(RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱ CITIZENRY:ȱAȱLESSONȱONȱTHEȱFREEȱTRADEȱOFȱ THEȱAMERICASȱQUEBECȱCITYȱSUMMITȱ PROTESTSȱ ȱ GadaȱMahrouseȱ ȱ ȱ Inȱthisȱarticle,ȱIȱargueȱthatȱdespiteȱcommonȱassumptionsȱthatȱpeaceȱeducationȱeffortsȱ achieveȱsocialȱchange,ȱitȱisȱoftenȱaȱnormalizing,ȱnationȬbuildingȱprojectȱthatȱobscuresȱ hierarchiesȱofȱpower.ȱFocussingȱonȱaȱlessonȱfromȱaȱpopularȱpeaceȱeducationȱprogramȱ currentlyȱusedȱinȱCanadianȱschools,ȱIȱhaveȱanalyzedȱtheȱconvergencesȱbetweenȱpeaceȱ andȱcitizenshipȱeducationȱandȱconsiderȱtheȱimplicationsȱofȱpedagogiesȱthatȱencourageȱ peaceȱ asȱ aȱ personalȱ choiceȱ andȱ responsibility.ȱȱIȱ callȱ forȱ anȱ approachȱ toȱ peaceȱ educationȱthatȱpromotesȱcriticalȱthinkingȱonȱhowȱknowledgeȱisȱproduced.ȱ ȱ Keyȱ words:ȱȱpeaceȱ education,ȱ citizenship,ȱ nationȬbuilding,ȱ knowledgeȱ production,ȱ nonȬviolentȱprotestȱ ȱ Onȱsupposeȱcommunémentȱqueȱlaȱpromotionȱdeȱl’éducationȱpourȱlaȱpaixȱfaitȱévoluerȱ laȱsociété,ȱmaisȱl’auteureȱsoutientȱdansȱcetȱarticleȱqu’elleȱestȱplutôtȱunȱprojetȱnationalȱ normatifȱquiȱcamoufleȱdesȱpouvoirsȱhiérarchiques.ȱȱÀȱl’aideȱd’uneȱleçonȱfaisantȱpartieȱ d’unȱ programmeȱ d’éducationȱ pourȱ laȱ paixȱ trèsȱ utiliséȱ dansȱ lesȱ écolesȱ canadiennes,ȱ l’auteureȱ analyseȱ lesȱ convergencesȱ entreȱ laȱ paixȱ etȱ l’éducationȱ àȱ laȱ citoyennetéȱ etȱ s’intéresseȱauxȱimplicationsȱdesȱpédagogiesȱquiȱencouragentȱlaȱpaixȱcommeȱunȱchoixȱ etȱ uneȱ responsabilitéȱ personnels.ȱȱElleȱ prôneȱ uneȱ approcheȱ quiȱ favoriseȱ laȱ penséeȱ critiqueȱauȱregardȱduȱmodeȱdeȱproductionȱduȱsavoir.ȱ ȱ Motsȱclésȱ:ȱéducationȱpourȱlaȱpaix,ȱcitoyenneté,ȱdéveloppementȱd’unȱpays,ȱproductionȱ duȱsavoir,ȱprotestationȱnonȱviolente.ȱ ______ȱ ȱ
CANADIANȱJOURNALȱOFȱEDUCATIONȱ29,ȱ2ȱ(2006):ȱ436Ȭ453ȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 437ȱȱȱ
Peaceȱ educationȱ isȱ generallyȱ framedȱ asȱ anȱ approachȱ thatȱ challengesȱ traditionalȱ modelsȱ ofȱ educationȱ byȱ encouragingȱ criticalȱ thinking,ȱ resistance,ȱandȱchangeȱ(BarȬTal,ȱ2002;ȱHarrisȱ&ȱMorrison,ȱ2003;ȱShapiroȱ 2002;ȱSynott,ȱ2004).ȱGivenȱitsȱgoalsȱofȱpromotingȱjustice,ȱcaring,ȱandȱnonȬ violence,ȱpeaceȱeducationȱisȱaȱfieldȱthatȱhasȱattractedȱlittleȱcriticismȱandȱ hasȱ beenȱ largelyȱ regardedȱ asȱ aȱ beneficialȱ andȱ progressiveȱ educationalȱ interventionȱ (GurȬZe’ev,ȱ 2001).ȱ Inȱ Canada,ȱ peaceȱ educationȱ isȱ increasinglyȱ beingȱ packagedȱ togetherȱ withȱ orȱ implementedȱ throughȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ (Bickmore,ȱ 2002;ȱ Canadianȱ Commissionȱ forȱ UNESCO,ȱ 2002).ȱȱThisȱ allianceȱ makesȱ senseȱ whenȱ oneȱ considersȱ thatȱ theseȱ twoȱ fieldsȱ shareȱ someȱ keyȱ commonȱ goals.ȱ Asȱ Iȱ haveȱ argued,ȱ however,ȱ whenȱ peaceȱ educationȱ isȱ embeddedȱ withinȱ aȱ citizenshipȱ framework,ȱ itȱ canȱ easilyȱ beȱ coȬoptedȱ forȱ promotingȱ loyaltyȱ toȱ theȱ stateȱ andȱitsȱinstitutions.ȱMoreover,ȱwhereasȱcitizenshipȱeducationȱhasȱalwaysȱ beenȱ explicitȱ andȱ overtȱ aboutȱ itsȱ nationȬbuildingȱ aimsȱ (Evans,ȱ 2003;ȱ Glaze,ȱHogwarth,ȱ&ȱMcLeanȱ2003;ȱMitchell,ȱ2001;ȱOsborne,ȱ2005),ȱsuchȱ goalsȱareȱmoreȱinsidiousȱwhenȱapproachedȱthroughȱpeaceȱeducation.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ article,ȱ Iȱ haveȱ exploredȱ oneȱ popularȱ andȱ innovativeȱ peaceȱ educationȱ program:ȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ inȱ theȱ 21stȱ Centuryȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ2002)ȱandȱmoreȱspecifically,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱlessonsȱitȱincludesȱ calledȱ Takingȱ Action.ȱ Thisȱ lessonȱ isȱ structuredȱ aroundȱ Aȱ Viewȱ fromȱ theȱ Summitȱ(NationalȱFilmȱBoardȱofȱCanada,ȱ2001),ȱaȱdocumentaryȱfilmȱthatȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ 2001ȱ Freeȱ Tradeȱ ofȱ theȱ Americasȱ (FTAA)ȱ summitȱ inȱ QuebecȱCity.ȱTheȱfilmȱisȱmeantȱtoȱgiveȱstudentsȱ“aȱrealȱlifeȱcaseȱstudyȱinȱ politicalȱ activism,ȱ demonstratingȱ conceptsȱ suchȱ asȱ diversityȱ ofȱ tactics,ȱ violentȱversusȱnonȬviolentȱprotest,ȱviewsȱofȱsecurity,ȱhumanȱrights,ȱsocialȱ justiceȱ andȱ theȱ strengthsȱ andȱ weaknessesȱ ofȱ democracy”ȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 12).ȱ Iȱ focusȱ onȱ theseȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ inȱ theȱ 21stȱ Centuryȱ materialsȱ toȱ makeȱ threeȱ interrelatedȱ arguments.ȱ First,ȱ usingȱ aȱ criticalȱtheoreticalȱframeworkȱthatȱrevealsȱtheȱlimitsȱofȱpeaceȱeducation,ȱIȱ argueȱ thatȱ despiteȱ commonȱ assumptionsȱ aboutȱ peaceȱ educationȱ effortsȱ strivingȱforȱsocialȱchange,ȱinȱpracticeȱitȱisȱoftenȱaȱnormalizingȱprojectȱthatȱ obscuresȱ hierarchiesȱ ofȱ power.ȱ Second,ȱ focusingȱ onȱ theȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ lessonȱ andȱ itsȱ accompanyingȱ film,ȱ Iȱ useȱ aȱ frameworkȱ forȱ identifyingȱ differentȱtypesȱofȱcitizenshipȱeducationȱprogramsȱ(Westheimerȱ&ȱKahneȱ 2004)ȱ toȱ argueȱ thatȱ despiteȱ itsȱ justiceȱ andȱ participatoryȱ citizenshipȱ 438ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ themes,ȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ encouragesȱ aȱ personalȱ responsibilityȱ typeȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ inȱ studentsȱ andȱ thatȱ thisȱ reinstatesȱ ratherȱ thanȱ challengesȱ relationsȱofȱpower.ȱThird,ȱIȱargueȱthatȱencouragingȱCanadiansȱtoȱthinkȱofȱ themselvesȱ asȱ peacefulȱ worldȱ citizens,ȱ anȱ ideaȱ thatȱ isȱ alreadyȱ widelyȱ adoptedȱinȱtheȱnationalȱimagination,ȱcanȱhaveȱtheȱeffectȱofȱreproducingȱ hegemonicȱ discoursesȱ andȱ elidesȱ Canadianȱ complicityȱ inȱ globalȱ suffering.ȱȱȱ
INTERROGATINGȱȱCULTIVATINGȱPEACEȱINȱTHEȱ21STȱCENTURYȱȱ
CultivatingȱPeaceȱinȱtheȱ21stȱCentury,ȱanȱinnovativeȱprogramȱwithȱstudentȱ activities,ȱ teachingȱ resources,ȱ andȱ aȱ compilationȱ ofȱ films,ȱ allȱ promoteȱ active,ȱ peaceful,ȱ democraticȱ citizenshipȱ inȱ gradeȱ 10Ȭ12ȱ socialȱ studies,ȱ history,ȱ civic,ȱ andȱ worldȱ issuesȱ classesȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2002).ȱ TheȱCultivatingȱPeaceȱmaterialsȱareȱproducedȱbyȱClassroomȱConnections,ȱ aȱ nonȬprofitȱ organizationȱ thatȱ providesȱ freeȱ learningȱ resourcesȱ toȱ publiclyȱfundedȱschools.ȱȱ Likeȱmostȱpeaceȱeducationȱprograms,ȱtheȱCultivatingȱPeaceȱinȱtheȱ21stȱ Centuryȱprogramȱ(henceforthȱCultivatingȱPeace)ȱpromotesȱanȱeducationalȱ approachȱthatȱchallengesȱtheȱstatusȱquo.ȱȱClassroomȱConnectionsȱdefinesȱ itsȱmandateȱasȱoneȱ“dedicatedȱtoȱinstigatingȱpositiveȱsocietalȱchangeȱbyȱ strengtheningȱ theȱ educationȱ andȱ parentingȱ ofȱ Canada’sȱ youth”ȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 5).ȱ Theȱ programȱ setsȱ itsȱ objectivesȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ “realȱ societalȱ transformation”ȱ andȱ definesȱ itselfȱ asȱ aȱ programȱ thatȱ aimsȱ forȱ “fundamentalȱ change”ȱ (p.ȱ 5).ȱ Withȱ itsȱ dualȱ goalsȱ ofȱ cultivatingȱpeaceȱandȱpromotingȱactiveȱcitizenship,ȱCultivatingȱPeaceȱalsoȱ representsȱaȱcurrentȱ exampleȱ ofȱ howȱ theȱ fieldsȱ ofȱ peaceȱ educationȱ andȱ citizenshipȱeducationȱareȱincreasinglyȱbeingȱbroughtȱtogether.ȱȱȱ Theȱ Classroomȱ Connectionsȱ organizationȱ developedȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ programȱ collaborationȱ withȱ teachers’ȱ networksȱ andȱ majorȱ educationalȱ organizationsȱ andȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ theȱ “tragicȱ eventsȱ ofȱ Septemberȱ2001ȱandȱtheȱescalationȱofȱconflictsȱaroundȱtheȱworld”ȱ(p.ȱ6).ȱ Theȱ educationalȱ programȱisȱ extremelyȱpopularȱ andȱhasȱ beenȱ veryȱ wellȱ received.ȱ Onȱ itsȱ website,ȱ Classroomȱ Connectionsȱ statesȱ thatȱ theȱ firstȱ ofȱ theȱtwoȱCultivatingȱPeaceȱmodulesȱ(theȱoneȱthatȱincludesȱtheȱTakingȱActionȱ lesson)ȱwasȱdeliveredȱtoȱ85ȱperȱcentȱofȱsecondaryȱschoolsȱacrossȱCanadaȱ inȱ Septemberȱ 20021ȱ andȱ thatȱ itsȱ officeȱ continuesȱ toȱ beȱ floodedȱ withȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 439ȱȱȱ requestsȱ forȱ theȱ materials.ȱ Theȱ materialsȱ gainedȱ additionalȱ prominenceȱ whenȱ theȱ organizationȱ receivedȱ aȱ Nationalȱ Peaceȱ Educationȱ Awardȱ byȱ theȱCanadianȱCentresȱforȱTeachingȱPeaceȱ(ClassroomȱConnections,ȱ2002).ȱ Atȱtheȱoutsetȱofȱthisȱcritique,ȱtwoȱcaveatsȱareȱnecessary.ȱTheȱfirstȱhasȱ toȱ doȱ withȱ theȱ challengeȱ ofȱ fairlyȱ representingȱ theȱ broaderȱ aimsȱ andȱ strengthsȱofȱtheȱcomprehensiveȱCulturalȱPeaceȱprogramȱwhileȱfocussingȱ narrowlyȱ onȱ justȱ oneȱ lesson.ȱȱOverall,ȱ Iȱ believeȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ materialsȱareȱusefulȱforȱfacilitatingȱsocialȱandȱpoliticalȱawareness.ȱMostȱ impressiveȱ areȱ itsȱ attemptsȱ toȱ historicizeȱ andȱ contextualizeȱ issuesȱ ofȱ violence.ȱForeȱexample,ȱtheȱprogramȱaddressesȱtheȱinterlockingȱcausesȱofȱ violenceȱ throughȱ aȱ handoutȱ onȱ theȱ socialȱ constructionsȱ ofȱ masculinityȱ (ClassroomȱConnections,ȱ 2002,ȱ pp.ȱ24Ȭ25).ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ includesȱ aȱlessonȱ thatȱ presentsȱ aȱ definitionȱ ofȱ violenceȱ thatȱ extendsȱ beyondȱ directȱ physicalȱ formsȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱindirectȱmentalȱandȱpsychologicalȱformsȱofȱviolenceȱ perpetuatedȱ throughȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ systems.2ȱȱȱTheȱ programȱ alsoȱ delvesȱintoȱsomeȱpotentiallyȱcontentiousȱsubjectȱmatter.ȱOneȱexampleȱisȱaȱ lessonȱonȱtheȱcausesȱofȱwarȱandȱviolenceȱinȱwhichȱaȱpieceȱbyȱecofeminstȱ scholarȱVandanaȱShivaȱasksȱifȱterrorismȱcouldȱbeȱ“theȱhumanȱequivalentȱ ofȱtheȱabnormalȱbehaviourȱofȱ‘cannibalism’ȱanimalsȱexhibitȱunderȱfactoryȱ conditions”ȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 22).ȱȱByȱ raisingȱ suchȱ relevantȱ yetȱ difficultȱ issues,ȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ materialsȱ rightlyȱ estimateȱ theȱ contemporaryȱ Canadianȱ highȬschoolȱ populationȱ asȱ politicallyȱ perceptive,ȱ possessingȱ aȱ capacityȱ forȱ moreȱ thanȱ aȱ simplisticȱ understandingȱofȱtheȱsocialȱandȱethicalȱissues.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ caveatȱ pertainsȱ toȱ undertakingȱ anyȱ critiqueȱ ofȱ peaceȱ education.ȱ Discussionsȱ Iȱ haveȱ hadȱ withȱ educatorsȱ inȱ theȱ fieldȱ haveȱ indicatedȱthatȱtoȱquestionȱtheȱsanctityȱofȱpeaceȱeducationȱis,ȱinȱeffect,ȱtoȱ alignȱ oneselfȱ withȱ repressionȱ andȱ violence.ȱ Theseȱ interactions,ȱ thoughȱ merelyȱ anecdotal,ȱ haveȱ revealedȱ somethingȱ toȱ meȱ aboutȱ theȱ defensivenessȱregardingȱtheȱunquestionedȱrighteousnessȱofȱeducatingȱforȱ peaceȱ andȱ nonȬviolence.ȱ Byȱ pointingȱ toȱ theȱ takenȬforȬgrantedȱ meritsȱ ofȱ peaceȱeducation,ȱIȱdoȱnotȱintendȱtoȱdiminishȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱworkingȱ toȱ endȱ violence.ȱ Rather,ȱ myȱ intentionȱ isȱ toȱ showȱ thatȱ unreflectiveȱ assumptionsȱ aboutȱ theȱ goodnessȱ ofȱ peaceȱ educationȱ canȱ forecloseȱ anyȱ understandingȱ ofȱ howȱ itȱ mightȱ perpetuateȱ structuralȱ andȱ pervasiveȱ inequity.ȱ 440ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ
THEORETICALȱ FRAMEWORK:ȱ PEACEȱ ANDȱ CITIZENSHIPȱ EDUCATIONȱ Whatȱisȱpeaceȱeducation?ȱInȱtheirȱupdatedȱeditionȱofȱaȱleadingȱbookȱonȱ peaceȱeducationȱinȱNorthȱAmerica,ȱHarrisȱandȱMorrisonȱ(2003)ȱdefineȱitȱ asȱaȱmultiȬdisciplinaryȱfield,ȱencompassingȱdiversityȱeducation,ȱconflictȱ resolution,ȱ civicȱ andȱ democraticȱ education,ȱ andȱ violenceȬprevention.ȱ Perkinsȱ(2002)ȱstressesȱthatȱtheȱaimsȱandȱapproachesȱofȱpeaceȱeducationȱ areȱ extensiveȱ andȱ varyȱ greatlyȱ accordingȱ toȱ theȱ socioȬpoliticalȱ contextsȱ withinȱwhichȱitȱisȱpractised.ȱWhatȱunifiesȱpeaceȱeducationȱasȱaȱfieldȱareȱ theȱ relatedȱ goalsȱ ofȱ promotingȱ aȱ cultureȱ ofȱ nonȬviolence3ȱ andȱ contributingȱ towardsȱ aȱ “moreȱ hopefulȱ andȱ interdependentȱ world”ȱ (Harrisȱ&ȱMorrison,ȱ2003,ȱp.ȱ227).ȱȱȱ Aȱ greatȱ dealȱ ofȱ theȱ literatureȱ onȱ peaceȱ education,ȱ particularlyȱ theȱ writingȱbyȱNorthȱAmericanȱscholars,ȱisȱfullȱofȱpraiseȱandȱconvictionȱofȱitsȱ meritsȱ(Bickmore,ȱ2002;ȱHarrisȱ&ȱMorrison,ȱ2003;ȱRocheȱ2003).ȱGivenȱtheȱ objectivesȱofȱmyȱarticle,ȱIȱwasȱmoreȱinterestedȱinȱliteratureȱthatȱoffersȱaȱ moreȱ complexȱ analysisȱ ofȱ theȱ challengesȱ andȱ shortcomingsȱ ofȱ peaceȱ education.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ someȱ scholarsȱ whoȱ considerȱ thatȱ theȱ goalsȱ ofȱ peaceȱ educationȱ areȱ tooȱ broadȱ haveȱ critiquedȱ itsȱ vagueȱ andȱ elusiveȱ notionsȱ ofȱ increasedȱ tolerance,ȱ personalȱ understanding,ȱ andȱ theȱ acceptanceȱ ofȱ differenceȱ asȱ overlyȱ simplisticȱ approachesȱ toȱ pressingȱ globalȱ problemsȱ (BarȬTal,ȱ 2002;ȱ Solomon,ȱ 2002).ȱ Berlowitzȱ (2002)ȱ observesȱthatȱ“scholarlyȱandȱactivistȱpeaceȱorganizationsȱtendȱtoȱremainȱ overwhelminglyȱ EuroȬAmerican,ȱ Christian,ȱ andȱ middleȬclass”ȱ (p.ȱ 61)ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ contradictȱ peaceȱ education’sȱ aimsȱ toȱ beȱ inclusiveȱ andȱ diverse.ȱȱPerkinsȱ(2002)ȱoffersȱanȱimportantȱcritiqueȱthatȱchallengesȱtheȱ notionȱ thatȱ violenceȱ andȱ warȱ emergeȱ outȱ ofȱ ignoranceȱ orȱ lackȱ ofȱ understanding.ȱInȱhisȱview,ȱpeaceȱeducationȱcanȱbeȱeffectiveȱonlyȱinȱtheȱ rareȱinstancesȱwhereȱbothȱofȱtheȱconflictedȱpartiesȱseeȱitȱasȱproductive.ȱȱ ForȱPerkins,ȱthisȱpointsȱtoȱtheȱparadoxicalȱandȱineffectualȱrealityȱwhereȱ everyoneȱcanȱagreeȱtoȱpeace,ȱsoȱlongȱasȱitȱisȱonȱtheirȱterms.ȱȱ Aȱ fewȱ noteworthyȱ scholarsȱ haveȱ exploredȱ theȱ limitsȱ ofȱ theȱ liberalȱ humanistȱparadigmȱonȱwhichȱpeaceȱeducationȱisȱfoundedȱtoȱshowȱhowȱitȱ dependsȱ onȱ essentialist,ȱ universal,ȱ andȱ naivelyȱ idealisticȱ principlesȱ ofȱ seekingȱ equalityȱandȱ justiceȱ forȱ allȱ humans.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ Synottȱ (2004)ȱ hasȱ observedȱ thatȱ asȱ anȱ educationalȱ philosophy,ȱ peaceȱ educationȱ isȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 441ȱȱȱ formulatedȱthroughȱaȱbenignȱviewȱofȱhumanȱnatureȱasȱessentiallyȱgood.ȱ GurȬZe’veȱ (2001)ȱ contendsȱ thatȱ theȱ modernistȱ underpinningsȱ ofȱ peaceȱ andȱ nonȬviolenceȱ educationȱ canȱ onlyȱ beȱ unravelledȱ throughȱ aȱ postmodernistȱ frameworkȱ thatȱ transcendsȱ theȱ usualȱ liberalȱ presuppositionsȱ aboutȱ theȱ unquestionedȱ goodnessȱ ofȱ peaceȱ education.ȱ Heȱsuggestsȱthatȱpeaceȱeducationȱisȱnoȱdifferentȱfromȱanyȱotherȱregimeȱ ofȱtruthȱthatȱproducesȱsubjects,ȱknowledge,ȱandȱvalues.ȱMoreover,ȱGurȬ Ze’veȱ arguesȱ thatȱ theȱ moralizingȱ politicsȱ thatȱ uniteȱ bothȱ leftȱ andȱ rightȱ supportersȱofȱpeaceȱeducationȱareȱbetterȱunderstoodȱasȱaȱ“fortification”ȱ ofȱ theȱ existingȱ orderȱ andȱ notȱ aȱ challengeȱ toȱ itȱ (p.ȱ 320).ȱȱInȱ presentingȱ peaceȱ educationȱ asȱ aȱ normalizingȱ projectȱ thatȱ enablesȱ hierarchicalȱ andȱ asymmetricalȱrelations,ȱheȱputsȱforthȱtheȱboldȱclaimȱthatȱpeaceȱeducationȱ isȱnotȱonlyȱineffectiveȱatȱchallengingȱviolence,ȱbutȱperpetratesȱviolence.ȱȱ Theȱpictureȱthatȱstartsȱtoȱemergeȱfromȱtheȱcriticalȱwritingȱonȱpeaceȱ educationȱsuggestsȱthat,ȱcontraryȱtoȱhowȱitȱisȱpopularlyȱrepresentedȱandȱ howȱitȱisȱvociferouslyȱdefendedȱbyȱthoseȱwhoȱteachȱit,ȱpeaceȱeducationȱisȱ notȱstraightforward,ȱnotȱtransformative,ȱandȱcertainlyȱnotȱȱalwaysȱgoodȱ inȱanyȱpureȱorȱabsoluteȱsense.ȱȱ AsȱIȱhaveȱindicated,ȱpeaceȱeducationȱsharesȱsomeȱimportantȱfeaturesȱ withȱcitizenshipȱeducation.ȱIndeed,ȱpeaceȱeducationȱisȱsometimesȱframedȱ asȱ anȱ approachȱ orȱ orientationȱ toȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ (Canadianȱ Commissionȱ forȱ UNESCO,ȱ 2002;ȱ Harrisȱ &ȱ Morrison,ȱ 2003;ȱ Ontarioȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ &ȱ Training,ȱ 1999;ȱ Perkins,ȱ 2002).ȱ Someȱ ofȱ theȱ commonȱgoalsȱtheyȱshareȱincludeȱtheȱpromotionȱofȱanȱactiveȱdemocraticȱ citizenship,ȱ helpingȱ studentsȱ toȱ developȱ toȱ thinkȱ ofȱ themselvesȱ asȱ membersȱofȱaȱglobalȱcommunity,ȱandȱteachingȱaboutȱdiversity,ȱtolerance,ȱ andȱ humanȱ rightsȱ (Heath,ȱ 2002;ȱ Ontarioȱ Ministryȱ ofȱ Educationȱ &ȱ Training,ȱ1999;ȱSearsȱ&ȱHughes,ȱ1996).ȱAsȱwithȱpeaceȱeducation,ȱcriticalȱ writingȱ onȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ alsoȱ showsȱ itȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ approachȱ thatȱ perpetuatesȱ andȱ obscuresȱ relationsȱ ofȱ powerȱ (Fraser,ȱ 1996;ȱ Mitchell,ȱ 2001).ȱFurthermore,ȱfollowingȱaȱgrowingȱmovementȱinȱtheȱUnitedȱStates,ȱ Canadianȱ schoolsȱ haveȱ recentlyȱ beenȱ reinstatingȱ characterȱ educationȱ underȱ theȱ broadȱ categoryȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ (Glaze,ȱ Hogwarth,ȱ &ȱ McLean,ȱ 2003).ȱ Importantly,ȱ theȱ approachesȱ ofȱ characterȱ educationȱ setȱ outȱ toȱ alleviateȱ socialȱ problemsȱ byȱ teachingȱ suchȱ valuesȱ andȱ virtuesȱ asȱ obedienceȱ toȱ authorityȱ andȱ patriotism.ȱ Boydȱ (2004)ȱ understandsȱ thisȱ 442ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ emphasisȱ onȱ characterȱ asȱ aȱ conservativeȱ moveȱ thatȱ focusesȱ attentionȱ awayȱ fromȱ powerȱ therebyȱ diminishingȱ theȱ achievementsȱ ofȱ feminist,ȱ antiracist,ȱandȱantiȬoppressionȱeducationalȱapproaches.ȱȱ Thereȱ areȱ twoȱ additionalȱ pointsȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ gleanedȱ fromȱ thisȱ literatureȱreview.ȱFirst,ȱpeaceȱandȱcitizenshipȱeducationȱareȱincreasinglyȱ mergingȱ andȱ beingȱ approachedȱ throughȱ modelsȱ ofȱ educationȱ thatȱ setȱ theirȱaimsȱonȱcharacterȱbuilding.ȱOneȱimplicationȱofȱthisȱconvergenceȱisȱ thatȱtheȱnotionȱofȱpeaceȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱconceivedȱasȱaȱvirtueȱorȱcharacterȱ thatȱ individualȱ citizensȱ acquireȱ andȱ notȱ aȱ complexȱ socialȱ andȱ politicalȱ conditionȱ thatȱ isȱ fraughtȱ withȱ ambiguities.ȱȱSecondly,ȱ theȱ literatureȱ reviewedȱ forȱ thisȱ articleȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ overallȱ trendȱ inȱ theȱ areasȱ ofȱ peace,ȱ citizenship,ȱ andȱ characterȱ education,ȱ separatelyȱ orȱ inȱ anyȱ combination,ȱisȱaȱconservativeȱoneȱthatȱenablesȱtheȱreproductionȱofȱtheȱ statusȱquo.ȱȱ METHODOLOGYȱ TheȱanalysisȱIȱpresentȱfollowsȱtheȱmethodologicalȱguidelinesȱputȱforthȱbyȱ Michelȱ Foucaultȱ (1972,ȱ 1982,ȱ 2000)ȱ whichȱ suggestȱ thatȱ powerȱ isȱ bestȱ studiedȱ byȱ examiningȱ howȱ discoursesȱ areȱ transmittedȱ andȱ subverted,ȱ howȱknowledgeȱisȱproduced,ȱandȱhowȱsubjectsȱareȱformed.ȱStuartȱHall’sȱ (1997,ȱ 2001)ȱ applicationȱ ofȱ thisȱ methodologyȱ isȱ mostȱ relevantȱ forȱ myȱ purposesȱ becauseȱ itȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ discoursesȱ thatȱ areȱ transmittedȱ throughȱ visualȱ representations.ȱ Asȱ such,ȱ Iȱ followȱ Hall’sȱ approachȱ toȱ discourseȱ analysisȱ byȱ askingȱ howȱ theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ representationsȱ shapeȱ knowledgeȱtoȱprivilegeȱcertainȱsubjectȱpositionsȱthroughȱwhichȱviewersȱ areȱ likelyȱ toȱ imagineȱ themselvesȱ inȱ specificȱ ways.ȱ Iȱ alsoȱ employȱ aȱ frameworkȱ developedȱ byȱ Westheimerȱ andȱ Kahneȱ (2004)ȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ argueȱ forȱ theȱ necessityȱ ofȱ identifyingȱ theȱ differentȱ politicalȱ andȱ philosophicalȱ aimsȱ thatȱ underpinȱ variousȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ programs.ȱȱȱInȱbrief,ȱWestheimerȱandȱKahne’sȱframeworkȱidentifiesȱthreeȱ kindsȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ educationalȱ programs:ȱ justiceȬorientedȱ programs,ȱ whichȱ giveȱ studentsȱ opportunitiesȱ toȱ analyzeȱ andȱ understandȱ theȱ rootȱ causesȱ ofȱ social,ȱ economic,ȱ andȱ politicalȱ problems;ȱ participatoryȱ programs,ȱwhichȱprepareȱstudentsȱtoȱengageȱinȱcommunityȬbasedȱcivicȱ participationȱefforts;ȱandȱpersonallyȱresponsibleȱprograms,ȱwhichȱfocusȱonȱ behavioursȱandȱtraitsȱsuchȱasȱhonesty,ȱintegrity,ȱandȱselfȬdiscipline.ȱȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 443ȱȱȱ
“TAKINGȱACTION”:ȱAȱDESCRIPTIONȱOFȱTHEȱFILMȱANDȱLESSONȱȱ TheȱTakingȱActionȱlessonȱisȱstructuredȱaroundȱtheȱAȱViewȱfromȱtheȱSummitȱ filmȱ(NationalȱFilmȱBoardȱofȱCanada,ȱ2001).ȱTheȱcentralȱthemeȱofȱtheȱfilmȱ isȱ variousȱ formsȱ ofȱ protestȱ thatȱ areȱ presentedȱ throughȱ differentȱ perspectivesȱ andȱ activitiesȱ thatȱ tookȱ placeȱ atȱ theȱ FTAAȱ summitȱ inȱ QuebecȱCity.ȱȱFollowingȱtheȱdefiantȱwaveȱofȱdirectȱactionȱthatȱemergedȱ fromȱtheȱ1999ȱdemonstrationsȱagainstȱtheȱWorldȱTradeȱOrganizationȱinȱ Seattleȱ(Klein,ȱ2004),ȱtheȱorganizersȱofȱtheȱQuebecȱCityȱsummitȱexpectedȱ violentȱ protestorsȱ toȱ beȱ disruptiveȱ andȱ theȱ eventȱ wasȱ thereforeȱ highlyȱ publicized.ȱȱAȱ Viewȱ fromȱ theȱ Summitȱ addressesȱ theseȱ tensionsȱ andȱ examinesȱtheȱdebateȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱtheȱcontroversy,ȱtheȱuseȱofȱviolenceȱinȱ protest.ȱItȱcapturesȱtheȱfearfulȱandȱchargedȱatmosphereȱthatȱsurroundedȱ theȱsummit.ȱTheȱfilmȱisȱdescribedȱbyȱitsȱdistributorsȱasȱfollows:ȱȱȱ ȱ Quebecȱ Cityȱ preparesȱ toȱ hostȱ theȱ threeȬdayȱ Summitȱ ofȱ theȱ Americas…ȱ aȱ fourȬ kilometreȱfenceȱhasȱbeenȱerected,ȱcuttingȱoffȱtheȱUpperȱTownȱfromȱtheȱrestȱofȱtheȱ city....ȱ Helicoptersȱ buzzȱ ominouslyȱ overhead.ȱ Itȱ looksȱ asȱ ifȱ theȱ historicȱ Quebecȱ capitalȱ isȱ underȱ siege.…ȱ Meanwhile,ȱ militantȱ anarchistsȱ areȱ preparingȱ forȱ confrontationsȱ withȱ authorities,ȱ asȱ well.ȱ Officialsȱ areȱ concernedȱ thatȱ someȱ protestorsȱ willȱ attackȱ theȱ securityȱ barricades.ȱ Theȱ localȱ populationȱ fearsȱ theȱ worst.ȱWillȱtheȱQuebecȱcapitalȱbecomeȱaȱbattleground?ȱ(NationalȱFilmȱBoardȱofȱ Canada,ȱ2001)ȱ ȱ Theȱ camerasȱ followȱ severalȱ mainȱ charactersȱ inȱ theȱ daysȱ leadingȱ upȱ toȱ andȱ duringȱ theȱ summit,ȱ eachȱ ofȱ whomȱ offersȱ aȱ differentȱ visionȱ ofȱ theȱ democraticȱ process.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ filmȱ introducesȱ theȱ audienceȱ toȱ youngȱmembersȱofȱanȱanarchistȱmovementȱcalledȱConvergenceȱofȱAntiȬ Capitalistȱ Struggles,ȱ whoȱ useȱ aȱ diversityȱ ofȱ protestȱ tactics,ȱ includingȱ obstructionȱandȱdisruption.ȱTheȱfilmȱcontrastsȱtheseȱactivists’ȱviewsȱwithȱ thoseȱ ofȱ anotherȱ group,ȱ Opérationȱ SalAMI,ȱ whoȱ claimȱ thatȱ theyȱ willȱ strictlyȱadhereȱtoȱaȱnonȬviolentȱmandateȱandȱthatȱtheirȱprotestsȱagainstȱ theȱ FTAAȱ willȱ notȱ beȱ pursuedȱ “atȱ allȱ costs.”ȱ Theȱ filmȱ alsoȱ juxtaposesȱ perspectivesȱandȱconcernsȱofȱtheȱactivistsȱwithȱsupportersȱofȱfreeȱtradeȱ whoȱwereȱattendingȱtheȱsummit,ȱandȱwithȱtheȱcommanderȱofȱtheȱSûretéȱ duȱQuébec,ȱtheȱmainȱpoliceȱunitȱresponsibleȱforȱkeepingȱtheȱpeace.ȱTheȱ tensionȱbuildsȱasȱviewersȱseeȱtheȱescalatingȱantagonismȱamongȱdifferentȱ activistȱ groups,ȱ confrontationsȱ betweenȱ armedȱ policeȱ andȱ defiantȱ 444ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ protesters,ȱfollowedȱbyȱriotȱsquadsȱforciblyȱarrestingȱandȱdraggingȱawayȱ protestorsȱwhoȱcrossȱtheȱline.ȱ4ȱȱȱ Whatȱ theȱ filmȱ alsoȱ depictsȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ protestsȱ wereȱ ineffectiveȱ atȱ shuttingȱ downȱ theȱ meeting.ȱ Exceptȱ forȱ theȱ inconvenienceȱ ofȱ havingȱ toȱ passȱthroughȱsomeȱaddedȱsecurityȱmeasures,ȱtheȱsummitȱattendeesȱinȱtheȱ filmȱappearȱtoȱconductȱtheirȱbusinessȱlargelyȱunaffectedȱbyȱtheȱprotests.ȱȱ Moreover,ȱsomeȱofȱtheȱsummitȱattendeesȱshownȱexpressȱtheȱperspectiveȱ thatȱ theȱ protestorsȱ wereȱ troublemakersȱ whoȱ thoughtlesslyȱ soughtȱ toȱ disruptȱtheȱmeetingȱratherȱthanȱengageȱinȱaȱconstructiveȱdialogueȱaboutȱ anyȱlegitimateȱconcerns.ȱȱAccordingȱtoȱtheȱfilm,ȱaȱpositiveȱoutcomeȱthatȱ resultedȱ fromȱ theȱ protestors’ȱ demandsȱ wasȱ theȱ developmentȱ ofȱ aȱ “democracyȱclause”5ȱtoȱprotectȱtheȱparticipatingȱcountries.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱ filmȱ endsȱ byȱ displayingȱ textȱ thatȱ states:ȱ “Humanȱ rightsȱ organizationsȱ calledȱtheȱdemocracyȱclauseȱweakȱbutȱdeemedȱitȱaȱsmallȱstepȱforward”ȱ (NationalȱFilmȱBoardȱofȱCanada,ȱ2001).ȱ Theȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ lessonȱ explicityȱ statesȱ itsȱ objectivesȱ asȱ wantingȱ studentsȱtoȱadoptȱstrategiesȱthatȱpromoteȱaȱcultureȱofȱpeaceȱ(Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 45).ȱ Pedagogically,ȱ theȱ materialsȱ seekȱ toȱ achieveȱ thisȱ byȱ provokingȱ thoughtȱ andȱ discussionȱ onȱ issuesȱ ofȱ democracy,ȱ violence,ȱ andȱ variousȱ strategiesȱ ofȱ dissent.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ studentsȱ areȱ askedȱtoȱconsiderȱandȱdiscussȱtheȱfollowingȱexcerptsȱfromȱtheȱfilm:ȱȱ ȱ Whatȱ doȱ youȱ thinkȱ ofȱ theȱ followingȱ statement:ȱ “Ifȱ youȱ haveȱ aȱ democraticallyȱ electedȱHitler,ȱyouȱhaveȱtheȱobligationȱtoȱdisobey”?ȱ ȱ Atȱ theȱ closeȱ ofȱ theȱ segment,ȱ theȱ crowdȱ isȱ heardȱ chanting,ȱ “Thisȱ isȱ whatȱ aȱ democracyȱ looksȱ like!”ȱ Areȱ theȱ actionsȱ ofȱ theȱ policeȱ inȱ responseȱ toȱ theȱ protestȱ acceptableȱwithinȱaȱdemocratic,ȱopenȱandȱjustȱsociety?ȱ(ClassroomȱConnections,ȱ 2002,ȱp.ȱ51).ȱ ȱ Studentsȱareȱalsoȱaskedȱtoȱorganizeȱvariousȱactionȱstatementsȱthatȱrangeȱ fromȱ letterȬwritingȱ toȱ bombingȱ onȱ anȱ acceptable/unacceptableȱ continuumȱ (p.ȱ 46).ȱ Thisȱ activityȱ isȱ meantȱ toȱ beȱ followedȱ upȱ withȱ discussionȱ questionsȱ toȱ allowȱ studentsȱ toȱ explainȱ andȱ listenȱ toȱ eachȱ other’sȱresponses.ȱȱ ȱInȱanotherȱofȱtheȱsuggestedȱclassroomȱactivitiesȱprovidedȱinȱTakingȱ Action,ȱstudentsȱareȱgivenȱaȱhandoutȱtitledȱ“AssessingȱtheȱProtest”ȱtoȱlistȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 445ȱȱȱ theȱ protestȱ actionsȱ theyȱ observedȱ inȱ theȱ filmȱ andȱ indicateȱ onȱ aȱ gridȱ whetherȱ eachȱ actionȱ isȱ justifiableȱ orȱ unjustifiableȱ andȱ effectiveȱ orȱ ineffective.ȱȱToȱgiveȱstudentsȱsomeȱknowledgeȱaboutȱtheȱfreeȬtradeȱissuesȱ atȱtheȱheartȱofȱtheȱprotests,ȱstudentsȱareȱsuppliedȱwithȱaȱoneȱpageȱ“FTAAȱ backgrounder”ȱ (p.ȱ 49).ȱ Thisȱ handoutȱ listsȱ theȱ followingȱ fourȱ specificȱ concernsȱofȱpeopleȱwhoȱopposeȱtheȱFTAA,ȱeachȱofȱwhichȱisȱexplainedȱinȱ aȱbriefȱparagraph.ȱȱ ȱ 1)ȱCorporateȱinterestsȱhaveȱbeenȱheardȱbutȱpublicȱinterestsȱhaveȱnot,ȱȱ 2)ȱ Theȱ agreementȱ willȱ undermineȱ labourȱ rightsȱ andȱ causeȱ furtherȱ jobȱ loss,ȱȱ 3)ȱTheȱagreementȱwillȱincreaseȱenvironmentalȱdestruction,ȱandȱȱ 4)ȱTheȱFTAAȱgivesȱcorporationsȱtooȱmuchȱpowerȱ(p.ȱ49).ȱ ȱ Thisȱ activityȱ isȱ designedȱ toȱ helpȱ studentsȱ clarifyȱ theirȱ individualȱ positionsȱregardingȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱpoliticalȱactions.ȱȱ PEACEȱASȱPERSONALȱRESPONSIBILITYȱȱ Westheimerȱ andȱ Kahne’sȱ (2004)ȱ frameworkȱ stressesȱ theȱ importanceȱ ofȱ distinguishingȱbetweenȱtheȱbroadȱspectrumȱofȱapproachesȱthatȱfallȱunderȱ theȱheadingȱofȱcitizenshipȱeducation.ȱȱAtȱtheȱcoreȱofȱtheirȱargumentȱisȱtheȱ ideaȱ thatȱ variousȱ approachesȱ haveȱ differentȱ implicationsȱ forȱ educationȱ forȱ democracyȱ insofarȱ asȱ certainȱ “visionsȱ mayȱ privilegeȱ someȱ politicalȱ andȱ ideologicalȱ perspectivesȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ overȱ othersȱ regardingȱ theȱ waysȱ problemsȱ areȱ framedȱ andȱ respondedȱ to”ȱ (Westheimerȱ &ȱ Kahne,ȱ 2004,ȱ p.ȱ 263).ȱ Toȱ helpȱ identifyȱ variousȱ approaches,ȱ theyȱ delineateȱ theȱ definingȱ featuresȱ andȱ importantȱ differencesȱ betweenȱ “justiceȬoriented,ȱ “participatory,”ȱ andȱ “personallyȱ responsible”ȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ programs.ȱȱ JusticeȬorientedȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ approaches,ȱ Westheimerȱ andȱ Kahneȱ (2004)ȱ argue,ȱ giveȱ studentsȱ opportunitiesȱ toȱ analyzeȱ andȱ understandȱtheȱinterplayȱofȱsocial,ȱeconomic,ȱandȱpoliticalȱforces,ȱpresentȱ studentsȱwithȱopportunitiesȱtoȱweighȱdifferentȱopinionsȱandȱarguments,ȱ andȱexpectȱstudentsȱtoȱaddressȱandȱunderstandȱtheȱrootȱissuesȱofȱsocialȱ problems.ȱȱAlthoughȱtheȱinformationȱthatȱstudentsȱareȱsuppliedȱwithȱonȱ theȱrootȱcausesȱofȱtheȱFTAAȱsummitȱprotestsȱisȱsuperficialȱatȱbestȱ(e.g.,ȱ 446ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ theȱbackgrounderȱdescribedȱearlier),ȱtheȱpedagogicalȱapproachȱputȱforthȱ byȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ does,ȱ inȱ someȱ respects,ȱ correspondȱ toȱ theȱ justiceȬ orientedȱ citizenshipȱ modelȱ becauseȱ itȱ offersȱ studentsȱ differentȱ perspectivesȱtoȱconsiderȱthroughȱopenȬendedȱquestions.ȱȱ Accordingȱ toȱ thisȱ frameworkȱ (Westheimerȱ &ȱ Kahne,ȱ 2004),ȱ participatoryȱcitizenshipȱprogramsȱseekȱtoȱprepareȱstudentsȱtoȱengageȱinȱ communityȬbasedȱ civicȱ participationȱ efforts.ȱ Itȱ couldȱ beȱ arguedȱ thatȱ inȱ presentingȱ studentsȱ withȱ aȱ rangeȱ ofȱ protestȱ tactics,ȱ theȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ lessonȱ doesȱ prepareȱ studentsȱ inȱ thisȱ way.ȱȱFurthermore,ȱ asȱ itsȱ titleȱ suggests,ȱwithȱitsȱfocusȱonȱpoliticalȱactivismȱtheȱTakingȱActionȱlessonȱisȱ easilyȱ alignedȱ withȱ thisȱ modelȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ education.ȱ Indeed,ȱ theȱ encouragementȱ ofȱ active,ȱ democraticȱ citizenshipȱ extendsȱ beyondȱ theȱ TakingȱActionȱlessonȱandȱisȱaȱrecurringȱthemeȱthatȱrunsȱthroughȱtheȱentireȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ program.ȱ Aȱ salientȱ exampleȱ isȱ anȱ activityȱ calledȱ “AAȱ (antiȬapathy),ȱaȱ12Ȭstepȱprogramȱforȱrecoveringȱapathetics”ȱdesignedȱtoȱ getȱ studentsȱ activelyȱ involvedȱ inȱ communityȱ andȱ politicalȱ organizing6ȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2004,ȱ p.ȱ 34).ȱ Asȱ such,ȱ theȱ entireȱ programȱ canȱ readilyȱbeȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱprimarilyȱaimedȱatȱparticipatoryȱcitizenship.ȱȱ Iȱ contend,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ despiteȱ theseȱ importantȱ linksȱ betweenȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ andȱ justiceȬorientedȱ citizenshipȱ orȱ theȱ participatoryȱ citizenshipȱ models,ȱ itȱ isȱ bestȱ describedȱ asȱ aȱ personalȱ responsibilityȱ citizenshipȱprogram.ȱThisȱmodel,ȱwhichȱisȱtheȱmostȱconservativeȱofȱtheȱ three,ȱ focusesȱ onȱ “teachingȱ individualȱ virtues,ȱ values,ȱ andȱ behavioursȱ suchȱ asȱ honesty,ȱ integrity,ȱ andȱ selfȬdiscipline”ȱ andȱ oftenȱ overlapsȱ withȱ characterȱandȱmoralȱeducationȱapproachesȱ(Westheimerȱ&ȱKahne,ȱ2004,ȱ p.ȱ 241).ȱ Inȱ particular,ȱ theȱ pedagogiesȱ thatȱ theȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ lessonȱ proposesȱforȱencouragingȱstudentsȱtoȱadoptȱaȱpersonalȱpositionȱvisȬàȬvisȱ variousȱ strategiesȱ ofȱ protestȱ clearlyȱ situateȱ itȱ withinȱ aȱ personallyȱ responsibleȱ citizenshipȱ model.ȱ Thisȱ becomesȱ evidentȱ whenȱ oneȱ reflectsȱ onȱhowȱstudentsȱmightȱjudgeȱtheȱvariousȱformsȱofȱprotestȱpresentedȱinȱ theȱfilm.ȱItȱisȱsignificant,ȱforȱexample,ȱthatȱtheȱimagesȱinȱtheȱfilmȱmakeȱ clearȱ theȱ consequencesȱ andȱ risksȱ toȱ individualsȱ partakingȱ inȱ violentȱ protest.ȱByȱcentrallyȱpositioningȱviolenceȱandȱtheȱsanctionedȱuseȱofȱforceȱ toȱcontainȱit,ȱtheȱfilmȱnotȱonlyȱservesȱtoȱshowȱyoungȱpeopleȱtheȱrangeȱofȱ tacticsȱavailableȱtoȱchallengeȱinjustice,ȱbutȱalsoȱdisplaysȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱ state’sȱpoliceȱenforcementȱtherebyȱteachingȱstudentsȱthatȱnotȱadheringȱtoȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 447ȱȱȱ stateȬsanctionedȱ methodsȱ ofȱ peacefulȱ protestȱ resultsȱ inȱ harshȱ consequences.ȱSimilarly,ȱimagesȱofȱgasȬmasked,ȱcounterȬcultureȱactivists,ȱ mostȱofȱwhomȱappearȱtoȱbeȱyoungȱmiddleȬclassȱstudentsȱtakingȱpleasureȱ inȱbeingȱdefiantȱmakeȱitȱdifficultȱtoȱimagineȱthatȱmilitantȱprotestȱtacticsȱ wouldȱ seemȱ justifiableȱ toȱ mostȱ students.ȱ Myȱ pointȱ hereȱ isȱ thatȱ aȱ nonȬ violenceȱ subjectȬpositionȱ isȱ beingȱ privilegedȱ throughȱ theseȱ representationsȱandȱthatȱtheȱlesson’sȱactivitiesȱareȱnotȱasȱopenȬendedȱasȱ theyȱ firstȱ appear.ȱ Inȱ effect,ȱ studentsȱ areȱ requiredȱ toȱ makeȱ aȱ simplisticȱ individualȱ choiceȱ betweenȱ theȱ lesson’sȱ implicitȱ violence/nonȬviolenceȱ binary7ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ engageȱ inȱ complexȱ analysesȱ ofȱ theȱ issues.ȱ Understandingȱ thatȱ studentsȱ (andȱ teachers)ȱ exerciseȱ agencyȱ andȱ resistanceȱ inȱ howȱ theyȱ interpretȱ suchȱ lessons,ȱ itȱ isȱ fairȱ toȱ assumeȱ thatȱ throughȱ thisȱ lesson,ȱ many,ȱ ifȱ notȱ most,ȱ studentsȱ willȱ comeȱ toȱ thinkȱ ofȱ themselvesȱ asȱ freethinkingȱ individualsȱ whoȱ chooseȱ toȱ exerciseȱ theirȱ democraticȱrightsȱpeacefully.ȱȱInȱTakingȱAction,ȱpeaceȱisȱthusȱpresentedȱasȱ aȱ virtueȱ orȱ traitȱ acquired,ȱ indeedȱ cultivated,ȱ throughȱ individualȱ choiceȱ andȱaȱpersonalȱorientationȱtoȱwhichȱindividualȱstudentsȱwillȱcommit.ȱ Whatȱdifferenceȱdoesȱitȱmakeȱif,ȱasȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱarguing,ȱTakingȱActionȱ isȱ anȱ exampleȱ ofȱ theȱ personallyȱ responsibleȱ modelȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ education,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ justiceȬorientedȱ orȱ participatory?ȱ Afterȱ all,ȱ someȱ wouldȱ argueȱ thatȱ theȱ goalȱ ofȱ promotingȱ peaceȱ isȱ aȱ worthyȱ one,ȱ regardlessȱofȱwhatȱaimsȱareȱbehindȱit.ȱTheȱimportantȱdifferenceȱisȱthatȱinȱ theȱpersonalȱresponsibilityȱapproachȱtheȱonusȱisȱonȱindividualȱshiftsȱinȱ consciousnessȱ ratherȱ thanȱ substantiveȱ structuralȱ change.ȱȱTakingȱ Actionȱ should,ȱtherefore,ȱnotȱbeȱassumedȱasȱaȱlessonȱwithȱtheȱpotentialȱtoȱaffectȱ significantȱorȱtransformativeȱchange.ȱȱȱ REȬPRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱ ThatȱtheȱTakingȱActionȱlessonȱfallsȱintoȱtheȱpersonallyȱresponsibleȱmodelȱ ofȱ citizenshipȱ educationȱ hasȱ significantȱ implicationsȱ forȱ questionsȱ ofȱ nationalismȱ asȱ well.ȱ Theȱ film,ȱ Aȱ Viewȱ fromȱ theȱ Summitȱ (Nationalȱ Filmȱ Boardȱ ofȱ Canada,ȱ 2001),ȱ depictsȱȱaȱ governmentȱ /ȱ peopleȱ separationȱ throughȱ imagesȱ thatȱ highlightȱ theȱ spatialȱ andȱ ideologicalȱ divisionsȱ betweenȱtheȱpublic,ȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱprotestorsȱoutsideȱtheȱbarricadesȱ onȱtheȱstreets,ȱandȱtheȱstateȱofficialsȱinsideȱmeetingȱandȱminglingȱatȱtheȱ QuebecȱCityȱHiltonȱȱInȱaddition,ȱtheȱrepresentationsȱofȱtheȱfederalȱandȱ 448ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ provincialȱpoliceȱsuggestȱtheyȱdidȱuseȱsomeȱexcessiveȱforceȱtoȱcontainȱtheȱ crowd.ȱ Theȱ filmȱ makesȱ thisȱ assertionȱ repeatedlyȱ notȱ onlyȱ viaȱ theȱ adversarialȱprotestorsȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱtheȱpeacefulȱonesȱwhoȱremarkedȱthatȱ theȱ largeȱ policeȱ presenceȱ wasȱ akinȱ toȱ thoseȱ ofȱ totalitarianȱ regimesȱ (NationalȱFilmȱBoard,ȱ2001).ȱȱȱ Despiteȱ theseȱ unflatteringȱ andȱ controversialȱ representations,ȱ CitizenshipȱandȱImmigrationȱCanada,ȱCanadianȱHeritage,ȱandȱtheȱRoyalȱ Canadianȱ Mountedȱ Policeȱ haveȱ allȱ sponsoredȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ programȱ(ClassroomȱConnections,ȱ2002,ȱp.ȱ6).ȱTakingȱintoȱconsiderationȱ thatȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ sponsoringȱ suchȱ aȱ programȱ involvesȱ extensiveȱ consultationsȱandȱmeetingsȱtoȱdebateȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheseȱmaterialsȱinȱpublicȱ schools,ȱ theȱ decisionȱ toȱ provideȱ fundingȱ forȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ materialsȱ isȱ aȱ curiousȱ one.ȱ Itȱ impliesȱ thatȱ theȱ programȱ wasȱ ultimatelyȱ deemedȱcomplimentaryȱtoȱtheȱgovernment’sȱmandate.ȱȱ ItȱhasȱbeenȱarguedȱthatȱsubjectȬmakingȱpracticesȱandȱmotionȬmakingȱ practicesȱ areȱ mutuallyȱ constitutiveȱ (Foucault,ȱ 1994;ȱ Goldberg,ȱ 2002).ȱ Withȱ thisȱ inȱ mind,ȱ governmentalȱ sponsorshipȱ ofȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ warrantsȱfurtherȱcriticalȱreflectionȱonȱhowȱtheȱlesson,ȱwhichȱencouragesȱ studentsȱ toȱ thinkȱ ofȱ themselvesȱ asȱ peaceful,ȱ mightȱ contributeȱ toȱ theȱ Canadianȱ projectȱ ofȱ nationȬbuilding.ȱ Whenȱ oneȱ considersȱ thatȱ educationalȱ materialsȱ inȱ Canadaȱ alreadyȱ teachȱ thatȱ peacefulnessȱ isȱ aȱ characteristicȱthatȱCanadianȱpeopleȱandȱtheȱCanadianȱnationȱpossessȱinȱ abundanceȱ(Montgomery,ȱ2006),ȱitȱbecomesȱapparentȱthatȱtheȱCultivatingȱ Peaceȱ educationȱ programȱ isȱ veryȱ muchȱ withinȱ theȱ dominantȱ frameȱ ofȱ educationalȱ practices,ȱ furtherȱ revealingȱ thatȱ peaceȱ educationȱ isȱ notȱ alwaysȱaȱchangeȬdrivenȱenterprise.ȱTheȱfailureȱtoȱchallengeȱmythologiesȱ thatȱimagineȱCanadaȱtoȱbeȱpeacefulȱreinforcesȱCanada’sȱfalseȱnotionȱofȱ itselfȱasȱbeingȱmoreȱinvolvedȱinȱandȱconcernedȱwithȱglobalȱissuesȱthanȱ otherȱWesternȱcountriesȱ(Kymlicka,ȱ2003).ȱSuchȱaȱdiscursiveȱnationalistȱ positioningȱhasȱmaterialȱimplicationsȱinsofarȱasȱitȱperpetuatesȱracializedȱ notionsȱ ofȱ Canadianȱ innocenceȱ (Razack,ȱ 2004).ȱȱMoreȱ importantly,ȱ theȱ lessonȱ failsȱ toȱ questionȱ howȱ nationalȱ identityȱ isȱ constitutedȱ throughȱ violenceȱ (Mackey,ȱ 2002).ȱ Theȱ lessonȱ serves,ȱ rather,ȱ toȱ reinforceȱ andȱ normalizeȱ theȱ existingȱ selfȬcongratulatoryȱ conceptionȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ asȱ quintessentiallyȱ peacefulȱ andȱ therebyȱ obscuresȱ theȱ violenceȱ Canadiansȱ notȱonlyȱperpetuate,ȱbutȱalsoȱbenefitȱfrom.ȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 449ȱȱȱ
CONCLUSIONȱ ClassroomȱConnectionsȱ(2002)ȱmakesȱclearȱthatȱtheȱlessonsȱcontainedȱinȱ theirȱ resourcesȱ “willȱ notȱ magicallyȱ transformȱ ourȱworld”ȱ (p.ȱ7).ȱ Ratherȱ theȱmaterialsȱareȱdevelopedȱwithȱtheȱmoreȱrealisticȱgoalȱofȱencouragingȱ evenȱoneȱstudentȱ“toȱthinkȱaboutȱthingsȱinȱaȱnewȱwayȱandȱtoȱquestionȱ theȱviolenceȱsheȱorȱheȱseesȱaroundȱthem”ȱ(p.ȱ7).ȱInȱfocusingȱcloselyȱonȱtheȱ representationsȱ ofȱ protestȱ andȱ nonȬviolenceȱ inȱ theȱ Takingȱ Actionȱ lessonȱ andȱtheȱfilm,ȱIȱhaveȱarguedȱthatȱalthoughȱitȱappearsȱtoȱpresentȱstudentsȱ withȱdaringȱandȱradicalȱsubjectȱmatterȱthroughȱopenȬendedȱpedagogies,ȱ theȱlessonȱisȱinȱfactȱratherȱconservativeȱinȱitsȱaimȱtoȱteachȱstudentsȱtoȱbeȱ good,ȱ governableȱ citizens.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ suggestȱ thatȱ educationalȱ institutionsȱ shouldȱ notȱ encompassȱ aȱ personalȱ responsibilityȱ dimensionȱ thatȱencouragesȱstudentsȱtoȱactȱinȱwaysȱthatȱdoȱnotȱcauseȱharmȱtoȱothers.ȱ Myȱ objectiveȱ ratherȱ hasȱ beenȱ toȱ pointȱ toȱ theȱ incongruityȱ betweenȱ theȱ CultivatingȱPeaceȱ(ClassroomȱConnections,ȱ2002)ȱprogram’sȱstatedȱaimsȱofȱ promotingȱcriticalȱthinkingȱandȱ“movingȱaȱstepȱcloserȱtoȱchange”ȱ(p.ȱ7)ȱ andȱ itsȱ effectsȱ ofȱ privilegingȱ familiarȱandȱ widelyȱ circulatingȱ discoursesȱ andȱknowledge.ȱ Asȱ mentionedȱ earlier,ȱ thisȱ critiqueȱ isȱ notȱ meantȱ toȱ obscureȱ theȱ strengthsȱ ofȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ program,ȱ butȱ ratherȱ pointȱ toȱ waysȱ itȱ couldȱbeȱmadeȱstronger.ȱInsteadȱofȱmerelyȱnamingȱ“racism”ȱasȱaȱcauseȱofȱ violence8ȱ (Classroomȱ Connections,ȱ 2002,ȱ p.ȱ 8),ȱ aȱ moreȱ challengingȱ andȱ transformativeȱ approachȱ wouldȱ beȱ toȱ explicitlyȱ addressȱ theȱ pervasiveȱ racializedȱ hegemonyȱ thatȱ isȱ centralȱ toȱ nationȬbuildingȱ inȱ Canada.ȱ Furthermore,ȱ toȱ encourageȱ studentsȱ toȱ thinkȱ inȱ newȱ waysȱ requiresȱ helpingȱthemȱidentifyȱknowledgeȱproductionȱprocesses.ȱAnȱeducationalȱ approachȱthatȱtrulyȱseeksȱchangeȱenablesȱstudentsȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱquestionȱ theȱ violenceȱ theyȱ seeȱ aroundȱ them,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ toȱ criticallyȱ considerȱ theȱ dominantȱ systemsȱ ofȱ thoughtȱ thatȱ establishȱ theȱ waysȱ violenceȱ canȱ beȱ understood.ȱȱToȱmoveȱinȱtheȱdirectionȱofȱchange,ȱpeaceȱeducationȱmustȱ alsoȱ helpȱ studentsȱ toȱ understandȱ howȱ nationalȱ identityȱ isȱ sociallyȱ constructedȱ andȱ toȱ questionȱ whatȱ nationalȱ andȱ globalȱ imaginingsȱ ofȱ Canadiansȱasȱpeacefulȱservesȱtoȱobscure.ȱ
ȱ
ȱ 450ȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱGADAȱMAHROUSEȱ
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSȱ
Thanksȱ toȱ Kenȱ Montgomery,ȱ Suzanneȱ Lenon,ȱ theȱ editors,ȱ andȱ theȱ anonymousȱ reviewersȱ forȱ helpfulȱ commentsȱ andȱ suggestionsȱ onȱ earlierȱ versionsȱ ofȱ thisȱ article.ȱȱȱ
NOTESȱ
ȱ 1Aȱ secondȱ moduleȱ wasȱ developedȱ andȱ madeȱ availableȱ onlineȱ andȱ throughȱ theȱ Classroomȱ Connectionsȱ organizationȱ inȱ 2004ȱ (seeȱ www.cultivatingpeace.caȱ).ȱȱȱ
ȱ 2ThisȱisȱaȱoneȬpageȱhandoutȱavailableȱonlineȱfromȱtheȱCultivatingȱPeaceȱ websiteȱunderȱ“additionalȱlessons”:ȱhttp://www.cultivatingpeace.ca/cpmaterials/ȱ takingaction/addllessons.htmlȱ
ȱ 3Problemsȱ ofȱ violenceȱ areȱ approachedȱ atȱ threeȱ differentȱ levels:ȱ peacekeeping,ȱpeacemaking,ȱandȱpeacebuildingȱ(seeȱHarrisȱ&ȱMorrison,ȱ2003,ȱp.ȱ 11).ȱ
ȱ 4Someȱ ofȱ thisȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ filmȱ comesȱ fromȱ theȱ Nationalȱ Filmȱ Boardȱ ofȱ Canadaȱ website:ȱȱhttp://www.onf.ca/trouverunfilm/fichefilm.php?id=ȱ 50992&v=h&lg=en&exp=${view}%20AND%20${summit}ȱ
ȱ 5Thisȱclauseȱstates:ȱ“Theȱmaintenanceȱandȱstrengtheningȱ ofȱtheȱruleȱofȱ lawȱandȱstrictȱrespectȱforȱtheȱdemocraticȱsystemȱareȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱaȱgoalȱandȱaȱ sharedȱ commitmentȱ andȱ areȱ anȱ essentialȱ conditionȱ ofȱ ourȱ presenceȱ atȱ thisȱ andȱ futureȱSummits.ȱConsequently,ȱanyȱunconstitutionalȱalterationȱorȱinterruptionȱofȱ theȱ democraticȱ orderȱ inȱ aȱ stateȱ ofȱ theȱ Hemisphereȱ constitutesȱ aȱ fundamentalȱ obstacleȱ toȱ theȱ participationȱ ofȱ thatȱ state’sȱ governmentsȱ inȱ theȱ Summitȱ ofȱ theȱ Americasȱprocess.”ȱ(QuebecȱCityȱMinisterialȱDeclaration,ȱArticleȱ4,ȱinȱClassroomȱ Connections,ȱ2004,ȱp.ȱ47).ȱȱ
6Thisȱ particularȱ activityȱ canȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ secondȱ moduleȱ ofȱ theȱ Cultivatingȱ Peaceȱ seriesȱ thatȱ wasȱ distributedȱ inȱ 2004.ȱ Thisȱ moduleȱ isȱ largelyȱ dedicatedȱtoȱpresentingȱstudentsȱwithȱhowȬtoȱtoolsȱforȱnumerousȱactionsȱsuchȱasȱ buildingȱaȱwebsite,ȱlobbyingȱforȱchange,ȱorȱwritingȱlettersȱtoȱtheȱeditor.ȱȱȱȱ
ȱ 7Aȱ violence/ȱ nonȬviolenceȱ binaryȱ wasȱ alreadyȱ constructedȱ throughȱ mediaȱreportsȱatȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱsummit.ȱ
ȱ 8Inȱaȱsectionȱentitledȱ“CausesȱofȱWarȱandȱViolence,”ȱracismȱisȱlistedȱasȱ oneȱofȱnineȱpossibleȱcauses,ȱalongȱwithȱhumanȱnature,ȱresources,ȱclassȱconflict,ȱ learnedȱ behaviour,ȱ socioȬculturalȱ differences,ȱ fundamentalism/extremism,ȱ andȱ retaliation/escalationȱ(ClassroomȱConnections,ȱ2002,ȱp.ȱ26).ȱTheȱexplicitȱuseȱofȱtheȱ (RE)PRODUCINGȱAȱPEACEFULȱCANADIANȱCITIZENRYȱȱ 451ȱȱȱ termȱracismȱisȱnoteworthyȱgivenȱtheȱvagueȱreferencesȱtoȱculturalȱdifferenceȱandȱ ethnicȱconflictsȱthatȱprevailȱinȱmanyȱeducationalȱmaterials.ȱ
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