas,alémdo russoe do inglês, são dagem de ensino preconizada pelas estudadas em escolas de nível supe autoridades, o conteúdo curricular é 5.6 7.8.9 10,11.12 o que maischamaaatençãodo profis Primária Secundária Pré-Univ. rior e nos quase cem Centrosde Lín Básica guas para Trabalhadores em todo o sional visitante. Na8asérie, porexem país. Nesses últimos, adultos que plo, anotamos os seguintestítulosde Língua unidades: Estrangeira (3) (3) 3 3 2 2 2 2 trabalham podem optar por estudar quaisquer dasseislínguas oferecidas - El primer dia de classes (previ além do inglêse do russo: alemão, são de 6 horas aula) Adisciplina LE está presente em checo, chinês, italiano e português. - El círculo infantil (6) todo o percurso da escola, desde a 7a Paraingressar nessas escolas, o traba série, emalgumas escolas pelomenos lhadorpredsa demonstrar havercon - Preparemos ei recibimiento a duas vezes por semana emaulas de45 cluído a 9a série, queé ameta nadonal nuestrosamigos soviéticos (6) para toda a população nos dias de minutos, sempre durante seis anos - Ajudamos a mama en Iacocina hoje. seguidos. O idiomaestrangeiro está (solo escritura) (2) dentro dos36,6% de tempo reservado Para conhecer de perto algumas - Enei área deportiva(4) para asciêndashumanas contrastan das caraaerísticasdo ensino de LE que do com 39,2% das ciências naturais e se processa naescola cubana dehoje, - Los abuelos em casa matemáticas. houve uma visita demorada à Escola - Una fiesta en Ia escuela No anode 1989, apósum período Vicente Ponce, no bairro residendal - Héroes revoludonários central de Vedado. A escola não tem depreparação pedagógica sistemática, -Unviageentren será estendida à escola primária o aparência de haver sido construiria - El diáriodeSue: un dia enei den ensino de LE a partirda 5* série. Por para esse fim. Como muitas escolas tista (6) essa razão, houve umaindicativa firme cubanas, está acomodada no que de garantir excelência aoprograma de parece haver sido um casarão da era - La família Martins pré-revolucionária. Como a grande formação deprofessores primários de - De excurción (lectura) maioria dos edifícios cubanos, o LE, que se desenvolveu nasescolas - En Ia tienda de ropa pedagógicas (com status de faculda prédio parece cuidado e temasseio, de)no período de 1987-1988. mas suas paredes não vêem tinta há - Nuestra capital bem mais de uma década. Todo o - Vamos a jugarbalonpié Até aqui, temos falado generica mobiliário parece ter sido bastante mente em termos de LE ou LEM, mas usado e o aspecto geral é de uma - En fin de curso Cuba tem hoje uma opção única pelo escola convencional. A proposta curricular para a 9a ensino dalíngua inglesa nasescolas de série contém os seguintes títulos de todo o país. Ébem verdade que em Aprofessora deLíngua Inglesa da escola informou queosseus alunos da unidades: período anterior se experimentou o Vicente Ponce inidam o estudo dessa ensino derussona escolapública, mas -Mother needs help língua (aúnica estrangeira da escola) oesforço deformação de professores -No TV e a magnitude do desafio de ensinar aos 12 anos, na sétima série. Por ini - An accident uma língua tipologicamente distante ciativas recentes, na escola secun dária básica, o professor devepriorizar - Grandfather knows best

OEnsino delínguaEstrangeira em Cuba 55 -Abigsurprise LE. Trata-se da dimensão político-cul- - seja estendido nas escolas de tural de muitos dos textos, que em línguas do paíso cursodeleitura -Asmallmistake presta um tom cubano contempo em inglês e em francês e espa -Water râneo para as amostras dehngua-alvo. nhol como língua estrangeira. (Ministério da Educação de Cuba, 1988) Na unidade 1, introduzem-se os Nessa linha, tratam-se doscírculos seguintes conteúdos programáticos: infantis e centros de defesa da revolu Em contraste com essas tendên - laspreposiciones on, in, at, un- çãoquepromovem areflexão ideoló ciasde cresdmentode ofertae impor der,in,frontof gica sobreos temas revolucionários. tância das línguas estrangeiras, no Prepara-se o aluno para receber os Brasil, asituação permanece endemi- - vocabulário soviéticos (em inglês) e para falar camente estagnadaou degenerativa - elementos de pronunciación y sobre os heróis revolucionários na em várias decisõesoficiais. No Estado entonadón relacionados con ei língua estrangeira. Introduzem-se de SãoPaulo,asecretariada Educação contenido tópicos dereeducação para ospapéis promulgou a Resolução 01 de07/01/ - reladón entre ei fonemaA/yIas masculinos e femininos emcasae para 85, que torna LE obrigatória em conbinaciones delagrafema 'ch' a compreensãodos avós. apenas 2 anos da escola de Iograu, retirando-lhe, ao mesmo tempo, o sta Tudo bem aninhado ainda numa Na unidade 2 estão incluídas: tusde disdplina promodonal comoas estrutura de curso que se preocupa - Iasoraciones afirmativas, nega com pontos gramaticais. Esse traço outras matérias do currículo ofidal. tivas e interrogativas con ei vigoroso do ensino maistradicional Generaliza-se a apatiae umsentidode menos valia desmoralizante para o verbo BE seguido de adjetivos não se apagou nem com o ímpeto devastador da Revolução. profissional do ensino de LE na rede - BE +adjetivos calificativos públicade ensino. -vocabulário conénfasis especial Essa herança gramaticalista, con en losadjetivos old, new, long tudo, não tem imobilizado as inicia Iniciativas que poderiamsersau tivasde avanço na área de ensino de dadascomoalentadoras nesse cenário Do livro didático da 9a série, Ia línguas. Dentre asindicações gerais do de crise, tal como a criação dos Cen unidade,constao seguinte fragmento ministro da educação, J. R. Fernan- trosde Ensinode Língua em SãoPaulo de diálogo, que se inclui aqui para dez, parao desenvolvimento do traba e no Paraná, esbarram nas conveni ilustração do tipo de textosutilizados: lho educativo durante o ano escolar ências políticas de governantessema contribuição de professores espe Molben Good. Everythingis in the re- 1987-1988, consta a de fortalecero frigerator. You can prepare lunch now. tabalho do ensino de idiomasestran cialistas. Os materiais de ensino no Lastnight I did guard duty at lhe CDR geiros. Dentro dessa perspectiva Brasil, representadospelo livro didá ('Comitê de defensa de Ia Revolución') tico nacional de ensino de LE, na sua andtodayIamverytired. Please prepare recomenda-se que: imensa variedade constituem um somethingnice. I'mvery hungry. - seja ampliada a extensão do quadro pobre de inovações baseadas Embora todo o currículo mostre ensinode línguasestrangeirasa no conhecimento empírico e explídto evidêndas de utilizaçãode elementos alunos da escola média; sobre aprendizagem de outras lín de vários métodos, tendência essa -seja dadamais atenção aotraba guas. Os conteúdos, diferentemente confirmada por outros profissionais lhometodológico dosprofesso dos cubanos representados no livro cubanos, há uma clara opção por rese,emespedal, ao aperfeiço únicode iniciativa ofidal,são flagran ensinarelementos formais estruturais. amentodo domínio desses idio tementealienantese despreocupados Isso obviamente contrasta com os mas; com o mundo real das pessoas. rumos doensinoe pesquisana áreade -seja prestada espedal atenção ao ensino de LE nos centros europeus, Quanto aos aspeaosgramaticais, plano de formação de profes brasileiros e norte-americanos, com há, provavelmente, umasensível con sores primários de inglês nas ênfase estes no ensino humanístico- vergência de preocupaçõesem ambos escolas pedagógicas a partir de os países,o que retratapossivelmente comunicativo. 1988; a força de nossa tradição clássico- Mas a escolha de tópicos e temas • seja garantida nos institutos humanista de apresentar sistematica dasunidades possuiumacaracterística pedagógicosuma maior quali menteas noçõesgramaticais ao aluno. coerente com a vida pós-revolução e dade na formação dos profes Persiste a crença de que um sistema bastante distinta enquanto critério de sores de línguasestrangeiras; potendal de formas gramaticais deve seleção detópicos paraasamostras de ser aprendido e deixado em estado

56 Revista deEstudos Germânicos latente na esperança de que haja Naesteiradas mudançasprofun da nova Naçãocubana na medida em oportunidades de fazê-lo fluir quando das que se operam em Cuba, dentro que prepara seus cidadãos para, na apareçam as oportunidades de uso do quadro educacional, permanece a superaçãovia LE, se encontrarem com comunicativo real. conclusão de que o ensino de LE é outros povos do mundo. Q atividadeimportantena reconstrução

BIBLIOGRAFIA

ALMEIDA FILHO, J. C. P. et alli. ARepresentaçãodoProcesso deAprenderno LivroDidáticoNacionaldeLínguaEstrangeira Modernano P'Grau. Mimeo, UNICAMP, 1989. FERNANDEZ PERERA, R. et alli. La BatalhaporeiSexto Grado. Havana: Editorial Pueblo y Educación, 1985. GEROULD, L. &PRED, L. Language Instruction inCuba, In: TesolNewsletter, v.XVII, n.6,1983. Indicaciones Generales dei Ministro da Educación. In: Educación, n.66,Ministério de Educación:Havana, 1987. Journal ofReading: Speciai Issue. Education in Cuba: 1961-1981. Newark: International Reading Association, 1981. MACHADO RAMIREZ, E. etalli. Vinculacion con Ia Escuela Media: Algunas Experiências dei Departamento de Inglês dei Instituto Superior Pedagógico "José Marti" de Camaguey. In: Educación, n.63, Havana: Ministério da Educación, 1986. PÂNTANO FILHO, R. et alli. Quem SabeEnsina; Quem nãosabe, Aprende: AEducação em Cuba. Campinas: Papirus, 1986.

OEnsino delínguaEstrangeira em Cuba 57 Summary encadeadosaos fatosnarrados), entre gando apalavra apersonagens que se A reading of Mary Shelley's sucedem. A trama é estruturada por novel Frankenstein, under the um recurso que poderíamos chamar decomposição "em corrente'', naqual perspective oftheFantastic and cada alternância de narrador compo taking as a starting point ria um elo. Evidentemente, umacom psycboanalylic lheories. posição circular, já que, no desfecho, a palavra é retomada pelo autor das Resumo cartas, Robert Walton. Aseqüência é lacunar, exata OOlho, o Narrador *ZZ,d?Z mente como acontece numa troca de kenstein, de correspondência. Cada segmento da Mary Shelley, sob aperspectiva narrativa surge como o preenchimen to de um espaço temporal interrom doFantástico e a partir de um pido, onde os acontecimentos são recuperados pela memória, sob a e o Monstro 2—""»*'«~ forma delinguagem. Robert Walton, a princípio, parece ter como única Me dijo que su libro seUamaba eiLibro função realizar a costura das diversas de Arena, porque nlei libro nl Ia arena narrativas encadeadas, já que, até o tlenennl principio nl An. desfecho da trama,manifesta-se ape (Borges, El libro deArena) nas como ouvinte e depois testemu The Eye, the Narrator and the nha. Na introdução, o relato de sua Monster vidae expediçãoé brevee sintético. 1.0narradore a corrente No entanto, seria ingênuo pensar A criatura de Victor Frankenstein queatranscrição deumrelato oral não é, hoje, uma dasmais conheci trazas marcas daquele que a realiza. Leopoldo Comitti.' daspersonagens dashistórias dehor Mesmo que a palavra seja dadaa Vic ror veiculadas em cinema, televisão e torFrankenstein, teremos queanalisar quadrinhos. Contraditoriamente, o talenunciadocomolhosdesuspeição. romance que lhe deu origem, Fran Asimples assinatura, no final do rela kenstein, deMary Shelley1, foi pratica to,torna-se umfiltro quedenunda um mente esquecido. O tempo tornou deslocamentode sentido,aindaque o quase anônima suaautora, damesma narrador se pretendafiel: forma quese encarregou de nomear aqueleque nasceu anônimo: o mons Resolviregistrar durante, quandonão tropassou aserchamado deFranken- estou ocupadocom minhas obrigações, tudooqueelemecontasse durante odia, stein, roubando o nome de seu conservando ao máximo suas próprias criador. palavras.2 Mais que umfenômeno comum à Ora,a própriaexpressão "aomá grande massa, esse fato implica numa ximo" jánosmostra que háumatrans leitura do texto, sugerida não apenas posição deumdiscurso parao interior por seu conteúdo, mas também por de outro, subordinando o primeiroao sua própria estrutura. Já na abertura segundo. do livro, a condução do narrador denota uma lacuna. Iniciado por um Nesse aspeao, Frankensteinlem discurso epistolar, o romance vai bra PierreMenard, aulorDelQuiptei, incorporando depoimentos em seu de Borges, diferendando-se, porém, percurso (depoimentos essessempre • Faculdade de Letras, UFMG.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.58-61 DEZ. 1989

58 Revista deEstudos Germânicos i^&iej ••

pelo fato de que aobra latino-ameri vazios, que se preenchem transito ções de amizade ou amor fraterno são cana enuncia e analisa o fenômeno. riamente, mas que ressurgem logo interditadas pelamorte, como ocorre Da mesma forma que o Quipteláe após, intensificados. Aspersonagens, a Clerval e a William. Menard modifica o de Cervantes, pormais que se tente exaustivamente, apesar de reproduzi-lo palavra por não podem ser agrupadas em séries, Assim,aconstelação de persona palavra, odepoimento de Victor Fran como se faz normalmente em abor gens apresentada pelo romance fan- kenstein, bem como aqueles quenele dagens psicanalíticas. Elas oscilam tasmatiza uma incessante indagação se encaixam, é modificado ao passar constantemente entreo domínio pa pelaorigeme sentidodavidae, conse pelo crivo de Walton. terno e o maternoe parecembuscar, qüentemente, pelas relações familia "adinfinitum", uma identificação. res e pessoais que as propidam. Até Assim, as narrativas se espelham mesmo nessaquestão Waltone Viaor e sereproduzem a partir de caraae- Dessa forma, não é de se estra se revelam homólogos. O primeiro rização de personagens semelhantes. nhar que o tema da orfãdade esteja defronta-se com o problema de Como fragmentações de Walton e muito presente. Ele parece, primei explicar o princípio orientador da Frankenstein, as personagens secun ramente, em Walton e se projeta, navegação(aqui uma evidente metá dárias passam pelo romance ence implicitamente, na também implídta fora do percurso existendal) a partir nando traços dacaracterização desses, Margareth. Victor Frankenstein, apesar do magnetismo terrestre. Parece-nos bem marcada nas cartas iniciais. A de referir-se aos pais, remete-ostotal evidente, até mesmo pela proximi partir dehomologias mais evidentes, mente para um segundo plano: ele é dade no espaço textual, uma relação é possível oestabelecimento de pares o indivíduo que cria a si mesmo a com a atração exercida nele pelo simétricos, mas esses se multiplicam partir da busca científica. Em termos elemento masculino: O Pólo Norte é em um novo confronto, repetindo a de reladonamento interpessoal,sua o modelode identificação inutilmente estrutura em corrente em foco na posição é altamente ambígua, re procurado. narrativa. Formam como que uma petindo a mesma caraaerização de configuração de espelhos, cada qual Walton. Ambos oscilam entre o mas Frankenstein, por suavez, volta- repetindo parte deumaimagem única culino e o feminino,nãoencontrando se para a pesquisa de uma origem e somando a ela as distorções de em nenhum dos pólos(Pólos?) o pre biológica, com um mal disfarçado outrosespelhosvizinhos.No entanto, enchimento do vazio existencial. Na traço de metafísica: alquimistas e aimagem primeira (o narrador) quese amizade, externam uma admiração naturalistas convivem em sua biblio oferece às diversas superfícies tam quase enamorada por Clerval (Victor) grafia. bémse revela puro reflexo, que por ou pelo marinheiro não nomeado Sua problemática está centrada no (Walton). Neles, o que os encanta e sua vezreflete todosos outros. Assim, momento da concepção, e a criação walton, que praticamente seeximede atrai é também a falta, ou seja, a do monstro nos apresenta uma fusão narrar, compõesuacarta de excertos impossibilidade de desenvolver-se dos papéis materno e paterno: ele é da fala de outros; mas, ao fazê-lo, as inteleaualmente e a perda daamada, pai e mãe deuma criatura engendrada sumeduas falas e se monta enquanto respectivamente. Neles, vêem a per em seu exterior, a partir de material narrador. Otextoexpõe a falta de um feição e um modelo. estranho aele;o monstroé criado por elemento unificador e ao mesmo Em relação aoelemento femini ele,masnãodele. Temoscondensada tempo a preenche; da mesma forma no, a atitude de ambosé de sacrali- aíaproblemática darejeição àorigem quea criatura, composta de pedaços zação da mulher. Em Walton, essa é sexual e aos papéis exercidos pelos de mortos e criada para preencher o indivíduos nela envolvidos. Dessa vazio de Frankenstein, expõe esse elevada ao estatuto de irmã e se com porta como um olho invisível que o forma, o horror a sua criatura incide mesmo vazio. A trama repete a es observa. Em Frankenstein, Elisabeth também na impossibilidade de uma trutura da obra e ambas só existem setorna arealização impossível, inter realização amorosa; o momento das enquantoum discurso criado que se ditada pela presença dacriatura. Essa núpcias esbarra norecalque, fazendo nega radicalmente a referir-se a um alienação do objetoamado impregna surgir o "monstro" por ele(delega sujeito externo e a imersão desse num todoo textoe acaba pormarcar todos do. possível "real". os personagens. Elisabeth encontra a Como se podeobservar, aproble morte, bem comoJustine, seu "alter mática das personagens/narradores se 2.Identificação oscilante ego"; órfãs, privadas de família, não sobrepõe, fato esse observado por chegam a instaurar um lar ou instau Frankenstein e que deflagra seu Comojá antecipamos, o romance rar-se em algum. Atémesmo asrela parece se desenrolar em torno de depoimento:

O Olbo, o Narrador e o Monstro 59 "Homeminfeliz! Você quer compartilhar pois lhe falta o olharque o unifique, de inscrição, umarede de significantes minha loucura? Seráque você também já que ele é um "não-nascido". Sua que envolve um buraco não preen bebeu do líquido que embriaga? Escute- me; dexe-me contar-lhe minha estória, e falta é, portanto, radical. Em seu chidopelalinguagem e que permance você afastará o cálice de seusláblosf^ desenvolvimento, soma as etapas da "mancante". formação do "eu", comoasentende a Anível de estruturação do foco psicanálise atual,sem que umestágio narrativo, tal fato tambémse repete. ceda ao outro. A criatura é a síntese de 4.0olhoimplícito Damesma forma que a problemática um processo não resolvido; nele Já por diversas vezes fizemos existencial enunciada por ambos se convivem o momento do "corp notar que o singularfoconarrativo do somae sesobrepõe,também o discur morcelé" (Lacan, Escritos) e o estágio textoé homólogo ao desenvolvimen so de um é somado ao do outro e do espelho. filtrado até atingir uma sutil sobre to da trama. A forma epistolar, com posição. Aimagemdo espelho, usada Em relação a Walton e Franken encaixes, além de elidir um narrador pornósanteriormente, pode ser nova stein,o seré um mergulho no proces unificador, deixando-o implícito, cria mente utilizada aqui sem constran so identificatório, o momento emque um novo receptor, diferentedaquele gimentos. Um e outro se encontram todoo espelhamento se desfaz, para que a Teoria da Literatura conven em trajetórias opostas e se olham que se perceba que além dele há cionou chamar de "implícito", que como se vissem a si mesmos em apenas o elo entre vida e morte, de poderíamos nomear de "virtual". posições invertidas: onde começaum onde emanam as pulsões. Éo "ça", Trata-se deMargareth, irmãdeWalton. é onde termina o outro. No entanto, que no fantástico se manifesta pelo O textose dirigea ela,comoa um in não há sujeito; são os dois apenas aparecimento do monstro. Esse esva terlocutormudo.Suapresença se faz reflexos, e a procura da identificação ziamento é percebido por Roger sob a forma de umolho que vê,lêe com algo externo a eles resulta no Dadoun, emartigo dedicadoao filme unifica o discurso fragmentário, da vazio. SeWalton se aproxima do "je" KingKong. mesma forma que o olhar da mãe lacaniano, o eu alienado,Vitor Fran totaliza e identifica a criança. Também Avec Frankenstein e King Kong, le kenstein remete-nos ao "moi", pois príncipe du Vide fonctionne selon o romance é umacriatura queprocura sabe, não compreende enega. Oque d'autres règles. Le registre scientiflque a transitividade. os liga é a fricção, o atrito entre sur leque] se déplote 1'hlstorie de conhecer e desconhecer. No espaço Frankenstein - le créateur est lei savant O lugar de Margareth, porém, é entre esses dois planos cria-se o - fait que Ia plenitude humaine est uma simplespalavra muda.Aleitura assumée par 1'lntelligence; cadavre "monstro", o horror recriado verbal dela constrói o texto, mas, comoum déferré ou piéces rapportées etcousues projetor de cinema, nãosemanifesta, mente pelodiscurso duplo e instalado ensemble, Frankenstein n'accédera no espaço vazio da corrente mencio jamais à 1'intelligence, a Ia plenitude. permanece invisível. Numa sala de nada naintrodução deste trabalho. Comme rhomme invisible est vide projeção ofoco desloca-se para oolho de sa cliair, et Dracula de son sang, do espectador; no romance, olugar de Frankenstein estvide de son intelligence. Margareth é preenchido pelo leitor. N'accédant pasà un statut humain,iln'a 3. A criatura pasdenom,iln'estrien, et commeil faut Como destinatário, esse leitor passa a bien designer toutechose, c*estle nomde ser personagem, portanto criatura; Uma das caraaerísticasdominan son créateur, Frankenstein, qui lulserá como unificador de fragmentos as tes da criatura é seu aspecto exterior, appliqué.5 sume o lugar do narrador implícito; jamais descrito detalhadamente, mas portanto, criador. sugerido pelo material utilizadoem Evidentemente, Dadoun não se suacomposição. Formado por frag refere, especificamente, aoromance, Em Frankenstein, o Fantástico mentos de cadáveres, surge à imagi onde suacolocação sobre ainteligên não se encena pelo aparecimento nação doleitor como figura repelente, cia não cabe; além de que, em seu do monstro, mas pelo ilusionismo. bem como horroriza aquem o vê, no artigo,Frankenstein é mendonado de Ahábil técnica narrativa manipula desenrolar datrama romanesca. Nele, passagem, como exemplificação de o "efeito real" (como o compreende adramatização éado"não-ser", pois uma análise radicalmente diferente Barthes)6 para melhor denunciar a a questão do olhar do outro polariza desta. No entanto, suaobservação é encenação. Isso tudo é discurso, sua ação. Acriatura jamais adquire um arguta ao compará-lo a King Kong. diza obra; descentramento, diríamos conhecimento de seu próprio corpo, Também a criatura é uma superfície nós. Q

60 Revista de Estudos Germânicos NOTAS

1 SHELLEY, Mary. Frankenstein. Trad. Miécio A. J. Honkis. 2a ed. Porto Alegre: LP&M, 1985. 2 Ibidem, p.29. 3 BORGESJ. L. Ficciones. 13l ed. Barcelona: Alianza/Emecé, 1986.

4 SHELLEY,M. Op.cit.,p.27. 5 DADOUN, Roger. "King Kong: dumonsire comme dé-monstration", Littérature (8), déc. 1972, p.117. 6 BARTHES, Roland. "Oefeitode real". In: Literatura esemiologia. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1972.

OOlho, oNarrador eoMonstro °* Summary mannerasthe receptors inthesource language."1 The aim oftbis work isto make an analysis ofthetranslation While in theory this seems a reasonable requirement, in praaice ofDjavan's song Esquinas into it is a matter of much debate and English. It endeavours to show controversy. Many factors are how tbe theoretical demands involved that cause variation in made on translations prove language, and each language is a problematic when put into reflection of its speakers' culture, 9 ^ practice, perception ofreality, and view ofthe world.The impaa that any message DynamicEquivalence «*** has upon an audience is directly •^ when proportionate to and dependem on concerningthetranslation of each individuais background and songs. experience, much more ininterligual than in intralingual communication. The response of receptors, moreover, versus FormalResumo cannot be evaluated apart from a Éobjetivo dopresente arti consideration of the type of text or go mostrar, através de uma a- discourse inquestionandthe purpose nãlise ofthe communication. Itiswellrecognized that different Correspondence in the %T types of texts present different kinds dução of problems totranslators. Within the para o inglês da canção Esqui category literary, the translation oi nas de Dja- poetryhasreceivedspedal attention. According toTheodore Savory (1968) van, como "it is almost the only aspect of Translation ofSongs as exigên translation inwhich ahighproportion cias teóricas oftheexpertsshowagreementamonr que sefazem às traduções se themselves; but even so they agrei revelam, na prática, proble only in the opinion that adequate máticas, principalmente noque translation of a põem is impossible. They disagree inthe usual wayabout serefereà tradução decanções. the best methods by which the Equivalência dinâmica versus impossible may beattempted, as well correspondência formal na The most recent approaches to asintheircriticisms andappraisals of translating emphasize the theattempts that have been made."2 tradução de canções importance of giving priority to the preservation of content over The general claim about the the preservation of form, to impossibility tosatisfy ali thedemands dynamic equivalence over formal for equivalence in poetic language Maria HelenaLottLage* correspondence. This meansthat a relies onthe faa that form andcontent translation mustreflea andreproduce are intrinsically related and mutually the content and style of the author's dependent on each other in poetry message, and atthesametime sound more than in any other literary genre asnatural as possible in the receptor of text. A song is a kind of artistic language, sothat "the receptors of the expression which has many features in message in the receptor language common with a põem — there is respond toitinsubstantially thesame *Departamento de Letras Germânicas, Faculdadede Letras,UFMG. __

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.62-67 DEZ. 1989

62 Revista de Estudos Germâti rhythm, rhyme, figurative use of originallycomposed and written in figuratively, with an extended language, and unconventional order Portuguese by Djavan, awell known connotation of "place where one oflexical andsyntaaiccomponents— Brazilian composer and singer. An meets the unexpected and where which are combined mainly for American band called The Manhattan significative changes may occur." It the purpose of creating impact Transfer' has recently recorded an actually refers to the "corners" one and arousing sensuous emotion. English version of ESQUINAS, together passes by in the "walks" oflife or, Furthermore, a song has with otherBrazilian songs(most of more specifícally, to the "paths" of characteristics of its own because whichby Djavan), inanálbum named love. there isalso melody. Whatever leveiof 'Brasil'. For thiswork, the groupwon poetic language isused in asong, itis a'Grammy' thisyear, anaward which I attemptedto translate the song accompanied by music. isasprestigious tomusicasthe'Oscar' ESQUINAS into English with the is to the movie world. purpose of producing the closest Music isauniversal phenomenon, natural eqüivalem interms of content and there are different kinds ofmusic The English version of ESQUINAS ofthemessage,while atthe same time andsongs associated with different receh/ed thetitle SO YOUSAY, inspired trying to preservethe author's style. ethnic and cultural groups. A great by the phrase which ismostrepeated I followed the three basic steps number ofsongsistranslated intoone in the original Portuguese version — suggested by Nida and Taber(1982) ormoredifferent languages everyday. só eu sei — which means 'only I namely, analysis, transfer, and Usually, the melodies are kept intaa know*. Thereisalmost atotal phonetic restructuring. What follows is a oronly adapted a little bit here and correspondence between the two generalized commentof the process there. Nevertheless, it is amazing to phrases: which ledme tothe final version of my see how much the messages in the translation. songs are changed, to a point that psowyu 'seyl'so you say' ['so ew 'seyl'só eu sei'('only I most of the versions are not even The original song in Portuguese considered translations proper. The know') consists of three explicit statements and four completequestions. The first faa thatthere is hardlyany literature However, in spite of the phonetic at ali about the topic may even lead two statements (SI and S2), followed similarity, the meanings of the two by English glosses, and then by my one to conclude that this is not phrases are totally different in the translation, are considered atranslation problem.Itis two languages. Itseemsto me thatit usually said that "total liberty" is was exactly the preservation of SI: Só eu sei as esquinas por que allowed in the translation ofthe words this phoneticsimilarity — a formal passei in songs. This so-called "liberty", correspondence — which led the (Only I I-knowthe+fem+pl however, does not appear to be the message of the English version to an corner+pl by which I-passed) result of a consensual belief that the almost opposite direaion due to the Only1know ali the corners I messages in songs need not be shift in perspeaive: havepassedby preserved but rather, a consequence ofthedifficulty to preserve both form — In the Portuguese original, the S2: Só eu sei os desertos que atraves and content in the translation of a speaker uses the first person singular sei song. pronoun toclaim, "only 1know" (that (Only I I-know the+masc+pl is,"I am the one who knows ali l've desert+pl which I-crossed) The constraints imposed on the been through and I am telling you Only I know ali the deserts I translation of asong areeven greater what I have learned"); have travelledthrough than thoseimposedon thetranslation of a põemdue to the very faa that — Inthe English version, thespeaker In order to convey the extended, there is musicinvolvedand that words uses the second person pronoun to abstraa meaning thatisimplicit inthe have to be selected so as to "fit" claim, "so yousay" (that is, "you are original statements, I decided to the melodious lines of the song. the one who knows and who's telling indude thequantifier "ali". Ihavealso Consequently, thepreservation ofthe me something which I'm not substituted "travelled" for "aossed" in form isgiven priority and very often convincedofyet"). the second statement for reasons of the content ofthe message is lost or semotaaic appropriateness. The titleofthe original versionin changed invarying degrees. Portuguese highlights one of Each ofthose statements, in turn, I am going to illustrate the the words used in the Brazilian song is followed by two types of parallel problems related to the translation — ESQUINAS — which means questions (Q),the first typebeginning of songs with ESQUINAS; a song 'corners' in English. The wordisused

Dynamic Equivalence versus Formal Correspondence in tbe Translation ofSongs 63 with 'sabe lá...' and the second type stopped by robbers, and thenone is going-to to-knowclitic+refl beginning with 'equem será...' somehow forced to havesomethingin guide?) orderto givethem. Whoever will, in the stream of Q!: Sabe lá o que é náo ter e ter que love,know how to find hisway? ter p'ra dar? Q2 also shows somerelation to (You-know there the what is not S2, but the extended meaning is Q3 contains the word arredores to-have and to-have what to- carried much further. The speaker (literally 'surroundings' or'outskirts*), have in-order-toto-give?) poses a situation in which he is which isrelated toesquinas, butwhich Doyou know what itmeansnot craving for drinking water with the now gives ahimas to thereal theme to have and yet to have to have whole sea right in front of him... so of thesong. My translation preserved to give? much water in the sea butit is notthe the syntactic word order of the kind of water that he needs. The sea original as well as the intended Q2: Sabe lá o queé morrer desedeem is asymbol for love inthesong: love message, but I had to make some frente ao mar? is supposed tofulfill everyone's needs, lexical adjustments for the sake of (You-know there the what is to- but the love that the speaker found semotactic appropriateness. I also die ofthirst in front of-the+masc was not the kind of love that he dedded to use a dash (—) in orderto sea?) needed then. avoid another repetition ofthe relative Doyou know what itmeansto pronoun"that". dieof thirst right by the sea? The nexttwo questions, Q3and Q4, which follow Ql and Q2, The greatest problem with Q_4 'Sabelá'isan idiomaticexpression in respectively, can also be considered was the clitic se used as a reflexive in Portuguese which proved to be rhetorical questions. They are seguiar(literally "guide oneself"). extremely difficult to translate into rather impersonal and indefinite in Since the reflexive is being used English. Questions introduced by Portuguese, andare usually used in anaphorically, the only way to 'sabe lá' arerather rhetorical questions contexts whereno answer isexpecled translate it into English was with a and have, altogether, the following fromthe interlocutor. Both questions pronoun that shows a gender connotations: "can you imagine...", are long andcomplex construaions, distinaion, a solution that does not "do you understand..." and "who withmultiple embedding of relative please many English speakers (This really knows..." The subject, whichis clauses. The adverbial phrases (or kind of problemdoes not show up in omitted,cannot be easily recovered adjuncts) used are foregrounded for Portuguese because the pronouns becauseit is deliberatelyambiguous. focus, since they establish both the usually agree in gender with the Itcouldbe either 'vocêsabe lá'('yo\i') place and the circumstance of the following nouns, and not with the or 'sabe-selá' (animpersonal 'ditic'— events. It isalso inthese adjuncts that 'possessor'). In mytranslation, Iopted a technical term used by Chomsky the word amor ('love') is mentioned for "find his way", which is more meaning "a form that cannot stand for the first time — the underlying idiomaticin English. alonebut mustattach to some verb").3 themeofthesong. The closest,or rather, "least furthest" The image of water recurs in natural equivalent inEnglish that Iwas Q3: Equemserá, nos arredores do Q4 through the word correnteza ableto findowas "do you know what amor, que vaisaber levar que o ('stream'), and is carried over to the it means..." for 'sabelá o que é...'but dia nasceu? third and final statement in the song I am not totally happy with my (And who will-it-be, in-the+ (S3): selection. masc+pl surrounding+pl of-the+ masclove, that is-going-toto- S3: Anaveem breveaoventovaga de Ql shòwsan ihteresting "playon know to-take thatthe+masc day levee traz toda a pazqueum dia words" with the verb ter ('to have'), it-was-bom) o desejo levou. ahdl introduced the advérb"yet" to Whoever will, in the (The+femship insoon in- capture the intended meaning of the realrn oflove, know how to the+masc wind it-drifts of light opginal. Ql immediately follows SI handleit—a new day has andit-brings ali the+fem-peace and it is clear that both arè used in a begun? thatone day the+masc desire figurative sense. However, an idea it-took). occurred to me which can also show 04: Equem será, ha correnteza do The shipwill soon drift softly in some relation between Ql and the amor, quevàisaber se guiar? thewind andbring back ali the more basic componentof meaning of (And who wilHt-be, in-the+fem peaçe that, one day, desire took 'corners' in SI — it is usually in street stream of-the+masc love, that is- away. cornersthat one is most likely to be

Revista de Estudos Germânicos 64 S3 is a very marked line in the S3 also contains a lot of semantic I had to sacrifice the equivalence original—phonetically, syntaaically, information which is cohesively in form. Interestingly enough, the and semantically marked for focus. linked totheprevious sentences inthe Englishversion— SOYOUSAY— did Theintense repetition ofthe sound [v] song — manage to reproduce many of these intermingled by(ai and either[ei, [eior formal features and phonetic equiv- [il, results in a very sonorous and yet — the uncontrollable stream alences, butforthatreason, itchanged mentioned in Q4 can now be harmonious combination in the the message completely. Mytransla original song.There are four adjuncts identified with desire, the tionalsohasanadditional problem— inthiscomplexconstruction. The first passionate lovewhich once took some of the lines contain more syl- three modify the verb vaga ('drifts'), awaythespeaker'speace.Butlife lables thanwould "fit" themelody, but goes on and there ishope... and twoofthem are foregrounded for I believe that with some effort it can speciai effea: embreve ('soon') and — the ship, which symbolizesthe stillbe sung except forline 6. ao vento ('in the wind'). There is a speaker's destiny, will soon meet coordination with a transitive verb soft winds and return, bringing Through this experiment, I have whose object has a relative clause as back the peace — things will beenledtoágree with de Beaugrande attribute. The adjunctof the relative return to normality... (1978), who stated, dause isalso fronted for focus: umdia The song ends with more repetitions whatever demands for equivalence one Cone day').ThekemelsentencesinS3 of the line só eusei ('only I know'), makes upon atranslation, they cannotali are: be completely satisfled. Forexample, it whichgives unityand cohesionto the is necessary In order to malntain an — anave vaga ('theshipdrifts') with messagealialong in the song. equivalenceof sound pattems(rime, for threeadjuncts— instance, and onomatopoeia) to disre- I have also noticed that most of gardsome demands forsyntactlc or se embreve ('soon', indicatingnear the lines in the originalend with the manticequivalence, and viceversar future) syllabic sounds [ei or [a], either On the other hand, inspite ofthe dif- ao vento ('in the wind') followed by the glide [y] or by the ficulties and constraints, I still believe deleveÇsofúy') fricatives [xl or [sj. These sounds are that the translator is the only one who — a navetrazapaz ('the ship brings also found inthe great majority ofthe can build the bridge between the backthe peace') words, with[eisometimeschanged to minds of authors and the minds of — o desejo levou apaz ('the desire [il or [e], both frontvowels. Of course, readers who do notshare thesame lin- took away the peace') with the the translation which I made doesnot guistic and cultural background. Q adjuna— um dia Coneday') reflectthese phonetic features. Since myaim wasto preservethe message,

TranslationoftheSong: ESQUINAS

CORNERS

OnlyI know Do you know Ali the cornersI have passed by Whatit means to die of thirst right by the sea OnlyI know Do you know OnlyI know Do you know Doyou know Whoever will What itmeansnot to have and yet to have to have to give In the stream oflove Doyou know know how to find his way Doyou know The shipwill soondrift softly Whoever will in the wind and bring back Intherealmoflove Ali lhe peace Know how to handle it — Thatone day desiretook away Anew day has begun Only I know OnlyI know Ali the cornersI have passed by Ali the deserts I have travelled through Only I know OnlyI know Only I know OnlyI know

DynamicEquivalence versus Formal Correspondence in the Translation ofSongs 65 AppendixA

ESQUINAS (Djavan)

Só eu sei Sabe lá Asesquinas porque passei Oqueé morrer desedeemfrente aomar Só eu sei Sabe lá Só eu sei Sabe lá Sabe lá? Equem será O que é não ter e ter que ter p'ra dar Na correnteza do amor Sabe lá que vaisaberse guiar Sabe lá A nave em breve ao vento Equem será vagade levee traz Nos arredores do amor Toda a paz quevaisaber levar que umdiao desejo levou Que o dia nasceu Só eu sei Só eu sei Asesquinas por que passei Osdesertosque atravessei Só eu sei Só eu sei Só eu sei Só eu sei

AppendixB

SO YOUSAY (Djavan/ AmandaMacBroom)

Soyou say Thetasteofwine it*s a feeling 1*11 get oversomeday seemsto lingeron likedistamperfume So you say And ali ofthe memories So you say carelessly left behind Ishould try Ghosts and lies Just to let the flame inside me die Theyhaunt me wherever Igo Ishouldtry So yóu say Soyou say Thatthe pain oflovewill passaway Against the wind So you say With myfaceturned to the emptyside So you say ofloneliness Beforegoodbye Midnight black and blue I look forthe fire behind youreyes So you say Butthey'recold as ice Thatthe worldwill keep on turning I hear inyour voice So you say The echo oflove thafs gone by So you say Nowlcry Tell mewhy 1*11 loveyouforaliof mylife Ali thestars havelosttheirmystery now So you say Tell me why it'sa feeling 111 get oversomeday Tell me how So you say Where love has been So you say

66 Revista deEstudos Germânicos NOTES

1Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber, Tbe Theory andPractice ofTranslation (Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1982) 24.

2 TheodoreSavory, The Art ofTranslation, New and enlarged edition (London: Jonathan Cape, 1968) 75. 3Noam Chomsky, LanguageandProblems ofKnotvledge, the Managua Leaures (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1988) 18. 4Robert de Beaugrande, Fractors ina Theory ofPoetic Translating (Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1978) 91.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BROWER, Reuben A.ed. OnTranslation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1959- DE BEAUGRANDE, Robert. Factors ina Theory ofPoetic Translating. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1978. DE VASCONCELOS, Muriel Habel. Theme attdFocus-. Cross-Language Comparison viaTranslationfrom ExtendedDis- course. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1985. NIDA, Eugene A.&Charles R. Taber. Tbe Theory andPractice ofTranslation. Leiden, TheNetherlands: E. J. Brill, 1982. NIDA, Eugene A. &Jan deWaard. From One Language to Another, Funaional Equivalence in Bible Translating. Nash- ville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1986. RÓNAI, Paulo. ATradução Vivida, 2* edição revista e aumentada. Rio deJaneiro, Brasil: Editora Nova Fronteira, 1981. SAVORY, Theodore. Tbe Art ofTranslation, New and enlarged Edition. London: Jonathan Cape, 1968.

Dynamic Equivalence versus Formal Correspondence in tbe Translation ofSongs 67 Summary The professor's house has been thoroughly searched. It is as Increasingfeminist attention to though search warrants had been Willa Cather'sThe Professora issued wholesale. The attic studyhas beenexhaustively examined for dues. House has resulted in The dress forms in particular have interpretations that view the beensubjeaedto minute laboratory novels main character, professor analysis by a variety of forensic GodfreySt. Peter, negatively. An experts. Even the garden has been extremeexampleofthis combedfortheslightest intimation of t-m-rg wn . -r* t tendency is Doris evidence. The result is a substantial and surprisingly disparate body of The DeeperKOle Grumbachsportraitof testtmony. his as a frustrated homosexual misogynist. While I use the metaphor of criminal gender investigation advisedly, for a dominant pattern in recent criticai discussion of this novel is to view ofGender Conflict in %£* Godfrey St. Peter as reprehensible in important one measureor another.Thisnegative element of the novel, an view has evolved in tandem with the exaggeratedand development of feminist criticism. Critics sensitized to gender conflict have turned a suspicious eye on Willa Cather's The ~fon<, Cather's charming professor, and trivializes the their scrutiny of his relationships cost of theprofessora struggle with women has produced rather and the scandalous discoveries. Professor St. Peter, formerly considered one of Cather's most admirable and Professora House JISSÍ* sympatheüc characters, hasnowbeen identified as a frustrated homosexual Resumo misogynist. O romance The Professor's Margaret Doane asserts that House de Willa Catherdespertou Cather "established an antifemale bias 0 Papel do conflito masculino/ a atenção crescente dosinteres as a dominant aspect of the book,"as sados na teoria dofeminino, feminino em The Professora major aconcern asthenegative effects suscitando, muitasvezes, inter of materialism (302, 299). Doane House de Willa Cather pretações negativasa respeito do views the professor as "remarkably personagemprincipal, professor obtuse and unfair to his wife, Godfrey St. Peter. Otrabalho de who emerges as generally kind, Doris Grumbach, que o retrata sympatheüc, andiongagoabandoned Stephen L. Tanner' como um homossexual misogeno byher husband." St. Peter, liketherest frustrado, é exemplo extremo of the men in the novel but ingreater measure,displaysa viewof womenas dessa tendência. Embora o con "petty, material istic, and a distinct flito dosgêneros sefa elemento threat to the higher values of males" essencialno romance, a distor (300). ção desse conflito banaliza o Doris Grumbach is considerably significado da decisãofinal moresubtie in attempting to explain tomadapeloprofessor. • English Dept., Brigham Young University.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.68-72 DEZ. 1989

68 Revista de Estudos Germânicos the apparent anti-female bias. She key to the professora personality is of this particular man and hisfamily, explains that the novel is as dose his retreat from "an appressive induding any gender conflicts that as Cather would come to what domesticity" and "long-standing might be involved. Grumbach delicately describesas "the sexual conflicts with wife and question of sexual choice outside daughters" (51), Strychacz argues that WasSt. Peter's marriage a mistake accepted social patterns" (338). Her St. Peter indulges in "impossible from the very beginning and his thesis is that Cather transferred her fantasies of a male paradise" domestic life been a resented and pain at losing Isabelle McClung to prompted by Tom and the Mesa and regretted obstacle tohiscreativity? Not St. Peter's loss of Tom. In plainer that hiscreativity "depends upon the atali.Hewas "verymuch inlove" with terms than Grumbach uses, both absence of female and familial ties." Lillian when theymarried (31), andas relationships were homosexual. St. He describes the atticstudyas having he reflects on theirnearlythirty years Peter madea mistake inthe first place "overtones of Gothic horror" and together, he concludes that "joyful bymarrying a woman and has led "a suggeststhatthedressforms "express years they had been, nothing could life of marital escape almost from thestagnationofhisrelationships with ever change that"(281).On occasions the beginning" (333). His love for wife and daughters- even a morbid, when thoughts of the loneliness of Tom has what she considers a repressed sexuality" (53). Such death had oppressed and terrified him tragic dimension because it was assumptions naturally lead him to - moments that occur in most lives - not physically consummated and construct ambiguities because they "he used to feel that if his wife could remained "private, unconfessed, preclude viewingTom, the Mesa, St. but lie in the same coffin with him, his sublimated" (339).Consequently,the Peter's creative work, and St. Peter's body would not be so insensible that professor's problem "lies in his late very survival at the end as truly the nearness of hers would not give it andblinding realization thatthelife he positive things. How can they be comfort." (272) hadbeenleading, thelifeoffather and genuinely positive when they are Like any writer he needed husband, is, and aiways has been, a linked with the anti-feminine? solitude in which to work, but false one for him, that his existence The fact is that a relevant and within these roles is no longer When he was writing his best, he was bearable, and thatdeath ispreferable potentially useful concern with gender consclous of pretty girls in fresh dress - offlowersand greensinthe comfortable, to living any longer in the stifling, conflia has been myopically applied to this text in a way that distorts and shabbysltting-room - of hiswife'sgood elaborately furnished, and false (for looks and good taste- even of a better trivializes itslarger themes. Thisnovel him) houseof women and marriage". dinner than usual under preparation provides significam, often profound, downstalrs. Ali the while he had been Thiskind of narrow emphasis on treatment of universal human working so fiercely at his eight big gender conflict prompts obviousand problems such as the perennial volumes, he was not insensible to the domestic drama that went on beneath tension betweenn solitude and fundamental questions ignored by him. His mind had played delightedly these critics. Forexample, whywould society, establishing a proper with ali those Incidents.... the most a female novelist write such an anti- relationship with nature andthe past, importamchaptersof his historywere female novel? Why shoulda charaaer coping with the challenges of jnterwoven with personal memories. who shares so many characeristics materialism and technological (101) of his female author be portrayed as advancement, and adjusting to the The drama of domestic life that such anunmitigated misogynist?1 Why diminishment ineluctably linkedwith went on below him while he worked would a writer who has treated aging. St. Peter's estrangement from is described as "engaging" and his family relations positively elsewhere his wife and family is obviously a senseofitas"pleasant" (26). Hedidn*t in her fiaion come down so hard on central element of the story, but the want to go down for oil because them here? Inshort, what isthe point degree of that estrangement should "he would almost surely become or the larger significance of the not be exaggerated. Marriage and interested in what the children were professor's deteriorating relationship family have been a greatdeal more doing" (27). with hiswifeand family? Aninordinate satisfying to the professor than the focus on gender conflict spawns critics mentioned would have us St. Peter had been deeply distracting ambiguities in a novel believe. Moreover, this tension in attached tohisfamily andthey werein already generously supplied with family relations shouldbe recognized his thoughts even during periods of them. This is demonstrated in Thomas as a condition subsidiary to Cather's intensest creativity. This is why he F. Strychacz's "The Ambiguities larger concerns. It is a situation that now, returning to his attic, must of Escape in Willa Cather's Tbe serves instrumentally to illuminate muster his courage and resignation ProfessorasHouse. "Assuming that the human problems transcending those in order to face the unpleasant

-TbeDeeperRole ofGender Conflict in Willa Catber's The Professora House 69 awareness"that underhiswork-room posed in Robert Frosfs TbeOvenBird. relationsaswell. Moreover, husband- there was a dead, empty house" (15- "What to make of adiminished thing?" wife relations evolve in their own 16). Hemissesrather thanbegrudges —aquestion that ultimately must be right, sometimes inregrettable ways. that past domestic life. Itwasblended answered by the solitary self in Theprofessor himself reflects onthis: with creativity not alien to it.This is response to "the unpleasanteffects of "people who are intensely in love symbolically reinforced by the way change" (15). He had attempted to when they marry, and who go on the professor's notebooks and balance family, teaching, andwriting. being in love, always meet with manuscripts share the samebox with Family life had notbeen amistake, but something which suddenly or Augusta's patterns, those "notched rather avital part of his life, as much gradually makes adifference" (49). charts which followed the changing a joy as his history. To discount the stature and figures of the Misses efforts andsatisfaaions of hisprevious It is ofcourse Tomwhohas made St Peter from early childhood to domesticlife,whichwere inextricably a difference in this marriage, both womanhood" (22). Furthermore, the linked with those ofhis creativelife, is directly and indirectly through the dress forms the professor's playful to reduce thesignificance of hiscrisis. money his invention generates. allusion to M. Bergeret in Anatole Theyare animportam part of whathe Husband and wife drift apart, not, France's Le Mannequin D'Osier mustletgoattheend ofthe novel. His as Doane contends, because the notwithstanding2 — are not symbols confrontation with adiminished thing professor is "remarkably obtuse and of misogyny. Although they subtly loses weightandpoignance whenhis unfair to his wife" and had long ãgo intimate the ambiguities ofSt. Peter's marriage and familial tiesare viewed abandonedher,butbecause theyhave relationship with the women of his asa mistakefrom the beginning. reaaeddifferently tochange. Godfrey family, theyare primarily mementos of hasturned to the pastandthe values a happy domestic past. As he tells As the professor reflects on past refleaed in the Tom Outland seaion. Rosamond, "They remind me of the domesticjoys—"family festivais and Lillian hasadaptedto the future (94). timeswhen you were littlegirls, and hospitalities, little girls dancing inand Since her daughter's marriage to your first party frocks usedto hangon out, Augusta coming and going, gay Louie, Lillian has "changed and thematnight,when Iworked" (6). dresseshangingin hisstudy at night, hardened" andbecome worldly (160- Christmas shopping and seaets and 61)."With Louie, Lillian seemed to be During those years of writing he smothered laughteron the stairs" — launching into a new career, and didn't goto hisstudyatali ifsomeone he asks himself, "when a man had Godfrey began to think that he inthe family happenedto be ill. "Two lovelychildren in hishouse, fragrant understood his own wife very little" evenings ofthe week hespentwithhis and happy, full of pretty fancies and (78). Louieand Scott,hersons-in-law, wife anddaughters, andoneevening generous impulses, why couIdn't he have replaced the professor in her he andhiswife went out to dinner,or keepthem?" (125-26). The final phrase affections and with them "she had to the theatre or a concert" (28). A is the importam one and resonates begun the game of being a woman contemporary family counselor through the novel. The professor is ali over again" (79). Lillian is at the wouldn't insist on more than this, not simply between two houses as beginning of something, Godfrey particularly of a writing scholar and the novel begins, he is between two at the end. The differences in teacher. St. Peter "had burned his families. One of "the unpleasant perspective preveni their candle atbothends": "Byeliminations effects of change" that plague him is understanding eachother. Shethinks andcombinatíons so manyandsubtle thatfamily relationships often evolve he has become inhuman; he thinks that it now made his head ache to in unfortunate ways. Itisremarkable she has hardened; each findsthe other think ofthem, hehad done full justice that Cather, who had no children of intolerant. Lillian isawomanof"very to his university lectures, and at the herown, could capture so movingly vehement likes and dislikes which same time carried on an engrossing theexperience ofaparem confronting were oftenquite outof proportion to piece of creative work". And his his children's adulthood and ali the the trivial object or person that family was not sacrificed in this changesthat involves. The closeness aroused them." For many years process. As he tellshis wife, "I wasn't anddependency of the early years is her "prejudices" had been "the most willing to slight anything — you, or gone. Thechildren, nowindependem interesting things in St. Peter's life" my desk, or my students. And now I adults, harden into their own molds, (50). But his interest in the trivial has, seem tremendously tired" (163). which areseldom exactly what the largely through the influence ofTom, This "diminution of ardour" (13) is parent admires or desires. It is an greatly diminished andtheprejudices introduced from the beginning as unsettling phase in parent-child now strike him as perplexingly central element in the novel. He is relations and affects husband-wife materialistic. confronting the universal question

70 Revista de Estudos Germânicos This rift inthe family, interesting penetrate each other's innermost "loneliness" and "solitude" and in itself as a study of the way center. Each person is ultimately suggests that the former can be the human self retains a certain solitary and aware of it. This is conquered only by those who can independence and isolation even in the universal predicatment Cather bearthe latter. Aperson'scharaaer is the most intimate union with others, exploresinthisnovel. SusanRosowski determined by what he does with his corresponds with a rift in American notes a pattern of surrogate selves inevitable aloneness. Cathercertainly civilization. James Schroeter has (258): St. Peter lives first through Lillian understood both the pain and the observed that Tom is associated then through Tom; Lillian lives first glory of solitude. Her professor with effort and Louie with reward, a through St. Peter andthenthrough her rediscovers hisprimitive childself, his pairing that corresponds to two daughters (Rosamond is like her primary or "realest" self, which phasesinAmerica's history—a noble "secondself" (66)andsons-in-law; as remains when the effects of chance idealistic past and an ignoble children the daughters lived in TonYs and change are cleared away. He is materialistic present (504-5). Effort stories; Kathleenlooked to Rosamond tempted to lapse into "eternal and reward are both part of the as "a kind of ideal"; and later solitude" as "a release from every professora life. He treasures the Rosamond has "become Louie" (86). obligation,fromevery formofeffort" effort and hiswife and the Marselluses The case ofSt. Peter makes clear that (272). Butintheend he optsforawise treasure the rewards. The point "the unfortunate effects of change" and courageous solitude among the behind thegenderand family conflict and "diminutionof ardour" ultimately living, a solitude that separates him isthatitencapsulates and illuminates forcethe refleaive mind to recognize from his family but enhances the a much larger conflia of values. And, its fated solitude and the futility of significance of his humanity and incidentally, the tensions in family surrogate selves. As Paul Tillich provides a sense of human purpose relations are not simply a matter of explains in"LonelinessandSolitude," that endures where career and gender—St. Peter against thewomen creativity and even family fail. It The creation of the woman has not involves a principie that Tom of the household. Kathleen is clearly overcome the situatlon which God aligned on the side of Tom and her describes as not good for man. He discovered on the Mesa and that father, andtheprofessor's relationship remains alone. And the creation ofthe Augusta embodies. His family will with Augusta hasalways beencordial woman, although itprovides ahelper for neither understand his epiphany nor Adam, hasonly presentedto the one realize he is not the same man. His and isultimately pivotal. human being who is alone another humanbeingwho isequally alone,and qualified contentment must remain Godfrey and Lillian have a from their flesh aliother men, each of privateand solitary. moment of tender understanding at whom will also stand alone. (16) the opera, which prompts him to An exaggerated description of reflect that "the heart of another is a For Tillich aloneness, though a and emphasis on gender conflict dark forest, always, no matter how burden, is also a blessing, for "it is in the novel trivializes the cost of dose it has been to one's" (95). Man man's greatness that he is centered the professor's struggle and the and woman remain alone even in the within himself" (17). He therefore. significance ofhisfinal decision. • most intimate union. They cannot makes a distinction between

NOTES

1James Woodress provides an extensive list of parallels between Cather and St. Peter in Willa Cather: ALiterary Life, Lincoln: UofNebraskaP, 1987:368-69. 2Alice Bell Salo's" Tbe Professor*House and LeMannequmD'Osier. ANote ofWilla Cather's Narrative Technique" {Studies inAmerican Fiction 8(1980): 229-31 is the most extensive exploration ofthe allusion. To view M. Bergerefs violent de- struction ofadress form asanindication that St. Peter has a repressed violent hatred for hiswife, asseveral critics have done, is to take the playful allusion too solemnly and depredate the subtlety of Cather's using it. James C. Work pro vides an entertaining warning against taking the novel's allusions too seriously in "Cather's Confounded conundrums in Tbe Professofs House" (Western American Literature 18(1984): 303-12).

Tbe DeeperRole ofGender Conflict in Willa Catbefs The ProfessoraHouse 71 BIBLIOGRAPHY

CATHER, Willa. Tbe Professofs House. NewYork: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925. DOANE, MargareL "InDefense of Lillian St. Peter: Men's perceptions ofwomen in Tbe Professofs House." WestemAmerican Literature^ (1984): 299-302. GRUMBACH, Doris. "A Study ofthe Small Room in Tbe Professofs House." Women'sStudies11 (1984): 327-45.

ROSOWSKI,Susan J. "The Pattern ofWilla Cather's Novels." Western American Literature\5 (1981):243-63. SCHROETER, James. "Willa Cather and The Professofs House." YaleRevieu>54 (1965): 494-512. STRYCHACZ, Thomas F. "The Ambiguities of Escape inWilla Cather's Tbe Professo fs House." Studies inAmerican Fiction14 (1986): 49-61. TILLICH, Paul. Tbe Eternal Now. NewYork: Saibner's, 1963.

72 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Summary native decency, then it is no acddent that Mark Twain has tried to turn Mark Twain s major novel has upside down our usual assumptions of been read as an opposition the relative value oflife in towns and between life on the Shoreand life in the wilds. Normally, of course, we on the River. Thispaperexpands assumethatsleepinginabed isbetter than sleeping on the ground, and onthat opposition todiscussa set going to school — for ali its pains — ofcategories (home, family, has educational advantages that an education, wealtb, companions, untutored existence lacks. There must national mode, and ethics) in besomething besides bright lights that Huck and relation to the contextsofNature attractsyokels to dties the world over. Yet it is basicassumptions like these andCivilization. that the novel calls continually into Resumo question.

Oprincipal romance de Twain Asonemight expect inacomplex work of art, the novel does not Sivilization' tem sido interpretado como uma simplistically say: nature is good, oposição entrea vida na terra e civilization is bad. Twain does not a vida no rio. Este trabalho usa romanticize nature like Fenimore esta oposição básicapara apre Cooper. His response is not typically sentar um conjunto de catego traditional andliterary but one bornof his own youthful interaaion with a Huck e 'SivilizaçâV rias (lar,família, educação, midwestern 19th century American riqueza, companheiros, modo environment in the process of nacional e ética) em relação transformation. Here is Huck in his aos contextos da Natureza e room at the Widow's, right before he accidentally burns the spider: Thomas LaBorie Burns' Civilização. The stars was shlning, and the leaves T—Tuckleberry Finn can be read rustled in the woods ever so moumful; and I heard an owl, away off, who- JL JL as a tension betweenthe two whooingaboutsomebodythatwasdead, opposing poles of "sivilization" and andawhippowill and adog cryingabout nature. That civilization spelled with somebodythatwasgoingto die; andthe an S isTwaiiVs way of indicating that wind was trylngto whispersomethingto me and I couldn't make out what Itwas, his two unschooled heroes view the and so it made the cold shivers run over traditional benefits of civilization me.Then awayout inthe woods I heard (spel-led with a C) with acertain well- that kind ofa sound that a ghost makes foundedsuspicion. They see itmainly when it wants to tell about something as an abstract term that signifies lhar*s on its mind and can't make itself repression in ali kinds of ways: understood... wearing shoes,eating meals atatable Nature here is not benevolent and at fixed hours, going to school Mother Nature, though there are a and the bizarre practice of "book- number of lyrical passages in the larnin", ali the way to most extreme novel, especially in the fiight seaion, forms of physical and spiritual which describe Huck andJim living repression involved in the civilized contentedly in her bosom. The terms institution ofslavery. Ifslavery isatthe of Huck's discourse inthispassage are spiritual center ofthe novel,assome "mournful", "dead", "going to die", critics believe, and if it is Huck's and his mental state, a powerful confrontation with one ofthe givens * Departamento de LetrasGermânicas, of hisculturethatcomesup against his Faculdade de Letras, UFMG.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 NM p.73-76 DEZ. 1989

Huck and 'Sivilization' 73 feeling of presentiment and fear. The The first category, Home, theboy'ssocial alienation. When Pap leavesand wind, the owl and the dog contrasts living in a house, where goes through his phony miraculous are ali heard in anthropomorphic Huck unhappily finds himself at the reformforthe judge,we are meantto tonesand put on nearlyequal terms beginning and theendofthenovel, to see the hypocrisy of trying to reform with a ghost, but their voices are the River, where he escapes. Itseems people forwhom (as Huck says) the messages from the world,a code that a simple opposition of domestic shot-gun maybe theonlyremedy. The Huck can't "make out" or dedpher, repression versus natural freedom, old reprobate kidnaps his son and butthatneeds to be done forhissafety and that isthe way Huckinterprets it. carries himofftothewoods (chapL 6), andpeaceofmind.The interaction in Thestakes arehigherwhenJimbegins whichagain reversesthe valueofthe the passage is total — physical, topartake ofHuck's destiny, since for terms. Hucks reallyenjoys his new- psychological, and spiritual. Jim slavery and freedom are to be found communion with the natural takenliterally dependingon whether life: "It was kind of jolly, layingoff The noted Twain scholar, Henry he dwells in a house or on the River, comfortable ali day, smoking and Nash Smith, has stated in his i. e. with or without white folks. That fishing, and no books norstudy." But introduction to the Riverside edition theRiver isnever namedandisspelled then that freedom turns into an even (1958) of the novel that Twain with a capital letter suggests that worse form of domestic slavery, and abandoned his original plan for the Twain means ustotakethejourney of we are remindedof how bad tyrants narrative of Huckleberry Finn and their flight tofreedom assymbolic and unrestrained by any kind of law can substituted a "different structural universal. Thiscategory canbe dosely be: "...byandbyPapgottoohandy prindple". The linear movement of combined with the second, Family, the journey on the raft becomes with his hick'ry, and I couldn't stand to complicate the distribution of bipolar, as it becomes clear that, as it. I wasalioverwithwelts. Hegotto advantages and disadvantages. Huck goingawayto much,too,and locking Smith says, theriver journey "literally prefersgoing barefoot to wearing leads nowhere". The bipolar contrast mein." Thebeatings and confinement shoes, a bed of leaves under the star are much worse than what he is between the raft and the life in the tothecomforts ofa real bedandlamp, townsalong the riverbank,"the River underwent at the Widow*s, so the and theuncertainty of irregular meals versus theShore". This bipolarity can terms are reversed after ali: life in the to the three square meals of the beextendedthroughout the novel — woods, but on Huck's own terms. widow's house. And yet, domestic beyond thesatírica! middlesection of With respect tothecategory ofWealth, things are not perceived as the novel dealing with theantics ofthe the balancetips backto the side of necessarily bad in themselves. The King andDuke—and itcan,Ibelieve, nature. Huck andJim need nomoney; problem isthat they areconfining to beexpanded toembrace afuller range they live on fish andgame, which the what he perceives as his natural of contrasting categories. Changing woodsand river supplywith lavish freedom, his ability tocome andgoas Professor Smith's terms slightly, one abundance. Even Pap can getaneasy hepleases andmake thehundredlittle could schematize the novel in the living bygathering the logs offered quotidian choices without which a bipolar contexts of Sivilization and free by the River, but itissignificam man maybecomea slaveto comfort. Nature, and relate them in turn to that he sells the logs —and buys Twain maywantto makeusawareof various pervadingcategories. whiskey with themoney. Money is, of the negative side of these creature course, theobjea ofthe Duke andthe comforts, that we have given up a King's greed and the cause of ali the CONTEXT harder.simpler, freer life astheir price. human suffering they areprepared to This is, ofcourse, themessage ofthat inflict for its sake. Huck, for his part, CATEGORY 'SIVILIZATION' NATURE other native genius, Thoreau, in his caresnothingforthe treasure that he 1.H0ME house River cry for "Simplicity" inWalden. andTom found. The judge is keeping 2.FAMILY theWidow Pap What ties a man to his home is his it in trust for him wheneverhe should 3. EDUCATION school woods need it, and his no-good father 4.WEALTH monay (ish, game, rafts, Family and this categoryshows the ambivalence in Huck's choices more expends a lot ofenergy trying toget etc. itawayfrom him. 5.COMPANIONS Tom Jim clearly. The Widow is akind old lady, 6.M0DE Romantic/European common-sense/ while his real father, Pap, is an In hiskilling ofthe pig, his own •tradition American • ignorant andcruel tyrant, jealous ofhis symbolic death, Huck thinks he has innovation son'scivilized advantages andanxious 7.ETHICS conventional pragmatism finally found a way to havefreedom moraüty &survival to deprive him of them. That Pap is on his own terms. He has died to the also the town drunk and Huck has civilized world and has found in Jim neithermother norsiblings increases an ideal companion for a new and

74 Revista de Estudos Germânicos more natural life. Inthis flight section Now, here is the voice of the natural TonVs distortions are anything but ofthe novel,the language islyrical in man, who once he feels "ali washed innocent, as shown in his elaborate its praise of life in the outdoors. The clean of sin" in his sense of planfor effeaingJim'sescape,based, River and woods are shown to be full conventional virtue decides therefore it should be noted, on his wide ofarcane lore ofthe sort not found in to write a letter and turn in his reading in European romance.Jim is theconventional Education, category companion as a runawayslave: nearly recaptured and Tom himself 3. That Twain and Melville, major catches a bullet as punishment for But I didnt do itstraight off, but laidthe novelists of 19th century American paper down and set there thinking — giving away the game, but the whole literature, and Whitman, its greatest thlnking how good It was ali this artífice is revealed as perverse when poet, were ali self-taught men is a happened so, and how near I come to we learn that it was unnecessaryali point worth remembering. Butagain, beinglostandgoingtohell.Andwent on along and Tom had known ofJim's education is not unambiguous, thinking.Andgottothinkingoverourtrip down the River; and IseeJimbeforeme, freedom from the beginning. Right especially when we consider it alidie time,in lhe day,and in the niglit- before thissordid revelation,however, together with Huck's two time, sometimes moonlight, sometimes the business in chapt. 35 of how to Companions, category 5. Jim is storms,andwe a floating along,talaking, free Jim's leg iron from the bed-post andslnging, and laughlng. Butsomehow superstitious, but his beliefs come is illustrative of the traditional I couldn't seem to strlke no places to from the slave culture for whom hardenmeagainst him,butonlythe other and common-sense approaches to portents and supernatural signs kind. experience. Tom thinks they ought to were as real as the sun and moon. sawJim's leg offbecause "that's how As uneducated "white trash", Huck Fellow-feeling and human solidarity it's the custom in Europe" and one shares manyof thesebeliefs, andwhat prove to be stronger than the mustn't arguewith authority. Huck is is more he respects Jim's superior hypocrisies of conventional morality, respectful enough towards what he knowledge about them.Chapter 14 is and Huck makes his great moral perceives ashisbetters, but wouldn't acomic paean toJim's intelligence, as dedsion: "Ali right, then, l'll gotohell" it make more sense just to liftup the Huck even bows to hisweird logicof —and hetears up theletter andthinks bed and slip off the iron? Tom says, the comic dialogue on the French no more about reforming, a word in unconscious praise of his friend: language. which ironically recalls his father's "Huck, you don't ever want to do pseudo-reform earlier in thenovel. anything that's regular; youwant tobe As Huck admits, and this is the starling fresh ali the time." The grim beginning of his perception ofJimas Compare Huck's other companion, TomSawyer, who unlike humor of the episode does not ahuman being, "hewasalmost always conceal the lesson of the relative right; hehad an uncommon levei head Jim the outlaw, comes from a respectable family, goes toschool, etc. values of a corrupt and exhausted for a nigger." That final qualification traditionand the fresh and pragmatic introduces what is to become the Compared to Jim's creative superstition, there isTonVsperverted spirit of innovation that Whitman and basic conflict in Huck's character, others saw as distinctively American. whichhe isto triumphantlyovercome imagination, the product of book- in his transformation into a moral leaming, orat least book-reading.Jim The last category, Ethics, concerns being. The crisis comes in chapt. 31 and Huck's forebodings usually come Huck's relation to virtue. I have when the conflict between "sivilized" true, butTom's fantasies, like hisraid suggested that Huck's basic virtue is values and natural decency take on on the Sunday School Picnic, are decency. One might also add a their full meaning. Conventional notable mainly for their unreality. Like naturaltruthfulness, which may seem morality says: "It wouldgetali around, Don Quixote, Tom reads too many paradoxical when applied to such a that Huck Finn helped a niggerto get romances and often comes to grief prodigious liar. What I mean by his freedom; and if I war to ever see because he believes what he reads. truthfulness is his truthfulness to anybody from thattown again, Pdbe Tom's Mode, category 6, is the himself, his facing up to it when he ready to get down and lick his boots Romantic oneofthe European literary does somethinghe feels isn'tright, as for shame" — this from a boy who tradition. If Twain turned his back on in the fine scene when he humbles couldn'tcare less for the opinions of thattradition andisthe produa ofthe himself to a "nigger" for playing a nativist heartlandculture, as Bernard respectable people.The ironyis that mean trick on him on the raft. After his Huck has run away from thetownand Devoto daims, Tom would be TwaüVs apology, Huck says: "I done it,and I rejected its values, but he is to a warning of the price of ignoring lhe warn't ever sorry for it afterwards, plain common-sense of the plains certain extent a product of those neither." Huck isuprigrht and honest which Huckso beautifully embodies. values, asevery rebel reflects, if only inthe importamthings. When he lies, negatively, what he rebels against. it is forsurvival, as when he iscaught

Huck and 'SiviUzation' 75 dressing up as a girl and has to MarkTwain, the author, as one who bizarre adventures, will leave behind compound "stretcher" upon "told the truth, mainly." There are the fables of childhood in Tom "stretcher" to get out of a tight spot. two noteworthy things here: the Sawyer andcome to dealwithanadult His lies often have the purpose of presentation of the artist asartificer, world ofmoral ambivalence. This is a proteaingjim from discovery and in one who lies in fiaion to tell greater World for which a child of nature — that wayservea highertruth. truths about life, and the mention of whose very name, Huckleberry, Tom Sawyer as being "mostly a true signifies awild fruit—a Rousseauian The motif of relative truth is, in book." Thesequei—and Huckleberry man largely uncorrupted by any case, introduced in the very first Finn seems to have started out as a dvilization but waryofitsfollies, isfit paragraph ofthe book, when Huck sequei — will be related by Huck to live in and narrate. Q the narrator comically presents Mr himself and, despite tall tales and

76 Revista de Estudos Germânicos Summary from other poems rather from a fresh response to experience.

Thispaperaimsat studying the Versiani (1981:53) defines clichê as clichê in advertising discourse, "todo grupo de palavras que se situe no having asstartingpoint theidea ponto de maior previsibilidade do that language ismade upofa set contínuo de combinabilidade das palavras desde que haja nele um mínimo ofclichês which work asvehicles valor metafórico." of ideology, thus ajfecting According to Bakhtin (1981:159), human behavior. "toda atividade verbal consiste em distribuir a 'palavra de outrem' e a The Use ofClichês 2K*S£ palavra que parece ser de outro." verbal or non- Both the Encyclopedia definition verbal, will be analysed as an and Versiani's convey the idea of intertextual phenomenon somebody else'sword. WhenVersiani talks about "predictability," itshould be understood that one is only able VH J\ClVtfTlirSTTlg attempt to counterattack a to predict what he already knows, dominant ideology and what has already been said. The prevent thepredictability ofthe Encyclopedia talksaboutoveruse, that paradigmalic/syntagmatic axis. is to say, the same phrase has been used by many people and repeated manytimes. Whenthe clichê inverse Discourse* Resumo in seen as repetition of another Este trabalho sepropõe, apartir artistic creation, once more we see da idéiainicialdequea língua the appropriateness of Bakhtin's êumgrande conjunto declichês, statement. It is Bakhtin (1981:121) againwho saysthat veículos de ideologia eportanto 0 Uso de Clichês no Discurso norteadores decomportamento, O centroorganizador de todaenuncia ção, de toda expressão, não é interior, Publicitário a analisaros clichês no discurso mas exterior: está situado nomeiosocial publicitário, presentes emforma queenvolveo indivíduo. Sóo grito inartí- culadode um animalprocededo Interior designos verbais enão -verbais, doaparelho fisiológico doindivíduo iso como umfenômeno intertextual, lado. Éumareação fisiológica pura enão Ideologicamente marcada. Pelo contrá Vera Lúcia Menezes de esua renovação como unia ten rio, a enunciação humana individual, é, Oliveira e Paiva" tativa de contra-atacar uma doponto devista deseuconteúdo, desua ideologia dominante e impedir significação, organizada fora do indiví duo pelas condições extra-orgãnlcas do aprevisibilidade doeixopara- meio social. A enunciação enquanto tal digmático/sintagmático. é um puro produto de interação social, quer setrate de um ato de fala determi nado pela situação imediata oupelo seu contexto mais amplo que constitui o 1. Definition conjunto das condições de vida de uma determinada comunidade lingüística. The word clichê is defined by the Princeton Encyclopedia of A man does not create his own speech, he just repeats the language "falar é incorrerem tautologias." Poetryand Poeticsas (...) * Adapted from part of my M.A. "A certeza de que tudo está escrito nos A phrase or figure which from overuse, dlssertatlon "Reading ads with anulaou nos fantasmagoriza." like a dulled knife, has lost its cutting criticai eyes". UFMG, 1987. Jorge Luiz Borges edge; a trite expression. Clichê inverse ** Departamento de Letras Germânicas, resultswhen die poefsimaglnation arises Faculdade de Letras, UFMG.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 NB1 p.77-84 DEZ. 1989

Tbe Use ofClichês in Advertising Discourse 77 imposed upon him by society. The with the use of efficient language, succesful, super, wonderful,etc. We language (parole)asawhole becomes keeps the object of discourse itself also find phrases like-. feel the then a big clichê, the opposite of a but, looking for an immediate aim, difference, half the price, high hypothetic "speech zero degree." breaksthe ideológica! struaure. Thus efficiency, lasts longer, the gift of Whorfs hypothesis that a person's proverbs suchas"What can'tbe cured love, visible action, win one of the worldviewand behaviordepends on must be endured" receives the prizes, etc. hisnativelanguageseems reasonable complementation "but not until you when we analyse the metaphors take an aspirin"and "No use crying According to Riffaterre (1973), which pervade our world view. The over spilt milk" iscomplemented by clichês, in general, can be renewed repetition of these metaphors will "Have your catlickit." by means of four rules which are: create the clichêsand it is in the world substitution, addition, grammatical of nativelanguage,full ofdichés, úiat Clichês work as a kind of sacred change and metalinguistic remark. a person looks for his or her identity, language. As we know,the language used in religious rituais is not Substitution occurs when one acceptingor notthe valuesestablished of the components of the clichê is by the societyhe or she livesin. supposedtoundergo anychange. Any alteration, even inpronundation, may substitutedbyone or morewords.The be interpreted as a threat to the remaining component is responsible 2.The role ofclichês effeaiveness ofthe ceremony. Bythe for the context which makes the same token a change in the struaure readerprediatheotherelement(s). As In daily discourse, the ofa clichê mayrepresema threatto its the expectation is not fulfilled the dominator's voice reveals itself ideological structure. It is true that reader is surprised. An example of through theordinary man'srepetition whenever one breaks an ideological substitution is an ad of HAWAIIAN of clichês which produce ideas and structure, another ideology is bom, punch with the caption "Everything valuesaccepted as undeniable truths. but our intention is not to interpret ventured. Nothing gained" which Peoplego on repeatingsuch imposed the phenomenon with manichaeistic comes from the proverb "Nothing concepts without any criticism. eyes. ventured, nothing have." The Paradoxical conceptslive sidebyside. indefinite pronoun "nothing" was Take, for instance, "Time is money" substituted by "everything." Another and "Money does not bring 3. Clichêsinadvertlsements ad presents the following caption: happiness." While "Time is money" "Sears Lady Kenmore /Thedo-it-itself Clichês are widelyemployed in heightens the value of money and dishwasher." The clichê "do-it-your- advertisements. This statement is mesures timebymeansofa monetary self," a ready-made sentence, is reinforced bya metalinguistic ad from unit, the other one, "Money does renewed when "yourself isreplaced the British Airways which says"The not bring happiness", undervalues by "itself." money,and emphasizesthe christian one first class service for which no concept that "heaven belongs to claims, clichês or superlatives are In addition, new components the poor." Obviously,such clichês necessary". The apparent criticism maybe added and the statementthen never come together. They appear underlying thisstatementisinfact the becomesunusual. An ad ofKODAK is whenever society requires them to acknowledgement of advertising a good example.The pictureshowsa explain its material contradictions. language asacodemade upofdaims, manholding the photographofa girl According toSoares(1986:22), the use dichésandpowerful linguistic devices and a sentence just abovethe photo ofclichês"... dispensa o exercício da usedto persuade consumers to buy says "Ithink I'minlove." Oneexpects reflexão e simplifica peloempobreci such andsuchproducts. Theoveruse the man to be in love with the girl, mento a tarefa da troca de idéias em of clichês in advertising is by no but below the photograph another sociedade." Alienation arises out means due to lack of creativity. It is sentence complements the first and of this intertextual phenomenon as an effective way of fulfilling the we read "with this new camera." In the world isseen through alienating consumer's expectation as it is the thisparticularexample the surpriseis lenses. kind of language people want to even greaterbecausethe photograph listen to. Some of the clichês found ofthe giri reinforces thepredictability Artists are the ones who manage in the majority of advertisements are that the sentence Tm in love' will be to cheat the dominant ideology adjeaivessuchas:better,comfortable, normally followed by urilh+a person. underlying the clichês bydisrupting different, famous, higher, inaedible, either their syntactic or semantic lighter, modern, natural, new, Gramaticalchange occurs when struaures. Speech play, in contrast praaical,purê,reliable, safer, spedal, oneormore word in thed iché change from onegrammatical class toanother.

78 Revista deEstudos Germânicos The example is another adofKODAK is sunshine. The pun makes the ad before.Thetextadds thatthey intend which presents the following caption: interesting and calls the reader's to go on improving the product to "How to pick your father's pocket." attention. which they have been givingali their The word "pocket" in this ad is attention (one-track mind, another "I can't believe my eyes" is the different from the one in the well metaphor with the word track). The clichêpresented inthe thirdexample known expression "To pick verbal metaphor — trackas a line of (fig.3). The photograph shows someone'spocket," which means "to action — is ignored by the picture, beautifully made up eyes and the steal from the pocket." In the ad, but another metaphor is born, a diché divides itself intotwomeanings: "pocket "is not a noun but an visual metaphor — the track as a adjeaive. That is, "pocket" is not a 1. I can't believe what 1see (or preestablished route which must "small bag forming part ofanarticle of read) necessarily be followed becausethose dothing, for carrying things in," but a 2. I can't believe my eyes may who are "off the track" can have an KODAK pocket camera, one whose look so beautiful. "accident." It is worth observing that size is suitable for a pocket. The the picture shows the track going construction thus strikes the reader Under the main caption there is a upwards, whichstands forthe future and consequently motivates him or smallerone tellingus thatthe produa in the visual code. her to read the rest of the text. is at bargain price. Besides being cheap the consumercan get nine eye Theseexamples show us thatthe At last, a metalinguistic remark shadows at one time. This reading apparent disruption ofthe clichêsvia can be made on a metaphorical restores the basic meaning of the visual devices makes them aaually element in order to warn the reader diché, that is, "It is incredible". So the more recognizable, bringing out the that the clichê is to be literally signifier "eyes" will havetwodifferent effea of surprise and humor. understood. Some examples will meanings: when someone reads the make it clear. captionlinkedtothepiaure, heorshe 4.Tearingthemasksoffthedichés In the first one (Fig.l),1 the does a different readingfrom that of metaphorical expression "We beef the person who reads it associated New jargons are constantly d-up the flavor" is to be literally with the small text. The written created by advertisingand other mass understood as well. The metaphorical • expressionisassociated witha piaure media. The text repeated by verb "beef up" means "to ad weight, which ignores the metaphor comedians is immediately copied, strength, or power to." In our presented in the clichê and calls adapted, repeated, quoted and many example, there isa photograph of a the reader's attention to the literal times renewed. Cury (1982:119), box ofdog food where wecan read meaning. Surprisingly enough, quoting Laurent Jenny, reminds us "chunky beef flavor." This caption communication is not broken, on the that works asa metalinguistic remark and contrary, the readergéissosurprised "a intertextualldade é pois máquina leads us to understand that "beef thatthe simultaneouspresentationof two different meanings through perturbadora. Trata-se de não deixar o d-up" is also to be understood as sentidoem sossego—deevitaro triunfo something having more taste ofbeef. different codes does not make him or do "diché* porum trabalho de transfor her confused, but urgeshimor her to mação." In the second example (fig.2) decode the verballanguageandenjoy The ideological masks are the clichê "A ray ofhope" keeps its the visual code. metaphorical meaning as long as it sometimes tom off by means of advertises a produa which promises Inlhe fourth example(Fig.4), we substitutions, additions, grammatical the solution for a problem which have an ad ofDURACELLbatteries. In changesand metalinguistic remarks. seemed insoluble. But the iconic this ad, the word track (the parallel Byraising objections to this "ready- representation ofsun rays around the rails of a railway) is, of course, a made," non creative language, man name of the produa tells us that the metaphor which means "a line of hasthe possibility ofseeingthe world word RAY may be also understood as action." Nevertheless, the picture withdifferent eyes. shows two maledollson a toyvehide, sun ray. The signifier ray has two Marjorie Boulton (1978:103) says differentsignifieds: ray (light) and ray which requires batteries in order to (small sign, asign ofhope). Although work. The text states that over the that the product cannot sell sun rays, it years, they have kept trying to find Because when we have a hablt of does not work without them. Any waysto improve the batteries, which hearingthingswe tend alsoto acquire a kind of habit or at least readiness to tanning produa will workonly ifthere lastup to twentyper cem longerthan the ones they made just three years believe them, we can usually examine the meaning of some quite unfamillar

Tbe Use ofClichês in Advertising Discourse 79 statementmore critically than that ofa inorder tomakepeople aware ofthe repeat ali the time without thinking statement we have often heard before. unconscious repetition process they abouttheideologyconveyedbythem. Itfollowsthatsincewe aremore likely to An analysis of different clichês in be misled by repeated assertions, have been undergoing. Clichês in precisely the assertions we most often the form of slogans create automatic advertising will reveal the mythsand hear are those we should examine most habits ofconsuming although they are false beliefs which makes up the carefully with regardto theirmeaning,in often meaningless and sometimes dominant ideology in our society. order to consider whether or not they meretautologies. Uncritical mindsare Asadvertising belongsto thestudents' are true. Our most dangerous errors are probably the ones we take forgranted. always ready to accept orders, to real world it will prove to be an behave and act without stopping to excellent example of concrete As dichés tend to make people think. Thestudy2 of clichês will make material for them to handle and uncritical, teachers should work with students aware of the amount of analyze.• thiskind of language inthe dassroom ready-made sentences they read and

NOTES

1Reproduaions ofthe ads will be found inappendix 1. 2Appendix2 presents anexample of anexerdse to be developed during a conversation class.

B1BLIOGRAPHY

BAKHTIN, Mikhail. Marxismo efilosofia da linguagem. Sâo Paulo. Hucitec, 1981. BOULTON, Marjorie. Theanatomyoflanguage. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1978. CURY, Maria Zilda. Intertextualidade: umapráticacontraditória. In: Ensaios de Semiótica, n.8. BeloHorizonte: UFMG, 1982. GALERY, Ivana Versiani. Aelaboração estilística deSagarana. 4vol. diss. Belo Horizonte: UFMG, 1981. PREMINGER, Alex,comp. Princeton Encyclopedia ofPoetry andPoetics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. RIFATERRE, M. Estilística Estrutural, trad. AnneArmchand e Álvaro Lorecini. São Paulo: Cultrix, 1973. SOARES, Maria Nazaré Lins. Machado deAssis ea análise da expressão. Instituto Nacional do Livro. MEC, 1986.

80 Revista de Estudos Germânicos APENDK1

Figurai

We beef'd-up the flavor; v Come and get ü

0(«r«. imw *•«*• c*

Tànvs.i^!^ Skin Damage: i^~ Arayofhope!J|^| t UiMtM(l»rMiMr4tn

-. _ •. - -.,.«— »*»»»-•

Figura 2 1 aiifrwi AoiifliW ...... -«••• ffIVnunm"' tatíamn™"r""" '"'-,,-**„^",'"' " WIT-—« »-»«àk •_«.*jr.i"^.". Mu r""•4t*~ ...... ^ •-.•• • •M/ím.** «^.«- • -••-•- t' l|MM.VtMt«'S.lbM »l ~ - " -• -•

[( 'I.AlilNS) •>" numiMMiivii wwlíHAU rtiumwniMI' -^ MACVS-WWAMftKtirS

Tbe Use ofCUcbés in Advertising Discourse 81 "Icarft believe myeyes!" Jim SJ.W 6*9l«utifuJ A/ira nritmli*n uni

Figura 3

wittmj|5« br* «»■•♦*•nrt»t«r. t.«tv.ll*-M wJ»tfttniiniKi!>- hivIti nr j»»tri» im p-w*» V»!U t—

!»*•»«' UMK-

Figura 4

82 Revista deEstudos Germânicos "Nòpaúinogain.'• **

Figura 5

Tburtlmt ynur bndy* pntontHl.wc prr»idry offor SÕtortnK IWwUy-lour imrliltonai trwi numplng exprctMK. (nk.Ii «jrrpct tn (orni and balance Atl on * rimphimmto»Uut filstnni»nw rrfyourhomo Fora frcr S>4oflcxbnxJiurt*.«aH ttfiyüme IKíKM* l !KKKI. SL SÕUOFLEX-

APPENDLX2

A.Look atthe picure and then answer the following questions:

1.Whatisthe man in the picture wearing?

2.Whatishelike?

3.Why ishe touchinghis leftarm? 4. What had he beendoing before? 5.Lookathis face. Do you think he ishappy?Justify youranswer. 6.Does heneed physical exercises? 7.Whywasayoungmanchosen to appear inthisad?

8. What are the human needs involved in this ad?

TbeUseofCUcbés in Advertising Discourse 83 B.Now read the text and answerthe following questions:

1. What kind ofmachine is SOLOFLEX?

2.What is SOLOFLEX designed for?

3. DoesSOLOFLEX requiremuch space? 4.What isthe purpose ofthe "free Soloflex Brochure"? 5.Whatisthe ideologyunderlyingthis ad? 6. Nowthat you haveinterpreted the picture andthetext,tryto justify the title Nopain, nogain.Doyou agree withthis proverb?

C. Observehow the following proverbswere altered: a)"What can't be curedmustbe endured. Butnot until youtakeanaspirin." b)"Nouse crying overspiltmilk. Have yourcatlickit."

Nowtryto modify the following proverbs: 1.Nopain, nogain. 2.People who live in glass housesshouldn't throwstones. 3.Barking dogsdon't bite.

4. After rain comes fairweather.

5. It's asad house where the hen crows louderthan the rooster. 6.Silence gives consent. 7. Ali cats are grey in dark. 8.The end justifíes the means. 9.Onerotten apple spoils the barrei. 10. Laugh and your troubles will melt away.

11. A closed mouth catches no flies.

12. Everything comes to him who waits.

Revista de Estudos Germânicos Summary the susceptible sixteen year old because, as Byron points out, "What Byron's Don Juan tells ofthe man call gallantry, and the gods adventures and conquests of adultery, is much more common thehero. But, although there where the climate'ssultry".2 To her credit, she did resist a little to the are some elements in common temptation: "a littlestill she strove,and with the original play on much repented/ And whispering 'I the subject of Don fuan, will ne'er consent', consented".3 But El Burlador de her husband, Don Alfonso discovers Sevilla by Tirso that she was "sleeping double" and Donna Inez has to send her son off Byron's DonJuan: *«m am, from Seville and Spain to avoid the is no direct scandal: • imitation of the original in Byron. She had resolved that he should travei through Ali European climes, by land and sea Resumo To mend his former morais andgetnew Source and Especially inFrance and Italy."' ODon Juan de Byron conta as aventuras econquistas doherói. Then beginshissecond adventure.He suffersshipwreck and after hunger Mas, apesar de teralguns ele and exposure inan open boat(spiced mentos em comum com a peça withcannibalism), he eventually lands Imitation original sobre Don fuan, on a small Greek island which is ruled El Burlador de Sevilla de Tirso over by Lambro, a successful pirate deMolina, nãopareceseruma and slave trader. He is found on the imitação direta destapeça. beach by Haidée and so to his third adventure. The two young people become lovers and while her father Don juãn de Byron: fonte e wasaway fromhis baseand home,the imitação 1. INTRODUÇÃO two have an idyllic romance marked Don Juan is an unfinished bu naturalnessand innocence. Butthe satirical põem insixteencantos father returns unexpectedly, thus written by Byron between 1819and causing the death of Haidée and the selling of Juan as a slave in William Valentine Redmond' 1824 andwasleft uncompleted atthe time of his tragic death in Greece, Constantinople. Gulbeyaz, thewife of where he died from disease while the sultan, buys htm with an idea of fighting for the independence of his keeping him as her secret lover. second fatherland. Thestoryrecords However, Juan resists the seduction six major episodes, and contains as although he does have an aíTair with many verses as six of Shakespeare's one of the women of the seraglio, plays. He starts by describing with Dudü. Eventually he escapes fromthe malicious good humour Juan's Turks and enlists in the army of the childhoodand thestrangeeducational Russians who at that moment were at system employed by his mother, the warwith theTurks. His fifth adventure priggish Donna Inez (so like Byron's follows as he contributes to the own mother) to keep him sexually capture of Ismailand he is then sent purê. Despite her efforts,Donna Julia, bytheRussian general with a dispatch with the "darkness of her Oriental announcing thevictory. This he takes eyes",1 and despite her close to St. Petersburg and becomes the friendship with the mother, seduces • Universidade Federal de Juizde Fora.

Estudos Germânicos Belo Horizonte V. 10 N°l p.85-91 DEZ. 1989

Byron's Don Juan: SourceandImitation 85 lover of the notorious queen, successandhe wroteto hispublisher, I wanta hero:anuncommon want, Catherine II, who hadaspeciai liking Murray, "I have sold, on the day When every yearand month sends forth a newone for young foreigners. Because of publication, a thing perfectly Till, after cloying the gazettes with cant, of a deterioration in his health, unprecedented, 10.000 copies.6 In The agedlscovers he is not the trueone; Catherine sendshim offto England on 1816, he had sold the booksellers, in Of such as these I should not care to a diplomatic mission. While mixing oneevening atdinner, seventhousand vaunt withsociety, he attracts the attention copiesof ChildeHarold andasimilar 111 therefore take our anclent frlend Don Juan.' ofthree women: the lavish Duchess of sale of thePrisonerofChillon. Don Fitzfulke, Lady Adeline Amundeville, Juan soldbadly and,even amonghis Byron takes Don Juan as his hero wifeofapolitician, andAurora Raby, closest friends, therewas opposition flippantly and it is necessary to study a beautifui young Catholic heiress. to its publication. Hobhouse, Moore, the real originsand the true character The first of these disguised asa ghost Kinnaird and others had advised of Byron's old friend. makesherselfhisloverjustbeforethe against the publication of Canto 1on põem breaks off. the grounds of its blasphemy, its bawdry anditspersonal satire against 2.TIRSODEMOLINA The five women in the põem are people especiallySouthey. clearly distinguished one from The literary creator of the another. Julia issentimental and very Despitethe reception at the time charaaer DonJuanTenoriowasTirso self-deluding whileHaidée issimple, of publication, Donfuan hascometo de Molina, the pen name for the natural and affectionate. Dudü is be recognised asthe masterpiece of religious Fray Gabriel Telléz,member shy and undemanding while her Byron.T.S.Eliot, who hasshaped the ofthe order ofthe Mercês,who lived unsuccessful mistress isdomineering criticai opinionofthiscentury,states: in Spain from 1584 to 1648. Hewrote before and vindictive after her "Ali things worked together to make over 300 plays besides living a very frustration. Catherine of Rússia is Don fuan the greatest of Byron's activelife as a religious superior and insatiable and the English Duchess is poems".7Jump, aleading authority on chroniclerandwe have still over85 of playful and ableto use unusual means Byron and the Romantic period, also his plays in manuscript (a high to obtain her ends. However, Don agreeswith this opinion: number for anauthorof this period). fuan is not justa love story: it is also He was one of the three great For those who do not insist upon too full of action and adventures — purposeful an organisatlon and to strict playwrights of the Golden Age of a shipwreck, a period of slavery, an economy, Don Juan is Byron's Spanish Renaissance drama and battlesand various diplomatic and masterpiece. Untidily andunpredictably, contrasts clearly with the other two social occasions and an apparent lt shows us life as viewed by a brilliant Lope de\fega andCalderón. Lope was supernatural haunting. exponent of worldly commonsense. interested in intrigues and presented He is disillusioned and sceptlcal; characters with national connotations Byron had, however, a much impatient of cant, robust, high-spirited, andhumane.8 and in his plays was more more ambitious plan for the põem preoccupiedwiththe portrayal ofthe than this. He assured Murray, his At the present time, the majority of physical appearance than with the editor in a letterthat he intended a vast critics accept the comicepic põem as stage personality of his characters. comic epic hismasterpiece. Calderón, on the other hand, was I meantto take him the tour of Europe, However due to the insularity of much more reflexive and dealt withaproper mixtureof siege,battle and English criticism, very little attention with a notional and metaphysical adventure, and to make him finish has been paid to the source of this presentation of his characters so that as Anarcharsis Cloots In the French they became abstractions. Tirso de revoIution.Tohowmanycantosthismay põem. Great attention hasbeen given extend, Iknow not, not whether (even if to the narrator and his relationship Molina, in turn, was interested in Ilive)Ishall complete it.Butthiswasmy with Byron, tothe Italian origin ofthe the psychological study of the notion: I meant to have made him a ottava rima, totheironyandsatire and characters in his plays and the vital CavalierServante inItaly, and acausefor impulses which made them act. His a divorce in England, and a sentimental to the autobiographical elements of "Werther-faced man" InGermany soasto the põem. But little attention isgiven personalities are therefore muchmore showthedifferent rldicules ofthesociety to the source ofthe title "DonJuan". real men andwomen than those ofthe ineachofthosecountrles.' Even Byron is very blasé in his other two.

But Donfuan was not nearly as reference to the name given to the Tirso de Molina is remembered in popular as the previous poems of hero: a speciai way for the brilliance of Byron. Tbe Corsair was an amazing his female characters: Ruth, Tamar,

86 Revista de Estudos Germânicos jezabel, Maria de Molina and Marta: of the play of Tirso and updates the characterisation, the element of Don this isastrange quality forthe religious studies of the great Farinelli and Juanas the conqueror of women,the who lived an exemplaryreligiouslife J. Bolte. He points out that like so local colour of places and of course and had no love affairs, unlike the many literary characters, Don Juan the brilliance and beauty ofthepoetry. othertwofamous contemporanies. He was born out ofthe folklore legends also goes down inthehistory of world andfertilised bythecreative genius of The findings ofPidal and Mackay literature as the man who gives a greatwriter. Thefolklore origin was made obsolete the search for an literary expression tothemyth ofDon obviously a version of the legend historical figure who might have Juan, one of the four great myths of which existed in Sevile about the inspired Tirso in the creation of the European literature, the other three "convidadode piedra" and not as had character of DonJuan.Thetheory of being Hamlet, Fatist andDonQuifote. beenclaimed a version ofthe legend Gregorio Maranon about the Conde of DonJuan had had a long existence as of Leonicio nor the "Convite a Ia Villamediana and other attempts a legend inboth the Nordiccountries calavera". are outdated. The contribution ofthe andtheLatin speakingcommunitiesof legendsisdearly established. Southern Europe. Butitwasthegenius Alaterstudyof Dorothy Epplen Having beengiven life byTirso de of Tirso which made him into the Mackay, published in 1943 throws literary figure thatspread much more further light on the origin of the Molina, the spread ofthe characterof rapidly andwidely than the other. double invitation legend of Don Don Juan was much more dramatic Juan.Using the method of motive andmuchmorefar-reaching thanthat ElBurladordeSevilla, the playby analysis popular to the Finnish school of the other three, Faustus, Quixote Tirso de Molina, tellsthe storyof Don of folklorists, the author looks for and Hamlet. Soon there were Juan Tenorio and his amorous the archetype or first version of the masterpieces in many countries and conquests in various countries of legend in the various versionsof the such great names as Molière, Mozart, Europe: Isabela inSpain, Tisbea inthe European tradition. Shesees thatthere Zorilla, Lenau, Pushkin, Byron and village where he was shipwrecked are basically three elements in the Shaw produced their versions of the and Dona Ana de Ulloa. The father of legend: the challenge of a living man famous literary work. From beinga the lastone challenged DonJuan to a to a dead one by giving a supper play, it took various other forms of duel inwhich thedefenderofthe giri's invitation; the appearance ofthe dead literaryand musical creation and the honour waskilled. Thesecond part of man at the supper and the return character of Don Juan changed the playtellsthe story of the Invited invitation; and the appearance ofthe according tothe ideas andtheperiods Statue of Don Gonzalo, which, after living man at his rendezvous with ofliterature into which itwasadapted. going tosupperwithDonJuan, invites the dead and his punishment or Don Juan became a major literary him inturnto go to supper withhim warning. Mackay finds thattherewere figure in France, Italy, England, inthecemetery. Therethestatueofthe innumerable versions of this legend Germany as well as in Spain and father becomes the punishment of throughout Europe and that the Portugal. God and carries DonJuan offto hell, doubleinvitation existed inmany. Her pulling him by the beard through findings were principally thatali the But we must now come back to the open grave. The manner of the versions of the legend existing in oursubject. Towhatextentcanwesay that the play byTirsode Molina isthe punishment was obviously suggested Spain fell under the archetype causeand source of Byron's Donfuan by the possibilities and limitations established and therefore had a ofthe open stage of the period and considerable degree ofunity. Theonly andwhatevidence is there in the work itselfabout this interdependence? To shows a chilling version of the stories in which the dead man exemplify more clearlythe imitation, chastisement of God against the appeared in the form of a statue we will compare and contrastthe use ungodly. The moral aim ofthe playis belonged to the Spanish península- 4 ofthe play of Tirso by Byron, Lenau very dear and no later version has in Spain and l in Portugal. The thrown the same emphasis on the Spanish folk tales are predominantly and the other English writer, Shaw, presence of thestatue. The play isof religiousin their moral.These factors who have created a version of value of DonJuan. course in the tradition ofthe medieval obviously contributed to the play El morality plays: BurladordeSevilla. There is a strong religious moral, the statue isthe form Está es justiça de Dios 3. IMITATION Quien cal hace, que tal pague.10 that the dead father takes and the double invitation is clearly There is no direct evidence in Don Ramón Menéndez Pidal in his present in the play. The genius of Juan that Byron knew of the text of Estúdiosliterários analyses the source Tirso de Molina added the vivid Tirso de Molina. Hetells us playfully:

Byron 'sDon Juan: SourceandImitation 87 Ifanyperson doubt It, I appeal was presented according toideas ofthe of forging the future of the human To history, tradition andto facts time as the enemy ofGod." race: To newspapers, whosetruthali know andfeel But the public could not accept the inventme a meansby whichIcanhave Toplays inflve andoperas inthree acts; damnation of Don Juan and later love,beauty,romance, emotion, passion Alithese confirm my statement a good versions changed thetragic ending: withouttheirwretchedpenalties, their deal expenses, their worries, their trials, their Butthatwhich more completely falth DonJuan became such a pet thatthe illnesses andagonies andrisks of death, exacts world could not bear his damnation. It their retinue ofservantsand nursesand Isthat myselfandseveral nowinSeville reconciled himsentimentally toGodina doctors and school-masters.17 Saw Juan's last elopement with the second version and clamored for his devÜ." canonization for awhole century." Don Juan is therefore the man There isexplicit reference toplays and who frees himself from ali this and operas on the subjea. But the plays This isavery perspicadoussummary lives as a superman satisfying are in five acts. Thiseliminates the play of the progress of Don Juan from his simple "impulse of manhood ofTirso which is divided into three Tirso, through Molière to Zorilla and towards womanhood" whenever it "jornadas"and that of Zorilla, which is Mozart. But Shaw was aware that the is convenient for the Life Forcewhich anyhow posterior, being published in Romanticversion would not do forthe inspires the truesuperman. 1840, which isdivided into two parts twentieth century. Hewaswell aware and seven acts. It must refer to ofwhat he had to do when he wrote However, there is no doubt that Molière's version and maybe to his"Shavio-Socratic dialogue withthe in alithis, Shaw knew his historyof Mussefs. The opera isobviously that lady, thestatue and thedevil"; literature and had a first hand dose ofMozart finished in 1787. Even the knowledge oftheotherplays on Don actions in the põem of Byron have You see from the foregoing survey that Don Juan isa full century outofdate for Juan especially thatof Molina. little todowiththe playofTirso. There you and for me; and ifthere are milllons istheshipwresk andthetravei to Italy oflessliterate people whoare still Inthe The case of Lenau is a little less and France but this seems to have to elghteenth century, have they not dear because he did notshare Shaw"s do with the tradition ofclassical epic Molière and Mozart, upon whose artno passion for preface writing. Thepõem human hand can Improve. You would of Lenau was finished in 1884 and poetry as he tells us in stanza CC. laugh atme ifthistime of dayI dealt In Thereistherefore no proofthatByron duelsandghosts andwomanly women... entitled Donjuan. A specialist on knew ofthe playof Tirso. Even the moreabstract parts of the Don Lenau tellsus explidtly thathe knew Juan play are dllapidated past use: and read the German version of the Something quite distinct may be for Instance DonJuan's supernatural antagonist hurled those who refused to play ofTirso de Molina published by observed in Shaw and Lenau. Shaw repent into lakes of bumingbrlmstone, C. A. Dohrn in 1841. This fact is published his Men andSupermen in theretobe tortured by devilswithhorns supported by a close reading of 1903 andincluded aspeciai scene(Aa andtalls.15 the play: the names of the minor 3 Scene 2) which is known as Don charaaers such as Catalinon are the Shaw therefore sets out to write a Juan in Hell, which isoften detached sameinthe põem of Lenau andinthe modern version ofthe correct idea of and performed as a one-act play. play ofTirso. Thescene inwhich Don DonJuan, notasa libertine but as It was conceived as a dream Juan deceives the Duchess Isabelle experienced byjohn Tanner inwhich a manwho though gifted enoughto be and the scene inthe cemeteryarevery he appears as Don Juan, Ann exceptionally capable of dlstinguishlng close to Tirso's version. There is also Whitefield as Dona Ana and Roebuck between good andevil, follows hisown evidence ofelements taken from the Ramsden asthe statue. Inthe preface instlncts withoutregard for the common play by Molière and the opera by statute or canon law; and therefore which is an "Epistle Dedicatory" he Mozart. states clearly that he conceived this while galnlng theardent sympathy ofour rebelllous instlncts finds himself In scene as atwentieth-century version of We can therefore conclude that mortalcondia with existing lnstitutions DonJuanofMolina: and defends himselfby fraud and force.'° while Byron showed noknowledge of theplay ofTirso deMolina, both Shaw You once asked me why I did not write This isa gooddefinition of DonJuan and Lenau followed the play dosely a DonJuan play. The levitywith which youassumedthis frlghtful responsibility as the man who refuses to respect and since they were both geniuses, hasprobably bythistimeenabledyouto social, moral and religious codes. they were able to create something forget it: but the day of reckoning has new and different with what they arrived: here is your play!12 In fact, Shaw goes on to write a play whichrespects verylittle these borrowed as Eliotwould demand. This scene ofthe play is a Don Juan intuitions and he makeshis Don Juan We must therefore try another play inthetradition whichbeganwith into asuperman who refuses toobey approach to see ifByron's portrayal Tirso: the Iaws of marriage becausethey of the central character shows The prototype DonJuan invented early chain him down to such things as understanding of the essential in the XVI century by a Spanish monk distract thesuperman from hismission elements ofthis charaaer as handed

Revista de Estudos Germânicos 88 on byTirso. IntheSpanish play, Don virility", physically feminine in disrespects the lawofmanand Godin Juan isboththeconquerorofwomen appearance,butthisisnotthe placeto ordertosatisfy itself. Byron's Donjuan andthechallenger ofa deadpersonin examine thistheory.Suffice it to say, issomething quite different: such a way as to insult him and ali that the Don Juan of Byron is not the supernatural. He is a man who really acharacter withthequalities or ElDonjuan de Byronnoocultasu Índole disrespects the lawsof God and man. the ideas of the original hero of this insolente,displicente, altanera, de Inglês perseguido por ei spleen. Pero es InByron's Donfuan there isnot any name. demasiado blasé, fin de siglo, para elementthat could be considered as a Shaw's hero is also passive in a armonlzar con ei símbolo que procreó challenge to a dead person. In fact nuestrogranfraile. Noes Donjuan. EsSlr whereas Don Juan Tenorio kills sense, butinquite adifJFerent way from John.22 the fatherof Dona Ana, DonJuan of Byron's hero. Shaw maintained thatali Byron flees from Don Alfonso and men are the quany of women and Madariaga puts his finger on an puts up no opposition to the father not the huntsmen and that "a woman extremely importam point in this of Haidée. There remains only the seeking a husband is the most passage: the identification of Donjuan element of the conqueror of women unscrupulous of ali the beasts of withByron himself. Thedose identity in the põem of Byronbut in a form pray"20 SoShaw's Donjuanispassive ofthe narrator ofthe comic põemand thatissignificantly different. T.S. Eliot like ali men. LenaiTs Donjuan is the the author is the reason for the failure wasthe first to put his finger on this true romantic lover seeking many of the põem as a Donjuan põem but difference inhisdassicessay on Byron women in order to ding to passing it is at thesame time the reason for the ofl937: beauty and enjoy it while it remains. success of the põem as the great But hisheroisnotpassive like thehero masterpieceof Byron. Finally he had It is noticeable — and this confirais, I of Byron. found an objeaive correlative in the think, the view of Byron held by Mr sense of Eliot, inwhich he couldgive Peter Quennell — that In these love episodes, Juan alwaystakes the passive expression to ali the experiencesand role. Even Haidée, in splte of the 4. CONCLUSIONS opinions he had in a free medley innocence and ignorance ofthat child of põem describing the traveis of a After examining the direa and nature, apperars rather as the seducer charaaer which he turns into his real than the seduced... The Innocence indiretevidencefora dependence of self. The cause of the failure of the ofJuan is merely a substitute for the Byron'sDonjuan on the originalplay passivityof Byron.18 põem as one ofthe trueseriesofDon byTirsode Molina, we mustconclude juan literary works is the real cause of that Byron had no direa knowledge The opinion of Mr Quennell is of its success on another levei. course that Byron, as essentially of it. We must agree withShaw who homosexual, wasalways passive inhis comments on Byron's Donjuan: Byron gives us a hint about the relationship with women. This is Our vagabond libertines are no more origin of his knowledge of the rather a strange doctrine coming interestingfrom that point ofview than character of Don Juan in two telling from Eliot, the defender of the the sailor who hasa wife in every port; verses: impersonality ofpoetry. Butthefaa is and Byron's hero is, after ali, only a true in the põem. Don Juan is the vagabondlibertine. And he is dumb; he We alihave seen him. Inthe pantomime, does not discuss himself with a Sent to the devll somewhat ere his aggressive conquerorofwomen ofthe Sganarelle-Leporeuo orwith the fathers time.23 Spanish tradition. In Zorilla, he arrives or brothersofhis mistresses: he does not, atthe point ofkilling thirty-one people even, likeCasanova, tellhisown story.In Here, we havethe trueexplanation in inayearandseducing seventywomen faa he is not a true Donjuan at ali; he is aliprobability. Hehadseen Donjuan no more an enemy of God than any inthesameperiod.The method used romantic and adventurous young sower in the pantomime and for someone wasdescribed briefly: of wild oats. 2I who had been living in Italy from Oaober 1816 and wasto leave itonly Umdia paraaliciá-las Shaw, clear-sighted as usual, points inJuly 1823, Byron had surely had Outro para consegui-las out thatByron's Donjuan hasnothing Outro para abandoná-la constant contact with the ítalian Mais dois para substituí-las in common with the first Don Juan pantomime on Don Juan. Soon after Euma hora para olvidá-las." except forthe faa thathe isa libertine. the creation by Tirso de Molina, the The same opinion is shared by Commedia deParte had seized on the The Spanish Donjuan iscertainly very comic possibilities ofthe playandDon diíTerent from thepassive Donjuan of Salvadorde Madariaga in the preface Juan had become one ofthe constant Byron. to his BBC play Donfuany Ia Don Juánia in which he examines thetrue characters of their presentations. So This theoryof Eliot wouldseem to nature of Don Juan and concludes here wefind the contaa that probably be confirmed by the statements of that the essential characteristic of the inspired Byron and explains the lack Gregorio Maranon whostatesthatthe charaaer mustbeitsspontaneous and of real understanding of the true true Donjuan is a man of"equivocai aggressive, ur.reflective virility that nature of Donjuan. Q

Byron's DonJuan: Source andImitation 89 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BYRON, George Gordon, Lord. Poetical works. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1970.925 p. ELIOT, T. S. On poetry andpoets. London, Faber& Faber, 1957.262 p. JUMP, JohnD. Byron. London, Routledge &Kegan Paul, 1972.200 p. MARANON, Gregorio. Donjuan. Madrid, Espasa-Calpe S.A., 1976.168 p. MOLINA, Tirso de. El vergonzoso enpalácio -ElburladordeSevilla. México, Espasa-Calpe Mexicana, 1981.244 p. LENAU. Donjuan. Trad. &preface Walter Thomas. Paris, Montaigne, 1931•56p. MACKAY, Dorothy Epplen. Tbe double invitation intbe Legend ofDonfuan. Stanford, Univ. Press, 1943.244 p. MADARIAGA, Salvador de. Donfuan y IaDon-Juánia. Buenos Aires, Ed. Sudamericana, 1950.89p. MARCHAND, Leslie A. Aportrait: Byron. London, Futura Publ., 1976.518 p. PIDAL, Ramón Menéndez. Estúdios Literários. Madrid, Espasa-Calpe, 1978.212p. SHAW, Bernard. Tbe complete worksofBernardShaw-. Prefaces. London, Paul Hamlyn, 1965.948 p. . Tbe complete works ofBernardSbaw. Plays. London, Paul Hamlyn, 1965.1404 p.

NOTES

1Byron, p.642 2Ibidem, p.644 3Ibidem, p.649 4Ibidem, p.658 5Jump, p.105 6Marchant,p.l62 7Eliot, p.202 8Jump, p.150 9Byron, p.637 10 Molina, p. 241 11 Byron, p.659 12 Shaw: Prefaces, p.149 13 Ibidem, p.151

90 Revista de Estudos Germânicos 14 Shaw: Prefaces, p.152

15 Ibidem. 16 Ibidem, p.151 17 Shaw: Plays, p.383 18 Eliot, p. 202 19 Bandeira, p.45 20 Shaw: plays, p.382

21 Ibidem, p.150

22 Madariaga, p.30 23 Byron, p.637

Byron 's DonJuan: Source and Imitation 91 Impresso nas oficinas da SEGRAC • Sociedade Editora c Gráfica deAção Comunitária Rua Catumbi, 191 - Caiçara - Belo Horizonte - MG 31230-070-Tclcfax: (031)462-7995